1.
Neuropsychology
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Neuropsychology studies the structure and function of the brain as they relate to specific psychological processes and behaviors. It thus shares concepts and concerns with neuropsychiatry and with behavioral neurology in general, the term neuropsychology has been applied to lesion studies in humans and animals. It has also applied to efforts to record electrical activity from individual cells in higher primates. It is scientific in its approach, making use of neuroscience, in practice, neuropsychologists tend to work in research settings, clinical settings, forensic settings or industry. Neuropsychology is a new discipline within the field of psychology. The history of its discovery can be traced back to the Third Dynasty in ancient Egypt, there is much debate as to when societies started considering the functions of different organs. For many centuries, the brain was thought useless, and was discarded during burial processes and autopsies. As the field of medicine developed its understanding of anatomy and physiology. Many times, bodily functions were approached from a point of view and abnormalities were blamed on bad spirits. The brain has not always considered the center of the functioning body. It has taken hundreds of years to develop our understanding of the brain, the study of the brain can be linked all the way back to around 3500 B. C. Imhotep, a highly regarded priest and one of the first physicians recorded in history, imhotep took a more scientific, rather than magical, approach to medicine and disease. Despite this detailed information, Egyptians did not see the brain as the seat of the locus of control, Egyptians preferred to look at the heart as the seat of the soul. The Greeks, however, looked upon the brain as the seat of the soul, Hippocrates drew a connection between the brain and behaviors of the body saying The brain exercises the greatest power in the man. Apart from moving the focus from the heart as the seat of the soul to the brain, however, by switching the attention of the medical community to the brain, the doors were opened to a more scientific discovery of the organ responsible for our behaviors. For years to come, scientists were inspired to explore the functions of the body, scientific discovery led them to believe that there were natural and organically occurring reasons to explain various functions of the body, and it could all be traced back to the brain. Over the years, science would continue to expand and the mysteries of the world would begin to make sense, Hippocrates introduced man to the concept of the mind – which was widely seen as a separate function apart from the actual brain organ. Philosopher René Descartes expanded upon this idea and is most widely known by his work on the mind-body problem, often, Descartes ideas were looked upon as overly philosophical and lacking in sufficient scientific background
2.
Cognitive neuropsychology
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Cognitive neuropsychology is a branch of cognitive psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relates to specific psychological processes. Cognitive neuropsychology places an emphasis on studying the cognitive effects of brain injury or neurological illness with a view to inferring models of normal cognitive functioning. Evidence is based on studies of individual brain damaged patients who show deficits in brain areas. Double dissociations involve two patients and two tasks, one patient is impaired at one task but normal on the other, while the other patient is normal on the first task and impaired on the other. Scientists can interpret this information to explain how there is a cognitive module for word comprehension. From studies like these, researchers infer that different areas of the brain are highly specialised, Cognitive neuropsychology has its roots in the Diagram Making approach to language disorder that started in the second half of the 19th century. The discovery that took different forms depending on the location of brain damage provided a powerful framework for understanding brain function. In 1861 Paul Broca, reported a post mortem study of a patient who was speechless apart from a single nonsense word. Broca showed that an area of the frontal lobe was damaged. Broca did a study on another patient, Lelong, a few weeks later. Lelong, like Tan, could understand speech but could only repeat the same 5 words, after examining his brain, Broca noticed that Lelong had a lesion in approximately the same area as his patient Tan. He also noticed that in the more than 25 patients he examined with aphasia, they all had lesions to the frontal lobe. From this he concluded that the function of speech was localized in the inferior frontal gyrus of the left hemisphere of the brain. Karl Wernicke subsequently reported patients with damage further back in the temporal lobe who could speak but were unable to understand what was said to them, providing evidence for two potentially interconnected language centres. These clinical descriptions were integrated into a theory of organisation by. However, the early 20th century saw a reaction to the accounts of the diagram making neurologists. Pierre Marie challenged conclusions against previous evidence of Broca’s areas in 1906, the rebirth of neuropsychology was marked by the publish of two seminal collaborative papers from Marshall & Newcombe on reading and Warrington & Shallice on memory. Interestingly, it took less than one decade for neuropsychology to be fully re-established. <re f name=ReferenceA/>A particular area of interest was memory, patients with amnesia caused by injuries to the hippocampus in the temporal cortex and midbrain areas (especially the mamillary bodies were of early interest
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Cognitive neuroscience
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It addresses the questions of how cognitive activities are affected or controlled by neural circuits in the brain. Cognitive neuroscience is a branch of neuroscience and psychology, overlapping with disciplines such as physiological psychology, cognitive psychology. Cognitive neuroscience relies upon theories in cognitive science coupled with evidence from neuropsychology, parts of the brain play an important role in this field. Neurons play the most vital role, since the point is to establish an understanding of cognition from a neural perspective. Due to its nature, cognitive neuroscientists may have various backgrounds. Studies of patients with cognitive deficits due to brain lesions constitute an important aspect of cognitive neuroscience, the damages in lesioned brains provide a comparable basis with regards to healthy and fully functioning brains. These damages change the neural circuits in the brain and cause it to malfunction during basic cognitive processes, with the damage, we can compare how the healthy neural circuits are functioning, and possibly draw conclusions about the basis of the affected cognitive processes. Also, cognitive abilities based on brain development are studied and examined under the subfield of developmental cognitive neuroscience and this shows brain development over time, analyzing differences and concocting possible reasons for those differences. Theoretical approaches include computational neuroscience and cognitive psychology, Cognitive neuroscience is an interdisciplinary area of study that has emerged from many other fields, perhaps most significantly neuroscience, psychology, and computer science. There were several stages in these disciplines that changed the way researchers approached their investigations, however, early efforts to subdivide the brain proved to be problematic. The phrenologist movement failed to supply a basis for its theories and has since been rejected. C. to its rebirth in the 17th and 18th century in the works of Galileo, Descartes. Among others, it’s Descartes’ idea that humans build could work as models of scientific explanation. For example, Aristotle thought the brain was the cooling system. However, Galen believed that personality and emotion were not generated by the brain, andreas Vesalius, an anatomist and physician, was the first to believe that the brain and the nervous system are the center of the mind and emotion. Psychology, a major contributing field to cognitive neuroscience, emerged from philosophical reasoning about the mind, one of the predecessors to cognitive neuroscience was phrenology, a pseudoscientific approach that claimed that behavior could be determined by the shape of the scalp. In the early 19th century, Franz Joseph Gall and J. G. Spurzheim believed that the brain was localized into approximately 35 different sections. This theory gained significant public attention, leading to the publication of journals and the creation of phrenometers. While phrenology remained a fixture at fairs and carnivals, it did not enjoy wide acceptance within the scientific community, the major criticism of phrenology is that researchers were not able to test theories empirically
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Neuroanatomy
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Neuroanatomy is the study of the anatomy and stereotyped organization of nervous systems. In contrast to animals with radial symmetry, whose nervous system consists of a network of cells, animals with bilateral symmetry have segregated, defined nervous systems. Their neuroanatomy is therefore better understood, in vertebrates, the nervous system is segregated into the internal structure of the brain and spinal cord and the routes of the nerves that connect to the rest of the body. The delineation of distinct structures and regions of the system has been critical in investigating how it works. For example, much of what neuroscientists have learned comes from observing how damage or lesions to specific brain areas affects behavior or other neural functions, for information about the composition of animal nervous systems, see nervous system. For information about the structure of the human nervous system. This article discusses information pertinent to the study of neuroanatomy, the first known written record of a study of the anatomy of the human brain is the ancient Egyptian document the Edwin Smith Papyrus. The next major development in neuroanatomy came from the Greek Alcmaeon, who determined that the brain and not the heart ruled the body, herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria were perhaps the most influential Greek neuroscientists with their studies involving dissecting the brains. For several hundred years afterward, with the taboo of dissection. However, Pope Sixtus IV effectively revitalized the study of neuroanatomy by altering the papal policy and this resulted in a boom of research in neuroanatomy by artists and scientists of the Renaissance. In 1664, Thomas Willis, a physician and professor at Oxford University, the subsequent three hundred and fifty some years has produced a great deal of documentation and study of the neural systems. At the tissue level, the system is composed of neurons, glial cells. Both neurons and glial cells come in many types, glial cells maintain homeostasis, produce myelin, and provide support and protection for the brains neurons. Some glial cells can even propagate intercellular calcium waves over distances in response to stimulation. The extracellular matrix also provides support on the level for the brains cells. At the organ level, the system is composed of brain regions. These regions are often modular and serve a role within the general pathways of the nervous system. For example, the hippocampus is critical for forming memories, the nervous system also contains nerves, which are bundles of fibers that originate from the brain and spinal cord, and branch repeatedly to innervate every part of the body
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Neurophysiology
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Neurophysiology is a branch of physiology and neuroscience that is concerned with the study of the functioning of the nervous system. Neurophysiology has been a subject of study since as early as 4,000 B. C, in the early B. C. years, most studies were of different natural sedatives like alcohol and poppy plants. In 1700 B. C. the Edwin Smith surgical papyrus was written and this papyrus was crucial in understanding how the ancient Egyptians understood the nervous system. This papyrus looked at different case studies about injuries to different parts of the body, hippocrates began to study epilepsy, and theorized that it had its origins in the brain. Hippocrates also theorized that the brain was involved in sensation, hippocrates, as well as most ancient Greeks, believed that relaxation and a stress free environment was crucial in helping treat neurological disorders. Erasistratus of Chios theorized that there were divisions in the processing the brain. In 177 Galen theorized that human thought occurred in the brain, the optic chiasm, which is crucial to the visual system, was discovered around 100 C. E. by Marinus. Circa 1000, Al-Zahrawi, living in Iberia, began to write about different surgical treatments for neurological disorders, in 1216, the first anatomy textbook in Europe, which included a description of the brain, was written by Mondino de Luzzi. In 1402, St Mary of Bethlehem Hospital was the first hospital used exclusively for the mentally ill, in 1504, Leonardo da Vinci continued his study of the human body with a wax cast of the human ventricle system. In 1536, Nicolo Massa described the effects of different diseases and he also noticed that the ventricular cavities were filled with cerebrospinal fluid. In 1542, the term physiology was used for the first time by a French physician named Jean Fernel, in 1543, Andreas Vesalius wrote De humani corporis fabrica, which revolutionized the study of anatomy. In this book, he described the gland and what he believed the function was, and was able to draw the corpus striatum which is made up of the basal ganglia. In 1549, Jason Pratensis published De Cerebri Morbis and this book was devoted to neurological diseases, and discussed symptoms, as well as ideas from Galen and other Greek, Roman and Arabic authors. It also looked into the anatomy and specific functions of different areas, in 1550, Andreas Vesalius worked on a case of hydrocephalus, or fluid filling the brain. In the same year, Bartolomeo Eustachi studied the optic nerve, in 1564, Giulio Cesare Aranzio discovered the hippocampus, naming it such due to its shape resemblance to a sea horse. In 1621, Robert Burton published The Anatomy of Melancholy, which looked at the loss of important characters in ones life as leading to depression, in 1649, René Descartes studied the pineal gland. He mistakenly believed that it was the soul of the brain, in 1658, Johann Jakob Wepfer studied a patient in which he believed that a broken blood vessel had caused apoplexy, or a stroke. In 1749, David Hartley published Observations on Man, which focused on frame, duty and expectations and this text was also the first to use the English term psychology
6.
Brain
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The brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. The brain is located in the head, usually close to the organs for senses such as vision. The brain is the most complex organ in a vertebrates body, in a human, the cerebral cortex contains approximately 15–33 billion neurons, each connected by synapses to several thousand other neurons. Physiologically, the function of the brain is to exert centralized control over the other organs of the body, the brain acts on the rest of the body both by generating patterns of muscle activity and by driving the secretion of chemicals called hormones. This centralized control allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment, the operations of individual brain cells are now understood in considerable detail but the way they cooperate in ensembles of millions is yet to be solved. This article compares the properties of brains across the range of animal species. It deals with the human brain insofar as it shares the properties of other brains, the ways in which the human brain differs from other brains are covered in the human brain article. Several topics that might be covered here are instead covered there because more can be said about them in a human context. The most important is brain disease and the effects of brain damage, the shape and size of the brain varies greatly between species, and identifying common features is often difficult. Nevertheless, there are a number of principles of architecture that apply across a wide range of species. Some aspects of structure are common to almost the entire range of animal species, others distinguish advanced brains from more primitive ones. The simplest way to gain information about brain anatomy is by visual inspection, Brain tissue in its natural state is too soft to work with, but it can be hardened by immersion in alcohol or other fixatives, and then sliced apart for examination of the interior. Visually, the interior of the consists of areas of so-called grey matter, with a dark color, separated by areas of white matter. Further information can be gained by staining slices of tissue with a variety of chemicals that bring out areas where specific types of molecules are present in high concentrations. It is also possible to examine the microstructure of brain tissue using a microscope, the brains of all species are composed primarily of two broad classes of cells, neurons and glial cells. Glial cells come in types, and perform a number of critical functions, including structural support, metabolic support, insulation. Neurons, however, are considered the most important cells in the brain. The property that makes neurons unique is their ability to send signals to target cells over long distances
7.
Arousal
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Arousal is the physiological and psychological state of being awoken or of sense organs stimulated to a point of perception. The arousal system involves many different neural systems, when these systems are in action, the receiving neural areas become sensitive and responsive to incoming signals, producing alertness and cortical activity. Arousal is important in regulating consciousness, attention, alertness, and it is a crucial for motivating certain behaviours, such as mobility, the pursuit of nutrition, the fight-or-flight response and sexual activity. It is also important in emotion and has included in theories such as the James-Lange theory of emotion. According to Hans Eysenck, differences in baseline arousal level lead people to be extraverts or introverts, the Yerkes-Dodson law states that an optimal level of arousal for performance exists, and too little or too much arousal can adversely affect task performance. One interpretation of the Yerkes-Dodson Law is the Easterbrook cue-utilisation hypothesis, Easterbrook states that an increase of arousal decreases the number of cues that can be used. The arousal system involves many different neural systems, when stimulated, these systems produce cortical activity and alertness. The noradrenergic system is a bundle of axons that originate in the locus coeruleus and ascends up into the neocortex, limbic system, most of the neurons are projected to the posterior cortex which is important with sensory information, and alertness. The activation of the locus coeruleus and release of norepinephrine causes wakefulness, the neurons that project into the basal forebrain impact cholinergic neurons that results in a flood of acetylcholine into the cerebral cortex. The acetylcholinergic system has its neurons located in the pons and in the basal forebrain, stimulation of these neurons result in cortical activity, shown from EEG records, and alertness. All of the other four neurotransmitters play a role in activating the acetylcholine neurons, another arousal system, the dopaminergic system, releases dopamine produced by the substantia nigra. The neurons arise in the ventral tegmental area in the midbrain, and projects to the nucleus accumbens, the forebrain, limbic system. The limbic system is important for control of mood, and the nucleus accumbens signal excitement, the path terminating in the prefrontal cortex is important in regulating motor movements, especially reward oriented movements. The serotonergic system has almost all of its serotonergic neurons originating in the raphe nuclei and this system projects to the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex. Stimulation of these axons and release of serotonin causes cortical arousal and impacts locomotion, the neurons of the histamergenic system are in the tuberomammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus. These neurons send pathways to the cortex, thalamus, and the basal forebrain. All of these systems are linked and show similar redundancy, the pathways described are ascending pathways, but there also arousal pathways that descend. One example is the preoptic area, which release GABA reuptake inhibitors
8.
Attention
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It is the taking possession by the mind in clear and vivid form of one out of what seem several simultaneous objects or trains of thought. Focalization, concentration of consciousness are of its essence, Attention has also been referred to as the allocation of limited processing resources. Attention remains an area of investigation within education, psychology, neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience. The relationships between attention and consciousness are complex enough that they have warranted perennial philosophical exploration, prior to the founding of psychology as a scientific discipline, attention was studied in the field of philosophy. Due to this, many of the discoveries in the field of Attention were made by philosophers. Psychologist John Watson cites Juan Luis Vives as the Father of Modern Psychology due to his book De Anima et Vita in which Vives was the first to recognize the importance of empirical investigation. In his work on memory, Vives found that the more closely one attends to stimuli, by the 1990s, psychologists began using PET and later fMRI to image the brain while monitoring attention tasks. Because of the expensive equipment that was generally only available in hospitals. Pioneers of brain imaging studies of attention are psychologist Michael Posner. Their results soon sparked interest from the neuroscience community in these psychological studies. The results of experiments have shown a broad agreement with the psychological, psychophysiological. In cognitive psychology there are at least two models which describe how visual attention operates and these models may be considered loosely as metaphors which are used to describe internal processes and to generate hypotheses that are falsifiable. Generally speaking, visual attention is thought to operate as a two-stage process, in the first stage, attention is distributed uniformly over the external visual scene and processing of information is performed in parallel. In the second stage, attention is concentrated to an area of the visual scene. The first of these models to appear in the literature is the spotlight model, the term spotlight was inspired by the work of William James, who described attention as having a focus, a margin, and a fringe. The focus is an area that extracts information from the scene with a high-resolution. Surrounding the focus is the fringe of attention, which extracts information in a more crude fashion. This fringe extends out to an area, and the cut-off is called the margin
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Consciousness
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Consciousness is the state or quality of awareness, or, of being aware of an external object or something within oneself. Despite the difficulty in definition, many believe that there is a broadly shared underlying intuition about what consciousness is. Western philosophers, since the time of Descartes and Locke, have struggled to comprehend the nature of consciousness, the majority of experimental studies assess consciousness in humans by asking subjects for a verbal report of their experiences. The origin of the concept of consciousness is often attributed to John Lockes Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Locke defined consciousness as the perception of what passes in a mans own mind and his essay influenced the 18th-century view of consciousness, and his definition appeared in Samuel Johnsons celebrated Dictionary. Consciousness is also defined in the 1753 volume of Diderot and dAlemberts Encyclopédie, the earliest English language uses of conscious and consciousness date back, however, to the 1500s. This phrase had the meaning of knowing that one knows. In its earliest uses in the 1500s, the English word conscious retained the meaning of the Latin conscius. For example, Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan wrote, Where two, or more men, know of one and the fact, they are said to be Conscious of it one to another. The Latin phrase conscius sibi, whose meaning was more related to the current concept of consciousness, was rendered in English as conscious to oneself or conscious unto oneself. For example, Archbishop Ussher wrote in 1613 of being so conscious unto myself of my great weakness, Lockes definition from 1690 illustrates that a gradual shift in meaning had taken place. A related word was conscientia, which primarily means moral conscience, in the literal sense, conscientia means knowledge-with, that is, shared knowledge. The word first appears in Latin juridical texts by such as Cicero. Here, conscientia is the knowledge that a witness has of the deed of someone else, rené Descartes is generally taken to be the first philosopher to use conscientia in a way that does not fit this traditional meaning. Descartes used conscientia the way modern speakers would use conscience, in Search after Truth he says conscience or internal testimony. The dictionary meaning of the word consciousness extends through several centuries, B. inward awareness of an external object, state, or fact. The philosophy of mind has given rise to many stances regarding consciousness, something within ones mind is introspectively conscious just in case one introspects it. Introspection is often thought to deliver ones primary knowledge of ones mental life, an experience or other mental entity is phenomenally conscious just in case there is something it is like for one to have it
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Decision-making
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This article deals with decision-making as analyzed in psychology. In psychology, decision-making is regarded as the process resulting in the selection of a belief or a course of action among several alternative possibilities. Every decision-making process produces a final choice, it may or may not prompt action, decision-making is the process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision-maker. Decision-making can be regarded as a problem-solving activity terminated by a solution deemed to be satisfactory and it is therefore a process which can be more or less rational or irrational and can be based on explicit or tacit knowledge. Cognitive, the decision-making process regarded as a continuous process integrated in the interaction with the environment, normative, the analysis of individual decisions concerned with the logic of decision-making, or communicative rationality, and the invariant choice it leads to. A major part of decision-making involves the analysis of a set of alternatives described in terms of evaluative criteria. Then the task might be to rank these alternatives in terms of how attractive they are to the decision-maker when all the criteria are considered simultaneously. Another task might be to find the best alternative or to determine the relative priority of each alternative when all the criteria are considered simultaneously. Solving such problems is the focus of multiple-criteria decision analysis and this leads to the formulation of a decision-making paradox. Logical decision-making is an important part of all science-based professions, where specialists apply their knowledge in an area to make informed decisions. For example, medical decision-making often involves a diagnosis and the selection of appropriate treatment and they may follow a recognition primed decision that fits their experience and arrive at a course of action without weighing alternatives. The decision-makers environment can play a part in the decision-making process, for example, environmental complexity is a factor that influences cognitive function. A complex environment is an environment with a number of different possible states which come. Studies done at the University of Colorado have shown that more complex environments correlate with cognitive function. One experiment measured complexity in a room by the number of objects and appliances present. Cognitive function was greatly affected by the measure of environmental complexity making it easier to think about the situation. Research about decision-making is also published under the label problem solving and it is important to differentiate between problem analysis and decision-making. Traditionally, it is argued that problem analysis must be done first, information overload is a gap between the volume of information and the tools we have to assimilate it
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Executive functions
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These are basic cognitive processes such as attentional control, cognitive inhibition, inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Higher order executive functions require the use of multiple basic executive functions and include planning. Executive functions gradually develop and change across the lifespan of an individual, similarly, these cognitive processes can be adversely affected by a variety of events which affect an individual. Both Neuropsychological tests and rating scales are used to measure executive functions and they are usually performed as part of a more comprehensive assessment to diagnose neurological and psychiatric disorders. The prefrontal cortex is necessary but not solely sufficient for executive functions, for example, cognitive control is impaired in addiction, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and a number of other central nervous system disorders. Stimulus-driven behavioral responses that are associated with a rewarding stimulus tend to dominate ones behavior in an addiction. Historically, the functions have been seen as regulated by the prefrontal regions of the frontal lobes. This means that both frontal and non-frontal brain regions are necessary for intact executive functions, probably the frontal lobes need to participate in basically all of the executive functions, but it is not the only brain structure involved. Neuroimaging and lesion studies have identified the functions which are most often associated with the regions of the prefrontal cortex. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is involved with processing of information such as integrating different dimensions of cognition. The anterior cingulate cortex is involved in emotional drives, experience, associated cognitive functions include inhibition of inappropriate responses, decision making and motivated behaviours. The orbitofrontal cortex plays a key role in control, maintenance of set, monitoring ongoing behaviour. The orbitofrontal cortex also has roles in representing the value of rewards based on sensory stimuli, lesions can cause disinhibition, impulsivity, aggressive outbursts, sexual promiscuity and antisocial behaviour. Furthermore, in their review, Alvarez and Emory state that, The frontal lobes have multiple connections to cortical, subcortical, thus, the concept of executive function must be broad enough to include anatomical structures that represent a diverse and diffuse portion of the central nervous system. The cerebellum also appears to be involved in mediating certain executive functions, a prepotent response is a response for which immediate reinforcement is available or has been previously associated with that response. The executive functions are often invoked when it is necessary to override these prepotent responses that might otherwise be automatically elicited by stimuli in the external environment. For example, on being presented with a rewarding stimulus, such as a tasty piece of chocolate cake. However, where such behavior conflicts with plans, the executive functions might be engaged to inhibit that response
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Learning
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The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals, plants and some machines. Progress over time tends to follow a learning curve, Learning does not happen all at once, but it builds upon and is shaped by previous knowledge. To that end, learning may be viewed as a process, Learning produces changes in the organism and the changes produced are relatively permanent. Human learning may occur as part of education, personal development, schooling and it may be goal-oriented and may be aided by motivation. The study of how learning occurs is part of psychology, neuropsychology, learning theory. Learning may occur consciously or without conscious awareness, Learning that an aversive event cant be avoided nor escaped is called learned helplessness. Play has been approached by several theorists as the first form of learning, children experiment with the world, learn the rules, and learn to interact through play. Lev Vygotsky agrees that play is pivotal for childrens development, since they make meaning of their environment through playing educational games, non-associative learning refers to a relatively permanent change in the strength of response to a single stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus. Changes due to such factors as sensory adaptation, fatigue, or injury do not qualify as non-associative learning, non-associative learning can be divided into habituation and sensitization. Habituation is an example of learning in which the strength or probability of a response diminishes when the response is repeated. The response is typically a reflex or unconditioned response, thus, habituation must be distinguished from extinction, which is an associative process. In operant extinction, for example, a response declines because it is no longer followed by reward. An example of habituation can be seen in small song birds—if a stuffed owl is put into the cage, soon the birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed owl is introduced, the birds react to it again as though it were a predator, habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal, as well as the sensitive plant Mimosa pudica and the large protozoan Stentor coeruleus. Sensitization is an example of learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus. An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated stimulation of peripheral nerves that occurs if a person rubs their arm continuously. After a while, this creates a warm sensation that eventually turns painful. The pain results from the progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves warning that the stimulation is harmful, sensitisation is thought to underlie both adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism
13.
Memory
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Memory is the faculty of the mind by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Memory is vital to experiences and related to systems, it is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action. If we could not remember past events, we could not learn or develop language, relationships, often memory is understood as an informational processing system with explicit and implicit functioning that is made up of a sensory processor, short-term memory, and long-term memory. The sensory processor allows information from the world to be sensed in the form of chemical and physical stimuli and attended to with various levels of focus. Working memory serves as an encoding and retrieval processor, information in the form of stimuli is encoded in accordance with explicit or implicit functions by the working memory processor. The working memory also retrieves information from previously stored material, finally, the function of long-term memory is to store data through various categorical models or systems. Explicit and implicit functions of memory are known as declarative and non-declarative systems. These systems involve the purposeful intention of memory retrieval and storage, declarative, or explicit, memory is the conscious storage and recollection of data. Under declarative memory resides semantic and episodic memory, semantic memory refers to memory that is encoded with specific meaning, while episodic memory refers to information that is encoded along a spatial and temporal plane. Declarative memory is usually the primary process thought of when referencing memory, non-declarative, or implicit, memory is the unconscious storage and recollection of information. An example of a process would be the unconscious learning or retrieval of information by way of procedural memory. Memory is not a processor, and is affected by many factors. The manner information is encoded, stored, and retrieved can all be corrupted, the amount of attention given new stimuli can diminish the amount of information that becomes encoded for storage. Also, the process can become corrupted by physical damage to areas of the brain that are associated with memory storage. Finally, the retrieval of information from long-term memory can be disrupted because of decay within long-term memory, normal functioning, decay over time, and brain damage all affect the accuracy and capacity of memory. Sensory memory holds sensory information less than one second after an item is perceived, the ability to look at an item and remember what it looked like with just a split second of observation, or memorization, is the example of sensory memory. It is out of control and is an automatic response. With very short presentations, participants often report that they seem to see more than they can actually report, the first experiments exploring this form of sensory memory were precisely conducted by George Sperling using the partial report paradigm
14.
Perception
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Perception is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the environment. All perception involves signals in the system, which in turn result from physical or chemical stimulation of the sense organs. For example, vision involves light striking the retina of the eye, smell is mediated by odor molecules, Perception is not the passive receipt of these signals, but is shaped by learning, memory, expectation, and attention. Perception can be split into two processes, firstly, processing sensory input, which transforms these low-level information to higher-level information. Secondly, processing which is connected with a persons concepts and expectations, Perception depends on complex functions of the nervous system, but subjectively seems mostly effortless because this processing happens outside conscious awareness. Since the rise of psychology in the 19th Century, psychologys understanding of perception has progressed by combining a variety of techniques. Psychophysics quantitatively describes the relationships between the qualities of the sensory input and perception. Sensory neuroscience studies the mechanisms underlying perception. Perceptual systems can also be studied computationally, in terms of the information they process, Perceptual issues in philosophy include the extent to which sensory qualities such as sound, smell or color exist in objective reality rather than in the mind of the perceiver. The perceptual systems of the brain enable individuals to see the world around them as stable, even though the information is typically incomplete. Human and animal brains are structured in a way, with different areas processing different kinds of sensory information. Some of these take the form of sensory maps, mapping some aspect of the world across part of the brains surface. These different modules are interconnected and influence each other, for instance, taste is strongly influenced by smell. The process of perception begins with an object in the real world, by means of light, sound or another physical process, the object stimulates the bodys sensory organs. These sensory organs transform the energy into neural activity—a process called transduction. This raw pattern of activity is called the proximal stimulus. These neural signals are transmitted to the brain and processed, the resulting mental re-creation of the distal stimulus is the percept. An example would be a shoe, the shoe itself is the distal stimulus
15.
Planning
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Planning is the process of thinking about and organizing the activities required to achieve a desired goal. It involves the creation and maintenance of a plan, such as aspects that require conceptual skills. There are even a couple of tests to measure someone’s capability of planning well, as such, planning is a fundamental property of intelligent behavior. Also, planning has a process and is necessary for multiple occupations. In each field there are different types of plans that help companies achieve efficiency, an important, albeit often ignored aspect of planning, is the relationship it holds to forecasting. Forecasting can be described as predicting what the future look like. Planning combines forecasting with preparation of scenarios and how to react to them, Planning is one of the most important project management and time management techniques. Planning is preparing a sequence of steps to achieve some specific goal. If a person does it effectively, they can reduce much the necessary time, when following a plan, a person can see how much they have progressed towards their project goal and how far they are from their destination. Individuals who were born Very Low Birth Weight and Extremely Low BirthWeight are at risk for various cognitive deficits including planning ability. There are a variety of tests which can be used to measure variance of planning ability between the subject and controls. Tower of Hanoi, a puzzle invented in 1883 by the French mathematician Édouard Lucas, there are different variations of the puzzle, the classic version consists of three rods and usually seven to nine discs of subsequently smaller size. Each move consists of taking the upper disk from one of the rods and sliding it onto another rod, no disk may be placed on top of a smaller disk. Tower of London is another test that was developed in 1992 specifically to detect deficits in planning as may occur with damage to the frontal lobe, test participants with damage to the left anterior frontal lobe demonstrated planning deficits. In test participants with damage to the anterior, and left or right posterior areas of the frontal lobes showed no impairment. Public policy planning includes environmental, land use, regional, urban, in many countries, the operation of a town and country planning system is often referred to as planning and the professionals which operate the system are known as planners. It is a conscious as well as sub-conscious activity and it is an anticipatory decision making process that helps in coping with complexities. It is deciding future course of action from amongst alternatives and it is a process that involves making and evaluating each set of interrelated decisions
16.
David Bohm
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To complement it, he developed a mathematical and physical theory of implicate and explicate order. In this, his epistemology mirrored his ontology, due to his Communist affiliations, Bohm was the subject of a federal government investigation in 1949, prompting him to leave the United States. He pursued his career in several countries, becoming first a Brazilian. Bohm was born in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, United States, to a Hungarian Jewish immigrant father, Samuel Bohm, and he was raised mainly by his father, a furniture-store owner and assistant of the local rabbi. Despite being raised in a Jewish family, he became an agnostic in his teenage years, Bohm attended Pennsylvania State College, graduating in 1939, and then the California Institute of Technology, for one year. He then transferred to the physics group directed by Robert Oppenheimer at the University of California, Berkeley. Bohm lived in the neighborhood as some of Oppenheimers other graduate students. He was active in Communist and Communist-backed organizations, including the Young Communist League, the Campus Committee to Fight Conscription, during World War II, the Manhattan Project mobilized much of Berkeleys physics research in the effort to produce the first atomic bomb. Though Oppenheimer had asked Bohm to work with him at Los Alamos, Bohm remained in Berkeley, teaching physics, until he completed his Ph. D. in 1943 by an unusual circumstance. According to Peat, the calculations that he had completed proved useful to the Manhattan Project and were immediately classified. Without security clearance, Bohm was denied access to his own work, not only would he be barred from defending his thesis, to satisfy the university, Oppenheimer certified that Bohm had successfully completed the research. Bohm later performed theoretical calculations for the Calutrons at the Y-12 facility in Oak Ridge, after the war, Bohm became an assistant professor at Princeton University, where he worked closely with Albert Einstein. In May 1949, the House Un-American Activities Committee called upon Bohm to testify because of his previous ties to suspected Communists, Bohm invoked his Fifth amendment right to refuse to testify, and refused to give evidence against his colleagues. In 1950 Bohm was arrested for refusing to answer HUACs questions and he was acquitted in May 1951, but Princeton had already suspended him. His request to go to Manchester received Einsteins support but was unsuccessful, Bohm then left for Brazil to assume a professorship of physics at the University of São Paulo at Jayme Tiomnos invitation, and on Einsteins and Oppenheimers recommendation. During his early period, Bohm made a number of significant contributions to physics, particularly quantum mechanics, as a post-graduate at Berkeley, he developed a theory of plasmas, discovering the electron phenomenon known now as Bohm-diffusion. His first book, Quantum Theory, published in 1951, was received by Einstein. But Bohm became dissatisfied with the interpretation of quantum theory he had written about in that book
17.
Antonio Damasio
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Antonio Damasio is a Portuguese-American neuroscientist and university professor. He is currently the David Dornsife Professor of Neuroscience, Psychology and Philosophy at the University of Southern California, damasios research in neuroscience has shown that emotions play a central role in social cognition and decision-making. Damasio studied medicine at the University of Lisbon Medical School, where he also did his neurological residency, for part of his studies, he researched behavioral neurology under the supervision of Norman Geschwind of the Aphasia Research Center in Boston. Damasios main field is neurobiology, especially neural systems which subserve emotion, decision-making, memory, language, Damasio might believe that emotions play a critical role in high-level cognition—an idea counter to dominant 20th-century views in psychology, neuroscience and philosophy. Damasio formulated the somatic marker hypothesis, a theory about how emotions, emotions provide the scaffolding for the construction of social cognition and are required for the self processes which undergird consciousness. Damasio provides a scientific validation of the linkage between feelings and the body by highlighting the connection between mind and nerve cells. The somatic marker hypothesis has inspired many neuroscience experiments carried out in laboratories in the U. S. and Europe, Damasio has been named by the Institute for Scientific Information as one of the most highly cited researchers in the past decade. The June–July issue of Sciences Humaines included Damasio in its list of 50 key thinkers in the sciences of the past two centuries. Damasio also proposed that emotions are part of regulation and are rooted in reward/punishment mechanisms. g. in ventromedial prefrontal cortex. He regards feelings as the foundation of sentience. This architecture is applicable to the understanding of processes and of aspects of consciousness related to the access of mental contents. At the end of the chain, extended consciousness permits conscience, as a clinician, he and his collaborators have studied and treated disorders of behaviour and cognition, and movement disorders. Damasios books deal with the relationship between emotions and feelings, and what their brain substrates. His 1994 book, Descartes Error, Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain, won the Science et Vie prize, was a finalist for the Los Angeles Times Book Award and it is regarded as one of the most influential books of the past two decades. Damasios Looking for Spinoza, Joy, Sorrow, and the Feeling Brain, was published in 2003, in it, Damasio suggested that Spinozas thinking foreshadowed discoveries in biology and neuroscience views on the mind-body problem and that Spinoza was a protobiologist. Damasios latest book is Self Comes to Mind, Constructing the Conscious Brain, the book received the Corinne International Book Prize. Damasio is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the National Academy of Medicine and he has also received doctorates from the Universities of Aachen, Copenhagen, Leiden, Barcelona, Coimbra, Leuven and numerous others. In 2013, the Escola Secundária António Damásio was dedicated in Lisbon and he says he writes in the belief that scientific knowledge can be a pillar to help humans endure and prevail
18.
Phineas Gage
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Phineas P. Historically, published accounts of Gage have almost always severely exaggerated and distorted his behavioral changes, frequently contradicting the known facts. A social recovery hypothesis suggests that Gages work as a driver in Chile fostered this recovery by providing daily structure which allowed him to regain lost social and personal skills. Gage was the first of five born to Jesse Eaton Gage and Hannah Trussell Gage of Grafton County. As Gage was doing this around 4,30 p. m. his attention was attracted by his men working behind him, circumstances to which the patient perhaps owes his life. I first noticed the wound upon the head before I alighted from my carriage, the top of the head appeared somewhat like an inverted funnel, as if some wedge-shaped body had passed from below upward. Mr. Gage, during the time I was examining this wound, was relating the manner in which he was injured to the bystanders, I did not believe Mr. Gages statement at that time, but thought he was deceived. Mr. Gage persisted in saying that the bar went through his head, Mr. G. got up and vomited, the effort of vomiting pressed out about half a teacupful of the brain, which fell upon the floor. Harlow took charge of the case around 6 p. m and you will excuse me for remarking here, that the picture presented was, to one unaccustomed to military surgery, truly terrific, but the patient bore his sufferings with the most heroic firmness. He recognized me at once, and said he hoped he was not much hurt and he seemed to be perfectly conscious, but was getting exhausted from the hemorrhage. His person, and the bed on which he was laid, were literally one gore of blood, with Williams assistance Harlow shaved the scalp around the region of the tamping irons exit, then removed coagulated blood, small bone fragments, and an ounce of protruding brain. A wet compress was applied, then a nightcap, then further bandaging to secure these dressings, Harlow also dressed Gages hands and forearms and ordered that Gages head be kept elevated. Late that evening Harlow noted, Mind clear, constant agitation of his legs, being alternately retracted and extended like the shafts of a fulling mill. Says he does not care to see his friends, as he shall be at work in a few days. Despite his own optimism, Gages convalescence was long, difficult, and uneven. Though recognizing his mother and uncle,12,30 on the morning after the accident, on the day he lost control of his mind. By the fourth day he was again rational, knows his friends, and after a weeks further improvement Harlow entertained, for the first time, the thought that it was possible for Gage to recover. This improvement, however, was of short duration, coma deepened, the globe of the left eye became more protuberant, with,61,283 pushing out rapidly from the internal canthus from the wounded brain, and coming out at the top of the head. By the fourteenth day, The exhalations from the mouth and head horribly fetid, comatose, but will answer in monosyllables if aroused. Will not take nourishment unless strongly urged
19.
Elkhonon Goldberg
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Elkhonon Goldberg is a neuropsychologist and cognitive neuroscientist known for his work in hemispheric specialization and the novelty-routinization theory. Goldberg studied at Moscow State University with the great neuropsychologist Alexander Luria and he offers post-doctoral training in Neuropsychology at Fielding Graduate University. Elkhonon Goldberg is the Founding Director of Luria Neuroscience Institute, an organization founded with the purpose of advancing research and disseminating knowledge about the brain and he describes himself as an atheist with agnostic tendencies. At Moscow State University, Goldberg studied psychology and mathematics and was among the proponents of the discipline known today as computational neuroscience. In the United States Goldbergs work has more clinical in nature. His research has focused on the function of the lobes, hemispheric specialization, memory, cognitive aging. Goldbergs work on frontal lobe functions includes the discovery of the reticulo-frontal disconnection syndrome, functional lateralization, first introduced by Michael Merzenich, the concept has gained the support of a number of leading neuroscientists. Nonetheless, it remains controversial and further research is required to validate it, as for left-handers and ambidextrals, Goldberg indicates that the two hemispheres are less differentiated in function and structure. For these individuals there may be instances in which the left takes the role of novelty processing. Specifically, the right hemisphere favors the heteromodal association cortex while the left favors the modality-specific association cortex, the latter deals solely with processing information arriving from individual sensory systems, such as visual, auditory, and sensory ones. This kind of cortex, favoring more local connections between adjacent cortical regions, dismantles the world around us to separate representations, think of an object in a three-dimensional space projected onto the x, y, z coordinates. Contemporary Neuropsychology and the Legacy of Luria, Hillsdale, NJ, the Executive Brain, Frontal Lobes and the Civilized Mind, NY, Oxford University Press,2001, paperback 2002. The Wisdom Paradox, How Your Mind Can Grow Stronger As Your Brain Grows Older, NY, Penguin,2005, UK edition, Free Press, Simon & Schuster,2005. The New Executive Brain, Frontal Lobes in a Complex World, NY, ISBN 978-0-19-532940-7 Brain fitness Alexander Luria Official website
20.
Patricia Goldman-Rakic
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Patricia Goldman-Rakic née Shoer was an American neuroscientist/neurobiologist known for her pioneering study of the frontal lobe and her work on the cellular basis of working memory. After postdoctoral positions at UCLA and New York University, she worked at the National Institute of Mental Health in neuropsychology and she moved to Yale School of Medicine in 1979 where she remained until her death. She was The Eugene Higgins Professor of Neuroscience in the department with joint appointments in the departments of psychiatry, neurology. Goldman-Rakic was the first to discover and describe the circuitry of the prefrontal cortex, before Goldman-Rakic, scientists thought that the higher cognitive functions of the prefrontal cortex were beyond the scope of scientific study. She used an approach, applying biochemical, electrophysiological, pharmacological, anatomical and behavioral techniques to study working memory. She pioneered the first studies of dopamine influences on prefrontal cortical function, research that is critical to our understanding of schizophrenia, ADHD, a review of her lifes work, including her special role mentoring women scientists, can be found in the journal Neuron. Goldman-Rakic was also the founder of the Cerebral Cortex Journal, a publication by Oxford Press. Early on in her career, Goldman-Rakics studied the capacity of the brain to repair itself in early development, Goldman-Rakic had two sisters—her twin Ruth Rappaport and younger sister Linda Shoer—both of whom earned PhDs in science. Goldman-Rakic was married to Pasko Rakic, also a neuroscientist, on July 29,2003, Goldman-Rakic was struck by a car while crossing a street in Hamden, Connecticut. She died two days later, on July 31 at Yale-New Haven Hospital and she is buried in Grove Street Cemetery. Goldman-Rakic received the honors, Cerebral Cortex Patricia Goldman-Rakic, Mapping the Prefrontal Cortex
21.
Alexander Luria
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Alexander Romanovich Luria was a Soviet neuropsychologist and developmental psychologist. He was one of the founders of Cultural-Historical Psychology, and a leader of the Vygotsky Circle, Lurias magnum opus is Higher Cortical Functions in Man, a psychological textbook which has been translated into multiple languages and which he supplemented with The Working Brain in the 1970s. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Luria as the 69th most cited psychologist of the 20th century, Luria was born to Jewish parents in Kazan, a regional center east of Moscow. Many of his family were in medicine, two monographs of his fathers writings were published in Russian under the titles, Stomach and Gullet Illnesses and Inside Look at Illness and Gastrogenic Diseases. His mother, Evgenia Viktorovna Haskin, became a practicing dentist after finishing college in Poland, Luria was one of two children, his younger sister Lydia became a practicing psychiatrist. Luria finished school ahead of schedule and completed his first degree in 1921 at Kazan State University and he studied further at Kharkiv Medical Institute. Late in 1921, he moved to Moscow, where he lived on Arbat Street and he continued his studies at 1st Moscow Medical Institute. Simultaneously, he was offered a position at the Moscow Institute of Psychology, only this second title was published in the 1920s, in 1928, while the other two were published in the 1930s. This was an important discovery for neurolinguistics, in 1923, his work with reaction times related to thought processes earned him a position at the Institute of Psychology in Moscow. While at the Institute of Psychology in Moscow, Luria developed the combined motor method and this research was published in the US in 1932 as The Nature of Human Conflicts. In 1924, Luria met Lev Vygotsky, who would influence him greatly, along with Alexei Nikolaevich Leontev, these three psychologists launched a project of developing a psychology of a radically new kind. This approach fused cultural, historical, and instrumental psychology and is most commonly referred to presently as cultural-historical psychology and it emphasizes the mediatory role of culture, particularly language, in the development of higher mental functions in ontogeny and phylogeny within the domain of cognitive-mediation theory. The 1930s were significant to Luria because his studies of indigenous people opened the field of multiculturalism to his general interests and this interest would be revived in the later twentieth century by a variety of scholars and researchers who began studying and defending indigenous peoples throughout the world. Lurias work continued in field with expeditions to Central Asia. Under the supervision of Vygotsky, Luria investigated various psychological changes that place as a result of cultural development of undereducated minorities. In this regard he has credited with a major contribution to the study of orality. Also, Luria decided to pursue a degree as a physician, at the age of thirty-four, he was one of the youngest professors of psychology in the country. In 1933, Luria married Lana P. Lipchina, a well-known specialist in microbiology with a doctorate in the biological sciences, the couple lived in Moscow on Frunze Street, where their only daughter Lena was born
22.
Brenda Milner
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Milner is a professor in the Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery at McGill University and a professor of Psychology at the Montreal Neurological Institute. She currently holds more than 20 honorary degrees and continues to work in her nineties and her current work explores the interaction between the brain’s left and right hemispheres. Milner has been called the founder of neuropsychology, and has proven to be a key in its development. She received the Kavli Prize in Neuroscience “for the discovery of specialized brain networks for memory and cognition, together with John O’Keefe, Brenda Langford was born on July 15,1918, in Manchester, England. Milner’s father Samuel Langford was a critic, journalist. Though she was a daughter to two musically talented parents she had no interest in music, at the age of 6 months, she and her mother both contracted the Influenza Pandemic of 1918. This illness killed between 20 and 40 million people, more than were killed in World War I, thankfully she and her mother both recovered from this sickness. She was tutored by her father in mathematics and the arts until the age of 8. ”She attended Withington Girls School, Brenda was one of only 400 women admitted to this prestigious school at this time. However, after realizing she was not perceptive enough for mathematics, in 1939, Milner graduated with a B. A. degree in experimental psychology, which at that time was considered a moral science. Her supervisor at Cambridge was Oliver Zangwill and to him she owed her first interest in brain function. Oliver Zangwill was a Cambridge graduate with First Class Honors with Special Distinction, “He immediately began postgraduate research with Frederic Bartlett, who was by then Cambridge’s first Professor of Experimental Psychology. ”Zangwill’s career with Bartlett won him an honorable reputation. “Working with Bartlett was of significance for Zangwill’s career as Bartlett had a powerful effect on the shape of British academic psychology. ”Milner was awarded a Sarah Smithson Research Studentship by Newnham College after her graduation near the time of World War II. As a result of World War II, the work of the Cambridge Psychological Laboratory, Milners position in this was to devise perceptual tasks for future use in selecting aircrew. More specifically, she was on a team interested in distinguishing fighter pilots from bomber pilots using aptitude tests. ”In 1941 Brenda met her husband, both Brenda and her husband were working on radar research. He was an engineer who had also been recruited for the war effort. In 1944 they married and left England for Canada after Peter had been invited to work with physicists on atomic research and she and her husband traveled from England to Boston on the ship the Queen Elizabeth. They traveled with war brides who were traveling to the United States to live with their husbands families during the war, upon her and her husbands arrival in Canada, she began teaching psychology at the University of Montreal, where she stayed for 7 years. Brenda Milner graduated with a M. A. in experimental psychology in 1949, in Montreal, she became a Ph. D. candidate in psychophysiology at McGill University, under the direction of the distinguished Dr. Donald Olding Hebb
23.
Karl H. Pribram
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He worked with Karl Lashley at the Yerkes Primate Center of which he was to become director later. He was professor at Yale University for ten years and at Stanford University for thirty years and he was married to American best selling author Katherine Neville. Pribrams holonomic model of brain processing is described in his 1991 Brain and Perception, in addition, the processing occurring around these dendritic trees can influence that occurring in those trees of nearby neurons whose dendrites are entangled but not in direct contact. In this way, processing in the brain can occur in a non-localized manner and this type of processing is properly described by Dennis Gabor, the inventor of hologram, as quanta of information he called a holon, an energy-based concept of information. These wavelets are used in holography, the basis of MRI, PET scans. Gabor wavelets are windowed Fourier transforms that convert complex spatial patterns into component waves whose amplitudes at their intersections become reinforced or diminished, Fourier processes are the basis of holography. David Bohm had suggested that were we to view the cosmos without the lenses that outfit our telescopes, the universe would appear to us as a hologram. Pribram extended this insight by noting that were we deprived of the lenses of our eyes, in the late 1940s and early 1950s, Pribrams neurobehavioral experiments established the composition of the limbic system and the executive functions of the prefrontal cortex. His account of how his discoveries were made is in his book The Form Within which was published in 2013, in 1999, he was the inaugural winner of the Dagmar and Václav Havel Award for uniting the sciences and the humanities. He died in 2015 in Virginia, aged 95, miller, George, Galanter, Eugene, Pribram, Karl. Plans and the structure of behavior, new York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston. DeVore, Steven, Pribram, Karl The Neuropsychology of Achievement, languages of the brain, experimental paradoxes and principles in neuropsychology. Pribram, Karl, Gill, Morton M. Freuds Project re-assessed, preface to contemporary cognitive theory, Brain and perception, holonomy and structure in figural processing. Hillsdale, N. J. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, globus, Gordon G. Pribram, Karl H. Vitiello, Giuseppe. Brain And Being, At The Boundary Between Science, Philosophy, Language, new York, Harcourt Brace & World. CS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Pribram, K. H. & Luria, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Pribram, Karl, & Isaacson, Robert L. CS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Pribram, Karl, rethinking neural networks, quantum fields and biological data. Scale in conscious experience, Is the brain too important to be left to the specialists to study, mahwah, N. J. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
24.
Oliver Sacks
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Oliver Wolf Sacks, CBE, FRCP was a British neurologist, naturalist and author who spent his professional life in the United States. He believed that the brain is the most incredible thing in the universe and he became widely known for writing best-selling case histories about his patients disorders, with some of his books adapted for stage and film. After Sacks received his degree from the Queens College, Oxford in 1960. He then interned at Mount Zion Hospital in San Francisco and completed his residency in neurology and neuropathology at the University of California and he relocated to New York in 1965, where he first worked under a paid fellowship in neurochemistry and neuropathology at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine. Upon realising that the career he envisioned for himself would be a poor fit. While there, he worked with a group of survivors of the 1920s sleeping sickness encephalitis lethargica and his treatment of those patients became the basis of his book Awakenings. In the period from 1966 to 1991 he was a consultant to various New York City-area nursing homes, hospitals. Sacks was the author of numerous best-selling books, mostly collections of studies of people with neurological disorders. His writings have been featured in a range of media, the New York Times called him a poet laureate of contemporary medicine. Awakenings was adapted into an Academy Award-nominated film in 1990, starring Robin Williams and he and his book Musicophilia, Tales of Music and the Brain were the subject of Musical Minds, an episode of the PBS series Nova. Sacks was awarded a CBE for services to medicine in the 2008 Birthday Honours, unknown to his family, at the school, he and his brother Michael. Subsisted on meagre rations of turnips and beetroot and suffered cruel punishments at the hands of a sadistic headmaster and this is detailed in his first autobiography, Uncle Tungsten, Memories of a Chemical Boyhood. Later, he attended St Pauls School in London, during adolescence he became intensely interested in biology and learned to share his parents enthusiasm for medicine. He entered the Queens College, Oxford in 1951, obtaining a BA degree in physiology and biology in 1956, although not required, Sacks chose to stay on for an additional year to undertake research, after he had taken a course by Hugh Macdonald Sinclair. Sacks recalls, I had been seduced by a series of lectures on the history of medicine and nutrition. Sacks adds, And now, in Sinclairs lectures, it was the history of physiology, the ideas and personalities of physiologists, Sacks then became involved with the schools Laboratory of Human Nutrition under Sinclair. Sacks focused his research on Jamaica ginger, a toxic and commonly abused drug known to cause nerve damage. After devoting months to research, he was disappointed by the lack of help, Sacks wrote up an account of his research findings but stopped working on the subject
25.
Mark Rosenzweig
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Rosenzweig was born on September 12,1922, in Rochester, New York, to Jews of Eastern European origin, in which his bilingual parents helped foster an interest in language and learning. Following the completion of his studies in 1944, he enlisted in the United States Navy and he was later relocated to Tsingtao in China, where he was stationed on the seaplane tender USS Chincoteague. He attended Harvard University after completing his service in 1946. His thesis showed that the connections between the cochlea and the cortex could be monitored using electrodes placed on the scalp. He was hired by the University of California, Berkeley in 1949 as an assistant professorship in physiological psychology, dissatisfied with existing textbooks in biological psychology, he and colleague Arnold Leiman wrote a textbook in the 1980s that is still in print. Mark Rosenzweig initiated experimental research upon enriched environment and the brain, donald O. Hebb, in 1947, had found that rats raised as pets performed better on problem solving tests than rats raised in cages. But his research did not investigate the brain nor use standardized impoverished and enriched environments. They found that growing up in enriched environments affected activity of the enzyme cholinesterase in the brain and this work led in 1962 to the discovery that environmental enrichment increased cerebral cortex volume. He published details of his research in a book Enriched and Impoverished Environments, Effects on Brain and these findings contradicted the prevailing scientific theory that the brains structure was fixed before adulthood and that later learning and experience did not affect its structure. Later research confirmed that the changes occurred in adulthood and were not tied to differences in diet, Rosenzweig retired from UC Berkeley in 1991. The American Psychological Association recognized him with its Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award in 1982, a resident of Berkeley, California, Rosenzweig died at his home at age 86 of renal failure on July 20,2009. He was survived by two daughters, a son, six grandchildren and four great-grandchildren and he married his French-born wife, the former Janine Chappat, in the summer of 1947. She had studied anthropology and education at the University of Oxford and had been visiting the United States when they met and she died in April 2008 after they had been married for 60 years
26.
Roger Wolcott Sperry
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A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Sperry as the 44th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Sperry was born in Hartford, Connecticut, to Francis Bushnell and his father was in banking, and his mother trained in business school. He was raised in an upper middle-class environment, which stressed academic achievement, Roger had one brother, Russell Loomis. Their father died when Roger was 11, afterwards, his mother became assistant to the principal in the local high school. Sperry went to Hall High School in West Hartford, Connecticut, where he was an athlete in several sports. At Oberlin, he was captain of the team, and he also took part in varsity baseball, football. He also worked at a cafe on campus to support himself. Sperry was an English major, but he took an Intro to Psychology class taught by a Professor named R. H. Stetson who had worked with William James and this class sparked Sperry’s interest in the brain and how it can change. Stetson was handicapped and had trouble getting around so Sperry would help him out by driving him to and this included taking Stetson to lunch with his colleagues. Sperry would just sit at the end of the table and listen to Stetson and his colleagues discuss their research and this increased Sperry’s interest in Psychology even more and after he received his undergraduate degree in English from Oberlin he decided to stay and get his masters degree in Psychology. He received his bachelors degree in English in 1935 and a degree in psychology in 1937. He received his Ph. D. in zoology from the University of Chicago in 1941, Sperry then did postdoctoral research with Karl Lashley at Harvard University though most of his time was spent with Lashley at the Yerkes Primate Research Center in Orange Park, Florida. In 1942, Sperry began work at the Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology, there he focused on experiments involving the rearranging of motor and sensory nerves. He left in 1946 to become an assistant professor, and later associate professor, in 1949, during a routine chest x-ray, there was evidence of tuberculosis. He was sent to Saranac Lake in the Adironack Mountains in New York for treatment and it was during this time when he began writing his concepts of the mind and brain, and was first published in the American Scientist in 1952. In 1952, he became the Section Chief of Neurological Diseases and Blindness at the National Institutes of Health and finished out the year at the Marine Biology Laboratory in Coral Gables, Sperry went back to The University of Chicago in 1952 and became an Associate Professor of Psychology. He was not offered tenure at Chicago and planned to move to Bethesda, during this time Sperrys friend Victor Hepburn invited him to lecture about his research at a symposium. He asked the question first asked in his Introduction to Psychology class at Oberlin
27.
Kent Cochrane
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Kent Cochrane, also known as Patient K. C. was a widely studied Canadian memory disorder patient who has been used as a case study in over 20 neuropsychology papers over the span of the past 25 years. In 1981, Cochrane was involved in an accident that left him with severe anterograde amnesia. Unlike other amnesic patients, Cochrane had his memory intact. Cochrane was born in 1951 as the oldest of five children and grew up in the suburbs of Toronto, after attending a community college to study business administration he obtained a job at a manufacturing plant, which he held until the time of his motorcycle accident. Cochrane died on March 27,2014 at the age of 62, the exact cause of death is unknown, but his sister, Karen Casswell, said it is believed he had a heart attack or stroke. He died in his room at a living facility where he lived. In October 1981, Cochrane was involved in an accident on his way home from his job at a manufacturing plant when the motorcycle he was riding veered off of an exit ramp. He suffered a brain injury. Upon arrival at a hospital, Cochrane was experiencing clonic epileptic seizures and was unconscious, surgery to remove a left-side subdural hematoma was successful. After a few days in the hospital, Cochrane was able to respond to simple commands, after one week he was able to recognize his mother. A follow up CT scan revealed a chronic bilateral frontal subdural hematoma, enlarged ventricles and sulci, upon his discharge from the rehabilitation facility in July 1982, the full extent of Cochrane’s neurological injuries was determined. He had severe injury to his medial temporal lobes, along with almost complete bilateral hippocampal loss, ultimately, his neurological profile stabilized, as seen in CT scans he received once each decade following the accident. As a result of his damage, Cochrane suffered severe cognitive deficits that hindered his ability to form new episodic memories. However, both his semantic memory and noetic consciousness remained unimpaired, however, Cochrane was unable to remember emotional details of events from his past such as his brother’s death and a dangerous fall he had at his home. Cochrane also suffered from severe impairment of his autonoetic consciousness and this meant that he was unable to envision himself in the future. When asked what he would be doing later in a day, month, or even a year. Just as he could not remember being physically involved with events from his past, ultimately, he lost any memory of his current actions once his thoughts were directed elsewhere. Neuropathologically, Cochrane suffered from anterograde amnesia and temporally graded retrograde amnesia
