1.
Knutsford
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Knutsford is a town in Cheshire, England,14 miles south-west of Manchester and 9 miles north-west of Macclesfield. The population of the town at the 2011 Census was 13,191, Knutsford is a dormitory town for people working in Manchester and Liverpool. Residents include actress Barbara Knox and comedian Sarah Millican, it is a particularly popular among footballers, being home to Peter Crouch, Sam Ricketts, Michael Jacobs. Knutsfords main town streets, Princess Street and King Street lower down. At one end of the narrow King Street is an entrance to Tatton Park, the Tatton estate was home to the Egerton family, and has given its name to Tatton parliamentary constituency, which includes the neighbouring communities of Alderley Edge and Wilmslow. Former Parliamentary representatives include the BBC war correspondent Martin Bell, who stood as an Independent in 1997 to defeat the disgraced former Conservative Party MP, the present MP for Tatton is the former Chancellor of The Exchequer, the Right Honourable George Osborne. Knutsford was recorded in the William the Conquerors Domesday Book of 1086 as Cunetesford, King Canute was the king of England and later king of Denmark, Norway and parts of Sweden as well. The English Place-Name Society gives the name as being derived from the Old English for Knutrs ford or possibly hillock ford, Knutsford Gaol was built in 1817 and later extended in 1853. During the First World War it was used as a military prison, the Gaol was demolished in 1934. Knutsford was the place in which General George S, after the Second World War overspill housing estates were created in the town to accommodate families from Manchester. The Longridge overspill estate was built in Over Ward by Manchester City Council in the 1960s, at the end of the 20th century, all of the homes on the estate that had not already been sold to their occupants were transferred to Manchester Methodist Housing. In 2005 Knutsford was named as the most expensive town to buy a house in Northern England, there is an extremely large range of house prices in Knutsford, currently varying from approximately £79,000 to £3,850,000. Knutsford has been under the council of Cheshire East since April 2009. Prior to that Knutsford was in the Borough of Macclesfield, Knutsford Town Council was created after the abolition of the Urban District Council in the Local Government Reorganisation of 1974. The town comprises four wards, Nether, Norbury Booths, Bexton, each ward returns three councillors except for Over which, owing to its size and greater population, returns six. Each councillor serves a four-year term, the Town Council is elected whole every four years. The election held on 7 May 2015 returned 12 Conservatives and three independents, Knutsford has excellent access to the motorway network, with junctions to the M6 and M56 motorways. Knutsford is served by Knutsford railway station which is situated on the Mid-Cheshire Line running from Chester to Manchester, the station was built in 1862 by the Cheshire Midland Railway
2.
Battle of Worcester
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The Battle of Worcester took place on 3 September 1651 at Worcester, England, and was the final battle of the English Civil War. Oliver Cromwells Parliamentarian New Model Army,28,000 strong, defeated King Charles IIs 16,000 Royalists, the King was aided by Scottish allies and was attempting to regain the throne that had been lost when his father Charles I was executed. The commander of the Scots, David Leslie, supported the plan of fighting in Scotland, Charles, however, insisted on making war in England. He hoped to not merely the old faithful Royalists. The Royalist army was well in hand, no excesses were allowed. On 8 August the troops were given a well-earned rest between Penrith and Kendal, but the Royalists were mistaken in supposing that the enemy was unaware. Everything had been foreseen both by Cromwell and by the Council of State in Westminster, the latter had called out the greater part of the militia on 7 August. Lieutenant-General Charles Fleetwood began to draw together the midland contingents at Banbury, the London trained-bands turned out for field service no fewer than 14,000 strong. Every suspected Royalist was closely watched, and the magazines of arms in the country-houses of the gentry were for the most part removed into the strong places, on his part Cromwell had quietly made his preparations. Perth passed into his hands on 2 August and he brought back his army to Leith by 5 August, thence he dispatched Lieutenant-General John Lambert with a cavalry corps to harass the invaders. Major-General Thomas Harrison was already at Newcastle picking the best of the county mounted-troops to add to his own regulars, on 9 August, Charles was at Kendal, Lambert hovering in his rear, and Harrison marching swiftly to bar his way at the Mersey. Lambert too, slipping round the flank of the enemy, joined Harrison. It seemed probable that a battle would take place between Lichfield and Coventry on or just after 25 August and that Cromwell, Harrison, Lambert. But the scene and the date of the denouement were changed by the enemys movements, sir Edward Massey, formerly the Parliamentary governor of Gloucester, was now with Charles, and it was hoped that he would induce his fellow Presbyterians to take arms. Charles arrived at Worcester on 22 August and spent five days in resting the troops, preparing for further operations, Worcester itself had no particular claim to being loyal to the King. Throughout the First Civil War it had taken the position of declaring loyalty to whichever side had been in occupation. The epithet Faithful City arose out of a claim at the Restoration for compensation from the new king. Cromwell, the general, had during his march south thrown out successively two flying columns under Colonel Robert Lilburne to deal with the Lancashire Royalists under the Earl of Derby
3.
English Civil War
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The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists over, principally, the manner of Englands government. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, the monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. The term English Civil War appears most often in the singular form, the war in all these countries are known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Unlike other civil wars in England, which focused on who should rule, this war was more concerned with the manner in which the kingdoms of England, Scotland, the two sides had their geographical strongholds, such that minority elements were silenced or fled. The strongholds of the royalty included the countryside, the shires, on the other hand, all the cathedral cities sided with Parliament. All the industrial centers, the ports, and the advanced regions of southern and eastern England typically were parliamentary strongholds. Lacey Baldwin Smith says, the words populist, rich, at times there would be two groups of three lines allowing one group to reload while the other group arranged themselves and fired. Mixed in among the musketeers were pikemen carrying pikes that were between 12 feet and 18 feet long, whose purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. The Royalist cavaliers skill and speed on horseback led to early victories. While the Parliamentarian cavalry were slower than the cavaliers, they were better disciplined. The Royalists had a tendency to chase down individual targets after the initial charge leaving their forces scattered and tired, Cromwells cavalry, on the other hand, trained to operate as a single unit, which led to many decisive victories. The English Civil War broke out fewer than forty years after the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, in spite of this, James personal extravagance meant he was perennially short of money and had to resort to extra-Parliamentary sources of income. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his fathers position on the power of the crown, at the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, Parliament functioned as an advisory committee and was summoned only if. Once summoned, a continued existence was at the kings pleasure. Yet in spite of this role, Parliament had, over the preceding centuries. Without question, for a monarch, Parliaments most indispensable power was its ability to tax revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crowns disposal
4.
Restoration (England)
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The term Restoration is used to describe both the actual event by which the monarchy was restored, and the period of several years afterwards in which a new political settlement was established. It is very used to cover the whole reign of Charles II. Richard Cromwells main weakness was that he did not have the confidence of the army, after seven months, an army faction known as the Wallingford House party removed him on 6 May 1659 and reinstalled the Rump Parliament. Charles Fleetwood was appointed a member of the Committee of Safety and of the Council of State, on 9 June 1659, he was nominated lord-general of the army. However, his leadership was undermined in Parliament, which chose to disregard the armys authority in a fashion to the post-First Civil War Parliament. A royalist uprising was planned for 1 August 1659, but it was foiled, however, Sir George Booth gained control of Cheshire, Charles II hoped that with Spanish support he could effect a landing, but none was forthcoming. Booth held Cheshire until the end of August when he was defeated by General Lambert, the Commons, on 12 October 1659, cashiered General John Lambert and other officers, and installed Fleetwood as chief of a military council under the authority of the Speaker. The next day Lambert ordered that the doors of the House be shut, on 26 October a Committee of Safety was appointed, of which Fleetwood and Lambert were members. Lambert was appointed major-general of all the forces in England and Scotland, the Committee of Safety sent Lambert with a large force to meet George Monck, who was in command of the English forces in Scotland, and either negotiate with him or force him to come to terms. It was into this atmosphere that Monck, the governor of Scotland under the Cromwells, lamberts army began to desert him, and he returned to London almost alone. The Presbyterian members, excluded in Prides Purge of 1648, were recalled, Fleetwood was deprived of his command and ordered to appear before Parliament to answer for his conduct. On 3 March 1660, Lambert was sent to the Tower of London, Lambert was incarcerated and died in custody on Guernsey in 1694, Ingoldsby was indeed pardoned. On 4 April 1660, Charles II issued the Declaration of Breda, Monck organised the Convention Parliament, which met for the first time on 25 April. On 8 May it proclaimed that King Charles II had been the monarch since the execution of Charles I on 30 January 1649. Constitutionally, it was as if the last nineteen years had never happened, Charles returned from exile, leaving the Hague on 23 May and landing at Dover on 25 May. He entered London on 29 May, his birthday, to celebrate his Majestys Return to his Parliament,29 May was made a public holiday, popularly known as Oak Apple Day. He was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1661, some contemporaries described the Restoration as a divinely ordained miracle. The sudden and unexpected deliverance from usurpation and tyranny was interpreted as a restoration of the natural, the Cavalier Parliament convened for the first time on 8 May 1661, and it would endure for over 17 years, finally being dissolved on 24 January 1679
5.
Hanged, drawn and quartered
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To be hanged, drawn and quartered was from 1351 a statutory penalty in England for men convicted of high treason, although the ritual was first recorded during the reign of King Henry III. Convicts were fastened to a hurdle, or wooden panel, and drawn by horse to the place of execution and their remains were often displayed in prominent places across the country, such as London Bridge. For reasons of public decency, women convicted of treason were instead burned at the stake. The severity of the sentence was measured against the seriousness of the crime and they included many English Catholic priests executed during the Elizabethan era, and several of the regicides involved in the 1649 execution of Charles I. The death penalty for treason was abolished in 1998, during the High Middle Ages those in England guilty of treason were punished in a variety of ways, including drawing and hanging. In the 13th century other, more brutal penalties were introduced, the 13th-century English chronicler Matthew Paris described how in 1238 a certain man at arms, a man of some education attempted to kill King Henry III. He was apparently sent by William de Marisco, an outlaw who some years earlier had killed a man under royal protection before fleeing to Lundy Island, de Marisco was captured in 1242 and on Henrys order dragged from Westminster to the Tower of London to be executed. There he was hanged from a gibbet until dead and his corpse was disembowelled, his entrails burned, his body quartered and the parts distributed to cities across the country. The punishment is more frequently recorded during Edward Is reign, welshman Dafydd ap Gruffydd became the first nobleman in England to be hanged, drawn and quartered after he turned against the king and proclaimed himself Prince of Wales and Lord of Snowdon. Dafydds rebellion infuriated Edward so much that he demanded a novel punishment, therefore, following his capture and trial in 1283, for his betrayal he was drawn by horse to his place of execution. For killing English nobles he was hanged alive, for killing those nobles at Easter he was eviscerated and his entrails burned. For conspiring to kill the king in parts of the realm, his body was quartered. A similar fate was suffered by the Scottish leader Sir William Wallace, captured and tried in 1305, he was forced to wear a crown of laurel leaves and was drawn to Smithfield, where he was hanged and beheaded. His entrails were then burned and his corpse quartered and his head was set on London Bridge and the quarters sent to Newcastle, Berwick, Stirling and Perth. Treason was based on an allegiance to the sovereign from all subjects aged 14 or over and it remained for the king, Edward therefore introduced the Treason Act 1351. It was enacted at a time in English history when a right to rule was indisputable and was therefore written principally to protect the throne. The new law offered a definition of treason than had existed before. Petty treason referred to the killing of a master by his servant, men guilty of petty treason were drawn and hanged, whereas women were burned
6.
Newcastle-under-Lyme
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Newcastle-under-Lyme is a market town in Staffordshire, England, and is the principal settlement in the Borough of Newcastle-under-Lyme. It is part of North Staffordshire, in the 2011 census the town had a population of 75,125. The Newcastle part of the name derives from being the location of a new castle in the 12th century, the Lyme section could refer to the Lyme Brook or the extensive Forest of Lyme that covered the area with lime trees in the mediaeval period. The new castle was built to supersede an older fortress at Chesterton about 2 miles to the north, in 1235 Henry III constituted it a free borough, granting a guild merchant and other privileges. In 1251 he leased it at fee-farm to the burgesses, in 1265 Newcastle was granted by the Crown to Simon de Montfort, and subsequently to Edmund Crouchback, through whom it passed to Henry IV. In John Lelands time the castle had disappeared save one great Toure, Newcastle did not feature much in the English Civil War, save a Royalist plundering. However, it was the hometown of Major General Thomas Harrison a Cromwellian army officer and leader of the Fifth Monarchy Men, Newcastle sent two members to parliament from 1355 to 1885, when it lost one representative. When Stoke-on-Trent was formed by the 1910 amalgamation of the six towns Newcastle remained separate. 4%, although passed by the House of Commons, the Bill was rejected by the House of Lords. Following the Local Government Act 1972 it became the settlement of the Borough of Newcastle-under-Lyme. Like neighbouring Stoke-on-Trent, Newcastles early economy was based around the trade, silk. Later coal mining, brick manufacture, iron casting and engineering rose to prominence, very fine red earthenware and also soft-paste porcelain tableware was produced in Newcastle at Samuel Bells factory in Lower Street between 1724 and 1754 when all production ceased. With the exception of a failed enterprise between 1790 and 1797, which switched to brewing, there was no further commercial production of pottery within the town of Newcastle. Production of earthenware tiles however continued at locations within the borough. Manufacture of fine bone china was re-established in the borough in 1963 by Mayfair Pottery at Chesterton, the manufacture in the borough of clay tobacco smoking pipes started about 1637 and grew rapidly and was second only to hatting within the borough. Nationally, the town was ranked with Chester, York and Hull as the four major pipe producers and this industry continued until the mid-19th century when decline set in rapidly and by 1881 only one tobacco pipe maker was left. In 1944, the Rolls-Royce Derwent engine for the Gloster Meteor fighter was made in the borough, Newcastles 20th century industries include, iron working, construction materials, clothing, computers, publishing, electric motors and machinery. Various business centres in the town offices for companies that operate in the service sector. The town has been the birthplace of notable politicians and activists
7.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
8.
Earl of Essex
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Earl of Essex is a title in the Peerage of England which was first created in the 12th century by King Stephen of England. The title has been recreated eight times from its original inception, the current holder of the earldom is Paul Capell, 11th Earl of Essex, a retired school teacher from Caton, Lancashire. The family seat was Cassiobury House, near Watford, Hertfordshire, the title was first created in the 12th century for Geoffrey de Mandeville, 1st Earl of Essex. Upon the death of the earl in 1189, the title became dormant or extinct. The Essex title passed to two of Fitz Peters sons before becoming extinct after the death of the second, William, the 3rd Earl of Essex. The third creation was for Humphrey de Bohun, 2nd Earl of Hereford in 1239, whose father Henry had married Maud, all three of the Earldoms of Hereford, Northampton and of Essex became extinct in 1373. Upon its extinction, the present creation was made in 1661, the Capell family descends from Sir Arthur Capell of Raines Hall in Essex and of Hadham in Hertfordshire. His grandson Arthur Capell represented Hertfordshire in both the Short and Long Parliaments, in 1641 he was raised to the Peerage of England as Baron Capell of Hadham, in the County of Hertford. Capell later fought as a Royalist in the Civil War and he was tried and condemned to death by the Parliamentarians and beheaded in May 1649. He was succeeded by his eldest son, the second Baron and these titles are also in the Peerage of England. Lord Essex later served as Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland and as First Lord of the Treasury, on his death the titles passed to his son, the second Earl. He was a lieutenant-general in the army and served as Lord-Lieutenant of Hertfordshire and he was succeeded by his son, the third Earl. He served as Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard from 1739 to 1743 and was also Lord-Lieutenant of Hertfordshire, when he died the titles passed to his son, the fourth Earl. He also served as Lord-Lieutenant of Hertfordshire and he was succeeded by his eldest son from his first marriage, the fifth Earl. He sat in the House of Commons for many years and was Lord-Lieutenant of Hertfordshire from 1801 to 1817, Lord Essex assumed the surname of Coningsby. In 1839, at the age of seventy-six, he married the vocalist and he was succeeded by his nephew, the sixth Earl. He was the son of the Hon. John Thomas Capell, on his death the titles passed to his grandson, the seventh Earl. He was the eldest son of Lieutenant-Colonel Arthur de Vere Capell, Viscount Malden, the line of the sixth Earl failed on the death of the seventh Earls grandson, the ninth Earl, in 1981
9.
New Model Army
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The New Model Army of England was formed in 1645 by the Parliamentarians in the English Civil War, and was disbanded in 1660 after the Restoration. Its soldiers became full-time professionals, rather than part-time militia, to establish a professional officer corps, the armys leaders were prohibited from having seats in either the House of Lords or House of Commons. This was to encourage their separation from the political or religious factions among the Parliamentarians, many of its common soldiers therefore held Dissenting or radical views unique among English armies. Ultimately, the Armys Generals could rely both on the Armys internal discipline and its religious zeal and innate support for the Good Old Cause to maintain an essentially dictatorial rule. The New Model Army was formed as a result of dissatisfaction among Parliamentarians with the conduct of the Civil War in 1644, there was also increasing dissension among Parliaments generals in the field. Parliament suspected that many of its officers, who were mainly Presbyterians, were inclined to favour peace with King Charles. The Earl of Manchester was one of the prominent members favouring peace, Manchester and Cromwell clashed publicly over this issue several times. Parliaments senior commander, the Earl of Essex, was suspected of lack of determination and was on poor terms with his subordinates. The tensions among the Parliamentarian generals became a public argument after the Second Battle of Newbury. Some of them believed that King Charless army had escaped encirclement after the battle through inaction on the part of some commanders. In response, Parliament directed the Committee of Both Kingdoms, the body that oversaw the conduct of the War. On 19 December, the House of Commons passed the Self-denying Ordinance, originally a separate matter from the establishment of the New Model Army, it soon became intimately linked with it. Once the Self-denying Ordinance became Law, the Earls of Manchester and Essex, on 6 January 1645, the Committee of Both Kingdoms established the New Model Army, appointing Sir Thomas Fairfax as its Captain-General and Sir Philip Skippon as Sergeant-Major General of the Foot. The Self-denying Ordinance took time to pass the House of Lords, although Oliver Cromwell handed over his command of the Armys cavalry when the Ordinance was enacted, Fairfax requested his services when another officer wished to emigrate. Cromwell was commissioned Colonel of Vermuydens former regiment of horse, and was appointed Lieutenant General of the Horse in June, Cromwell and his son-in-law Henry Ireton were two of the only four exceptions to the Self-denying Ordinance, the other two being local commanders in Cheshire and North Wales. They were allowed to serve under a series of temporary commissions that were continually extended. They were intended to reduce the remaining Royalist garrisons in their areas, some of their regiments were reorganised and incorporated into the New Model Army during and after the Second English Civil War. Although the cavalry regiments were well up to strength and there was no shortage of volunteers
10.
Wendover
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Wendover is a market town at the foot of the Chiltern Hills in Buckinghamshire, England. It is also a parish within Aylesbury Vale district. The mainly arable parish is 5,832 acres in size, the town name is of Brythonic origin and means white waters, pertaining to the stream that rises in the adjacent hills and flows through the middle of the town, bringing chalk deposits on its way. In 1086 the manor of Wendovre was in the hundred of Aylesbury, the parish church of St Mary is outside the town to the east on the hillside, a feature that is very common among towns with strong Celtic origins. There is a red brick, spired clock tower at the crossroads in the centre of the town that was built in 1842. The tree lined Aylesbury Street includes the 16th-century timber framed Chiltern House, the town was a Parliamentary Borough continuously from 1708 until the seat was abolished by the Reform Act 1832. It has had a charter to hold a weekly market since 1464 meaning that officially it is a town rather than a village. It is part of a parish, and the parish uses the term Parish Council rather than Town Council. Part of the town was once the property of Anne Boleyn whose father held the manor of Aylesbury among his many estates, there is still a row of houses in the town today, known as Anne Boleyns Cottages. The town is the birthplace of Gordon Onslow Ford, British surrealist artist, the town is also the birthplace of Cecilia Payne, the astronomer who first showed that the Sun is mainly composed of hydrogen. The town is at the terminus of the Wendover Arm of the Grand Union Canal, disused for over a century, the arm is in course of being restored by the Wendover Arm Trust. Remote and rural for almost all its length, the canal attracts much local wildlife, the Aylesbury constituency of which Wendover forms a part has elected a Conservative MP since 1924. Local elections, as in May 2011, often feature only Conservative, Liberal Democrat, the Wendover Parish Council, reelected in May 2015, has a small office in the town and operates a block grant from Aylesbury Vale District Council. Wendover is located in the Chiltern Hills, Buckinghamshire, to the south-east of Aylesbury, today the town is very popular with commuters working in London. Property values have risen dramatically in recent years since the completion of the Wendover Bypass, there is a weekly open market held every Thursday. Wendover has two bus routes passing through it, the 50 travels between Aylesbury and RAF Halton and the 55 travels between Aylesbury and Chesham, both services are run by Arriva. Wendover was well known for having a varied and diverse range of pubs, many of which have now closed due to the constraints, the Red Lion pub was home to Britains Oldest Barmaid, 100-year-old Dolly Saville, who worked at the pub for 76 years. It is claimed by sources that she may even have been the oldest barmaid in the world
11.
Wales
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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
12.
Samuel Pepys
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Samuel Pepys FRS was an administrator of the navy of England and Member of Parliament who is most famous for the diary that he kept for a decade while still a relatively young man. Pepys had no experience, but he rose to be the Chief Secretary to the Admiralty under both King Charles II and King James II through patronage, hard work, and his talent for administration. His influence and reforms at the Admiralty were important in the early professionalisation of the Royal Navy, the detailed private diary that Pepys kept from 1660 until 1669 was first published in the 19th century and is one of the most important primary sources for the English Restoration period. It provides a combination of personal revelation and eyewitness accounts of events, such as the Great Plague of London, the Second Dutch War. Pepys was born in Salisbury Court, Fleet Street, London on 23 February 1633, the son of John Pepys, a tailor and his great uncle Talbot Pepys was Recorder and briefly Member of Parliament for Cambridge in 1625. His fathers first cousin Sir Richard Pepys was elected MP for Sudbury in 1640, appointed Baron of the Exchequer on 30 May 1654, Pepys was the fifth of eleven children, but child mortality was high and he was soon the oldest survivor. He was baptised at St Brides Church on 3 March, Pepys did not spend all of his infancy in London, for a while, he was sent to live with nurse Goody Lawrence at Kingsland, just north of the city. In about 1644, Pepys attended Huntingdon Grammar School before being educated at St Pauls School, London and he attended the execution of Charles I in 1649. In 1650, he went to Cambridge University, having received two exhibitions from St Pauls School and a grant from the Mercers Company. In October, he was admitted as a sizar to Magdalene College, he moved there in March 1651, later in 1654 or early in 1655, he entered the household of another of his fathers cousins, Sir Edward Montagu, who was later created 1st Earl of Sandwich. From a young age, Pepys suffered from stones in his urinary tract – a condition from which his mother and brother John also later suffered. He was almost never without pain, as well as other symptoms, by the time of his marriage, the condition was very severe. In 1657 Pepys decided to undergo surgery, not an option, as the operation was known to be especially painful. Nevertheless, Pepys consulted surgeon Thomas Hollier and, on 26 March 1658, Pepys stone was successfully removed and he resolved to hold a celebration on every anniversary of the operation, which he did for several years. However, there were long-term effects from the operation, the incision on his bladder broke open again late in his life. The procedure may have left him sterile, though there is no evidence for this. In mid-1658 Pepys moved to Axe Yard, near the modern Downing Street and he worked as a teller in the Exchequer under George Downing. On 1 January 1660, Pepys began to keep a diary and he recorded his daily life for almost ten years
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