1.
Royal Society
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Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016, there are about 1,600 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS, there are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members, the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS. The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up the post on 30 November 2015, since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London. The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations and they were influenced by the new science, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library, after the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society, I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But tis well known who were the men that began and promoted that design. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society, the societys early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673, there had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent college for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by Solomons House in Bacons New Atlantis and, to a lesser extent, by J. V. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659, he suggested a scheme, with apartments for members. The societys ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff and these plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the unrealised—perhaps unrealistic—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded, with a number of scientific greats compared to other periods. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, during the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of the early problems
2.
Royal Society of Edinburgh
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The Royal Society of Edinburgh is Scotlands national academy of science and letters. It is a charity, operating on a wholly independent and non-party-political basis. As of 2014 it has more than 1,500 Fellows, the Society covers a broader selection of fields than the Royal Society of London including literature and history. Fellowship includes people from a range of disciplines – science & technology, arts, humanities, medicine, social science, business. The Medals were instituted in 2000 by Queen Elizabeth II, whose permission is required to make a presentation, past winners include, The Lord Kelvin Medal is the Senior Prize for Physical, Engineering and Informatics Sciences. It is awarded annually to a person who has achieved distinction nationally and internationally, winners receive a silver medal and are required to deliver a public lecture in Scotland. The award is named after William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, who was a mathematical physicist and engineer. Senior Prize-winners are required to have a Scottish connection but can be based anywhere in the world, the Keith medal has been historically awarded every four years for a scientific paper published in the societys scientific journals, preference being given to a paper containing a discovery. It is awarded alternately for papers on Mathematics or Earth and Environmental Sciences, the medal was founded in 1827 as a result of a bequest by Alexander Keith of Dunottar, the first Treasurer of the Society. The prize was founded in 1855 by Sir Thomas Makdougall Brisbane, the cumbersome name was changed the following year to the Edinburgh Philosophical Society. Under the leadership of Prof. Thus, for the first four decades of the 19th century, by the 1850s, the society once again unified its membership under one journal. During the 19th century the society produced many scientists whose ideas laid the foundation of the modern sciences, from the 20th century onward, the society functioned not only as a focal point for Scotlands eminent scientists, but also the arts and humanities. It still exists today and continues to promote research in Scotland. In February 2014, Dame Jocelyn Bell Burnell was announced as the societys first female president, taking up her position in October
3.
Dumfriesshire
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Dumfriesshire or the County of Dumfries is lieutenancy area and historic county of Scotland. It borders Kirkcudbrightshire to the west, Ayrshire to the north-west, Lanarkshire, Peeblesshire and Selkirkshire to the north, to the south is the coast of the Solway Firth, and the English county of Cumberland. Dumfries has three subdivisions - Annandale, Eskdale and Nithsdale, for purposes of local government, it is combined with Galloway to form the council area of Dumfries and Galloway. Its total length is 65 mi, the Annan rises near the Devils Beef Tub, a remarkable chasm in the far north, and after flowing about 40 mi, mainly in a southerly course, it enters the Solway at Barnkirk Headlands and bays. It receives, on the right, the Kinnel Water, and — on the left — the Moffat Water, the Dryfe Water and the Water of Milk. Of its total course of 42 mi,12 mi belong to the White Esk,20 mi are of the Esk proper on Scottish soil and 10 mi are of the stream in its English course. Other rivers are the Lochar Water, the Kirtle Water and the River Sark, for one mile of its course the Esk, and for 7 mi of its course the River Sark, form the boundaries between Dumfriesshire and Cumberland. Loch Skeen in the north and the group of lochs around Lochmaben, are the principal lakes, a much smaller but picturesque fall of the same name, also known as Crichope Linn, occurs on the Crichope near Thornhill. Mineral waters are found at Moffat, Hartfell Spa, some three miles north, Closeburn and Brow on the Solway. By far the largest area is occupied by strata of Tarannon and these consist of greywackes, flags and shales with bands of dark graptolite shales, the finer sediments being often well ground. They are likewise repeated by inverted folds, the planes being usually inclined to the southeast. The Silurian tableland in the northwest of the county is pierced by intrusive igneous rocks in the form of dikes and bosses, of these, the granite mass of Spango Water, northeast of Kirkconnel, is an excellent example. The Upper Old Red Sandstone forms a strip on the south side of the Silurian tableland, resting uncomfortably on the Silurian rocks. It stretches from the county boundary east of the Ewes Water, some of the vents from which these igneous materials may have been discharged are found along the watershed between Liddesdale and Teviotdale in Roxburghshire. The strata of Carboniferous age are found in three areas, between Sanquhar and Kirkconnel, at Closeburn near Thornhill, in the district between Liddesdale and Ruthwell, in the first two instances the Carboniferous sediments lie in hollows worn out of the old Silurian tableland. In the Sanquhar basin the strata belong to the Coal Measures, at Closeburn and Barjarg there are beds of marine limestone, associated with sandstones and shales which probably represent marine bands in the Carboniferous Limestone series. The most important development of Carboniferous strata occurs between Liddesdale and Ruthwell, the coal seams of the Rowanburn field have been chiefly wrought, and in view of their exhaustion bores have been sunk to prove the coals beneath the red sandstone of upper Carboniferous age. The Triassic rocks rest uncomfortably on all older formations within the county and they occur in five areas, between Annan and the mouth of the Esk, the Dumfries basin, the Thornhill basin, the Lochmaben basin, Upper Annandale
4.
Westminster
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Westminster is an area of central London within the City of Westminster, part of the West End, on the north bank of the River Thames. Historically the area lay within St Margarets parish, City & Liberty of Westminster and it has been the home of the permanent institutions of Englands government continuously since about 1200 and is now the seat of British government. In a government context, Westminster often refers to the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the closest tube stations are Westminster, St Jamess Park on the Jubilee, Circle, and District lines. Within the area is Westminster School, a public school which grew out of the Abbey. Bounding Westminster to the north is Green Park, a Royal Park of London, the area has a substantial resident population, indeed most of its listed buildings are residential. A proportion of residents are people of limited means, living in council, hotels, large Victorian homes and barracks exist nearer to Buckingham Palace. The name describes an area no more than 1 mile from Westminster Abbey, the settlement grew up around the palace and abbey, as a service area for them. The need for a church, St Margarets Westminster for the servants of the palace. It became larger and in the Georgian period became connected through urban development with the City along the Strand. It did not become a local government unit until created as a civil parish. Indeed, the Cathedral and diocesan status of the church lasted only from 1539 to 1556, as such it is first known to have had two Members of Parliament in 1545 as a new Parliamentary Borough, centuries after the City of London and Southwark were enfranchised. The historic core of Westminster is the former Thorney Island on which Westminster Abbey was built, the abbey became the traditional venue of the coronation of the kings and queens of England from that of Harold Godwinson onwards. From about 1200, near the abbey, the Palace of Westminster became the royal residence, marked by the transfer of royal treasury. Later the palace housed the developing Parliament and Englands law courts, thus London developed two focal points, the City of London and Westminster. The monarchs later moved to St James Palace and the Palace of Whitehall a little towards the north-east, the main law courts have since moved to the Royal Courts of Justice. The Westminster area formed part of the City and Liberty of Westminster in Middlesex, the ancient parish was St Margaret, after 1727 this became the civil parish of St Margaret and St John, the latter a new church required for the increasing population. The area around Westminster Abbey formed the extra-parochial Close of the Collegiate Church of St Peter surrounded by —, until 1900 the local authority was the combined vestry of St Margaret and St John, which was based at Westminster City Hall in Caxton Street from 1883. The Liberty of Westminster, governed by the Westminster Court of Burgesses, also included St Martin in the Fields, Westminster had its own quarter sessions, but the Middlesex sessions also had jurisdiction
5.
Civil engineering
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Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines. It is the second-oldest engineering discipline after military engineering, and it is defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering, Civil engineering takes place in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies. Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence, during this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing. The construction of pyramids in Egypt were some of the first instances of large structure constructions, the Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbors, bridges, dams and roads. In the 18th century, the civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering. The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton, who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse, in 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some meetings, it was little more than a social society. In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, the institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. The first private college to teach engineering in the United States was Norwich University. The first degree in engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835. The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905, throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances, structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree in civil engineering. The length of study is three to five years, and the degree is designated as a bachelor of engineering. The curriculum generally includes classes in physics, mathematics, project management, design, after taking basic courses in most sub-disciplines of civil engineering, they move onto specialize in one or more sub-disciplines at advanced levels. In most countries, a degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification. After completing a degree program, the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated as a engineer, a chartered engineer
6.
Institution of Civil Engineers
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The Institution of Civil Engineers is an independent professional association for civil engineers and a charitable body which exists to deliver benefits to the public. Based in London, ICE has nearly 89,000 members, ICE supports the civil engineering profession by offering professional qualification, promoting education, maintaining professional ethics, and liaising with industry, academia and government. Under its commercial arm, it delivers training, recruitment, publishing and it sets standards for membership of the body, works with industry and academia to progress engineering standards and advises on education and training curricula. The late 18th century and early 19th century saw the founding of many learned societies, groups calling themselves civil engineers had been meeting for some years from the late 18th century, notably the Society of Civil Engineers formed in 1771 by John Smeaton. The institution made little headway until a key step was taken - the appointment of Thomas Telford as the first President of the body and this official recognition helped establish ICE as the pre-eminent organisation for engineers of all disciplines. Its members, notably William Cubitt, were prominent in the organisation of the Great Exhibition of 1851. For 29 years ICE provided the forum for engineers practising in all the disciplines recognised today, by the end of the 19th century, ICE had introduced examinations for professional engineering qualifications to help ensure and maintain high standards among its members – a role it continues today. The ICEs Great George Street headquarters, designed by James Miller, was built by John Mowlem & Co, the institution is a membership organisation comprising 88,810 members worldwide, around three quarters are located in the United Kingdom. Members who are Chartered Engineers can use the protected title Chartered Civil Engineer, ICE is also licensed by the Society for the Environment to award the Chartered Environmentalist professional qualification. The Institution of Civil Engineers also publishes technical studies covering research, under its commercial arm, Thomas Telford Ltd, it delivers training, recruitment, publishing and contract services, such as the NEC Engineering and Construction Contract. All the profits of Thomas Telford Ltd go back to the Institution to further its aim of putting civil engineers at the heart of society. The publishing division has existed since 1836 and is today called ICE Publishing, the ICE Science series is now also published by ICE Publishing. ICE Science currently consists of five journals, Nanomaterials and Energy, Emerging Materials Research, Bioinspired, Biomimetic and Nanobiomaterials, Green Materials, ICE members, except for students, also receive the weekly New Civil Engineer magazine. The societies provide continuing professional development and assist in the transfer of knowledge concerning specialist areas of engineering, the President is the public face of the institution and day-to-day management is the responsibility of the Director General. The ICE President is elected annually and the holder for 2016-2017 is Professor Tim Broyd, each year a number of young engineers have been chosen as Presidents apprentices. The scheme was started in 2005 during the Presidency of Gordon Masterton, each incoming President sets out the main theme of his or her year of office in a Presidential Address. Many of the professions greatest engineers have served as President of the ICE including, One of Britains greatest engineers, the first woman member of ICE was Dorothy Donaldson Buchanan in 1927. The first female Fellows elected were Molly Fergusson, Marie Lindley, Helen Stone, the first female President was Jean Venables who became the 144th holder of the office in 2008
7.
Caledonian Canal
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The Caledonian Canal connects the Scottish east coast at Inverness with the west coast at Corpach near Fort William in Scotland. The canal was constructed in the nineteenth century by Scottish engineer Thomas Telford. The canal runs some 60 miles from northeast to southwest, only one third of the entire length is man-made, the rest being formed by Loch Dochfour, Loch Ness, Loch Oich, and Loch Lochy. These lochs are located in the Great Glen, on a fault in the Earths crust. There are 29 locks, four aqueducts and 10 bridges in the course of the canal, the canal was conceived as a way of providing much-needed employment to the Highland region. The area was depressed as a result of the Highland Clearances, laws had been introduced which sought to eradicate the local culture, including bans on wearing tartan, playing the bagpipes, and speaking Gaelic. Many emigrated to Canada or elsewhere, or moved to the Scottish Lowlands, the first survey for a canal was carried out by James Watt in 1773, but it was the Caledonian Canal Commission that paved the way for the actual construction. On 27 July 1803, an Act of Parliament was passed to authorise the project, Telford worked with William Jessop on the survey, and the two men oversaw the construction until Jessop died in 1814. The canal was expected to take seven years to complete, and to cost £474,000, to be funded by the Government, but both estimates were inadequate. Because of the remoteness of the location, construction was started at both ends, so that sections could be used to bring in the materials for the middle sections. As Thomas Telford could only visit the work twice a year, he appointed Matthew Davidson, like Telford. John Telford, who is not to have been related to Thomas, was to manage the difficult western end. The work was to prove a challenge to John Telfords health and he died in 1807. John Telford was buried in Kilmallie churchyard, where his grave, now in dilapidated condition. At Corpach, near Fort William, the lock was built on rock. Rock was tipped on top of the mud and was allowed to settle for six months before construction could begin, the ground through which the canal was cut was variable, and further difficulties were experienced with the construction of the locks, the largest ever built at the time. There were also problems with the force, with high levels of absence, particularly during and after the potato harvest. This led to Telford bringing in Irish navvies to manage the shortfall, the canal finally opened in 1822, having taken an extra 12 years to complete, and cost £910,000
8.
Ellesmere Canal
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The Ellesmere Canal was a waterway in England and Wales that was planned to carry boat traffic between the rivers Mersey and Severn. The proposal would create a link between the Port of Liverpool and the industries in north east Wales and the manufacturing centres in the West Midlands. However the canal was never finished as intended, problems arose because of the projects rising costs and the failure to generate the expected commercial traffic. The Ellesmere Canal, which was first proposed in 1791, would have operated as a waterway between Netherpool and Shrewsbury, however the parts which were completed eventually became sections of the Chester Canal, the Montgomery Canal and the Shropshire Union Canal main line. Although several feats of engineering were overcome, most major building work ceased following the completion of the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct in 1805, the navigations mainline eventually ended 25 kilometres away from Chester at Trevor Basin near Ruabon and 15 kilometres from Shrewsbury. The branch, from which the waterway now takes its name, was primarily a feeder from the River Dee above the village. Therefore, it was not built as a broad-gauge canal hence its inherently narrow design, the formal proposal for the canal was launched at a meeting in Ellesmere in 1791 for a canal from Netherpool on the River Mersey to the River Dee at Chester. It would then go in a easterly direction via Overton to the River Severn at Shrewsbury. Branches would then be cut to the making and coal mining areas at Bersham between Wrexham and Ruabon and to the copper mines at Llanymynech. By 1793 an Act of Parliament had been passed allowing the Ellesmere Canal company to build the canal, however this route of the canal beyond Chester was not to the liking of all backers. They wanted the canals course to follow a more westerly route from the Dee to the Severn passing directly through the Welsh mining areas, eventually this proposal was the one that canal engineer John Duncombe followed when he eventually surveyed route. Notable civil engineer William Jessop was called into advise, he too recommended the route surveyed by Duncombe, Jessop was eventually appointed the projects engineer while Thomas Telford was appointed as General Agent. The northernmost section, a canal, from the Mersey to the Dee was completed in 1797. This allowed the company to generate revenue from tolls to finance construction of the rest of the canal. However the westerly route posed formidable engineering obstacles, close to the Eglwyseg and Ruabon mountains, there were deep river valleys to be crossed and high ground to be tunnelled. The canal plan would also have four branches, A three-mile branch would run to Holt, a five-mile branch would from near Wrexham to Brumbo. A branch would run from near Hordley to Llanymyneck, via Maesbury, Morton, a 17-mile branch would run from near Tetchill to Prees Heath, via Welshampton, Fenns Moss and Whitchurch. Rather than crossing at full height, the locks would reuse water by backpumping, but by 1795 Jessop and Telford had changed their decision
9.
Pontcysyllte Aqueduct
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The Pontcysyllte Aqueduct is a navigable aqueduct that carries the Llangollen Canal across the River Dee in north east Wales. The 18-arched stone and cast iron structure, which ten years to design. It is now the oldest and longest navigable aqueduct in Great Britain, however, only parts of the canal route were completed because the expected revenues required to complete the entire project were never generated. Most major work ceased after the completion of the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct in 1805, the structure is a Grade I listed building and a World Heritage Site. The name Pontcysyllte in the Welsh language means Cysyllte Bridge and it is derived from the township of Cysyllte. The aqueduct was known as Pont y Cysyllte. Other translations such as Bridge of the Junction or The Bridge that links are a modern definition and they are derived from the word cysylltau which means connections or links. The aqueduct was built by Thomas Telford and William Jessop near the 18th-century road crossing, however, after Telford was hired the plan was changed to an aqueduct that would create an uninterrupted waterway straight across the valley. Ironwork was supplied by William Hazledine from his foundries at Shrewsbury, the work, which took around ten years from design to construction, cost around of £47,000. Adjusted for inflation this is equivalent to no more than £3,440,000 in 2015, the Pontcysyllte aqueduct officially opened to narrow boat traffic on 26 November 1805. A plaque commemorating its inauguration reads, THE NOBILITY AND GENTRY, WHEN RICHARD MYDDELTON OF CHIRK, ESQ, M. P. ONE OF THE ORIGINAL PATRONS OF THE ELLESMERE CANAL WAS LORD OF THIS MANOR, WHEN THE EQUITY OF THE LAWS, AND THE SECURITY OF PROPERTY, PROMOTED THE GENERAL WELFARE OF THE NATION. WHILE THE ARTS AND SCIENCES FLOURISHED BY HIS PATRONAGE AND THE CONDUCT OF CIVIL LIFE WAS IMPROVED BY HIS EXAMPLE, severne, Pontcysyllty = Severn Pontcysyllte MDCCXCV =1795 The bridge is 336 yd long,4 yd wide and 5.25 ft deep. It consists of a cast iron trough supported 126 ft above the river on iron arched ribs carried on eighteen hollow masonry piers, each of the 18 spans is 53 ft wide. With the completion of the aqueduct, the phase of the canal should have been the continuation of the line to Moss Valley. This would provide the water for the length of canal between Trevor Basin and Chester, however, as the plan to build this section was cancelled in 1798, the isolated feeder and a stretch of navigation between Ffrwd and a basin in Summerhill was abandoned. Remnants of the channel are visible in Gwersyllt. A street in the village is still named Heol Camlas, with the project incomplete, Trevor Basin just over the Pontcysyllte aqueduct would become the canals northern terminus
10.
Shrewsbury Canal
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The Shrewsbury Canal was a canal in Shropshire, England. After ownership passed to a series of companies, the canal was officially abandoned in 1944, many sections have disappeared, though some bridges. There is a campaign to preserve the remnants of the canal. From 1768 several small canals were built in the area of what is now Telford. The first of these was the Donnington Wood Canal which opened in 1768, to be followed by the Wombridge Canal, the network linked Lilleshall and Pave Lane in the north to Coalbrookdale and Coalport in the south. The act authorised the raising of £50,000 in shares, josiah Clowes was appointed Chief Engineer, but died in 1795 part way through construction. He was succeeded by Thomas Telford, then just establishing himself as Shropshires County Surveyor, the Ellesmere Canal was originally intended to connect Chester with Shrewsbury, but never reached the latter – it became the modern Llangollen Canal and Montgomery Canal. One of Telfords first tasks was to rebuild a stone aqueduct over the River Tern at Longdon-on-Tern which had built by Clowes. Instead, it was using a 62-yard cast iron trough cast in sections at Reynolds Ketley ironworks. The main trough was 7.5 feet wide and 4.5 feet deep, the aqueduct was the worlds first large-scale iron navigable aqueduct, though it was narrowly predated by a much smaller 44-foot-long structure on the Derby Canal built by Benjamin Outram. The aqueduct still stands today, though it is isolated in the middle of a field, the Shrewsbury Canal was finally finished in 1797, being 17 miles long, with 11 locks. The plane consisted of twin railway tracks, each of which held a cradle, boats would be floated onto the cradles, which had larger wheels at the back to keep the boat level. A third set of wheels were mounted at the front, which ran on rails in the dock. This and the rails were provided by Reynolds Coalbrookdale Company, the plane continued to be used until 1921, making it the last operational plane in Britain. The canal included a 970-yard tunnel at Berwick, which was 10 feet wide, Clowes designed the tunnel, but the addition of a towpath was suggested by Reynolds. The towpath lasted until 1819, when it was removed, by 1904, there was a white line painted in the middle of the tunnel, and if boats travelling in opposite directions met in the tunnel, the one which had passed the mark had right of way. The canal was built as a narrow canal intended for horse-drawn trains of tub boats which were 20 feet long. The costs of widening the bridge holes and the Eyton locks proved to be expensive, with the opening of the Newport Branch in 1835, the Shrewsbury Canal was no longer isolated from the rest of the national canal network
11.
Menai Suspension Bridge
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The Menai Suspension Bridge is a suspension bridge to carry road traffic between the island of Anglesey and the mainland of Wales. The bridge was designed by Thomas Telford and completed in 1826 and is a Grade I listed building, also, the bridge would have to be high enough to allow the passage of the tall ships of the day. In view of this, Telford proposed that a bridge should be built. Construction of the bridge, to Telfords design, began in 1819 with the towers on either side of the strait and these were constructed from Penmon limestone and were hollow with internal cross-walls. Then came the sixteen huge chain cables, each made of 935 iron bars, to avoid rusting between manufacture and use, the iron was soaked in linseed oil and later painted. The chains each measured 522.3 metres and weighed 121 long tons and their suspending power was calculated at 2,016 long tons. The bridge was opened to much fanfare on 30 January 1826, the roadway was only 24 feet wide and, without stiffening trusses, soon proved highly unstable in the wind. The deck of the Menai Bridge was strengthened in 1840 by W. A. Provis and, in 1893, in 1999 the bridge was closed for around a month to resurface the road and strengthen the structure, requiring all traffic to cross via the nearby Britannia Bridge. On 28 February 2005 the bridge was promoted to UNESCO as a candidate World Heritage Site, the bridge was re-opened to traffic in both directions on 11 December 2005 after its first major re-painting in 65 years. The Anglesey Coastal Path passes below the bridge, the bridge has a memorial to the Aberfan disaster victims on the Anglesey side. The nearest settlement is the town of Menai Bridge, a representation of the Menai Bridge inside a border of railings and stanchions is featured on the reverse of British one-pound coins minted in 2005. The coin was designed by Edwins Ellis, white Knight to Alice, I heard him then, for I had just completed my design, To keep the Menai bridge from rust By boiling it in wine. —Haddocks Eyes, Through the Looking-Glass, Lewis Carroll Uchelgaer uwch y weilgi – gyr y byd Ei gerbydau drosti, Chwithau, holl longau y lli, Ewch o dan ei chadwyni. —Dewi Wyn o Eifion High fortress above the sea – the world drives Its carriages across it, And you, all you ships of the sea, Pass beneath its chains
12.
A5 road (Great Britain)
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The A5 London Holyhead Trunk Road is a major road in England and Wales. It runs for about 181 miles from London, England to Holyhead, Wales, the Act of Union 1800, which unified Great Britain and Ireland, gave rise to a need to improve communication links between London and Dublin. This made it the first major civilian state-funded road building project in Britain since Roman times, responsibility for establishing the new route was awarded to the famous engineer, Thomas Telford. Through England, the road took over existing turnpike roads and mainly following the route of the Anglo-Saxon Wæcelinga Stræt. From Shrewsbury and through Wales, Telfords work was more extensive, in places he followed existing roads, but he also built new links, including the Menai Suspension Bridge to connect the mainland with Anglesey and the Stanley Embankment to Holy Island. Telfords road was complete with the opening of the Menai Suspension Bridge in 1826, the road was designed to allow stagecoaches and the Mail coach to carry post between London and Holyhead, and thence by mailboat to Ireland. Therefore, throughout its length the gradient never exceeds 1,17, the route through Wales retains many of the original features of Telfords road and has, since 1995, been recognised as a historic route worthy of preservation. An 18-month survey by CADW in 1998-2000 revealed that about 40% of the road and its ancillary features survives under the modern A5. The A5 number disappears near Edgware, but the Roman Road continues as the A5183 through Elstree, Radlett, St Albans and Redbourn, to junction 9 of the M1, from there, it passes through Dunstable, where it crosses and briefly multiplexes with the A505. North of Dunstable, the A5 passes through the village of Hockliffe before becoming a dual carriageway, on entering the Milton Keynes urban area, the road becomes a fully grade-separated dual carriageway and passes through Milton Keynes. This stretch was opened in 1980, replacing the route along Watling Street. From just north of Milton Keynes, the road resumes as a carriageway that continues through Towcester where it crosses the A43 dual carriageway just north of the town. The road accompanies the Grand Union Canal and the M1 motorway through the Watford Gap and it then bridges the M45 motorway and continues to Kilsby. As it passes close to Rugby, the road is diverted slightly around the Daventry International Rail Freight Terminal, the next phase north-west-bound takes it under the M6 motorway and passing close to Lutterworth. Along this stretch, the road alternates between being a single and a dual carriageway. After meeting the M69 motorway at a roundabout, with the motorway passing above, after Hinckley, the road runs through the northern fringes of Nuneaton and then Tamworth. At Tamworth, the road follows a more recent dual carriageway bypass, from this point the road is a grade separated dual carriageway up until its junction with the A38 and M6 toll. After this junction it passes just to the south of Cannock and then enters Telford, at junction 7 the motorway ends and the A5 continues to Shrewsbury as dual carriageway, on its new alignment
13.
Civil engineer
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The term civil engineer was established in 1750 to contrast engineers working on civil projects with the military engineers, who worked on armaments and defenses. Over time, various sub-disciplines of civil engineering have become recognized, other engineering practices became recognized as independent engineering disciplines, including chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, and electrical engineering. In some places, an engineer may perform land surveying, in others, surveying is limited to construction surveying. Civil engineers generally work in a variety of locations and conditions, many spend time outdoors at construction sites so that they can monitor operations or solve problems onsite. The job is typically a blend of in-office and on-location work, in many countries, civil engineers are subject to licensure. In some jurisdictions with mandatory licensing, people who do not obtain a license may not call themselves civil engineers, in Belgium, Civil Engineer is a legally protected title applicable to graduates of the five-year engineering course of one of the six universities and the Royal Military Academy. Their speciality can be all fields of engineering, civil, structural, electrical, mechanical, chemical, physics and this use of the title may cause confusion to the English speaker as the Belgian civil engineer can have a speciality other than civil engineering. In fact, Belgians use the adjective civil in the sense of civilian, traditionally, students were required to pass an entrance exam on mathematics to start civil engineering studies. This exam was abolished in 2004 for the Flemish Community, but is organised in the French Community. Today the degree spans over all fields within engineering, like engineering, mechanical engineering, computer science, electronics engineering. A civil engineer is the most well-known of the two, still, the area of expertise remains obfuscated for most of the public. A noteworthy difference is the courses in mathematics and physics, regardless of the equivalent masters degree. This is because the educational system is not fully adopted to the international standard graduation system. Today this is starting to change due to the Bologna process, a Scandinavian civilingenjör will in international contexts commonly call herself Master of Science in Engineering and will occasionally wear an engineering class ring. At the Norwegian Institute of Technology, the tradition with an NTH Ring goes back to 1914, in Norway, the title Sivilingeniør will no longer be issued after 2007, and has been replaced with Master i teknologi. In the English translation of the diploma, the title will be Master of Science, since Master of Technology is not a title in the English-speaking world. The extra overlapping year of studies have also been abolished with this change to make Norwegian degrees more equal to their international counterparts, in Spain, a civil engineering degree can be obtained after four years of study in the various branches of mathematics, physics, mechanics, etc. The earned degree is called Grado en Ingeniería Civil, further studies at a graduate school include masters and doctoral degrees
14.
Stonemasonry
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The craft of stonemasonry has existed since humanity could use and make tools - creating buildings, structures, and sculpture using stone from the earth. These materials have been used to construct many of the long-lasting, ancient monuments, artifacts, cathedrals, quarrymen split veins, or sheets of rock, and extract the resulting blocks of stone from the ground. Sawyers cut these rough blocks into cuboids, to required size with diamond-tipped saws, the resulting block if ordered for a specific component is known as sawn six sides. Banker masons are workshop-based, and specialize in working the stones into the shapes required by a design, this set out on templets. They can produce anything from stones with simple chamfers to tracery windows, detailed mouldings and the more classical architectural building masonry. When working a stone from a block, the mason ensures that the stone is bedded in the right way. Occasionally though some stones need to be orientated correctly for the application, the basic tools, methods and skills of the banker mason have existed as a trade for thousands of years. Carvers cross the line from craft to art, and use their ability to carve stone into foliage, figures. Fixer masons specialize in the fixing of stones onto buildings, using lifting tackle, sometimes modern cements, mastics and epoxy resins are used, usually on specialist applications such as stone cladding. Metal fixings, from simple dowels and cramps to specialised single application fixings, are also used, the precise tolerances necessary make this a highly skilled job. Memorial masons or monumental masons carve gravestones and inscriptions, the modern stonemason undergoes comprehensive training, both in the classroom and in the working environment. Hands-on skill is complemented by intimate knowledge of each type, its application and best uses. The mason may be skilled and competent to carry out one or all of the branches of stonemasonry. In some areas the trend is towards specialization, in other areas towards adaptability, stonemasons use all types of natural stone, igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary, while some also use artificial stone as well. Igneous stones, Granite is one of the hardest stones, with great persistence, simple mouldings can and have been carved into granite, for example in many Cornish churches and the city of Aberdeen. Generally, however, it is used for purposes that require its strength and durability, such as kerbstones, countertops, flooring, igneous stone ranges from very soft rocks such as pumice and scoria to somewhat harder rocks such as tuff and hard rocks such as granite and basalt. Metamorphic, Marble is a fine stone easily workable, that comes in various colours and it has traditionally been used for carving statues, and for facing many Byzantine and Renaissance Italian buildings. Their work was preceded by older sculptors from Mesopotamia and Egypt, the famous Acropolis of Athens is said to be constructed using the Pentelicon marble
15.
Canal
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Canals and navigations are human-made channels for water conveyance, or to service water transport vehicles. In the vernacular, both are referred to as canals, and in most cases, the works will have a series of dams. These areas are referred to as water levels, often just called levels. In contrast, a canal cuts across a drainage divide atop a ridge, many canals have been built at elevations towering over valleys and others water ways crossing far below. Cities need a lot of water and many canals with sources of water at a higher level can deliver water to a destination where there is a lack of water. The Roman Empires Aqueducts were such water supply canals, a navigation is a series of channels that run roughly parallel to the valley and stream bed of an unimproved river. A navigation always shares the drainage basin of the river, a vessel uses the calm parts of the river itself as well as improvements, traversing the same changes in height. A true canal is a channel that cuts across a drainage divide, most commercially important canals of the first half of the 19th century were a little of each, using rivers in long stretches, and divide crossing canals in others. This is true for many canals still in use, there are two broad types of canal, Waterways, canals and navigations used for carrying vessels transporting goods and people. These can be subdivided into two kinds, Those connecting existing lakes, rivers, other canals or seas and oceans and those connected in a city network, such as the Canal Grande and others of Venice Italy, the gracht of Amsterdam, and the waterways of Bangkok. Aqueducts, water canals that are used for the conveyance and delivery of potable water for human consumption, municipal uses, hydro power canals. Historically canals were of importance to commerce and the development, growth. In 1855 the Lehigh Canal carried over 1.2 million tons of burning anthracite coal, by the 1930s the company which built. By the early 1880s, canals which had little ability to compete with rail transport, were off the map. In the next couple of decades, coal was diminished as the heating fuel of choice by oil. Later, after World War I when motor-trucks came into their own, Canals are built in one of three ways, or a combination of the three, depending on available water and available path, Human made streams A canal can be created where no stream presently exists. Either the body of the canal is dug or the sides of the canal are created by making dykes or levees by piling dirt, stone, the water for the canal must be provided from an external source, like streams or reservoirs. Where the new waterway must change elevation engineering works like locks, lifts or elevators are constructed to raise, examples include canals that connect valleys over a higher body of land, like Canal du Midi, Canal de Briare and the Panama Canal
16.
Shropshire
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Shropshire Council was created in 2009, a unitary authority taking over from the previous county council and five district councils. The borough of Telford and Wrekin has been a unitary authority since 1998. The county has many towns, including Whitchurch in the north, Newport north-east of Telford. The Ironbridge Gorge area is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, covering Ironbridge, Coalbrookdale, there are other historic industrial sites in the county, such as at Shrewsbury, Broseley, Snailbeach and Highley, as well as the Shropshire Union Canal. The Shropshire Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty covers about a quarter of the county, Shropshire is one of Englands most rural and sparsely populated counties, with a population density of 136/km2. The Wrekin is one of the most famous landmarks in the county, though the highest hills are the Clee Hills, Stiperstones. Wenlock Edge is another significant geographical and geological landmark, the River Severn, Great Britains longest river, runs through the county, exiting into Worcestershire via the Severn Valley. Shropshire is landlocked and with an area of 3,487 square kilometres is Englands largest inland county, the county flower is the round-leaved sundew. The area was part of the lands of the Cornovii. This was a tribal Celtic iron age kingdom and their capital in pre-Roman times was probably a hill fort on the Wrekin. Ptolemys 2nd century Geography names one of their towns as being Viroconium Cornoviorum, after the Roman occupation of Britain ended in the 5th century, the Shropshire area was in the eastern part of the Welsh Kingdom of Powys, known in Welsh poetry as the Paradise of Powys. It was annexed to the Angle kingdom of Mercia by King Offa in the 8th century, in subsequent centuries, the area suffered repeated Danish invasion, and fortresses were built at Bridgnorth and Chirbury. Many defensive castles were built at this time across the county to defend against the Welsh and enable effective control of the region, including Ludlow Castle, the western frontier with Wales was not finally determined until the 14th century. Also in this period, a number of foundations were formed, the county largely falling at this time under the Diocese of Hereford. The county contains a number of historically significant towns, including Shrewsbury, Bridgnorth, additionally, the area around Coalbrookdale in the county is seen as highly significant, as it is regarded as one of the birthplaces of the Industrial Revolution. The village of Edgmond, near Newport, is the location of the lowest recorded temperature in England, the origin of the name Shropshire is the Old English Scrobbesbyrigscīr, which means Shrewsburyshire. The name may, therefore, be derived indirectly from a name such as Scrope. Salop is an old name for Shropshire, historically used as a form for post or telegrams
17.
Colossus of Rhodes
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The Colossus of Rhodes /roʊdz/ was a statue of the Greek titan-god of the sun Helios, erected in the city of Rhodes, on the Greek island of the same name, by Chares of Lindos in 280 BC. One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, it was constructed to celebrate Rhodes victory over the ruler of Cyprus, Antigonus I Monophthalmus and it was destroyed during the earthquake of 226 BC, and never rebuilt. As of 2015, there are plans to build a new Colossus at Rhodes Harbour. In the late 4th century BC, Rhodes, allied with Ptolemy I of Egypt, prevented a mass invasion staged by their common enemy, Antigonus I Monophthalmus. In 304 BC a relief force of ships sent by Ptolemy arrived, to celebrate their victory, the Rhodians sold the equipment left behind for 300 talents and decided to use the money to build a colossal statue of their patron god, Helios. Construction was left to the direction of Chares, a native of Lindos in Rhodes and his teacher, the sculptor Lysippos, had constructed a 22-metre-high bronze statue of Zeus at Tarentum. Ancient accounts, which differ to some degree, describe the structure as being built with iron tie bars to which brass plates were fixed to form the skin. The interior of the structure, which stood on a 15-metre high white marble pedestal near the Mandraki harbour entrance, was filled with stone blocks as construction progressed. Other sources place the Colossus on a breakwater in the harbour, according to most contemporary descriptions, the statue itself was about 70 cubits, or 33 metres tall. Upper portions were built with the use of an earthen ramp. During the building, workers would pile mounds of earth on the sides of the colossus, upon completion all of the earth was removed and the colossus was left to stand alone. After twelve years, in 280 BC, the statue was completed, preserved in Greek anthologies of poetry is what is believed to be the genuine dedication text for the Colossus. To you, O Sun, the people of Dorian Rhodes set up this bronze statue reaching to Olympus, not only over the seas but also on land did they kindle the lovely torch of freedom and independence. For to the descendants of Herakles belongs dominion over sea and land, the base pedestal was said to be at least 18 metres in diameter, and either circular or octagonal. The feet were carved in stone and covered with bronze plates riveted together. Eight forged iron bars set in a horizontal position formed the ankles. Individually cast curved bronze plates 60 inches square with turned-in edges were joined together by rivets through holes formed during casting to form a series of rings, the statue snapped at the knees and fell over onto the land. Ptolemy III offered to pay for the reconstruction of the statue, but the oracle of Delphi made the Rhodians afraid that they had offended Helios, and they declined to rebuild it
18.
Hill farming
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Hill farming is extensive farming in upland areas, primarily rearing sheep, although historically cattle were often reared extensively in upland areas. Fell farming is the farming of fells, a fell being an area of uncultivated high ground used as common grazing and it is a term commonly used in Northern England, especially in the Lake District and the Pennine Dales. Elsewhere, the hill farming or pastoral farming are more commonly used. Cattle farming in the hills is usually restricted by a scarcity of winter fodder, modern hill farming is often heavily dependent on state subsidy, for example in the United Kingdom it receives support from the European Unions Common Agricultural Policy. Improved, sown pasture and drained moorland can be stocked more heavily, Hill farming is a type of agricultural practice in the UK in upland regions. In England, hill farms are located mainly in the North and South-Western regions, the Scottish highlands are another home for many hill farms. Sheep farms and mixed sheep and cattle farms constitute approximately 55% of the land in Scotland. These areas have a climate, short growing seasons, relatively poor quality of soil. Therefore, these areas are considered to be disadvantaged and the animals raised there are less productive. Upland areas are not traditionally favourable for agricultural practices, the majority of Hill farming land in England is classified as Less Favoured Area, and the LFA constitutes 17% of land farmed in England. The LFA is further divided into Severely Disadvantaged Areas and Disadvantaged Areas and these areas are classified as such on account of poor climate, soils, and terrain which cause higher costs in production and transportation as well as lower yields and less productivity. The LFA is significant in England’s farming on a whole despite these disadvantages, 30% of beef cows, Farming distinctively shapes the ecosystems of these zones, and the agriculture practices in the uplands define and shape the environment and landscape. Upland areas are covered with both dry and wet dwarf shrub heath and, rough and either managed or unmanaged improved grasslands. The typical hill farm is made up of three zones, the High fell, the Alotment, and the Inbye. The High fell includes peat moors and rocky areas which provide poor grazing at the top, the Alotment follows below, an enclosed area with rough grazing. The Inbye is the lowest area at the bottom, which is used as the grazing area as well as for growing hay. Dartmoor National Park has over 10, 000ha of prehistoric field systems, archaeological evidence shows that these moors have been grazed for 3500 years. Because of the extent of historical farming in the UK uplands, increased specialization in livestock and a movement away from tradition mixed farming methods
19.
Eskdalemuir
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Eskdalemuir is a civil parish and small village in Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland, with a population of 265. It is sited around 10 miles north-west of Langholm and 10 miles north-east of Lockerbie, the area consists of high wet moorlands chiefly used for sheep grazing and forestry plantation. The main settlement is located near to the White Esk river, Eskdalemuir is probably best known for the Eskdalemuir Observatory and for the Samye Ling Tibetan Buddhist monastery. They have now transformed the old school into a community building where social activities. The building houses a shop and café, UEDG members are committed to helping the isolated community at Eskdalemuir become more self-reliant and to reverse the decline that has led to the closure of local services. This in turn is expected to make the more attractive to investors. UEDG would like to see services becoming increasingly localised, provided where possible by the community social enterprise. It is consider that this is important in the context of the ageing population. As people get older and the cost of available travel increases, in the community is the Samye Ling Tibetan Buddhist monastery, which incorporates a former hunting lodge called Johnstone House. Listed as a tourist attraction by VisitScotland, the centre attracts visitors who come simply to see a spectacular gilded temple, stupas and gardens with statues of Bodhisattvas and Buddhas. Due to the establishment of the Eskdalemuir Observatory here in 1908, Eskdalemuir has one of the longest climatological records in the UK, the data shows Eskdalemuir to be a very wet, often cloudy place. Eskdalemuir holds the UK Weather Record for the highest rainfall in a 30-minute period, 80mm and it also held the record for the dullest summer month -43.9 hours in August 1912. Though this was beaten by just 41 hours in August 2008 - again by Eskdalemuir, other recent low sunshine records for the site include 30 hours during October 2011,46 hours during September 2008, and 69 hours during July 2010. Eskdalemuir experienced its wettest year on record in 2011, in spite of it being located inland, the dull and wet nature of the climate due to the elevation leads to chilly summers that are colder than more northerly locations such as Glasgow and Edinburgh. The inland nature of the climate is more manifest during winter months with frosts being common, and the average lows between December and February are below freezing point
20.
River Esk, Dumfries and Galloway
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The River Esk, also called the Border Esk, is a river in Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland, that flows into the Solway Firth. It also flows for a way through the English county of Cumbria before entering the Solway. The river rises in the hills to the east of Moffat and it flows south east through Eskdale past Langholm before merging with Liddel Water (which defines the border between Scotland and England. Before passing Longtown the river enters England and merges with the River Lyne and it was formerly one of the boundaries of the Debatable Lands as marked by the Scots Dike. The various tributaries of the Esk are described proceeding downstream and it is followed by the B709 road for much of its course. The headwaters of the Black Esk feed into the Black Esk Reservoir, from the foot of whose dam and it then turns sharply east then southeast passing Castle Oer on its way to meet with the White Esk to form the River Esk. The Meggat Water is a left tributary of the Esk which rises at the southern margin of Craik Forest and flows south. The Ewes Water is a significant left tributary of the Esk which enters the latter at Langholm. The valley of the Ewes Water is followed by the A7 road from Carlisle to Edinburgh, wauchope Water is a right bank tributary of the Esk which joins immediately downstream from the Ewes Water confluence. It arises as the Logan Water and Bigholms Burn meet 3 miles /5 km southwest of Langholm, the Tarras Water is a left bank tributary of the Esk which joins it 2.5 miles /4 km south of Langholm. The Liddel Water is a tributary which enters on the left bank between Canonbie and Longtown. It forms the boundary between Scotland and England for a while as does its tributary, the Kershope Burn, the River Lyne enters on the left bank at Lynefoot just above the normal tidal limit of the estuarial section of the Esk. The River Sark and the Kirtle Water enter the estuary of the Esk to the east and west of Gretna respectively. See main articles on each of these and some of their tributaries, photo of the Esk entering Solway Firth - Getty Images
21.
Langholm
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Langholm /ˈlæŋəm/, also known colloquially as the Muckle Toun, is a burgh in Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland, on the River Esk and the A7 road. The town grew around the industry, but is now best known as the birthplace of Hugh MacDiarmid and Thomas Telford. The population in 2001 was 2,311, the town was an important centre for the Border Reivers. A branch of the Carlisle to Hawick railway line to Langholm was completed in 1864, the last regular passenger train was on 13 June 1964, although a special ran in March 1967 - complete with restaurant car, the freight service continued until September 1967. The X95/95 bus line runs through Langholm, the A7 road runs through the town. Langholm Academy is a primary and secondary school. In 1858 Langholm Cricket Club was founded, the club play their matches on the picturesque Castleholm Ground. They currently play their matches in the Border League, finishing mid table for the 2009 season, the 2010 season started against Gala at home on 24 April. In 1871, Langholm RFC was founded, being the oldest Rugby club in the Borders, Langholm RFC play in Scottish National League Division 1 and in the Border League. Langholm also has a football team, Langholm Legion, who also play on the Castleholm The town also has a karate club, Langholm Shotokan Karate Club. The unused Episcopalian church on the Castle Holm in the burgh has been converted into the Armstrong clan museum, the town is home to a music and arts festival, a food festival and the Langholm walks. Each year many visitors come for the annual Common Riding, which place on the last Friday of July. Langholm has both a band and a brass band. The Town Band is allegedly the oldest surviving brass band in Scotland, the town is also home to the Eskdale and Liddesdale Archaeological Society. There is also an active Archive Group with an increasing collection of information. The Roman Catholic church of St Francis of Assisi closed in 2010, Langholm is surrounded by four hills. The highest is 300m Whita hill, on which stands an obelisk commemorating the life and achievements of Sir John Malcolm, the distinguished soldier, statesman. The others are Warblaw, Meikleholmhill and the Castle Hill, the local newspaper is the Eskdale & Liddesdale Advertiser, which is part of the CN Group Ltd
22.
Edinburgh
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Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 local government council areas. Located in Lothian on the Firth of Forths southern shore, it is Scotlands second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The 2014 official population estimates are 464,990 for the city of Edinburgh,492,680 for the authority area. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and it is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. Historically part of Midlothian, the city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, was placed 17th in the QS World University Rankings in 2013 and 2014. The city is famous for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe. The citys historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdoms second most popular tourist destination after London, attracting over one million overseas visitors each year. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, Edinburghs Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin, the poem names Din Eidyn as a hill fort in the territory of the Gododdin. The Celtic element din was dropped and replaced by the Old English burh, the first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In modern Gaelic, the city is called Dùn Èideann, the earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c.8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have found on Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat, Craiglockhart Hill. When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, at some point before the 7th century AD, the Gododdin, who were presumably descendants of the Votadini, built the hill fort of Din Eidyn or Etin. Although its location has not been identified, it likely they would have chosen a commanding position like the Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria and it thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, in 1638, King Charles Is attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the 17th century, Edinburghs boundaries were defined by the citys defensive town walls
23.
Robert Adam
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Robert Adam FRSE FRS FSA FSA FRSA was a British neoclassical architect, interior designer and furniture designer. He was the son of William Adam, Scotlands foremost architect of the time, with his older brother John, Robert took on the family business, which included lucrative work for the Board of Ordnance, after Williams death. In 1754, he left for Rome, spending five years on the continent studying architecture under Charles-Louis Clérisseau. On his return to Britain he established a practice in London, here he developed the Adam Style, and his theory of movement in architecture, based on his studies of antiquity and became one of the most successful and fashionable architects in the country. Adam held the post of Architect of the Kings Works from 1761 to 1769, Robert Adam was a leader of the first phase of the classical revival in England and Scotland from around 1760 until his death. He influenced the development of Western architecture, both in Europe and in North America, Adam designed interiors and fittings as well as houses. He served as the member of Parliament for Kinross-shire from 1768 to 1774, Adam was born on 3 July 1728 at Gladney House in Kirkcaldy, Fife, although the family moved to Edinburgh later that same year. As a child he was noted as having a feeble constitution, in autumn 1743 he matriculated at Edinburgh University, and compulsory classes for all students were, the Greek language, logic, metaphysics and Natural philosophy. Students could choose three subjects, Adam attended classes in mathematics, taught by Colin Maclaurin, and anatomy. His studies were interrupted by the arrival of Bonnie Prince Charlie and his Highlanders, at the end of the year, Robert fell seriously ill for some months, and it seems unlikely that he returned to university, having completed only two years of study. On his recovery from illness in 1746, he joined his elder brother John as apprentice to his father and he assisted William Adam on projects such as the building of Inveraray Castle and the continuing extensions of Hopetoun House. Williams position as Master Mason to the Board of Ordnance also began to generate much work, William Adam died in June 1748, and left Dowhill, a part of the Blair Adam estate which included a tower house, to Robert. On William Adams death, John Adam inherited both the business and the position of Master Mason to the Board of Ordnance. He immediately took Robert into partnership, later to be joined by James Adam, the Adam Brothers first major commission was the decoration of the grand state apartments on the first floor at Hopetoun House, followed by their first new build at Dumfries House. For the Board of Ordnance, the brothers were the contractor at Fort George. In the winter of 1749–1750, Adam travelled to London with his friend and he took the opportunity for architectural study, visiting Wilton, designed by Inigo Jones, and the Queens Hermitage in Richmond by Roger Morris. His sketchbook of the trip shows an continuing interest in gothic architecture. Among his friends at Edinburgh were the philosophers Adam Ferguson and David Hume, other Edinburgh acquaintances included Gilbert Elliot, William Wilkie, John Home and Alexander Wedderburn
24.
William Chambers (architect)
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Sir William Chambers RA was a Scottish-Swedish architect, based in London. Among his best-known works are Somerset House, London, and the pagoda at Kew, Chambers was a founder member of the Royal Academy. William Chambers was born on 23 February 1723 in Gothenburg, Sweden, between 1740 and 1749 he was employed by the Swedish East India Company making three voyages to China where he studied Chinese architecture and decoration. Returning to Europe, he studied architecture in Paris and spent five years in Italy, then, in 1755, he moved to London, where he established an architectural practice. He worked for Augusta, Dowager Princess of Wales making fanciful garden buildings at Kew and he developed his Chinese interests further with his Dissertation on Oriental Gardening, a fanciful elaboration of contemporary English ideas about the naturalistic style of gardening in China. His more serious and academic Treatise on Civil Architecture published in 1759 proved influential on builders and it included ideas from the works of many 16th- and 17th-century Italian architects then still little known in Britain. His influence was transmitted through a host of younger architects trained as pupils in his office, including Thomas Hardwick, who helped him build Somerset House. He was the rival of Adam in British Neoclassicism. Chambers was more international in outlook and was influenced by continental neoclassicism when designing for British clients, a second visit to Paris in 1774 confirmed the French cast to his sober and conservative refined blend of Neoclassicism and Palladian conventions. From around 1758 to the mid-1770s, Chambers concentrated on building houses for the nobility, in 1766 Chambers was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. His initial plans for an oval courtyard, connected to three smaller, narrow rectangular courts, were soon modified into a simpler rectalinear scheme. On 10 December 1768 the Royal Academy was founded and he was appointed the Academys first Treasurer. Chambers died in London in 1796, also designed two garden temples, similar to those at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Within Kew Gardens, some of his buildings are lost, those remaining being the ten-storey Pagoda, the Orangery, the Ruined Arch, the Temple of Bellona, the Pagoda, in Pagoda Gardens, Blackheath, London is attributed to Chambers. A three-storey house built as a pavilion for the Duke and Duchess of Buccleuch, caroline of Brunswick lived here after her separation from her husband, the Prince Regent, in 1799. Somerset House in London, his most famous building, which absorbed most of his energies over a period of two decades The gilded state coach that is used at coronations. Hedsor House, Buckinghamshire, the seat of Lord Boston, equerry to George III, for James Caulfeild, 1st Earl of Charlemont, he designed Charlemont House and the Casino at Marino, as well as the chapel and public theatre in Trinity College, Dublin. He is also associated with Gothic additions to Milton Abbey in Dorset, wick House, Richmond Hill, commissioned in 1771 by painter Sir Joshua Reynolds
25.
Somerset House
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Somerset House is a large Neoclassical building situated on the south side of the Strand in central London, overlooking the River Thames, just east of Waterloo Bridge. The building, originally the site of a Tudor palace, was designed by Sir William Chambers in 1776, the East Wing forms part of the adjacent Strand campus of Kings College London. In the sixteenth century, the Strand, the bank of the Thames between the City of London and the Palace of Westminster was a favoured site for the mansions of the nobility. In 1539 Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford, obtained a grant of land at Chester Place, outside Temple Bar, when his nephew the boy-king Edward VI came to the throne in 1547, Seymour became Duke of Somerset and Lord Protector. Pauls Cathedral which were demolished partly at his behest as part of the ongoing Dissolution of the Monasteries and it was a two storey house built around a quadrangle with a gateway rising to three stories and was one of the earliest examples of Renaissance architecture in England. It is not known who designed the building, before it was finished, however, Somerset was overthrown, attainted by Parliament and in 1552 was executed on Tower Hill. Somerset Place then came into the possession of the Crown and his royal nephews half-sister the future Queen Elizabeth I lived there during the reign of her half-sister Queen Mary I. The process of completion and improvement was slow and costly, as late as 1598 Stow refers to it as yet unfinished. In the 17th century, the house was used as a residence by queens consort, during the reign of King James I, the building became the London residence of his wife, Anne of Denmark, and was renamed Denmark House. She commissioned a number of additions and improvements, some to designs by Inigo Jones. In particular, during the period between 1630 and 1635 he built a Chapel where Henrietta Maria of France, wife of King Charles I and this was in the care of the Capuchin Order and was on a site to the south-west of the Great Court. A small cemetery was attached and some of the tombstones are still to be built into one of the walls of a passage under the present quadrangle. Royal occupation of Somerset House was interrupted by the English Civil War and they failed to find a buyer, though a sale of the contents realised the very considerable sum of £118,000. Use was still found for it however, part of it served as an Army headquarters, General Fairfax being given official quarters there, lodgings were also provided for certain other Parliamentary notables. It was in Somerset House that Oliver Cromwells body lay in state after his death in 1658, however she returned to France in 1665 before it was finished. It was then used as a residence by Catherine of Braganza. During her time it received a certain notoriety as being, in the popular mind, Somerset House was refurbished by Sir Christopher Wren in 1685. After the Glorious Revolution in 1688, Somerset House entered on a period of decline, being used for grace
26.
HMNB Portsmouth
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Her Majestys Naval Base, Portsmouth is one of three operating bases in the United Kingdom for the British Royal Navy. Portsmouth Naval Base is part of the city of Portsmouth, it is located on the shore of Portsmouth Harbour, north of the Solent. Until the early 1970s it was known as Portsmouth Royal Dockyard. The base is home to one of the oldest dry docks in the world, the base is also home to a number of commercial shore activities, naval logistics, accommodation and messing, and personnel support functions provided by Defence Equipment and Support. The base is the oldest in the Royal Navy and it has been an important part of the Senior Services history, at one time it was the largest industrial site in the world. Around the year 2000, the designation HMS Nelson was extended to cover the entire base, the base commander since October 2012 is Commodore Jeremy Rigby. QHM Harbour Control is based in the Semaphore Tower building, shipping movements are handled by a team of admiralty pilots headed by the Chief Admiralty Pilot, Anthony Bannister. Portsmouth naval base is home to two-thirds of the Royal Navys surface ships and it allows members of the public to visit important maritime attractions such as Mary Rose, HMS Victory and HMS Warrior. The new Queen Elizabeth class aircraft carriers will eventually be based in Portsmouth, in total some 17,300 people work in the base. Until 2012 the Second Sea Lord as Commander-in-Chief Naval Home Command flew his flag from HMS Victory, since then, the post of Commander-in-Chief has reverted to the First Sea Lord. HMS Victory, Nelsons flagship at Trafalgar, which is open to the public HMS Warrior. HMS M33, a World War I monitor The National Museum of the Royal Navy, Portsmouth, boathouse 5 is being refurbished as a new orientation and ticketing facility. The Portsmouth Naval Base Property Trust is seeking to extend the area of the Historic Dockyard to cover Dry Docks 4 and 5, along with Woolwich, Deptford, Chatham and Plymouth, Portsmouth has been one of the main Royal Navy Dockyards or Bases throughout its history. The first recorded dry dock in the world was built in Portsmouth by Henry VII in 1495, the first warship built here was the Sweepstake of 1497, of more significance were the carracks Mary Rose of 1509 and Peter Pomegranate of 1510—both were rebuilt here in 1536. The wreck of the Mary Rose, is on display in a purpose built museum, a fourth Tudor warship was the galleass Jennett, built in 1539 and enlarged as a galleon in 1558. The appointment of one Thomas Jermyn as Keeper of the Dock at Portsmouth is recorded in 1526, there are no on-site remains of the Tudor Dock and Yard. Naval shipbuilding at Portsmouth recommenced under the English Commonwealth, the first ship being the eponymous Fourth-rate frigate Portsmouth launched in 1650, a new double dry dock was built by the Commonwealth government in 1656. As France began to more of a military threat to England
27.
Sir William Pulteney, 5th Baronet
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Sir William Pulteney, 5th Baronet, known as William Johnstone until 1767, was a Scottish advocate, landowner and politician. He was reputedly the wealthiest man in the Great Britain and he was a patron of architect Robert Adam and civil engineer Thomas Telford. His older brother was thesoldier and politician Sir James Johnstone, 4th Baronet and his younger brothers included the politician and naval officer George Johnstone and the East India Company official John Johnstone. Alexander Murray of Elibank, a Jacobite, was his uncle and he studied law, became a member of the Faculty of Advocates in 1751, and went on to become an eminent advocate. He was a brother of Commodore George Johnstone and first cousin of Patrick Ferguson, on 10 November 1760, he married heiress Frances Pulteney. Frances was the daughter of MP and government official Daniel Pulteney and first cousin once removed of William Pulteney. She inherited William’s substantial fortune and estates close to Bath in Somerset after his death in 1764, on inheriting, Johnstone changed his name in 1767 to Pulteney. Simultaneously, his daughter’s name was changed from Henrietta Laura Johnstone to Henrietta Laura Pulteney. They decided a bridge needed to be built, and Pulteney turned to his friend and fellow countryman, Adam was influenced by his travels to Florence and Venice and proposed a bridge incorporating shops along both sides. This was completed in 1773, but the Pulteneys original plans for Baths expansion did not take effect until 1788 when Bath architect Thomas Baldwin started to create a new estate, Pulteney represented Cromarty and later Shrewsbury, where he usually resided, in seven successive Parliaments. He first but unsuccessfully contested the Shrewsbury seat in 1768, in 1774 he again contested Shrewsbury, and although he was defeated, he was returned on petition the following March. On 1 June 1782, Frances died, leaving him her fortune, Pulteney invested in land in the West Indies and in what is today western New York state. In 1783, Pulteney began working with Thomas Telford, later the most eminent civil engineer of his day, when Pulteney first met him, Telford was a young stonemason from the same parish of Westerkirk in Dumfries, who had travelled to London to seek work. In 1787, Pulteney commissioned Telford to supervise restoration works at Shrewsbury Castle, following Robert Adams designs, later, as Governor of the British Fisheries Society, Pulteney appointed Telford to design the world’s then-largest herring fishing port, at Wick in Caithness. The village was named Pulteneytown and is the location of the Old Pulteney whisky distillery, Pulteney was also influential in Telfords 1801 appointment to devise a master plan to improve communications in the Highlands of Scotland, a massive project that was to last 20 years. Pulteney also took a lively interest in other engineering projects, including that of Bell Rock lighthouse. He succeeded to the Johnstone baronetcy in 1794 on the death of his elder brother James Johnstone and he was thus titled 5th Baronet Pulteney, having declined several offers of a peerage during his parliamentary career. In 1804 Pulteney married, as his wife, Margaret, widow of Andrew Stuart
28.
Shrewsbury
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Shrewsbury SHROOZ-bree is the county town of Shropshire, England. It is on the River Severn and has a population of approximately 72,000. and is nicknamed the heart of shropshire. Shrewsbury is a town whose centre has a largely unaltered medieval street plan and over 660 listed buildings. The town has historically been a centre for the wool trade, horticulture remains popular, and the Shrewsbury Flower Show is one of the largest horticultural events in England. The A5 and A49 trunk roads cross near to the town and its later Welsh name Amwythig means fortified place. Over the ages, the important town has been the site of many conflicts. The Angles, under King Offa of Mercia, took possession in 778, nearby is the village of Wroxeter,5 miles to the south-east. This was once the site of Viroconium, the fourth largest cantonal capital in Roman Britain, as Caer Guricon it is a possible alternative for the Dark Age seat of the Kingdom of Powys. The importance of the Shrewsbury area in the Roman era was underlined with the discovery of the Shrewsbury Hoard in 2009, Shrewsburys known history commences in the Early Middle Ages, having been founded c.800 AD. It is believed that Anglo-Saxon Shrewsbury was most probably a settlement fortified through the use of earthworks comprising a ditch and rampart, There is evidence to show that by the beginning of the 900s, Shrewsbury was home to a mint. The Welsh besieged it in 1069, but were repelled by William the Conqueror, Roger de Montgomery was given the town as a gift from William, and built Shrewsbury Castle in 1074, taking the title of Earl. He founded Shrewsbury Abbey as a Benedictine monastery in 1083, the 3rd Earl, Robert of Bellême, was deposed in 1102 and the title forfeited, in consequence of rebelling against Henry I and joining the Duke of Normandys invasion of English in 1101. In 1138, King Stephen successfully besieged the castle held by William FitzAlan for the Empress Maud during the known as the Anarchy. It was in the late Middle Ages when the town was at its height of commercial importance. This was mainly due to the trade, a major industry at the time, with the rest of Britain and Europe, especially with the River Severn. The Shrewsbury Drapers Company dominated the trade in Welsh wool for many years, Shrewsburys monastic gathering was disbanded with the Dissolution of the Monasteries and as such the Abbey was closed in 1540. However, it is believed that Henry VIII thereafter intended to make Shrewsbury a cathedral city after the formation of the Church of England, but the citizens of the town declined the offer. Despite this, Shrewsbury thrived throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, largely due to the towns fortuitous location, as a resultant a number of grand edifices, including the Irelands Mansion and Drapers Hall, were constructed
29.
Prison
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Besides their use for punishing crimes, jails and prisons are frequently used by authoritarian regimes against perceived opponents. Prisons often have facilities that are designed with long term confinement in mind in comparison to jails. In times of war, prisoners of war or detainees may be detained in prisons or prisoner of war camps. The use of prisons can be traced back to the rise of the state as a form of social organization, corresponding with the advent of the state was the development of written language, which enabled the creation of formalized legal codes as official guidelines for society. The best known of early legal codes is the Code of Hammurabi. Some Ancient Greek philosophers, such as Plato, began to develop ideas of using punishment to reform instead of simply using it as retribution. Imprisonment as a penalty was used initially for those who could not afford to pay their fines, eventually, since impoverished Athenians could not pay their fines, leading to indefinite periods of imprisonment, time limits were set instead. The prison in Ancient Athens was known as the desmoterion, the Romans were among the first to use prisons as a form of punishment, rather than simply for detention. A variety of existing structures were used to house prisoners, such as cages, basements of public buildings. One of the most notable Roman prisons was the Mamertine Prison, the Mamertine Prison was located within a sewer system beneath ancient Rome and contained a large network of dungeons where prisoners were held in squalid conditions, contaminated with human waste. Forced labor on public projects was also a common form of punishment. In many cases, citizens were sentenced to slavery, often in ergastula, during the Middle Ages in Europe, castles, fortresses, and the basements of public buildings were often used as makeshift prisons. Another common punishment was sentencing people to slavery, which involved chaining prisoners together in the bottoms of ships. However, the concept of the modern prison largely remained unknown until the early 19th-century, Punishment usually consisted of physical forms of punishment, including capital punishment, mutilation, flagellation, branding, and non-physical punishments, such as public shaming rituals. However, an important innovation at the time was the Bridewell House of Corrections, located at Bridewell Palace in London and these houses held mostly petty offenders, vagrants, and the disorderly local poor. In these facilities, inmates were given jobs, and through prison labor they were taught how to work for a living, by the end of the 17th century, houses of correction were absorbed into local prison facilities under the control of the local justice of the peace. From the late 17th century and during the 18th century, popular resistance to public execution, rulers began looking for means to punish and control their subjects in a way that did not cause people to associate them with spectacles of tyrannical and sadistic violence. They developed systems of mass incarceration, often with hard labor, the prison reform movement that arose at this time was heavily influenced by two somewhat contradictory philosophies
30.
John Howard (prison reformer)
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John Howard FRS was a philanthropist and the first English prison reformer. Howard was born in North London, either in Hackney or Enfield and his father, also John, was a wealthy upholsterer at Smithfield Market in the city. His father, a strict disciplinarian with strong beliefs, sent the young John to a school in Hertford. After school, John was apprenticed to a grocer to learn business methods. When his father died in 1742, he was left with a sizeable inheritance and his Calvinist faith and quiet, serious disposition meant he had little desire for the fashionable endeavours of an English aristocratic lifestyle. In 1748, he left England for a tour of the continent. Upon his return, he lived in lodgings in Stoke Newington and he was nursed back to health by his landlady, Sarah Loidore, whom he then married despite her being thirty years older than he was. She died within three years and he distributed her meagre belongings amongst her family and poor neighbours. John Howard was considered eccentric by many of his contemporaries and it has been advanced by psychiatrist Philip Lucas and by mathematician Ioan Mackenzie James that Howard might have had Aspergers Syndrome. He then set out for Portugal following the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, traveling on the Hanover and he was imprisoned in Brest for six days before being transferred to another prison on the French coast. He was later exchanged for a French officer held by the British and it is widely believed that this personal experience generated Howards interest in prisons. Having returned from France, he settled again at Cardington, Bedfordshire to live on a 200-acre estate which was two farms, the larger of which he had inherited from his grandparents. His grandmother, Martha Howard, was a relation of the Whitbread family and he spent the next two years building properties and trying to improve the lives of the tenants living on his land. Later, a survey of Cardington in 1782 found that he was paying for the teaching of 23 children and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in May 1756. In 1758, Howard married Henrietta Leeds who died in 1765, a week after giving birth to a son, also named John, who was sent to boarding school at a very young age. The younger John was sent down from Cambridge for homosexual offences, was judged insane at the age of 21, John Howard was appointed High Sheriff of Bedfordshire in 1773, initially for a one-year period. Such was his dedication, rather than delegating his duties to the under-sheriff as was customary and he was shocked by what he found, and spurred into action to inspect prisons throughout England. Of particular concern to Howard were those prisoners who were held because they could not pay the jailers fee – an amount paid to the owner or keeper of the prison for upkeep
31.
Church of St. Mary Magdalene, Bridgnorth
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The Church of St. Mary Magdalene, Bridgnorth, is a Parish Church in the Church of England, standing in East Castle Street, Bridgnorth. The College of St. Mary Magdalen, Bridgnorth was founded as a free chapel. The nave, chancel and western tower were built c. 1238, and an aisle was added, presumably after 1294. As a Collegiate church it was intended as a private chapel for the castle. The college of canons was dissolved in 1548, the church was designed by Thomas Telford and built by John Rhodes and Michael Head between 1792 and 1795. The church is aligned north–south, rather than the more usual west–east, the tower stands 120 ft high, and it has a clock, eight bells and a copper-covered roof. The church has a magnificent Father Willis organ, purchased from Clifton College, arthur C Clarke 1939 -1972 Harold Cooper 1972 -2002 John Turnock The church has 8 bells, the heaviest weighing just over 8 cwt. These are usually rung twice weekly, on Wednesday practice night, additionally, they are sometimes rung for weddings. Civil Engineering Heritage, by Roger Cragg Colleges of secular canons, Bridgnorth, St Mary Magdalen, A History of the County of Shropshire, Volume 2, pp. 123–128
32.
Madeley, Shropshire
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Madeley is a town and civil parish in Shropshire, England, now part of the new town of Telford. The parish had a population of 17,935 at the 2001 census, Madeley is recorded in the Domesday Book, having been founded before the 8th century. Historically, Madeleys industrial activity has largely been in mining, and later, manufacturing, parts of the parish fall within the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Ironbridge Gorge, the site of The Iron Bridge, and a key area in the development of Industry. The settlement of Madeley is recorded as far back as the Domesday Book, the town was founded prior to the 8th century, and subsequently became a market town in the 13th century. Sigward, a ruler in the time of King Æthelbald of Mercia, is said to have held 3 hides of land at Madeley. Between 727 and 736 he sold his holdings to Mildburh, daughter of Merewalh and she was the founder and first head of Wenlock Abbey. It passed to the Crown in 1540 and in 1544 was sold to Robert Broke, mining of coal began before 1322, and the extraction of ironstone had begun by 1540. The town played a role in the English Civil War, as it was home to a garrison of Royalist soldiers in 1645, two months later, Parliamentary forces occupied the parish church. Madeley is also home to a barn in which King Charles II hid after the Battle of Worcester in 1651, in the 17th century, Madeley was a small market town, but local tradesmen began to specialise, working in the river trade and in mining. The gatehouse to Madeley Court is a grade I listed building, Madeley is located within the civil parish and ward of the same name. The ward is within the Telford constituency, which is represented by Conservative MP Lucy Allen. The parish of Madeley formerly incorporated Ironbridge, which has become part of the new parish of The Gorge. Madeley is situated in the part of the new town of Telford, to the north of Ironbridge. Coalport, a part of the parish of Madeley can be found to the west of the town, the local area has reserves of coal and ironstone. Part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site of the Ironbridge Gorge falls within the Parish of Madeley, the majority of the site is within the parish of The Gorge, named for the Ironbridge Gorge, which is bridged by The Iron Bridge. At the 2001 census, the population of the parish of Madeley was 17,935, of this number,8,190 were economically active, and of them,7,477 were in employment. The ethnicity of the population was as follows, 96% of the population was found to be White,1. 3% of the population was mixed race,0. 6% Black or Black British and a further 0. 2% Chinese. In terms of religion, 77% of the population are Christian,0. 7% of the population are Muslim,0. 5% are Sikh,0. 3% are Hindu, and 0. 1% are Buddhist
33.
Holyhead
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Holyhead is the largest town in the county of Isle of Anglesey in Wales. It is also a community and a major Irish Sea port, despite being the largest town in the county, with a population of 11,431 at the 2011 census, it is neither the county town nor actually on the island of Anglesey. Holyhead is located on Holy Island, which has a population of 13,659 at the 2011 census and it was originally connected to Anglesey via Four Mile Bridge, so called because the bridge was four miles from Holyhead on the old turnpike Road. In the mid 19th century, Lord Stanley, a local philanthropist, funded the building of a causeway, known locally as The Cobb, it now carries the A5. The A55 dual carriageway runs parallel to the Cobb on a modern causeway, the town centre is built around St. Cybis Church, which is built inside one of Europes few three-walled Roman forts. The Romans also built a watchtower on the top of Holyhead Mountain inside Mynydd y Twr, settlements in the area date from prehistoric times, with circular huts, burial chambers and standing stones featuring in the highest concentration in Britain. The current lighthouse is on South Stack on the side of Holyhead Mountain and is open to the public. The Port of Holyhead has a ferry port. Stena Line, Northern Europes biggest ferry company, operates from the port, Ferries sail to Dublin, in Ireland, this forms the principal link for surface transport from central and northern England and Wales to Ireland. There is archaeological evidence that people have been sailing between Holyhead and Ireland for 4,000 years, Holyheads maritime importance was at its height in the 19th century with a 1.7 mile long sea breakwater. Holyhead Breakwater is the longest in the UK and was built to create a harbour for vessels caught in stormy waters on their way to Liverpool. Holyheads sea heritage is remembered in a maritime museum, the post road built by Thomas Telford from London strengthened Holyheads position as the port from which the Royal Mail was dispatched to and from Dublin on the Mail coach. The A5 terminates at Admiralty Arch, which was designed by Thomas Harrison to commemorate a visit by King George IV in 1821 en route to Ireland, the A55 forms part of Euroroute E22. The Anglesey section was financed through a Private Finance Initiative scheme, with the opening of the railway from London to Liverpool, Holyhead lost the London to Dublin Mail contract in 1839 to the Port of Liverpool. Holyhead is the terminus of the North Wales Coast Line and is served by Virgin Trains. The rail and ferry terminals are connected to the centre by The Celtic Gateway bridge. Holyheads main industry was aluminium-based until September 2009, with Rio Tinto Groups Anglesey Aluminium subsidiary operating a massive aluminium smelter on the outskirts of the town, the jetty is now used by Anglesey County Council to dock cruise ships visiting from all over the world. The jetty is wide enough for coaches to travel down to collect and deliver passengers to the town, the plant relied for its electricity supply on the islands nuclear power station at Wylfa, near Cemaes Bay
34.
River Severn
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The River Severn is the longest river in the United Kingdom, at about 220 miles. It rises at an altitude of 2,001 feet on Plynlimon, close to the Ceredigion/Powys border near Llanidloes and it then flows through Shropshire, Worcestershire and Gloucestershire, with the county towns of Shrewsbury, Worcester and Gloucester on its banks. With an average discharge of 107 m3/s at Apperley, Gloucestershire, the river is usually considered to become the Severn Estuary after the Second Severn Crossing between Severn Beach, South Gloucestershire and Sudbrook, Monmouthshire. The river then discharges into the Bristol Channel which in turn discharges into the Celtic Sea, the Severns drainage basin area is 4,409 square miles, excluding the River Wye and Bristol Avon which flow into the Severn Estuary. The major tributaries to the Severn are the Vyrnwy, Clywedog, Teme, Avon, the name Severn is thought to derive from a Celtic original name *sabrinnā, of uncertain meaning. That name then developed in different languages to become Sabrina to the Romans, Hafren in Welsh, a folk etymology later developed, deriving the name from a mythical story of a nymph, Sabrina, who drowned in the river. Sabrina is also the goddess of the River Severn in Celtic mythology, the story of Sabrina is featured in Miltons Comus. There is a statue of Sabrina in the Dingle Gardens at the Quarry, Shrewsbury, as the Severn becomes tidal the associated deity changed to Nodens, who was represented mounted on a seahorse, riding on the crest of the Severn bore. The River Stour rises in the north of Worcestershire in the Clent Hills and it flows north into the adjacent West Midlands at Halesowen. It then flows westwards through Cradley Heath and Stourbridge where it leaves the Black Country and it is joined by the Smestow Brook at Prestwood before it winds around southwards to Kinver, and then flows back into Worcestershire. It then passes through Wolverley, Kidderminster and Wilden to its confluence with the Severn at Stourport-on-Severn, the River Vyrnwy, which begins at Lake Vyrnwy, flows eastwards through Powys before forming part of the border between England and Wales, joining the Severn near Melverley, Shropshire. The Rea Brook flows north from its source in the Stiperstones, the River Tern, after flowing south from Market Drayton and being joined by the River Meese and the River Roden, meets the Severn at Attingham Park. The River Worfe joins the Severn, just above Bridgnorth, the River Stour rising on the Clent Hills and flowing through Halesowen, Stourbridge, and Kidderminster, joins the Severn at Stourport. On the opposite bank, the tributaries are only brooks, Borle Brook, Dowles Brook draining the Wyre Forest, Dick Brook, shit Brook near Much Wenlock was culverted to flow into the Severn. One of the rivers named Avon, in this case the Warwickshire Avon, flows west through Rugby, Warwick. It is then joined by its tributary the River Arrow, before joining the Severn at Tewkesbury. The port of Bristol is on the Severn Estuary, where another River Avon flows into it through the Avon Gorge, the River Wye, from its source in Plynlimon, Wales, flows generally south east through the Welsh towns of Rhayader and Builth Wells. It flows into the Severn near the town of Chepstow, slightly upstream of the Bristol Avon on the opposite bank, the River Usk flows into the Severn Estuary just south of Newport
35.
Buildwas
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Buildwas is a village and civil parish in Shropshire, England, on the north bank of the River Severn at grid reference SJ641045. It lies on the B4380 road to Atcham, the Royal Mail postcodes begin TF6 and TF8. Buildwas Primary Academy is situated on the Buildwas bank road, the school has been running since 1855, and has three classes and a nursery. Buildwas has a golf course which runs between the River Severn and Ironbridge Power Station. It is open to members of Buildwas Abbey Club, the village of Buildwas has been recognised since 1086 as the first reference to it was made in the Domesday Book. Buildwas was valued at £2.30 to the Lord St John Bishop of Chester in 1086, the land was valued at £2.30 due to the fact that the village was located on the River Severn and had woodland which was useful for agricultural and farming purposes. During this time period the village had a population of nine households with them being divided into three for villagers, five for slaves and one for reeves. Due to this the village only had a tax assessment of one geld unit which was very small. Buildwas had resources of 200 pigs and a mill which people relied on, the first census regarding occupational data for the village of Buildwas was taken in 1831 and gives a valuable insight into the village for this time period. The census showed that the biggest employability sector at this time was agricultural labourers, the second biggest field was retail and handicrafts, which employed seven people in the village. There was one capitalist or professional person within the village and the people were farmers. The 1881 census of the gave a valuable insight into how the population had slowly increased. Agriculture was still the biggest employment sector with 41 people but other job fields had grown over the course of fifty years, there were fifteen females and eight males employed in domestic services and offices. There were twelve males employed in the extraction of mineral substances, there were forty people in the survey who were classified as having an unknown occupation and three male workers in food and lodging. Population change in Buildwas has experienced a great deal of fluctuation since the first census of 1801 was taken and this is because the village had a small population of 258 to begin with in the first place meaning that any change is a lot more visible. In 1811 the population had declined to 226 people but then experienced an increase to 240 people in 1821. Over the next ten years the village had experienced a population increase of 33 people in 1841. From 1851 to 1881 there had been a decrease of eighteen people
36.
Bridgnorth
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Bridgnorth is a town in Shropshire, England. The Severn Valley splits it into a High Town and Low Town, the town on the right bank. The population at the 2011 Census was 12,079, Bridgnorth is named after a bridge over the River Severn, that was built further north than an earlier bridge at Quatford. Earliest names for Bridgnorth include Brigge, Brug and Bruges, all referring to its position on the Severn, after the Norman conquest, William I granted the manor of Bridgnorth to Roger de Montgomerie. The town became a borough on Robert Bellêmes attainder in 1102. The castles purpose was to defend against attacks from Wales, the town was attacked and burnt by Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March during the Despenser War in 1322. Bridgnorths town walls were constructed in timber between 1216 and 1223, murage grants allowed them to be upgraded to stone between the 13th and 15th centuries. By the 16th century, the antiquarian John Leland reported them in ruins and of the five gates and it is probable that Henry I granted the burgesses certain privileges, for Henry II confirmed to them all the franchises and customs which they had in the time of Henry I. These early charters were confirmed by several succeeding kings, Henry VI granting in addition Assize of Bread and Ale, the town was disfranchised in 1885. More than 255 men from the Bridgnorth area volunteered in the first months of the First World War and their names were published in the Bridgnorth Journal on 26 December 1914 and several of those killed in action are remembered on the war memorial situated in the castle grounds. Until 1961 the Royal Air Forces initial recruit training unit was at RAF Bridgnorth, during the Second World War, two women were killed during a German air raid in August 1940 when bombs hit neighbouring houses in High Town. In 2005, unverified German papers dating from 1941 were found, outlining new details about Operation Sea Lion, two quiet Shropshire towns were mentioned in the documentation—Ludlow and Bridgnorth. On 21 August 2003 Bridgnorth was granted Fairtrade Town status, Bridgnorth is home to a funicular railway that links the high and low towns, the Castle Hill Railway, which is the steepest and only inland railway of its type in England. Additionally, within the High Town is Bridgnorth railway station on the Severn Valley Railway, the ruins of Bridgnorth Castle, built in 1101, are present in the town. Due to damage caused during the English Civil War, the castle is inclined at an angle of 15 degrees, High Town is dominated by two Church of England churches. St. Marys Church, a built in the classic style of the late 18th century, was designed by Thomas Telford. St. Leonards was formerly collegiate, and Bridgnorth was a Royal Peculiar until 1856 and it was subsequently largely rebuilt but is no longer used for regular worship. It has many community uses and is in the care of the Churches Conservation Trust, Bishop Percys House on the Cartway was built in 1580 by Richard Forster and has been a Grade 1 listed building since 18 July 1949
37.
Abraham Darby III
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Abraham Darby III was an English ironmaster and Quaker. He was the man of that name in several generations of an English Quaker family that played a pivotal role in the Industrial Revolution. He took various measures to improve the conditions of his work force and he built the largest cast iron structure of his era, the first cast-iron bridge ever built, as a crossing over the Severn near Coalbrookdale. The bridge made it possible for the village of Ironbridge to grow up around it, in 1776 Darby married Rebecca Smith of Doncaster, and they had seven children, of whom four survived to adulthood. He died in Madeley aged only 39 and was buried in the Quaker burial ground in Coalbrookdale and his sons Francis and Richard both worked in the Coalbrookdale Company. A secondary school in Telford, UK, is named after Abraham Darby III, the schools name is Abraham Darby Academy. In 1985 a rose cultivar Rosa Abraham Darby bred by David C. H, austin was named after Abraham Darby. Abraham Darby I Abraham Darby II Abraham Darby IV Article in Dictionary of National Biography Biography of Abiah Darby in DNB
38.
The Iron Bridge
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The Iron Bridge is a bridge that crosses the River Severn in Shropshire, England. Opened in 1781, it was the first major bridge in the world to be made of cast iron, in 1934 it was designated a Scheduled Ancient Monument and closed to vehicular traffic. Tolls for pedestrians were collected until 1950, when ownership of the bridge was transferred to Shropshire County Council and it now belongs to Telford and Wrekin Borough Council. The bridge, the adjacent settlement of Ironbridge and the Ironbridge Gorge form the UNESCO Ironbridge Gorge World Heritage Site, the bridge is a Grade I listed building, and a waypoint on the South Telford Heritage Trail. The use of the river by boat traffic and the sides of the gorge meant that any bridge should ideally be of a single span. The steepness and instability of the banks was problematic for building a bridge, the Iron Bridge was the first of its kind to be constructed, although not the first to be considered or the first iron bridge of any kind. In 1773, architect Thomas Farnolls Pritchard wrote to his iron mad friend and local ironmaster, John Wilkinson of Broseley, Pritchard had previous experience with the design of both wooden and stone bridges, and it is possible that he had integrated into these designs elements of iron. During the winter of 1773–74, local newspapers advertised a proposal to petition Parliament for leave to construct a bridge with a single 120 feet span. In March 1776, the Act to build a bridge received Royal Assent and it had been drafted by Thomas Addenbrooke, secretary of the trustees, and John Harries a London barrister then presented to the House of Commons by Charles Baldwyn, MP for Salop. Abraham Darby III was commissioned to cast and build the bridge, in May 1776, the trustees withdrew Darbys commission, and instead advertised for plans for a single arch bridge to be built in stone, brick or timber. In July 1777 the span of the bridge was decreased to 90 feet, the site, adjacent to where a ferry had run between Madeley and Benthall, was chosen for its high approaches on each side and the relative solidity of the ground. The Act of Parliament described how the bridge was to be built from a point in Benthall parish near the house of Samuel Barnett to a point on the shore near the house of Thomas Crumpton. Pritchard died on 21 December 1777 in his tower-house at Eyton on Severn, only a month after work had begun, the masonry and abutments were constructed between 1777 and 1778, and the ribs were lifted into place in the summer of 1779. The bridge first spanned the river on 2 July 1779, more information about how the bridge was built came from the discovery in 1997 of a small watercolour by Elias Martin in a Stockholm museum, which shows the bridge under construction in 1779. A half-size replica of the section of the bridge was built in 2001 as part of the research for the BBC Timewatch programme. The bridge is built from five cast iron ribs that give a span of 100 feet 6 inches. Exactly 378 long tons 10 cwt of iron was used in the construction of the bridge, and there are almost 1700 individual components, the heaviest weighing 5.5 long tons. Components were cast individually to fit each other, rather than being of standard sizes
39.
Ironbridge
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Ironbridge is a village on the River Severn, at the heart of the Ironbridge Gorge, in Shropshire, England. It lies in the parish of The Gorge, in the borough of Telford. Ironbridge developed beside, and takes its name from, the famous Iron Bridge, the area around Ironbridge is described by those promoting it as a tourist destination as the Birthplace of the Industrial Revolution. This description is based on the idea that Abraham Darby perfected the technique of smelting iron with coke, in Coalbrookdale, however, the industrial revolution did not begin in one place, but in many. Darbys iron smelting was but one part of this generalised revolution and was soon superseded by the great iron-smelting areas. The grandson of the first Abraham Darby, Abraham Darby III, construction began in 1779 and the bridge opened on New Years Day 1781. The Iron Bridge proprietors also built the Tontine Hotel to accommodate visitors to the new bridge, st Lukes Church in simple Commissioners Gothic by Samuel Smith of Madeley, has stained glass by David Evans of Shrewsbury. The living was endowed as a rectory when the parish was created from Madeley in 1847 and is now a united benefice with Coalbrookdale and Little Wenlock, in the Diocese of Hereford. The former Iron Bridge and Broseley railway station, on the Severn Valley line from Hartlebury to Shrewsbury, was situated on the side of the Iron Bridge until 1966. The village was the birthplace of England National Football Team captain Billy Wright, by the 19th century, Ironbridge had had many well-known visitors, including Benjamin Disraeli, but by the mid-20th century the settlements and industries of the gorge were in decline. In 1986, though, Ironbridge became part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site and has become a major tourist attraction within Shropshire, most industries in Ironbridge are now tourist-related, however, the Merrythought teddy bear company is still manufacturing in Ironbridge and has a small museum there too. Amongst other things, the village is still host to a Post Office, pharmacy, various pubs, cafés and many successful small shops. On Thursday 10 July 2003 The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh made a visit to Shropshire which included a visit to Ironbridge, an annual Coracle Regatta is held in August on the River Severn at Ironbridge, along with many other events throughout the year. This is mainly because the family of Rogers lived in Ironbridge for several generations. Ironbridge has a recurring problem of flooding from the River Severn. Flooding has previously caused much damage and disruption to the Wharfage, starting in February 2004, DEFRA in association with the Environment Agency implemented a portable barrier which is erected at times of floods. At its peak, the water has reached a depth of one metre against the barrier
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Bewdley
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It lies on the River Severn, at the gateway of the Wyre Forest national nature reserve, and at the time of the 2011 census had a population of 9,470. Bewdley is home to the Severn Valley Railway and the West Midlands Safari Park, the main part of Bewdley town is situated on the western bank of the River Severn, including the main street — Load Street — whose name derives from lode, an old word for ferry. Load Street is notable for its width, this is because it also served as the towns market place. Most of Bewdleys shops and amenities are situated along Load Street, at the top of which lies St Annes Church, beyond the church, High Street leads off to the south towards Stourport along the B4194, a road known locally as the switchback because of its many undulations. Unlike in many English towns, High Street is so called not because of its importance, a high, sandy slope locally known as Bewdley Beach, on the northern side, is a public space with a 180° panorama. Bewdley has several pubs, cafés, houses, and restaurants along its facing riversides, on the other side of the church, Welch Gate climbs steeply up to the west, while a continuation of the B4194 leads northwest towards the Wyre Forest. To the northeast of the town is the hilltop of Wassel Wood in Trimpley. In the area between Stourport and Bewdley there are large country houses, among which Witley Court, Astley Hall. The settlement of Wribbenhall, on the side of the Severn. Bewdley was granted borough status, as well as a market, by King Edward IV in 1472. A parliamentary report of 1777 listed Bewdley as having a parish workhouse accommodating up to 80 inmates, during the Second World War, Ribbesford House in Bewdley was used as the headquarters for the Free French officer cadets. The cadets consisted of 200 teenagers who undertook military training at Ribbesford House until they joined with allied forces in the D Day invasion. Bewdley is now governed by three tiers of government, in increasing order of size, Bewdley town council, Wyre Forest district council. In 1983, the Kidderminster constituency itself was absorbed into the Wyre Forest constituency, the MP for Wyre Forest is Mark Garnier of the Conservative Party, who in 2010 unseated the incumbent, Richard Taylor of Independent Kidderminster Hospital and Health Concern, a local organisation. The Labour Party held the seat from 1997-2001, since the completion of the flood defences in 2006, a Civic Space has been introduced to replace the old bandstand. It is used on a variety of including the regular local Farmers markets. Bewdley was in the division of Doddingtree Hundred. The River Severn often used to burst its banks in winter, flooding many houses, however, after the 2000 floods, plans were made for flood defences on the western bank, and this work was completed in April 2006, costing £7 million
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Worcestershire
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Worcestershire is a county in the West Midlands of England. Between 1974 and 1998, it was merged with the county of Herefordshire as Hereford. The cathedral city of Worcester is the largest settlement and county town, other towns in the county include Redditch, Bromsgrove, Stourport-on-Severn, Droitwich, Evesham, Kidderminster, and Malvern. The north-east of Worcestershire includes part of the industrial West Midlands, the county is divided into six administrive districts, Worcester, Redditch, Wychavon, Malvern Hills, Wyre Forest, and Bromsgrove. The county borders Herefordshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire, West Midlands, Warwickshire, to the west, the county is bordered by the Malvern Hills and the spa town of Malvern. The south of the county is bordered by Gloucestershire and the edge of the Cotswolds. Two major rivers flow through the county, the Severn and the Avon, Worcestershire was the heartland of the early English kingdom of the Hwicce. It was absorbed by the Kingdom of Mercia during the 7th century and it was a separate ealdormanship briefly in the 10th century before forming part of the Earldom of Mercia in the 11th century. In the years leading up to the Norman conquest, the Church, supported by the cathedral, Evesham Abbey, Pershore Abbey, Malvern Priory, and other religious houses, increasingly dominated the county. The last known Anglo-Saxon sheriff of the county was Cyneweard of Laughern, on 4 August 1265, Simon de Montfort was killed in the Battle of Evesham in Worcestershire. In 1642, the Battle of Powick Bridge was the first major skirmish of the English Civil War, during the Middle Ages, much of the countys economy was based on the wool trade. Many areas of its forests, such as Feckenham Forest, Horewell Forest. Droitwich Spa, situated on large deposits of salt, was a centre of production from Roman times. These old industries have declined, to be replaced by other. The county is home to the worlds oldest continually published newspaper. Malvern was one of the centres of the 19th century rise in English spa towns due to Malvern water being believed to be very pure, containing nothing at all. The 2011 census found the population of Worcestershire to be 566,169, while this change is in line with the nationwide trend of White British peoples share of the population shrinking, Worcestershire is still much more ethnically homogeneous than the national average. In 2011 England as a whole was 79. 8% White British, the most notable were Dudley, Evenlode, and the area around Shipston-on-Stour
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Tenbury Wells
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Tenbury Wells is a market town and civil parish in the north-western extremity of the Malvern Hills District of Worcestershire, England, which at the 2011 census had a population of 3,777. Tenbury Wells lies on the bank of the River Teme. It is in the north-west of the Malvern Hills District, the settlement of Burford in Shropshire lies on the north bank of the river. From 1894 to 1974, it was a district, comprising itself and villages such as Stoke Bliss, Eastham. From 1974 Tenbury was in the District of Leominster until it became part Malvern Hills District when Leominster District Council was taken over by Herefordshire Council in April 1998, the history of Tenbury Wells extends as far back as the Iron Age. The town is thought of as the home to the Castle Tump. It has also described as. The remains of an 11th century Norman Castle, a legal record of 1399 mentions a place spelt perhaps as Temedebury which may be a further variation in spelling. Tenbury was in the division of Doddingtree Hundred. Originally named Temettebury, the town was granted a Royal Charter to hold a market in 1249, over time, the name changed to Tenbury, and then added the Wells following the discovery of mineral springs and wells in the town in the 1840s. The St Michael and All Angels Choir School devoted to the Anglican choral tradition by Frederick Ouseley closed in 1985, for over 100 years Tenbury has been well known throughout the country for its winter auctions of holly and mistletoe. It is also known for its Chinese-gothic Pump Room buildings, built in 1862 and they are now owned by Tenbury Town Council, having been transferred from Malvern Hills District Council in September 2008. One notable architectural feature in the town is the unique Pump Rooms, designed by James Cranston in the 1860s, other notable structures in Tenbury include the parish church of St Mary with a Norman tower, and a number of monuments. The church was rebuilt by Henry Woodyer between 1864 and 1865. The part-medieval bridge over the River Teme, linking Tenbury to Burford, the Grade II-listed Eastham bridge dramatically collapsed into the River Teme on 24 May 2016. There were no reports of any casualties, the Victorian Workhouse, designed by George Wilkinson, was used as the local Council Buildings from 1937 to the early 21st century and is currently being converted into residential housing. The Victorian infirmary behind the workhouse was scheduled to be demolished to create car parking for a new large Tesco Superstore, the unique Victorian corrugated iron isolation hospital was demolished on 24 October 2006. Markets are held on Tuesday mornings, Friday mornings, and Saturday mornings, in and around the towns Round Market building, in 2013, a new monthly local producers market started, initially held near the Pump Rooms, more recently on Teme Street
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River Teme
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The whole of the River Teme was designated as an SSSI, by English Nature, in 1996. The river is crossed by a number of bridges including one at Tenbury Wells that was rebuilt by Thomas Telford following flood damage in 1795. It is also crossed, several times, by the Elan aqueduct, the name Teme is similar to many other river names in England, testament to the names ancient origin. Similar names include River Team, River Thames, River Thame, River Tame, scholars now believe these names and the older names Temese and Tamesis derive from Brythonic Tamesa, possibly meaning the dark one. The river source is in Mid Wales on Cilfaesty Hill in the Kerry Hills near Dolfor, south of Newtown, two other rivers - the River Ithon and the River Mule - rise within 500 metres. It flows across the border into England through Knighton, from there to its confluence with the River Severn, at Worcester it flows through the counties of Herefordshire, Shropshire and Worcestershire. The upper reaches of the river are steep with fast flowing. There are some water mills, and a number of weirs, below Tenbury Wells the river is more tranquil but still shallow, with strong cross currents. Water levels in the Teme are highly variable, something which has been worse in recent years through increases in water extraction for agriculture use. During its journey the river flows over Upper Ludlow shales and Devonian sandstones, the River Clun flows into the Teme at Leintwardine in north Herefordshire. The River Corve flows into the Teme just outside Ludlow and the Ledwyche Brook flows into the Teme at Burford, close to the Herefordshire/Shropshire/Worcestershire tripoint. The Kyre Brook flows into the Teme at Tenbury Wells, and the River Rea flows into the Teme at Newnham Bridge, Worcestershire, a few south of Cleobury Mortimer. The Teme falls nearly 500 metres during its length from a height of 506 metres above sea level at its source to just 14 metres above sea-level at its confluence with the River Severn, the Teme has in recent times often bursts its banks. June and July 2007 saw serious floods in a number of areas, including Leintwardine, Tenbury Wells and Ludlow although the watercourse that flooded the last location was a tributary and it is the 16th longest river in the United Kingdom. The Teme is a river and after many years of decline the population of otters is recovering. Fishing is a sport on many parts of the River Teme. Leisure boats have long used on the river and rowing boats can still be hired at The Linney Park. An annual coracle regatta is held on the Teme, in June 2005 it was held at Leintwardine
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Wrexham
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Wrexham is the largest town in north Wales and an administrative, commercial, retail and educational centre. Wrexham is situated between the Welsh mountains and the lower Dee Valley alongside the border with England, historically part of Denbighshire, the town became part of Clwyd in 1974 and since 1996 has been the centre of the Wrexham County Borough. At the 2011 Census, Wrexham had a population of 61,603, human activity in the Wrexham area dates back to the Mesolithic period. By the early Middle Bronze Age the area had developed into a centre for an innovative metalworking industry, a Roman civilian settlement was located in the Plas Coch area of Wrexham and excavations have revealed evidence of agriculture and trade with the wider Roman world. By the end of the 6th century AD, the area was being contested between the Celtic-speaking inhabitants and the English-speaking invaders advancing from the east, the origins of the name Wrexham may possibly be traced back to this period. Renewed Welsh and Viking attacks led to a reduction in Anglo-Saxon power in north Wales from the early 10th century, following the Welsh reconquest of the area during the 11th century, Wrexham formed part of the native Welsh lordship of Maelor. During the 12th century the lordship was disputed between the Welsh and the English. The first recorded reference to the town in 1161 is to a Norman motte and bailey castle at Wristlesham which was founded in the Erddig area around 1150 by Hugh de Avranches. However, by the early 13th century Wrexham was undisputedly in the hands of the Welsh house of Powys Fadog, stability under the princes of Powys enabled Wrexham to develop as a trading town and administrative centre of one of the two commotes making up the Lordship. Following the loss of Welsh independence on the death of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd in 1282, Wrexham became part of the semi-independent Marcher lordship of Bromfield and Yale. From 1327 onwards, the town is referred to as a villa mercatoria and by 1391 Wrexham was wealthy enough for a bard, jester, juggler, dancer and goldsmith to earn their living there. At the beginning of the 15th century, the local gentry, local poet Glyn Gutor Glyn wrote of Sion ap Madog, the great-nephew of Owain Glyndŵr, as Alecsander i Wrecsam. In the mid 15th century, the church was gutted by fire. The main part of the current church was built in the late 15th, the Acts of Union passed during the reign of Henry VIII brought the lordship into the full system of English administration and law. It became part of the new shire of Denbighshire in 1536, the economic character remained predominantly agricultural into the 17th century but there were workshops of weavers, smiths, nailers as well as dye houses. A grammar school was established in 1603 by Alderman Valentine Broughton of Chester, during the English Civil War, Wrexham was on the side of the Royalists, as most Welsh gentry supported the King, but local landowner Sir Thomas Myddelton, owner of Chirk Castle, supported Parliament. The Industrial Revolution began in Wrexham in 1762 when the entrepreneur John Wilkinson, known as Iron Mad Wilkinson, wilkinsons steam engines enabled a peak of production at Minera Lead Mines on the outskirts of Wrexham. Wrexham was also known for its industry, by the 18th century there were a number of skinners and tanners in the town
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Ellesmere, Shropshire
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Ellesmere /ˈɛlzmɪər/ is a market town near Oswestry in north Shropshire, England, notable for its proximity to a number of prominent lakes known as the Meres. Only its earthworks now remain, with the top of the motte being used for the bowling green, in 1114, King Henry I gave Ellesmere to William Peverel as a part of the Maelor, which included Overton & Whittington at that time. His descendants retained Ellesmere until apparently the late 1140s when the lordship was acquired, probably by force, Madog died in 1160 and Ellesmere came into the hands of King Henry II. In 1177 King Henry II gave the manors of Ellesmere and Hales in England to Dafydd ab Owain Gwynedd, Dafydd remained Lord of Ellesmere until his death in 1203. In mid-April 1205, Llywelyn the Great married Joan, Lady of Wales illegitimate daughter of King John, llywelyns mother was Marared, daughter of Madog ap Maredudd, Prince of Powys. There is evidence that, after her first husband Iorwerths death, Marared married in the summer of 1197, Gwion, Ellesmere was ordered to be attacked by King Henry III in 1231, but Llywelyn retained control of the lordship until his death in 1240. In 1241 King Henry III ordered John le Strange to repair the castle of Ellesmere. The lordship appears to have passed into the hands of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd or his brother Dafydd ap Gruffydd, grandsons of Llywelyn ab Iorwerth. The castle fell to troops from Chester during March 1282. In 1287, Oliver Ingham, who was an English commander and administrator in Aquitaine during the War of Saint-Sardos and his daughter Joan married Robert le Strange, 4th Baron Strange, son of Lord Strange of Knockin & Isolda de Walton. By 1294, the preceptory of Dolgynwal had been united with Halston, Dolgynwal, which had been founded c. Griffins fourth son, Sir Roger Kynaston, was appointed for life as Escheator and Sheriff of Merioneth and became Constable of Harlech Castle, through his second marriage to Elizabeth Grey, their descendants derived royal descent. The former Marcher Lordship of Ellesmere was annexed to Shropshire and the Hundred of Pymhill by section 11 of the Laws in Wales Act 1535, Francis Egerton, 1st Earl of Ellesmere and Viscount Brackley, was born Lord Francis Leveson-Gower, in Ellesmere in 1800. Ellesmere Island in Canada was named after him, there was a tannery located on the edge of the Mere in what is now known as Cremorne Gardens. These gardens were given to the people of Ellesmere by Lord Brownlow who was involved in the Edward VIII abdication crisis of 1936. The town is located by the side of the Mere, one of the largest natural meres in England outside the Lake District and these meres are different from those in the Lake District in that they do not have a flow of water into them to maintain the level. An artificial island in the Mere was constructed in 1812 from soil dug out during the making of the gardens at Ellesmere House and this was later named Moscow Island, as Napoleon was forced to retreat from Moscow that year. The Mere has a centre and is popular with birdwatchers
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Chester
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Chester is a walled city in Cheshire, England, on the River Dee, close to the border with Wales. With a population of 81,340 in 2014, it is the most populous settlement of Cheshire West and Chester, Chester was granted city status in 1541. Chester was founded as a castrum or Roman fort with the name Deva Victrix in the reign of the Emperor Vespasian in 79 AD, one of the main army camps in Roman Britain, Deva later became a major civilian settlement. Chester was one of the last cities in England to fall to the Normans, william the Conqueror ordered the construction of a castle, to dominate the town and the nearby Welsh border. Chester is one of the best preserved walled cities in Britain and it has a number of medieval buildings, but some of the black-and-white buildings within the city centre are Victorian restorations. Apart from a 100-metre section, the listed Grade I walls are almost complete, the Roman Legio II Adiutrix during the reign of the Emperor Vespasian founded Chester in AD79, as a castrum or Roman fort with the name Deva Victrix. The victrix part of the name was taken from the title of the Legio XX Valeria Victrix which was based at Deva, Central Chesters four main roads, Eastgate, Northgate, Watergate and Bridgegate, follow routes laid out at this time. A civilian settlement grew around the base, probably originating from trade with the fortress. The civilian amphitheatre, which was built in the 1st century and it is the largest known military amphitheatre in Britain, and is also a Scheduled Monument. The Minerva Shrine in the Roman quarry is the rock cut Roman shrine still in situ in Britain. The fortress was garrisoned by the legion until at least the late 4th century, after the Roman troops withdrew, the Romano-British established a number of petty kingdoms. Chester is thought to have part of Powys. Deverdoeu was a Welsh name for Chester as late as the 12th century, another, attested in the 9th century History of the Britons traditionally attributed to Nennius, is Cair Legion, this later developed into Caerlleon and then the modern Welsh Caer. King Arthur is said to have fought his ninth battle at the city of the legions and later St Augustine came to the city to try to unite the church, and held his synod with the Welsh Bishops. In 616, Æthelfrith of Northumbria defeated a Welsh army at the brutal and decisive Battle of Chester and her name is still remembered in St Werburghs Street which passes alongside the cathedral, and near the city walls. It was Alfreds daughter Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians, that built the new Saxon burh, a new Church dedicated to St Peter alone was founded in AD907 by the Lady Æthelfleda at what was to become the Cross. Taking the helm of a barge, he was rowed the short distance up the River Dee from Edgars Field to the great Minster Church of St John the Baptist by six tributary kings called reguli. In 1071 he made Hugh dAvranches, who built Chester Castle, from the 14th century to the 18th century the citys prominent position in North West England meant that it was commonly also known as Westchester
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Chester Canal
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The Chester Canal was an English canal linking the south Cheshire town of Nantwich with the River Dee at Chester. There were also negotiating with the River Dee Company, and with no possibility of through traffic. Part of it was closed in 1787, when Beeston staircase locks collapsed, when the Ellesmere Canal was proposed in 1790, the company saw it as a ray of hope, and somehow managed to keep the struggling canal open. The Ellesmere Canal provided a link to the River Mersey at Ellesmere Port from 1797, the canal then became the middle section of a much longer and more profitable canal. The two companies merged in 1813, becoming the Ellesmere and Chester Canal, the branch opened in 1833, and the Junction Canal opened in 1835. Amalgamation followed in 1845, with the new company retaining the name of the Ellesmere, the following year, the Shropshire Union Railways and Canal Company was formed from the Ellesmere and Chester company, which also took over a number of canals which joined theirs. Plans to convert some of the canals to railways were put on hold in the 1847, the canals were nationalised in 1948, and long-distance commercial traffic had all but ended by 1958. In 1963, the British Waterways Board was formed and the canal ceased to be operated by railway interests for the first time in over 100 years. It was designated as a waterway in the Transport Act 1968, with potential for leisure use. In 1997, the Chester Canal Heritage Trust was formed and has worked to promote the canal, responsibility for the canal passed from British Waterways to the newly formed Canal & River Trust in 2012. The idea had first been raised three years earlier, when merchants suggested a line from the Trent and Mersey to near Runcorn, there were no objections from the Corporation of Liverpool, but the canal company was non-committal. By 1770, the plans were a little clearer, with a line from Chester to Middlewich. Although the Corporation of Chester subscribed £100 towards the scheme, despite attempts at flattery, the Duke would not alter his position, and so the Company promoting the bill in parliament began with a serious disadvantage. The Act allowed the company to raise £42,000 by issuing shares. Of this, only £28,000 had been subscribed at the time of the Act, Weston had previously worked as a surveyor, and had been involved in excavating canals as a contractor, but had no experience of managing a major engineering project. The Mayor of Chester cut the first sod at the end of April, there were concerns that while the canal was being constructed past Northgate Gardens, prisoners from Northgate Prison might escape, and the company had to give a bond against this possibility. The canal was conceived as a canal, designed with locks which were 80 feet by 14 feet 9 inches suitable for broad-beam barges. The project was hampered by financial and engineering problems, and so progress was slow, at the Chester end, the River Dee Company had managed to insert a clause into the Act which restricted the width of the final lock into the river to 7 feet
"Telford, Thomas". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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