1.
Governor of Virginia
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The Governor of the Commonwealth of Virginia serves as the chief executive of the Commonwealth of Virginia for a four-year term. The current holder of the office is Terry McAuliffe, who was sworn in on January 11,2014 and his term will expire on January 13,2018. McAuliffe is a member of the Democratic Party and was elected to the office on November 5,2013, candidates for governor must be United States citizens who have resided in Virginia and been a registered voter for five years prior to the election in which they are running. The candidates must be at least 30 years of age, Virginia governors are not allowed to serve consecutive terms, therefore, they cannot stand for reelection at the end of their term, as per the 1830 state constitution. However, a governor is permitted to run for a second term in a future election. Only two governors since 1830, William Smith and Mills Godwin, were elected to additional terms, the governor is the head of government in Virginia. At the beginning of regular session, he or she must report the state of the Commonwealth to the Virginia General Assembly. He or she must convene the legislature when two-thirds of each house calls for a special session. The governor must ensure that the laws of the Commonwealth are faithfully executed by either signing, or allowing it to come into law, or vetoing and they are responsible for the safety of the state, as they serve as commander-in-chief of the Virginia Militia. The governor has the power to submit recommendations and to call special sessions when he finds them necessary. All bills must be sent to the governor before becoming law, the governor may sign the bill, let it sit unsigned for seven days, after which it becomes law, or veto the legislation. After a veto, the returns to its house of origin. The governor also has the power to use a line-item veto and he may send legislation back to the legislature with recommendations and amendments. The legislature must either approve the changes by a majority in each house or override the veto with a majority in each house. The governor is commander-in-chief of Virginias militia forces, the governor may also communicate with other states and foreign powers. The governor has the power to fill vacancies in positions unless the position is appointed by the legislature, the governor may commute fines or sentences and issue pardons. The governor may also restore voting rights and overturn other political penalties on individuals, the position of Governor of Virginia dates back to the first permanent English settlement in America, Jamestown. The Virginia Company of London set up a government run by a council, the President of the Council basically served as governor
2.
James Patton Preston
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James Patton Preston was a U. S. political figure who served as Governor of Virginia. James Patton Preston was born at Smithfield Plantation, in what is now Blacksburg and he attended the College of William and Mary from 1790 to 1795, and managed his familys estate. A member of the Democratic-Republican Party, he served for four years the Virginia State Senate and he joined the United States Army for the War of 1812, serving as Lieutenant Colonel and second in command of the 12th Infantry Regiment. He was promoted to Colonel of the 23rd Infantry Regiment in August 1813, after the war Preston returned to the House of Delegates. After leaving office, Preston served as Postmaster of Richmond before retiring to his estate and he died at Smithfield Plantation on May 4,1843 and was buried in the estates cemetery. Preston County, West Virginia was formed in 1818 and named in his honor, also named for him is a residence hall at William and Mary. His father was Colonel William Preston and his mother was Susanna Smith, Preston was married to Ann Taylor, with whom he had three children. Their son William Ballard Preston served as a Member of the United States House of Representatives, during the American Civil War William B. Preston was a Senator in the Congress of the Confederate States, James Patton Preston was the brother-in-law of John Floyd and the uncle of James McDowell and John Buchanan Floyd. James Patton Preston at Find a Grave “Memoirs of Letitia Preston Floyd, written Feb.22,1843 to her son Benjamin Rush Floyd, by Letitia Preston Floyd, archival Records A Guide to the Governor James Patton Preston Executive Papers, 1816–1819 at The Library of Virginia
3.
James Pleasants
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James Pleasants, Jr. was an American politician who served in the U. S. Senate from 1819 to 1822 and was the 22nd Governor of Virginia from 1822 to 1825. Pleasants was born at “Cold Comfort, ” in the Colony of Virginia on October 24,1769 and he pursued classical studies and graduated from the College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia. He studied law and was admitted to the bar and commenced practice in Amelia County, Pleasants was the son of James Pleasants and Ann Randolph, the daughter of Isham Randolph of Dungeness and granddaughter of William Randolph. Pleasants was a member of the Virginia House of Delegates 1797–1802, on January 30,1811, he was appointed to the Court of Appeals but resigned almost immediately. Pleasants served as chairman of the Committee on Public Expenditures, Committee on Expenditures in the Department of the Navy and he was also chairman of the Committee on Naval Affairs. He was chosen as Governor of Virginia, serving 1822–1825, Pleasants was a delegate to the State constitutional conventions in 1829 and 1830. He retired and lived on his estate, “Contention, ” near Goochland, Goochland County, Virginia and he was buried on his estate. His brother-in-law and law partner, Eugene C, Massie, named his son James Pleasants Massie, after Pleasants. The name has been handed down, now to a total of four generations. His son John Hampden Pleasants founded the Richmond Whig newspaper, married twice, a Guide to the Governor James Pleasants Executive Papers, 1822–1825 at The Library of Virginia United States Congress. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
4.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
5.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
6.
Virginia's 21st congressional district
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Virginia Congressional District 21 is an obsolete congressional district. It was eliminated in 1843 after the 1840 U. S. Census and its last Congressman was Lewis Steenrod. The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, the Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts. Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present
7.
Wilson Cary Nicholas
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Wilson Cary Nicholas was an American politician who served in the U. S. Senate from 1799 to 1804 and was the 19th Governor of Virginia from 1814 to 1816. Nicholas was born in Williamsburg in the Colony of Virginia and later attended the College of William, Nicholas served as a lieutenant in the Albemarle County Militia during the American Revolution. After the war, he was a member of the Virginia House of Delegates 1784–1789, said Nicholas, The conventions which shall be so called will have their deliberations confined to a few points, no local interest to divert their attention, nothing but the necessary alterations. They will have advantages over the last Convention. No experiments to devise, the general and fundamental regulations being already laid down, during the years 1794–1800, Nicholas served again in the State house of delegates. He was elected to the U. S. House of Representatives in the Tenth and Eleventh Congresses and served from March 4,1807, Nicholas was chosen to be Governor of Virginia and served in that position 1814–1817. Nicholas also served as president of the Richmond branch of the Second Bank of the United States and his speculations in western lands put him in serious debt during the Panic of 1819. Having convinced Thomas Jefferson to endorse two of his notes for $10,000 each, he also plunged Jefferson into debt and he died at Tufton, near Charlottesville, Virginia. Nicholas was interred in the Jefferson burying ground at Monticello, near Charlottesville, Wilson Cary Nicholas married Margaret Smith of Baltimore. His brother George was married to Margarets sister Mary, Margaret and Mary Smith were the sisters of Samuel Smith and Robert Smith. The children of Wilson Cary Nicholas and Margaret Smith included, Mary Buchanan, Charlotte G. Jane Hollins, John Smith, Jane Hollins Nicholas was the wife of Thomas Jeffersons grandson Thomas Jefferson Randolph. Nicholas County, West Virginia was formed in 1843 and named for him, also named for him is a residence hall at William and Mary. Media related to Wilson Cary Nicholas at Wikimedia Commons United States Congress, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Wilson Cary Nicholas at Find a Grave Archival Records A Guide to the Governor Wilson Cary Nicholas Executive Papers, 1814–1816 at The Library of Virginia
8.
Virginia House of Delegates
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The Virginia House of Delegates is one of two parts in the Virginia General Assembly, the other being the Senate of Virginia. It has 100 members elected for terms of two years, unlike most states, these take place during odd-numbered years. The House is presided over by the Speaker of the House, the Speaker is almost always a member of the majority party and, as Speaker, becomes the most powerful member of the House. The House shares legislative power with the Senate of Virginia, the house of the Virginia General Assembly. The House of Delegates is the successor to the Virginia House of Burgesses. The House is divided into Democratic and Republican caucuses, in addition to the Speaker, there is a majority leader, majority caucus chair, minority leader, minority caucus chair, and the chairs of the several committees of the House. Through the House of Burgesses, the Virginia House of Delegates is considered the oldest continuous legislative body in the New World, originally having 22 members, the House of Burgesses met from 1619 through 1632 in the choir of the church at Jamestown. From 1632 to 1699 the legislative body met at four different state houses in Jamestown, the first state house convened at the home of Colonial Governor Sir John Harvey from 1632 to 1656. The burgesses convened at the state house from 1656 until it was destroyed in 1660. Historians have yet to identify its location. The House has met in Virginias Capitol Building, designed by Thomas Jefferson, the legislative body met from 1788 to 1904 in what is known as today the Old Hall of the House of Delegates or commonly referred to as the Old House Chamber. The Old House Chamber is part of the original Capitol building structure and it measures 76 feet in width and is filled today with furnishings that resemble what the room would have looked like during its time of use. There are many bronze and marble busts of historic Virginians on display in the Old House Chamber, including, George Mason, George Wythe, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, and Meriwether Lewis. From 1904 to 1906, University of Virginia graduate and architect John K. Peeples designed, the General Assembly members and staff operate from offices in the General Assembly Building, located in Capitol Square. Prior to 1788 the House of Delegates met in the Colonial Capital of Williamsburg, in 1999, Republicans took control of the long-time Democratic House of Delegates for the first time since Reconstruction. The annual salary for delegates is $17,640 per year, each delegate represents roughly 83,000 people. Candidates for office must be at least 21 years of age at the time of the election, residents of the districts they seek to represent, and qualified to vote for General Assembly legislators. The regular session of the General Assembly is 60 days long during even numbered years and 30 days long during odd numbered years, the House has 14 standing committees
9.
Senate of Virginia
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The Senate of Virginia is the upper house of the Virginia General Assembly. The Senate is composed of 40 Senators representing a number of single-member constituent districts. The Senate is presided over by the Lieutenant Governor of Virginia, the Lieutenant Governor presides daily over the Virginia Senate. In the Lieutenant Governors absence, the President pro Tempore presides, the Senate is equal with the House of Delegates, the lower chamber of the legislature, except that taxation bills must originate in the House, similar to the federal U. S. Congress. Members of the Virginia Senate are elected every four years by the voters of the 40 senatorial districts on the Tuesday succeeding the first Monday in November, the last election took place in November 2015. There are no limits for Senators. In the 2007 Virginia state elections, the Democratic Party reclaimed the majority in the Senate for the first time since 1995, the Republicans took control of the Senate for the first time in history after a January 1998 special election. The 2011 elections resulted in a 20–20 split between the parties, but as the tie breaker was Republican Lt, Governor Bill Bolling, the Republicans effectively regained control. The Democratic majority would prove short-lived, however, as Senator Phil Puckett resigned, effective June 8, the Republicans solidified their majority following a Special Election win on August 19,2014, which increased their total number of seats to 21. The Senate of Virginia was created by the 1776 Constitution of Virginia, along with the House of Delegates, the Senate comprised a new bicameral legislature designed to replace the colonial Virginia House of Burgesses, which formally dissolved on the sixth of May,1776. Pursuant to the original Virginia Constitution, the Senate was only permitted to file amendments, accordingly, the Senate had far less power than the House, until the revised Virginia constitution of 1851 allowed the Senate to propose new laws. The annual salary for senators is $18,000 per year, to qualify for office, senators must be at least 21 years of age at the time of the election, residents of the district they represent, and qualified to vote for General Assembly legislators. The regular session of the General Assembly is 60 days long during even numbered years and 30 days long during odd numbered years, the Senate of Virginia has 10 Standing Committees and a Committee on Rules. The Senate of Virginia has its own coat of arms designed and granted by the College of Arms in England, the coat of arms also makes up the official seal of the Virginia Senate. It bears no resemblance to the Seal of the Commonwealth of Virginia and this is not to be confused with the Seal of the London Company, for other than both devices displaying a quartered shield, there is little resemblance between them. The Senates arms have a shield in the center which is divided into four sections by a red cross, in each quarter are smaller shields representing the arms of four countries that contributed settlers to Virginias most early waves of European immigration. An ivory gavel emblazoned on the arm of the red cross represents the Senate as a law making body. The cardinal and dogwood depicted are Virginias official state bird and tree, the ribbon contains the Latin motto of the Senate, Floreat Senatus Virginiae, which means May the Senate of Virginia flourish
10.
Tuckahoe (plantation)
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Tuckahoe, also known as Tuckahoe Plantation, is located on Route 650 near Manakin, Virginia overlapping both Goochland and Henrico counties, six miles from the town of the same name. Built in the first half of the 18th century, it is an example of a colonial plantation house. Thomas Jefferson is also recorded as having spent some of his childhood here and it was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1969. Construction of the home began by Thomas Randolph around 1714, william Randolph, Thomas son, built a two-story, four room home in 1733 around the existing structure. This wing features pine and black walnut paneling with exquisite carvings and moldings, william then added a center hall and south wing, creating a unique H-shaped, which were completed by 1740. William and his wife, Maria Judith Page, had three children, two daughters and a son, but his wife died in 1744, william Randolphs cousin Jane married Peter Jefferson, and they were close friends. The Jeffersons moved from Shadwell in Charlottesville to Tuckahoe Plantation with their four daughters, the Jeffersons lived in the H shape home with their own five children and the three Randolph orphans until 1752. During the seven years of the Jefferson residency, young Thomas was tutored in a schoolhouse with his sisters. Jefferson directed the activities of the plantation and its seven overseers, in 1792, Thomas Mann Randolph III was born. To the dismay of Randolph Jr. Randolph III inherited Tuckahoe, since then, it has continued to be privately owned. The house is occupied by owner/manager Addison B. Thompson. The grounds are open for self-guided tours, the house is open for private tours by appointment and may also be rented for private events. The two-story wood structure sits in its spot, the only Randolph home to not be relocated. The structure forms an H, with wings mirroring each other, the entrances to the house are reached by flights of stairs and two porches. The stoop is covered by a pediment supported by simple wooden posts and is framed by a wooden railing. To either side of the entrance is a pair of windows as well as a window over the entrance. Each two-sashed window contains 9 panes of glass, the gabled roof rests on a simple cornice line with dentil moldings. A large brick chimney rises from either side of the home, vA-712, Tuckahoe Plantation, River Road, Richmond vicinity, Manakin vicinity, Goochland County, VA,8 measured drawings
11.
Colony of Virginia
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The Colony of Virginia was the first permanently settled English colony in North America. Newfoundland, with settlements, had been established as a colony by Royal Charter in 1583. American archaeologist William Kelso says Virginia is where the British Empire began and this was the first colony in the British Empire. The colony existed briefly during the 16th century, and then continuously from 1607 until the American Revolution, the name Virginia was first applied by Sir Walter Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth I in 1584. In 1607, members of a joint venture called the Virginia Company founded Jamestown, tobacco became Virginias first profitable export, the production of which had a significant impact on the society and settlement patterns. In 1624, the Virginia Companys charter was revoked by King James I, from 1619 to 1776, the legislature of the Virginia was the House of Burgesses, which governed in conjunction with a colonial governor. Jamestown remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699, from 1699 until its dissolution the capital was in Williamsburg and it experienced its first major political turmoil with Bacons Rebellion of 1676. The name Virginia is the oldest designation for English claims in North America, the latter word may have inspired the Queen to name the colony Virginia, noting her status as the Virgin Queen. in Carolina Algonquian, and was not the name of the country as previously misunderstood. Virginia was originally a term used to refer to North Americas entire eastern coast from the 34th parallel north to 48th parallel and this area included a large section of Canada and the shores of Acadia. In gratitude for Virginians loyalty to the crown during the English Civil War, Charles II gave it the title of Old Dominion, Virginia maintains Old Dominion as its state nickname. Accordingly, the University of Virginias athletic teams use Cavaliers as one of their nicknames, earlier attempts had been made by the Spanish in what is now Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia, and by the French in South Carolina. Farther south, the Spanish colony of Spanish Florida, centered on St. Augustine, was established in 1565, while to the north, in 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh sent his first colonization mission to the island of Roanoke. This was the first English settlement, although it did not survive and it was a military research expedition with a very narrow focus. In 1587, Raleigh sent another group to attempt to establish a permanent settlement. The first English child born in the New World was named Virginia Dare, the expedition leader, John White returned to England for supplies that same year, but was unable to return to the colony due to war between England and Spain. When he finally did return in 1590, he found the colony abandoned, the houses were intact, but the colonists had completely disappeared. Although there are a number of theories about the fate of the colony, Dare County was named in honor of the baby Virginia Dare, who was among those whose fate is unknown. The word Croatoan was found carved into a tree, the name of a tribe on a nearby island, following the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, King James I ascended to the throne
12.
British America
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English America, and later British America, were the English, and later British, territories in North America, Central America, the Caribbean, and Guyana from 1607 to 1783. After that, British North America was used to describe the remainder of Britains continental North American possessions, the term British North America was first used informally in 1783, but it was uncommon before the Report on the Affairs of British North America, called the Durham Report. British America gained large amounts of new territory following the Treaty of Paris which ended Britains involvement in the Seven Years War, at the start of the American War of Independence in 1775, the British Empire included 20 colonies north and east of New Spain. East and West Florida were ceded to Spain in the Treaty of Paris which ended the American Revolution, all but one of the remaining colonies of British North America apart from the British West Indies united together from 1867 to 1873 forming the Dominion of Canada. The first such permanent settlement was founded at Jamestown by the Virginia Company whose investors expected to reap rewards from their speculative investments, Virginia Native Americans had established settlements long before the English settlers arrived, and there were an estimated 14,000 natives in the region. Native American political leadership sought to resettle the English colonizers from Jamestown to another location, other colonizers, both English and German, did join the Powhatans. The first colonizers were welcomed by the Indians with dancing, feasting, there were twenty British colonies in North America in 1775
13.
Monticello
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Monticello was the primary plantation of Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States, who began designing and building Monticello at age 26 after inheriting land from his father. The current Nickel features a depiction of Monticello on the reverse, situated on the summit of an 850-foot -high peak in the Southwest Mountains south of the Rivanna Gap, the name Monticello derives from the Italian for little mount. Cabins for field slaves were farther from the mansion, at Jeffersons direction, he was buried on the grounds, in an area now designated as the Monticello Cemetery. The cemetery is owned by the Monticello Association, a society of his descendants through Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson, after Jeffersons death, his daughter Martha Jefferson Randolph sold the property. In 1834 it was bought by Uriah P. Levy, a commodore in the U. S. Navy and his nephew Jefferson Monroe Levy took over the property in 1879, he also invested considerable money to restore and preserve it. In 1923, Monroe Levy sold it to the Thomas Jefferson Foundation and it has been designated a National Historic Landmark. In 1987 Monticello and the nearby University of Virginia, also designed by Jefferson, were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Jeffersons home was built to serve as a house, which ultimately took on the architectural form of a villa. It has many antecedents, but Jefferson went beyond them to create something very much his own. He consciously sought to create a new architecture for a new nation, work began on what historians would subsequently refer to as the first Monticello in 1768, on a plantation of 5,000 acres. Jefferson moved into the South Pavilion in 1770, where his new wife Martha Wayles Skelton joined him in 1772, Jefferson continued work on his original design, but how much was completed is of some dispute. In constructing and later reconstructing his home, Jefferson used both free workers and enslaved laborers, after his wifes death in 1782, Jefferson left Monticello in 1784 to serve as Minister of the United States to France. His decision to remodel his own home may date from this period, in 1794, following his service as the first U. S. Secretary of State, Jefferson began rebuilding his house based on the ideas he had acquired in Europe. The remodeling continued throughout most of his presidency, although generally completed by 1809, Jefferson continued work on the present structure until his death in 1826. Jefferson added a hallway and a parallel set of rooms to the structure, more than doubling its area. He removed the second full-height story from the house and replaced it with a mezzanine bedroom floor. The interior is centered on two rooms, which served as an entrance-hall-museum, where Jefferson displayed his scientific interests. The most dramatic element of the new design was an octagonal dome, the dome room has now been restored to its appearance during Jeffersons lifetime, with Mars yellow walls and a painted green floor
14.
Democratic-Republican Party
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The new party controlled the presidency and Congress, as well as most states, from 1801 to 1825, during the First Party System. It began in 1791 as one faction in Congress, and included many politicians who had opposed to the new constitution. They called themselves Republicans after their ideology Republicanism and they distrusted the Federalist commitment to republicanism. The party splintered in 1824 into the Jacksonian movement and the short-lived National Republican Party, the term Democratic-Republican is used especially by modern political scientists for the first Republican Party. It is also known as the Jeffersonian Republicans, historians typically use the title Republican Party. An Anti-Administration faction met secretly in the capital to oppose Hamiltons financial programs. Jefferson denounced the programs as leading to monarchy and subversive of republicanism, Jefferson needed to have a nationwide party to challenge the Federalists, which Hamilton was building up with allies in major cities. Foreign affairs took a role in 1794–95 as the Republicans vigorously opposed the Jay Treaty with Britain. Republicans saw France as more democratic after its revolution, while Britain represented the hated monarchy, the party denounced many of Hamiltons measures as unconstitutional, especially the national bank. The party was strongest in the South and weakest in the Northeast and it demanded states rights as expressed by the Principles of 1798 articulated in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions that would allow states to nullify a federal law. Above all, the party stood for the primacy of the yeoman farmers, Republicans were deeply committed to the principles of republicanism, which they feared were threatened by the supposed monarchical tendencies of the Hamiltonian Federalists. The party came to power in 1801 with the election of Jefferson in the 1800 presidential election, the Federalists—too elitist to appeal to most people—faded away, and totally collapsed after 1815. The Republicans dominated the First Party System, despite internal divisions, the party selected its presidential candidates in a caucus of members of Congress. They included Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and James Monroe, by 1824, the caucus system had practically collapsed. After 1800, the party dominated Congress and most state governments outside New England, by 1824, the party was split four ways and lacked a center, as the First Party System collapsed. The emergence of the Second Party System in the 1830s realigned the old factions, one remnant followed Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren into the new Democratic Party by 1828. Another remnant led by John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay formed the National Republicans in 1828, the precise date of founding is disputed, but 1791 is a reasonable estimate, some time by 1792 is certain. The elections of 1792 were the first ones to be contested on anything resembling a partisan basis, in most states the congressional elections were recognized, as Jefferson strategist John Beckley put it, as a struggle between the Treasury department and the republican interest
15.
Martha Jefferson Randolph
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Martha Jefferson Randolph was the daughter of Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States, and his wife Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson. Born at Monticello, near Charlottesville, Virginia and she married Thomas Mann Randolph, Jr. who served as a politician at the federal and state levels and was elected a governor of Virginia. Martha was very close to her father in his old age, Martha Jefferson was born on September 27,1772 at Monticello, her fathers estate in Virginia, which was then British America, to Thomas Jefferson and Martha Wayles Skelton. During her parents ten years of marriage, they had six children, Martha Patsy, Jane, a son who lived for only a few weeks in 1777, Mary Wayles Polly, Lucy Elizabeth, only Martha and Mary survived more than a few years. Martha was tall and slim with angular features and red hair and her paternal grandparents were Peter Jefferson, a planter and surveyor who died when her father was Thirty Three, and Jane Randolph. Jefferson vaguely knew that his grandfather had a place on the Fluvanna River which he called Snowden after a mountain in Wales near which the Jeffersons were supposed to have once lived and her mother was the only child and daughter of John Wayles and his first wife, Martha Eppes. Her maternal grandfather died in 1773, and her parents inherited 135 slaves,11,000 acres, the debts took her father years to satisfy, contributing to his financial problems. Her mother died on September 6,1782, four months after the birth of the Jeffersons last child and she later wrote that about this period, stating in those melancholy rambles I was his constant companion, a solitary witness to many a violent burst of grief. Her mother asked her father to never again, and he never did. Her request has been attributed to protective feelings for her children, from age 12 to 17, after her mothers death, she lived in Paris with her father while he served as U. S. Jefferson enrolled her at the Pentemont Abbey, a convent school. After Patsy expressed a desire to convert to Catholicism and said she was considering religious orders, in 1790 at the age of 18, Martha married Thomas Mann Randolph, Jr. a planter. Soon after their marriage, her father, Thomas Jefferson, deeded eight slaves from Monticello as a gift, including Molly Hemings. Thomas Jefferson Randolph, who married Jane Hollins Nicholas, ellen Wayles Randolph, who was named after deceased sister, and was married to Joseph Coolidge Cornelia Jefferson Randolph. Virginia Jefferson Randolph, who married Nicholas Philip Trist, James Madison Randolph, who was the first child born in the White House. Benjamin Franklin Randolph, who married Sally Champe Carter, meriwether Lewis Randolph, who married Elizabeth Martin. After his death, Martin remarried to Andrew Jackson Donelson, a nephew of President Andrew Jackson, septimia Anne Randolph, who married Dr. David Scott Meikleham. George Wythe Randolph, who briefly in 1862 was Secretary of War of the Confederate States of America, Martha Randolph educated her children at home, likely with the help of private tutors, as most planters did
16.
Thomas Jefferson Randolph
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He was notable as the oldest grandson of President Thomas Jefferson. He helped manage Monticello near the end of his grandfathers life and was executor of his estate, Randolph was likely trying to deflect attention from his grandfather, Thomas Jefferson, as he admitted there were Hemings children who strongly resembled the president. The Carr story was the basis for historians denials of Jeffersons relationship from 1868 to 1998, Thomas Jefferson Randolph was the son of Thomas Mann Randolph Jr. and Martha Jefferson Randolph, the oldest son and the second born of their eleven children who survived. His mother was the eldest daughter, and he was the eldest grandson of United States President Thomas Jefferson, part of the time, he grew up at Monticello and was close to his grandfather, who died when Randolph was 34. In 1815 Randolph married Jane Hollins Nicholas, daughter of Wilson Cary Nicholas, Jane Nicholas Randolph Wilson Cary Nicholas Randolph Meriwether Lewis Randolph Sarah Randolph A planter, Randolph was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates and served four years. He had been close to his grandfather and was appointed executor of his estate in his will of 1826, Randolph had begun to manage Monticello for his mother and grandfather for a short period during Jeffersons last years. Because the estate was encumbered by debt, Randolph ordered the sale of Monticello goods and property. His mother withheld Sally Hemings from the auction and gave her her time, Jefferson had formally freed Madison and Eston in his will, after allowing their older sister and possibly their older brother to run away in 1822. In 1829, Randolph published Memoir, Correspondence And Miscellanies, From The Papers Of Thomas Jefferson and it was the first collection of Jeffersons writings. After Nat Turners slave rebellion of 1831, Randolph introduced a post nati emancipation plan in the Virginia House of Delegates and this would have provided for gradual emancipation of children born into slavery after they served an apprenticeship and came of age. In 1850, Randolph was elected to the Virginia Constitutional Convention of 1850 and he was one of four delegates elected from the central Piedmont delegate district made up of his home district of Albemarle County, as well as Nelson and Amherst Counties. From 1857 to 1864, Randolph served as the rector of the University of Virginia, during the American Civil War, he held a colonel’s commission in the Confederate Army. Most planters were excused from active service, continuing to be active in politics after the war, Randolph served as the temporary chairman of the 1872 Democratic National Convention. Randall recounted that Randolph had said the following, she had children which resembled Mr. Jefferson so closely that it was plain that they had his blood in their veins. In the 1850s, Randolph told the biographer Henry Randall that Jeffersons nephew Peter Carr had been the father of Hemings children. He also said that his mother had told him that Jefferson had been absent for 15 months prior to the birth of one of Sally Hemings children, Randall passed this family history on to James Parton, and suggested his own confirmation of the material. At the request of Thomas Jefferson Randolph, Randall had avoided any discussion of Sally Hemings, in addition, Randolphs sister Ellen wrote to her husband identifying Samuel Carr, Peters brother, as the father of Hemings children. The 20th-century historian Dumas Malone used this letter to refute Jeffersons paternity, later 20th-century historians used Malones extensive documentation of Jeffersons activities to determine that Jefferson was at Monticello for the conception of some of Hemingss children
17.
George W. Randolph
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George Wythe Randolph was a lawyer, planter, and Confederate general. He was President Thomas Jeffersons youngest grandson by his daughter Martha Jefferson Randolph and their youngest son, he was named in honor of George Wythe, a signer of the Declaration of Independence and law professor of his grandfather Thomas Jefferson. Randolph briefly attended preparatory schools in Cambridge, Massachusetts and Washington, DC and his father had incurred much debt. He served as a midshipman in the United States Navy from 1831 to 1839, on April 10,1852, he married the young widow Mary Elizabeth Adams Pope. After studying at the University of Virginia, Randolph read the law with a firm and was admitted to the bar in 1840. He practiced law in Charlottesville, Virginia, and he and Mary lived at his plantation of Edgehill and they moved to the capital of Richmond in 1849. He became active in the community as well as having his law practice and he founded the Richmond Mechanics Institute and was an officer in the Virginia Historical Society. As the Confederacy formed after southern states secession, the United States divided into two camps and the sections moved toward open conflict. A special delegation, composed of Randolph, William B, preston and Alexander H. H. Stuart, traveled to Washington, D. C. where they met President Abraham Lincoln on April 12,1861. Finding the President firm in his resolve to hold the Federal forts in the South, Randolph was commissioned a major in the Confederate Army, and later served as a colonel of the artillery in the Battle of Big Bethel. He was promoted to general on February 12,1862. Mary Randolph was active in the Richmond Ladies Association, which organized welfare, Randolph was appointed by Jefferson Davis as Secretary of War on March 18,1862, and he took office on March 24,1862. He helped reform the department, improving procurement and writing a law similar to one he had created for Virginia. He was most well known for his strengthening the Confederacys western and southern defenses, with weakening health due to tuberculosis, he resigned on November 17,1862. In 1864, Randolph took his family to exile in Europe, staying in England and they returned to Virginia in 1866. He died of tuberculosis in March 1867 at his Edgehill plantation and he is buried at Monticello in the Jefferson family graveyard. Randolph was portrayed on the $100 bill printed by the Confederate States of America, list of American Civil War generals Eicher, John H. and David J. Eicher, Civil War High Commands. Goldberg, David E. George Wythe Randolph, Virginia Foundation for the Humanities, accessed 6 April 2011
18.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
19.
College of William & Mary
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The College of William & Mary in Virginia is a public research university located in Williamsburg, Virginia, United States. William & Mary educated U. S. Presidents Thomas Jefferson, James Monroe, a young George Washington also received his surveyors license through the College. W&M students founded the Phi Beta Kappa academic honor society in 1776, the establishment of graduate programs in law and medicine in 1779 makes it one of the first universities in the United States. In addition to its program, W&M is home to several graduate programs. Named in honor of the reigning monarchs King William III and Queen Mary II, the original plans for the College date back to 1618 but were thwarted by the Indian Massacre of 1622, a change in government, events related to the English Civil War, and Bacons Rebellion. In 1695 before the town of Williamsburg existed, construction began on the College Building, now known as the Sir Christopher Wren Building and it is the oldest college building in America. The College is one of the countrys nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution, the Charter named James Blair as the Colleges first president. William & Mary was founded as an Anglican institution, students were required to be members of the Church of England, and professors were required to declare adherence to the Thirty-Nine Articles. In 1693, the College was given a seat in the House of Burgesses and it was determined the College would be supported by taxes and export duties on furs. The College acquired a 330 acres parcel for the new school,8 miles from Jamestown, in 1694, the new school opened in temporary buildings. Williamsburg was granted a charter as a city in 1722 by the Crown. During this time, the College served as a law center and it educated future U. S. Presidents Thomas Jefferson, James Monroe, and John Tyler. The College has been called the Alma Mater of a Nation because of its ties to Americas founding fathers. A 17-year-old George Washington received his surveyors license through the College, William & Mary is famous for its firsts, the first U. S. institution with a Royal Charter, the first Greek-letter society, the first student honor code and the first law school in America. The College became a school in 1906 and became coeducational in 1918. In 1928, John D. Rockefeller, Jr. chose the College Building as the first building to be returned to its 18th-century appearance as part of the iconic Colonial Williamsburg restoration. During the period of the American Revolution, freedom of religion was established in Virginia notably with the 1786 passage of the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, in 1779 the college became the first American university with the establishment of the graduate schools in law and medicine. The College of William and Mary is home to the nations first collegiate secret society, Society, popularly known as the Flat Hat Club, founded November 11,1750
20.
University of Edinburgh
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The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582, is the sixth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands ancient universities. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city of Edinburgh, the University of Edinburgh was ranked 17th and 21st in the world by the 2014–15 and 2015-16 QS rankings. It is now ranked 19th in the according to 2016-17 QS Rankings. It is ranked 16th in the world in arts and humanities by the 2015–16 Times Higher Education Ranking and it is ranked the 23rd most employable university in the world by the 2015 Global Employability University Ranking. It is ranked as the 6th best university in Europe by the U. S. News Best Global Universities Ranking and it is a member of both the Russell Group, and the League of European Research Universities, a consortium of 21 research universities in Europe. It has the third largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom, after the universities of Cambridge and it continues to have links to the British Royal Family, having had the Duke of Edinburgh as its Chancellor from 1953 to 2010 and Princess Anne since 2011. Edinburgh receives approximately 50,000 applications every year, making it the fourth most popular university in the UK by volume of applicants, after St Andrews, it is the most difficult university to gain admission into in Scotland, and 9th overall in the UK. This was a move at the time, as most universities were established through Papal bulls. Established as the Tounis College, it opened its doors to students in October 1583, instruction began under the charge of another St Andrews graduate Robert Rollock. It was the fourth Scottish university in a period when the more populous. It was renamed King Jamess College in 1617, by the 18th century, the university was a leading centre of the Scottish Enlightenment. The universitys first custom-built building was the Old College, now Edinburgh Law School and its first forte in teaching was anatomy and the developing science of surgery, from which it expanded into many other subjects. From the basement of a nearby house ran the anatomy tunnel corridor and it went under what was then North College Street, and under the university buildings until it reached the universitys anatomy lecture theatre, delivering bodies for dissection. It was from this tunnel the body of William Burke was taken after he had been hanged, towards the end of the 19th century, Old College was becoming overcrowded and Robert Rowand Anderson was commissioned to design new Medical School premises in 1875. The medical school was more or less built to his design and was completed by the addition of the McEwan Hall in the 1880s. The building now known as New College was originally built as a Free Church college in the 1840s and has been the home of divinity at the university since the 1920s. The two oldest schools – law and divinity – are both well-esteemed, with law being based in Old College and divinity in New College on the Mound and they are also represented by the Edinburgh University Sports Union which was founded in 1866. The medical school is renowned throughout the world and it was widely considered the best medical school in the English-speaking world throughout the 18th century and first half of the 19th century
21.
Plantations in the American South
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A plantation is an area of land or water where one crop is specifically planted for widespread commercial sale. The crops grown include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar cane, sisal, oil seeds, oil palms, rubber trees, protectionist policies and natural comparative advantage have sometimes contributed to determining where plantations were located. Among the earliest examples of plantations were the latifundia of the Roman Empire, Plantation agriculture grew rapidly with the increase in international trade and the development of a worldwide economy that followed the expansion of European colonial empires. Like every economic activity, it has changed over time, Industrial plantations are established to produce a high volume of wood in a short period of time. Plantations are grown by state forestry authorities and/or the paper and wood industries, christmas trees are often grown on plantations as well. In southern and southeastern Asia, teak plantations have replaced the natural forest. Industrial plantations are managed for the commercial production of forest products. Individual blocks are usually even-aged and often consist of just one or two species and these species can be exotic or indigenous. Forest genetic resources are the basis for genetic alteration, selected individuals grown in seed orchards are a good source for seeds to develop adequate planting material. Wood production on a plantation is generally higher than that of natural forests. In 2000, while plantations accounted for 5% of global forest, in the first year, the ground is prepared usually by the combination of burning, herbicide spraying, and/or cultivation and then saplings are planted by human crew or by machine. The saplings are usually obtained in bulk from industrial nurseries, which may specialize in breeding in order to produce fast growing disease-. In the first few years until the canopy closes, the saplings are looked after, after the canopy closes, with the tree crowns touching each other, the plantation is becoming dense and crowded, and tree growth is slowing due to competition. This stage is termed pole stage, when competition becomes too intense, it is time to thin out the section. There are several methods for thinning, but where topography permits, the most popular is row-thinning, many trees are removed, leaving regular clear lanes through the section so that the remaining trees have room to expand again. The removed trees are delimbed, forwarded to the forest road, loaded onto trucks, a typical pole stage plantation tree is 7–30 cm in diameter at breast height. Such trees are not suitable for timber, but are used as pulp for paper and particleboard. As the trees grow and become dense and crowded again, the process is repeated
22.
Soldier
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A soldier is one who fights as part of an organised, land-based armed force. A soldier can be a person, a non-commissioned officer. The word soldier derives from the Middle English word soudeour, from Old French soudeer or soudeour, meaning mercenary, from soudee, meaning shillings worth or wage, from sou or soud, the word is also related to the Medieval Latin soldarius, meaning soldier. These words ultimately derive from the Late Latin word solidus, referring to an Ancient Roman coin used in the Byzantine Empire. In most armed forces use of the soldier has taken on a more general meaning due to the increasing specialization of military occupations that require different areas of knowledge. In many countries soldiers serving in specific occupations are referred to by other than their occupational name. For example, military personnel in the British Army are known as red caps because of the colour of their caps. Infantry are sometimes called grunts or squaddies, while US Army artillery crews, or gunners, are referred to as redlegs. U. S. soldiers are often called G. I. s, members of the Marine Corps are typically referred to as marines rather than soldiers. In the United States, the term warfighter is often used to refer collectively to all whose job it is to do the actual fighting, the army has not completely phased out this terminology and still uses warfighter in various contexts such as the Project Manager Warfighter Information Network-Tactical. French Marine Infantry are called marsouins because of their amphibious role, Military units in most armies have nicknames of this type, arising either from items of distinctive uniform, some historical connotation or rivalry between branches or regiments. Some soldiers, such as conscripts or draftees, serve a limited term. Others choose to serve until retirement, then receive a pension. In the United States, military members can retire after 20 years, in other countries, the term of service is 30 years, hence the term 30-year man. Airman Marine Military use of children Seaman Media related to Soldier at Wikimedia Commons
23.
Virginia General Assembly
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The Virginia General Assembly is the legislative body of the Commonwealth of Virginia, and the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World, established on July 30,1619. The General Assembly is a body consisting of a lower house, the Virginia House of Delegates, with 100 members, and an upper house. Combined together, the General Assembly consists of 140 elected representatives from a number of constituent districts across the commonwealth. The House of Delegates is presided over by the Speaker of the House, the House and Senate each elect a clerk and sergeant-at-arms. The Senate of Virginias clerk is known as the Clerk of the Senate, the Republican Party currently holds the majority in both the House of Delegates and the Senate. The General Assembly meets in Virginias capital of Richmond, when sitting in Richmond, the General Assembly holds sessions in the Virginia State Capitol, designed by Thomas Jefferson in 1788 and expanded in 1904. During the American Civil War, the building was used as the capitol of the Confederate States of America, the building was renovated between 2005 and 2006. Senators and Delegates have their offices in the General Assembly Building across the street north of the Capitol. The Governor of Virginia lives across the street directly east of the Capitol in the Virginia Executive Mansion, the Virginia General Assembly is described as the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. Its existence dates from the establishment of the Virginia Governors Council, at various times it may have been referred to as the Grand Assembly of Virginia. The General Assembly met in Jamestown from 1619 until 1699, when it moved to Williamsburg, Virginia and it became the General Assembly in 1776 with the ratification of the Virginia Constitution. The government was moved to Richmond in 1780 during the administration of Governor Thomas Jefferson, the annual salary for senators is $18,000. The annual salary for delegates is $17,640, under the Constitution, a senator or delegate who moves his residence from the district for which he is elected shall thereby vacate his office. Article II, section 6 on apportionment states, Members of the, Senate and of the House of Delegates of the General Assembly shall be elected from electoral districts established by the General Assembly. The Redistricting Coalition of Virginia proposes either an independent commission or a commission that is not polarized. Member organizations include the League of Women Voters of Virginia, AARP of Virginia, OneVirginia2021, the Virginia Chamber of Commerce, Governor Bob McDonnells Independent Bipartisan Advisory Commission on Redistricting for the Commonwealth of Virginia made its report on April 1,2011. It made two recommendations for state legislative house that showed maps of districts more compact and contiguous than those adopted by the General Assembly. In 2011, the Virginia College and University Redistricting Competition was organized by Professors Michael McDonald of George Mason University, about 150 students on sixteen teams from thirteen schools submitted plans for legislative and U. S
24.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
25.
Thomas Jefferson
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Thomas Jefferson was an American Founding Father who was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence and later served as the third President of the United States from 1801 to 1809. Previously, he was elected the second Vice President of the United States, Jefferson was primarily of English ancestry, born and educated in colonial Virginia. He graduated from the College of William & Mary and briefly practiced law and he became the United States Minister to France in May 1785, and subsequently the nations first Secretary of State in 1790–1793 under President George Washington. Jefferson and James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the First Party System, as President, Jefferson pursued the nations shipping and trade interests against Barbary pirates and aggressive British trade policies. He also organized the Louisiana Purchase, almost doubling the countrys territory, as a result of peace negotiations with France, his administration reduced military forces. Jeffersons second term was beset with difficulties at home, including the trial of former Vice President Aaron Burr, American foreign trade was diminished when Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act of 1807, responding to British threats to U. S. shipping. In 1803, Jefferson began a process of Indian tribe removal to the newly organized Louisiana Territory. Jefferson mastered many disciplines, which ranged from surveying and mathematics to horticulture and he was a proven architect in the classical tradition. Jeffersons keen interest in religion and philosophy earned him the presidency of the American Philosophical Society and he shunned organized religion, but was influenced by both Christianity and deism. He was well versed in linguistics and spoke several languages and he founded the University of Virginia after retiring from public office. He was a letter writer and corresponded with many prominent and important people throughout his adult life. His only full-length book is Notes on the State of Virginia, Jefferson owned several plantations which were worked by hundreds of slaves. Most historians now believe that, after the death of his wife in 1782, he had a relationship with his slave Sally Hemings and fathered at least one of her children. Various modern scholars are more critical of Jeffersons private life, pointing out the discrepancy between his ownership of slaves and his political principles, for example. Presidential scholars, however, consistently rank Jefferson among the greatest presidents, Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13,1743, at the family home in Shadwell in the Colony of Virginia, the third of ten children. He was of English and possibly Welsh descent and was born a British subject and his father Peter Jefferson was a planter and surveyor who died when Jefferson was fourteen, his mother was Jane Randolph. Peter Jefferson moved his family to Tuckahoe Plantation in 1745 upon the death of a friend who had named him guardian of his children, the Jeffersons returned to Shadwell in 1752, where Peter died in 1757, his estate was divided between his sons Thomas and Randolph. Thomas inherited approximately 5,000 acres of land, including Monticello and he assumed full authority over his property at age 21
26.
Mary Randolph
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Mary Randolph was an American author, known for writing The Virginia House-Wife, Or, Methodical Cook, one of the most influential housekeeping and cook books of the nineteenth century. The eldest of thirteen, her siblings included Thomas Mann Randolph, Jr. son-in-law of Thomas Jefferson and Governor of Virginia, in December 1780 she married a cousin, David Meade Randolph and they would have eight children, four of whom survived into adulthood. Initially they lived at PresquIle, his plantation in Chesterfield County, Virginia, but built Moldavia, due to their financial situation, the Randolphs were forced to sell their home in 1804 and by 1808 were operating a boarding house in Richmond. In 1819 they moved to Washington, D. C. where she wrote the book, first published in 1824, and would die on January 23,1828. She was buried by Arlington House, home of her cousin Mary Lee Fitzhugh Custis, wife of George Washingtons adopted son George Washington Parke Custis, Randolphs influential housekeeping book The Virginia House-Wife went through many editions until the 1860s. Randolph tried to improve womens lives by limiting the time and money they had to spend in their kitchens, the Virginia House-Wife included many inexpensive ingredients that anyone could purchase to make impressive meals. In 2009 Randolph was posthumously honored as one of the Library of Virginias Virginia Women in History, in 1999, the state of Virginia erected a historical marker in her honor near the site of her birth in Chesterfield County. Oyster ice cream The Virginia Housewife, or, Methodical Cook, at Feeding America The Virginia Housewife, or, Methodical Cook. 1860 at Project Gutenberg The Virginia Housewife, or, Methodical Cook, at Internet Archive Arlington Cemetery, Mary Randolph 2009 Virginia Women in History profile
27.
Archibald Cary
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Col. Archibald Cary was a Virginia planter, soldier, politician, and major landowner. He was a figure from the colony of Virginia. Col. Archibald Cary was born on January 24,1721, He was the son of Henry Cary, Jr. and he was educated in Williamsburg and Ampthill, Virginia and is believed to have attended the College of William and Mary. Upon his fathers death in 1742 Cary inherited over 4,000 acres and his plantation, called Buckingham, was identified on the Joshua Fry-Peter Jefferson map. Cary was a member of the House of Burgesses from 1756 to 1776, as tensions with the mother country escalated, in 1773 Cary served as a member of Virginias committee of correspondence. When the House of Burgesses was dissolved at the outset of the American Revolution, after Virginia became an independent state in 1776, Cary became the first speaker of the Senate of Virginia, and remained in that position until his death. During the American Revolutionary War, Cary was placed in charge of recruitment and he did fund the Virginia militia for the following reason, though he had always been loyal to the Crown, he had grown tired of British attempts to continue promoting the sale of slaves in America. Although he owned some 200 slaves, he had come to the conclusion that everything about the slave trade, Cary was known among Baptists for arresting many Baptists for preaching without a license. There was one incident where a Baptist preacher continued to preach from his cell window, to solve the problem, Cary put a wall around the prison. He operated Chesterfield Forge, which fabricated iron, starting in 1750, and ending in 1781 and he owned British thoroughbred horses and traded with England. On May 31,1744 Cary married Mary Randolph, the daughter of Richard Randolph of Curles, and sister of William Randolph of Tuckahoe, the two had nine children together and, through his marriage, Carys children were lineal descendants of Pocahontas. Their children included, Anne Cary, who married Thomas Mann Randolph, jane Cary, married Thomas Isham Randolph, the son of Isham Randolph and an uncle of United States President Thomas Jefferson, in 1768. Richmond, Virginia, Garrett and Massie,1937, imprisoned Preachers and Religious Liberty in Virginia. Lynchburg, Virginia, J. P. Bell Co.1938, tyler, Lyon Gardiner, ed. Encyclopedia of Virginia Biography, volume 2. New York, Lewis Historical Publishing,1915, at a Place Called Buckingham, Kettering, Ohio, Slate River Press,2011
28.
William Randolph
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William Randolph was an American colonist, landowner, planter, merchant, and politician who played an important role in the history and government of the English colony of Virginia. He moved to Virginia sometime between 1669 and 1673, and married Mary Isham a few years later, genealogists have taken an interest in him for his progenys many marital alliances, referring to him and Mary Isham as the Adam and Eve of Virginia. William Randolph was baptized in Moreton Morrell, Warwickshire, England on 7 November 1650, He was the son of Richard Randolph, Elizabeth was the daughter of John Ryland of Warwick. William was the second of seven Randolph children, all born in Moreton Morrell between 1647 and 1657, no record has yet surfaced to fix William Randolphs residences after his birth until 1672. It is also known that Williams uncle, Henry Randolph, in 1669 traveled to Britain from Virginia, Henry probably encouraged his nephew at that time to return with him to the Chesapeake. In any case, William Randolph was in the colony by 12 February 1672 when he appears in the record as witness to a land transaction, the Chesapeake economy was centered around tobacco, grown within the English mercantile system for export to markets in Britain and Europe. Randolph appears to have arrived in the province with little capital, One historian suggests that he started off in the colony as an undertaker building houses, but there is no evidence for it. By 1674 he had acquired enough money to import 12 persons into the colony, in later years Randolph became a merchant and a planter, and co-owned several ships used to transport tobacco to England and goods back to Virginia. He established several of his sons as merchants and ship captains, around 1675 he married Mary Isham, whose father, Henry Isham, was from a gentry family in Northamptonshire. After arriving in Virginia, Henry had married in 1659, a wealthy widow, Randolph acquired property by purchase, headright, marital interest and land grant. His early acquisitions were in the neighborhood of Turkey Island, located in the James River about 20 miles southeast of present-day Richmond and this land had been settled for decades, and was held by several owners, from whom he purchased. Possibly his first purchase was 591 acres of land on Swift Creek, in 1676 a Virginia colonist, Nathaniel Bacon, rebelled unsuccessfully against the colonial government and his estate was forfeited. This was Curles, located near Turkey Island, Randolph made an assessment of the property for Governor Berkeley and was allowed to buy it for his estimated price, adding 1,230 acres to Randolphs previous land holdings. This conflict of interest was criticized by his neighbors, in 1678 Mary Ishams brother died, making her the heiress to her fathers large estate. William Randolph had married her before her brothers death, because the brothers will refers to her as Mary Randolph and this land became the basis of the Tuckahoe and Dungeness Plantations, which were later founded by two of William Randolphs sons. William Randolph owned a number of slaves. This reflected the rise of slavery during his business career, around 1675 Governor Berkeley reported the population of the colony as 40,000, with 4,000 indentured servants and 2,000 slaves. But as the supply of indentured servants declined late in the 17th century and it is difficult to determine the acreage or number of slaves he owned at his death
29.
First Families of Virginia
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First Families of Virginia were those families in Colonial Virginia who were socially prominent and wealthy, but not necessarily the earliest settlers. They descended from English colonists who settled at Jamestown, Williamsburg. These elite families generally married within their class for many generations and, as a result. The American Revolution cut ties with Britain but not with its social traditions, while some First Family members were loyal to Britain, others were Whigs who not only supported, but led the Revolution. Most First Families remained in Virginia, where they flourished as tobacco planters, indeed, many younger sons were relocated into the cotton belt to start their own plantations. The Civil War devastated the Virginia economy, and emancipated all the slaves without compensation, planters and small farmers both were economically hurt, but in general the First Families, albeit poorer than before, maintained social and political leadership. Marshall Fishwick says that by the 1950s, the old-time aristocracy not given up and they adopted modern agricultural technology and co-opted rich Yankees into their upper-class, rural horse-estate society. English colonists who formed the FFV emigrated to the new Colony of Virginia and their migration took place from the settlement of Jamestown through the English Civil War and English Interregnum period. Some royalists left England on the accession to power of Oliver Cromwell, the affinity of many early supposedly aristocratic Virginia settlers for the Crown led to the term distressed Cavaliers, often applied to the Virginia oligarchy. Some Cavaliers who served under King Charles I fled to Virginia, fFVs often refer to Virginia as Cavalier Country. These men were offered rewards of land, etc. by King Charles II, many such early settlers in Virginia were so-called Second Sons. Primogeniture favored the first sons inheriting lands and titles in England, Second or third sons went out to the colonies to make their fortune, or entered the military and the clergy. Tidewater Virginia evolved as a society descended from second or third sons of English gentry who inherited land grants or land in Virginia and they formed part of what became the southern elite in America. In some cases, longstanding ties among families of the English gentry were carried to the new colony, where they were reinforced by marriage and other relations. These sorts of ties were common in the colony, as families shuttled back. A thin network of increasingly interrelated families made up the planter elite, the ties among Virginia families were based on marriage. In a pre-Revolutionary War economy dependent on the production of tobacco as a commodity crop and it often passed between families of corresponding social rank. The Virginia economy was based on slave labor as the colony became a slave society, the landed gentry could keep tight rein on political power, which passed in somewhat orderly fashion from family to family
30.
Pocahontas
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Pocahontas was a Native American woman notable for her association with the colonial settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. Pocahontas was the daughter of Powhatan, the paramount chief of a network of tribal nations in the Tsenacommacah. Some historians have suggested that this story, as told by Smith, is untrue, Pocahontas was captured by the English during Anglo-Indian hostilities in 1613, and held for ransom. During her captivity, she converted to Christianity and took the name Rebecca, when the opportunity arose for her to return to her people, she chose to remain with the English. In April 1614, she married tobacco planter John Rolfe, and in January 1615, bore their son, in 1616, the Rolfes traveled to London. Pocahontas was presented to English society as an example of the savage in hopes of stimulating investment in the Jamestown settlement. She became something of a celebrity, was elegantly fêted, in 1617, the Rolfes set sail for Virginia, but Pocahontas died at Gravesend of unknown causes. She was buried in a church in Gravesend in the United Kingdom, numerous places, landmarks, and products in the United States have been named after Pocahontas. Her story has been romanticized over the years, and she is a subject of art, literature, Pocahontass birth year is unknown, but some historians estimate it to have been around 1596. In A True Relation of Virginia, Smith described the Pocahontas he met in the spring of 1608 as being a child of ten years old. In a letter written in 1616, he described her as she was in 1608. Pocahontas was the daughter of Powhatan, paramount chief of Tsenacommacah, Pocahontass childhood was probably little different from that of most girls who lived in Tsenacommacah. She learned how to perform what was considered to be work, which included foraging for food and firewood, farming. As she grew older, she helped other members of Powhatans household with preparations for large feasts, serving feasts, such as the one presented to John Smith after his capture, was a regular obligation of the Mamanatowick, or paramount chief. Bestowed at different times, the names carried different meanings and might be used in different contexts, Early in her life she was given a secret name, Matoaka, but later she was also known as Amonute. Matoaka means Bright Stream Between the Hills, Amonute cannot be translated, according to the anthropologist Helen C. Rountree, Pocahontas revealed to the English only after she had taken another religious—baptismal—name, Rebecca. Pocahontass Christian name, Rebecca, may have been a gesture to Rebecca of the Book of Genesis who, as the mother of Jacob
31.
Williamsburg, Virginia
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Williamsburg is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 14,068, in 2014, the population was estimated to be 14,691. Located on the Virginia Peninsula, Williamsburg is in the part of the Hampton Roads metropolitan area. It is bordered by James City County and York County, Williamsburg was founded in 1632 as Middle Plantation, a fortified settlement on high ground between the James and York rivers. The city served as the capital of the Colony of Virginia from 1699 to 1780 and was the center of events in Virginia leading to the American Revolution. S. Presidents as well as other important figures in the nations early history. The citys tourism-based economy is driven by Colonial Williamsburg, the restored Historic Area of the city, along with nearby Jamestown and Yorktown, Williamsburg forms part of the Historic Triangle, which attracts more than four million tourists each year. Modern Williamsburg is also a town, inhabited in large part by William & Mary students. Prior to the arrival of the English colonists at Jamestown in the Colony of Virginia in 1607, by the 1630s, English settlements had grown to dominate the lower portion of the Virginia Peninsula, and the Powhatan tribes had abandoned their nearby villages. Jamestown was the capital of Virginia Colony, but was burned down during the events of Bacons Rebellion in 1676. The members of the House of Burgesses discovered that the location was both safer and more pleasant environmentally than Jamestown, which was humid and plagued with mosquitoes. A school of education had long been an aspiration of the colonists. An early attempt at Henricus failed after the Indian Massacre of 1622, the location at the outskirts of the developed part of the colony had left it more vulnerable to the attack. In the 1690s, the colonists tried again to establish a school and they commissioned Reverend James Blair, who spent several years in England lobbying, and finally obtained a royal charter for the desired new school. It was to be named the College of William & Mary in honor of the monarchs of the time, when Reverend Blair returned to Virginia, the new school was founded in a safe place, Middle Plantation in 1693. Classes began in temporary quarters in 1694, and the College Building, four years later, in 1698, the rebuilt Statehouse in Jamestown burned down again, this time accidentally. The government again relocated temporarily to Middle Plantation, and in addition to the better climate now also enjoyed use of the Colleges facilities. The College students made a presentation to the House of Burgesses, a village was laid out and Middle Plantation was renamed Williamsburg in honor of King William III of England, befitting the towns newly elevated status
32.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
33.
Virginia State Senate
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The Senate of Virginia is the upper house of the Virginia General Assembly. The Senate is composed of 40 Senators representing a number of single-member constituent districts. The Senate is presided over by the Lieutenant Governor of Virginia, the Lieutenant Governor presides daily over the Virginia Senate. In the Lieutenant Governors absence, the President pro Tempore presides, the Senate is equal with the House of Delegates, the lower chamber of the legislature, except that taxation bills must originate in the House, similar to the federal U. S. Congress. Members of the Virginia Senate are elected every four years by the voters of the 40 senatorial districts on the Tuesday succeeding the first Monday in November, the last election took place in November 2015. There are no limits for Senators. In the 2007 Virginia state elections, the Democratic Party reclaimed the majority in the Senate for the first time since 1995, the Republicans took control of the Senate for the first time in history after a January 1998 special election. The 2011 elections resulted in a 20–20 split between the parties, but as the tie breaker was Republican Lt, Governor Bill Bolling, the Republicans effectively regained control. The Democratic majority would prove short-lived, however, as Senator Phil Puckett resigned, effective June 8, the Republicans solidified their majority following a Special Election win on August 19,2014, which increased their total number of seats to 21. The Senate of Virginia was created by the 1776 Constitution of Virginia, along with the House of Delegates, the Senate comprised a new bicameral legislature designed to replace the colonial Virginia House of Burgesses, which formally dissolved on the sixth of May,1776. Pursuant to the original Virginia Constitution, the Senate was only permitted to file amendments, accordingly, the Senate had far less power than the House, until the revised Virginia constitution of 1851 allowed the Senate to propose new laws. The annual salary for senators is $18,000 per year, to qualify for office, senators must be at least 21 years of age at the time of the election, residents of the district they represent, and qualified to vote for General Assembly legislators. The regular session of the General Assembly is 60 days long during even numbered years and 30 days long during odd numbered years, the Senate of Virginia has 10 Standing Committees and a Committee on Rules. The Senate of Virginia has its own coat of arms designed and granted by the College of Arms in England, the coat of arms also makes up the official seal of the Virginia Senate. It bears no resemblance to the Seal of the Commonwealth of Virginia and this is not to be confused with the Seal of the London Company, for other than both devices displaying a quartered shield, there is little resemblance between them. The Senates arms have a shield in the center which is divided into four sections by a red cross, in each quarter are smaller shields representing the arms of four countries that contributed settlers to Virginias most early waves of European immigration. An ivory gavel emblazoned on the arm of the red cross represents the Senate as a law making body. The cardinal and dogwood depicted are Virginias official state bird and tree, the ribbon contains the Latin motto of the Senate, Floreat Senatus Virginiae, which means May the Senate of Virginia flourish
34.
James Barbour
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James Barbour was an American lawyer, politician and planter. He served as delegate from Orange County, Virginia in the Virginia General Assembly and he was the 18th Governor of Virginia and the first Governor to reside in the current Virginia Governors Mansion. After the War of 1812, Barbour became a U. S, Senator and the United States Secretary of War. James Barbour was born in what became Barboursville in Orange County on June 10,1775, Barbour was the son of Thomas Barbour and his wife the former Mary Pendleton Thomas. His grandfather had patented lands in Spotsylvania County in 1731 and 1733, both sides of his family were among the First Families of Virginia, as well as early settlers in Orange County and westward. By the time James was born, the Barbour family owned over 2,000 acres, However, the family suffered financial reverses during the American Revolutionary War and its aftermath. Nonetheless, James finished his education with private tutors and an academy run by James Waddel at Gordonsville. His brother Philip Pendleton Barbour, would later become Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, on October 29,1792, Barbour married Lucy Johnson, the daughter of Benjamin Johnson who had represented Orange County in the General Assembly in 1790. They had three daughters and four sons, including James Barbour and Benjamin Johnson Barbour, Barbour served as deputy sheriff of Orange County, beginning in 1792. In 1794, he was admitted to the Virginia Bar, with wedding gifts from his father, as well as by building his own legal practice and running his plantation, Barbour was able to build up personal wealth. His friend and somewhat neighbor at Monticello plantation, former President Thomas Jefferson, helped design the mansion in which Barbour lived most of his adult life, called Barboursville. By 1798, Barbour owned several slaves and would expand that plantation over the years, as would his somewhat neighbor on the other side, Orange County voters elected Barbour to the Virginia House of Delegates in 1796, and he became that bodys youngest member. Re-elected several times to that position, he served until 1804. Barbour became known for eloquence, and served on committees, rising to chairman of several, including the Committee of Privileges and Elections. Peers elected him as Speaker of the House of Delegates for many terms, Barbour held strong Republican beliefs, similar to his neighbors Jefferson and Madison. He vigorously opposed the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 and used his eloquence to support the Virginia Resolutions. ”Barbour refused to support legislation increasing Executive powers. In the House of Delegates, Barbour took pride in the establishing the Literary Fund of Virginia and this provided some funding for public education in each county in the Commonwealth. Barbour later requested that the inscription on his tombstone be a reference to this Act
35.
John Quincy Adams
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John Quincy Adams was an American statesman who served as a diplomat, United States Senator, member of the House of Representatives, and was the sixth President of the United States from 1825 to 1829. He was a member of the Federalist, Democratic-Republican, National Republican and he was the son of President John Adams and Abigail Adams and thus contributed to the formation of the Adams political family. Adams shaped U. S. foreign policy using his ardently nationalist commitment to U. S. republican values, as a diplomat, Adams played an important role in negotiating key treaties, most notably the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812. As Secretary of State, he negotiated with Britain over the United States northern border with Canada, negotiated with Spain the annexation of Florida, historians generally concur that he was one of the greatest diplomats and secretaries of state in American history. Adams was elected president in a close and controversial four-way contest in 1824, as president he sought to modernize the American economy and promote education. Adams enacted a part of his agenda and paid off much of the national debt, however he was stymied time and again by a Congress controlled by opponents, and his lack of patronage networks helped politicians sabotage him. He lost his 1828 bid for re-election to Andrew Jackson, after leaving office, he was elected as U. S. Representative from Massachusetts in 1830, serving for the last 17 years of his life with greater acclaim than he had achieved as president, animated by his growing revulsion against slavery, Adams became a leading opponent of the Slave Power. Adams predicted the Unions dissolution over slavery, and in such a case, historians have in the aggregate ranked Adams as the 21st most successful president. John Quincy Adams was born on July 11,1767, to John Adams and he was named for his mothers maternal grandfather, Colonel John Quincy, after whom Quincy, Massachusetts, is named. Young Adams was educated by private tutors – his cousin James Thaxter and his fathers law clerk and he soon began to exhibit his literary skills in 1779, when he initiated a diary which he kept until just before he died in 1848. The diary comprised an unprecedented fifty volumes, representing one of the most extensive, much of Adams youth was spent accompanying his father overseas. He accompanied his father on diplomatic missions to France from 1778 until 1779, Adams acquired an education at institutions such as Leiden University. He matriculated in Leiden on January 10,1781, for nearly three years, beginning at the age of 14, he accompanied Francis Dana as a secretary on a mission to Saint Petersburg, Russia, to obtain recognition of the new United States. He spent time in Finland, Sweden, and Denmark and, in 1804, during these years overseas, Adams became fluent in French and Dutch and became familiar with German and other European languages. Though Adams enjoyed Europe, he and his family decided he needed to return to the United States to complete his education and he entered Harvard College, graduated in 1787 with a Bachelor of Arts degree, and was elected by Phi Beta Kappa. Adams, mainly with the influence of his father, had excelled in studies and reached fluency in Latin. Upon entering Harvard he had already translated Virgil, Horace, Plutarch, after graduating from Harvard, he studied law with Theophilus Parsons in Newburyport, Massachusetts from 1787 to 1789
36.
Muscogee
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The Muscogee, also known as the Creek and the Creek Confederacy, are a group of related Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands. Originally from Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, and northern Florida, Muscogee people were relocated in the early 19th century to Indian Territory, Alabama, Louisiana. Their languages, Muscogee and Hitchiti-Mikasuki, belong to the Eastern Muskogean branch of the Muscogean language family, the Muscogee are descendants of the Mississippian culture peoples, who built earthwork mounds at their regional chiefdoms located throughout the Mississippi River valley and its tributaries. Early Spanish explorers encountered ancestors of the Muscogee when they visited Mississippian-culture chiefdoms in the Southeast in the mid-16th century, the Muscogee were the first Native Americans considered to be civilized under George Washingtons civilization plan. The result was a weakening of the Creek Nation and the ceding of Creek lands to the US. During the Indian Removal of the 1830s, most of the Muscogee Confederacy were forcibly relocated to Indian Territory, at least 12,000 years ago, Native Americans or Paleo-Indians lived in what is today the Southern United States. Paleo-Indians in the Southeast were hunter-gatherers who pursued a range of animals, including the megafauna. During the time known as the Woodland period, from 1000 BCE to 1000 CE, locals developed pottery, the Mississippian culture arose as the cultivation of maize from Mesoamerica led to population growth. Increased population density gave rise to urban centers and regional chiefdoms, stratified societies developed, with hereditary religious and political elites, and flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from 800 to 1500 CE. The early historic Muscogee were descendants of the builders of the Mississippian culture along the Tennessee River in modern Tennessee, Georgia. They may have related to the Tama of central Georgia. At the time the Spanish made their first forays inland from the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, many centers of the Mississippians were already in decline. The region is best described as a collection of moderately sized native chiefdoms interspersed with autonomous villages. After Cabeza de Vaca, a castaway who survived the ill-fated Narváez expedition, returned to Spain, Hernando de Soto was a Spanish explorer and conquistador who led the first expedition into the interior of the North American continent. De Soto, convinced of the riches, wanted Cabeza de Vaca to go on the expedition, from 1540–1543, de Soto explored through present-day Florida and Georgia, and then westward into the Alabama and Mississippi area. The areas were inhabited by historic Muscogee Native Americans, de Soto brought with him a well-equipped army. He attracted many recruits from a variety of backgrounds who joined his quest for riches in the Americas, as the de Soto expeditions brutalities became known to the indigenous peoples, they decided to defend their territory. The Battle of Mabila was a point for the de Soto venture, the battle broke the back of the Spanish campaign
37.
Henry Clay
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Henry Clay, Sr. was an American lawyer and planter, statesman, and skilled orator who represented Kentucky in both the United States Senate and House of Representatives. He served three terms as Speaker of the House of Representatives and served as Secretary of State under President John Quincy Adams from 1825 to 1829. Clay ran for the presidency in 1824,1832 and 1844, however, he was unsuccessful in all of his attempts to reach his nations highest office. Despite his presidential losses, Clay remained a dominant figure in the Whig Party, Clay was a dominant figure in both the First and Second Party systems. After serving two stints in the Senate, Clay won election to the House of Representatives in 1810 and was elected Speaker of the House in 1811. Clay would remain a prominent public figure until his death 41 years later in 1852, a leading war hawk, Speaker Clay favored war with Britain and played a significant role in leading the nation into the War of 1812. In 1814, Clays tenure as Speaker was interrupted when Clay traveled to Europe, Clay ran for president in 1824 and lost, finishing fourth in a four-man contest. No candidate received a majority, and so the election was decided in the House of Representatives. Clay maneuvered House voting in favor of John Quincy Adams, who appointed him as Secretary of State. Opposing candidate Andrew Jackson denounced the actions of Clay and Adams as part of a corrupt bargain, Clay returned to the Senate in 1831. He continued to advocate his American System, and become a leader of the opposition to President Andrew Jackson, President Jackson opposed federally-subsidized internal improvements and a national bank as a threat to states rights, and the president used his veto power to defeat many of Clays proposals. In 1832, Clay ran for president as a candidate of the National Republican Party, following the election, the National Republicans united with other opponents of Jackson to form the Whig Party, which remained one of the two major American political parties until after Clays death. In 1844, Clay won the Whig Partys presidential nomination, Clays opposition to the annexation of Texas, partly over fears that such an annexation would inflame the slavery issue, hurt his campaign, and Democrat James K. Polk won the election. Clay later opposed the Mexican–American War, which resulted in part from the Texas annexation, Clay returned to the Senate for a final term, where he helped broker a compromise over the status of slavery in the Mexican Cession. Known as The Great Compromiser, Clay brokered important agreements during the Nullification Crisis, as part of the Great Triumvirate or Immortal Trio, along with his colleagues Daniel Webster and John C. Calhoun, he was instrumental in formulating the Missouri Compromise of 1820, the Compromise Tariff of 1833, and he was viewed as the primary representative of Western interests in this group, and was given the names Harry of the West and The Western Star. As a plantation owner, Clay held slaves during his lifetime, Henry Clay was born on April 12,1777, at the Clay homestead in Hanover County, Virginia, in a story-and-a-half frame house. It was a home for a common Virginia planter of that time
38.
Martha Jefferson
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Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson, born Martha Wayles was the only wife of her second husband, Thomas Jefferson. She was a widow at her wedding, as her first husband had died young. When her second husband, Jefferson, was Governor of Virginia and she would have been the third First Lady of the United States, but she died before her husband Thomas Jeffersons presidential term from 1801 to 1809. The Jeffersons had six children, but only two survived to adulthood, and only one past the age of 25. Weakened by childbirth, Martha Jefferson died several months after the birth of her last child, at her request, he never married again. Martha Wayles was born on October 30,1748, in Charles City County, Virginia to John Wayles and his first wife, John Wayles was an attorney, slave trader, business agent for Bristol-based merchants Farrell & Jones, and prosperous planter. He was born in Lancaster, England and had emigrated alone at the age of 19 to Virginia in 1734 and her mother, Martha Eppes, was a daughter of Francis Eppes and his wife of Bermuda Hundred. Martha Eppes Wayles died on November 5,1748, when her daughter Martha was six days old, nothing is known of Martha Eppes Wayles education or other aspects of her childhood. The scant documentation about her indicates she was a writer and had a refined appreciation for the literature of the period, such as Tristram Shandy. Eppes had been widowed when she married Wayles, as part of her dowry, Martha Eppes brought with her to the marriage her personal slaves, an African woman named Susanna and her 11-year-old mixed-race daughter Elizabeth Hemings. John and Marthas marriage contract provided that Susanna and Betty were to remain the property of Martha Eppes and her heirs forever, thus, Betty Hemings and her 10 children were eventually inherited by Marthas daughter Martha Wayles and her husband, Thomas Jefferson. John Wayles soon married again, to Mary Cocke of Malvern Hill and they had four children, Sarah, Elizabeth, Tabitha and Anne. Tabitha and Anne married the Skipwith brothers, Robert and Henry, Tabitha Skipwith died with her first childbirth. Nancy Skipwith, Aunty Skipwith to the Jefferson children and grandchildren, Elizabeth married Francis Eppes, Marthas cousin, and had a son, John Wayles Eppes. who later married his half-cousin, Mary Wayles Jefferson, who then went by Maria. After Mary Cocke died, John Wayles married Elizabeth Lomax Skelton, the third Mrs. Wayles died on 10 February 1761, just over a year into the marriage. After his third death, Wayles took the mulatto slave Betty Hemings as a concubine for the rest of his life. Born into slavery, the children of union were three-quarters European in ancestry and half-siblings to Martha. The youngest was Sally Hemings, born in July 1773, two months after her fathers death, Martha Wayles first married at age 18 to Bathurst Skelton, a Virginia attorney, on November 20,1766
39.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
40.
Find a Grave
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Find a Grave is a website that allows the public to search and add to an online database of cemetery records. It is owned by Ancestry. com, the worlds largest for-profit genealogy company, the site was created in 1995 by Salt Lake City resident Jim Tipton to support his hobby of visiting the burial sites of celebrities. He later added an online forum, Find a Grave was launched as a commercial entity in 1998, first as a trade name and then incorporated in 2000. The site later expanded to include graves of non-celebrities, in order to allow visitors to pay respect to their deceased relatives or friends. In 2013, Tipton sold Find a Grave to Ancestry. com, burial information is a wonderful source for people researching their family history. In a September 30,2013, press release, Ancestry, as of March 2017, Find a Grave contained over 159 million burial records and 75 million photos. The website contains listings of cemeteries and graves from around the world, american cemeteries are organized by state and county, and many cemetery records contain Google Maps and photographs of the cemeteries and gravesites. Individual grave records may contain dates and places of birth and death, biographical information, cemetery and plot information, photographs, Interment listings are added by individuals, genealogical societies, and other institutions such as the International Wargraves Photography Project. Contributors must register as members to submit listings, called memorials, the submitter becomes the manager of the listing but may transfer management. Only the current manager of a listing may edit it, although any member may use the features to send correction requests to the listings manager. Managers may add links to other listings of deceased spouses, parents, members may post requests for photos of a specific grave, these requests will be automatically sent to other members who have registered their location as being near that grave. Find a Grave also maintains lists of memorials of famous persons by their claim to fame, such as Medal of Honor recipients, religious figures, Find a Grave exercises editorial control over these listings. Canadian Headstones Interment. net National Cemetery Administrations Nationwide Gravesite Locator Random Acts of Genealogical Kindness Tombstone tourist Colker, web site answers grave concerns about stars. Web site attracts millions of grave-seekers, Find VIPs who R. I. P. through online cemetery. Genealogy, Find a Grave tremendous on many different levels, terre Haute, Indiana, Community Newspaper Holdings Inc. Archived from the original on May 14,2011, tip, Find a Grave has info youre dying to know. Tracking Down Relatives, Visiting Graves Virtually, media related to Images from Find A Grave at Wikimedia Commons Official website
Media related to Thomas Mann Randolph, Jr. at Wikimedia Commons
This article incorporates public domain material from the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress website http://bioguide.congress.gov.
