1.
Tilapia (genus)
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Tilapia is a genus of cichlid fishes endemic to freshwater habitats in Southern Africa. In the past this was a large genus including all species with the common name tilapia. In the past, Oreochromis and Sarotherodon were retained in the genus Tilapia, Tilapia busumana – closer to Steatocranus irvinei and Gobiocichla. Tilapia pra Dunz & Schliewen,2010 – closer to Steatocranus irvinei, froese, Rainer, and Daniel Pauly, eds
2.
Nile tilapia
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The Nile tilapia is a species of tilapia, a cichlid fish native to Africa from Egypt south to east and central Africa, and as far west as Gambia. It is also native to Israel, and numerous introduced populations exist outside its natural range and it is also commercially known as mango fish, nilotica, or boulti. The first name leads to confusion with another tilapia traded commercially. The Nile tilapia has distinctive, regular, vertical stripes extending as far down the body as the edge of the caudal fin. Adults reach up to 60 cm in length and up to 4.3 kg and it lives for up to nine years. It tolerates brackish water and survives temperatures between 8 and 42 °C and it is an omnivore, feeding on plankton as well as on higher plants. Introduced tilapia can easily become an invasive species and it is a species of high economic value and is widely introduced outside its natural range, probably next to the Mozambique tilapia, it is the most commonly cultured cichlid. In recent research done in Kenya, this fish has been shown to feed on mosquito larvae, the Nile tilapia is an omnivore that feeds on both plankton and aquatic plants. It generally feeds in shallow waters, as gases and temperature fluctuations found in deep waters create problems for the physiology of the fish. The Nile tilapia thrives on the warmer temperatures commonly found in shallow waters compared to the environment of the deep lake. In general, tilapias are macrophyte-feeders, feeding on a range of filamentous algae. The Nile tilapia typically feeds during daytime hours and this suggests that, similar to trout and salmon, it exhibits a behavioral response to light as a main factor contributing to feeding activity. Due to their fast reproductive rate, however, overpopulation often results within groups of Nile tilapia, to obtain the necessary nutrients, night feeding may also occur due to competition for food during the daylight hours. Hence, although males and females eat equal amounts of food, groups of Nile tilapia establish social hierarchies in which the dominant males have priority for both food and mating. Circular nests are built predominantly by males through mouth digging to become future spawning sites and these nests often become sites of intense courtship rituals and parental care. Like other fish, the Nile tilapia travels almost exclusively in schools, although males settle down in their crafted nesting zones, females travel between zones to find mates, resulting in competition between the males for females. Like other tilapias, such as Mozambique tilapia, dominance between the males is established first through non-contact displays such as display and tail beats. Unsuccessful attempts to reconcile the results in contact fighting to inflict injuries
3.
Species
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In biology, a species is the basic unit of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. While this definition is often adequate, looked at more closely it is problematic, for example, with hybridisation, in a species complex of hundreds of similar microspecies, or in a ring species, the boundaries between closely related species become unclear. Other ways of defining species include similarity of DNA, morphology, all species are given a two-part name, a binomial. The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs, the second part is called the specific name or the specific epithet. For example, Boa constrictor is one of four species of the Boa genus, Species were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as fixed kinds that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being. In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time, Charles Darwins 1859 book The Origin of Species explained how species could arise by natural selection. Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by horizontal transfer, and species may become extinct for a variety of reasons. In his biology, Aristotle used the term γένος to mean a kind, such as a bird or fish, a kind was distinguished by its attributes, for instance, a bird has feathers, a beak, wings, a hard-shelled egg, and warm blood. A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, Aristotle believed all kinds and forms to be distinct and unchanging. His approach remained influential until the Renaissance, when observers in the Early Modern period began to develop systems of organization for living things, they placed each kind of animal or plant into a context. Many of these early delineation schemes would now be considered whimsical, animals likewise that differ specifically preserve their distinct species permanently, one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa. In the 18th century, the Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus classified organisms according to shared physical characteristics and he established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships. At the time, however, it was widely believed that there was no organic connection between species, no matter how similar they appeared. However, whether or not it was supposed to be fixed, by the 19th century, naturalists understood that species could change form over time, and that the history of the planet provided enough time for major changes. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, described the transmutation of species, proposing that a species could change over time, in 1859, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace provided a compelling account of evolution and the formation of new species. Darwin argued that it was populations that evolved, not individuals and this required a new definition of species. Darwin concluded that species are what appear to be, ideas
4.
Cichlid
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Cichlids /ˈsɪklᵻdz/ are fish from the family Cichlidae in the order Perciformes. Cichlids are members of a known as Labroidei, along with the wrasses, damselfishes. This family is large and diverse. At least 1,650 species have been described, making it one of the largest vertebrate families. New species are discovered annually, and many species remain undescribed, the actual number of species is therefore unknown, with estimates varying between 2,000 and 3,000. Cichlids are popular freshwater fish kept in the home aquarium, Cichlids span a wide range of body sizes, from species as small as 2.5 cm in length to much larger species approaching 1 m in length. As a group, cichlids exhibit a diversity of body shapes, ranging from strongly laterally compressed species to species that are cylindrical. Generally, however, cichlids tend to be of size, ovate in shape, and slightly laterally compressed, and generally similar to the North American sunfishes in morphology, behavior. Many cichlids, particularly tilapia, are important food fishes, while others are valued game fish, the family also includes many familiar aquarium fish, including the angelfish, oscars, and discus. Cichlids have the largest number of endangered species among vertebrate families and their diversity in the African Great Lakes is important for the study of speciation in evolution. Many cichlids introduced into waters outside of their range have become nuisances. Cichlids share a key trait, the fusion of the lower pharyngeal bones into a single tooth-bearing structure. Cichlids are efficient and often highly specialized feeders that capture and process a wide variety of food items. This is assumed to be one reason why they are so diverse, Cichlids vary in body shape, ranging from compressed and disc-shaped, to triangular to elongated and cylindrical. A ninth subfamily, Ptychochrominae, was recognized by Sparks. Cichlid taxonomy is still debated, and classification of genera cannot yet be definitively given, a comprehensive system of assigning species to monophyletic genera is still lacking, and there is not complete agreement on what genera should be recognized in this family. As an example of the problems, Kullander placed the African genus Heterochromis phylogenetically within Neotropical cichlids. Other problems center upon the identity of the common ancestor for the Lake Victoria superflock
5.
Fish
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A fish is any member of a group of animals that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic craniate animals that lack limbs with digits. They form a group to the tunicates, together forming the olfactores. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous, tetrapods emerged within lobe-finned fishes, so cladistically they are fish as well. However, traditionally fish are rendered obsolete or paraphyletic by excluding the tetrapods, because in this manner the term fish is defined negatively as a paraphyletic group, it is not considered a formal taxonomic grouping in systematic biology. The traditional term pisces is considered a typological, but not a phylogenetic classification, the earliest organisms that can be classified as fish were soft-bodied chordates that first appeared during the Cambrian period. Although they lacked a true spine, they possessed notochords which allowed them to be more agile than their invertebrate counterparts, fish would continue to evolve through the Paleozoic era, diversifying into a wide variety of forms. Many fish of the Paleozoic developed external armor that protected them from predators, the first fish with jaws appeared in the Silurian period, after which many became formidable marine predators rather than just the prey of arthropods. Fish are abundant in most bodies of water and they can be found in nearly all aquatic environments, from high mountain streams to the abyssal and even hadal depths of the deepest oceans. With 33,100 described species, fish exhibit greater species diversity than any group of vertebrates. Fish are an important resource for humans worldwide, especially as food, commercial and subsistence fishers hunt fish in wild fisheries or farm them in ponds or in cages in the ocean. They are also caught by fishers, kept as pets, raised by fishkeepers. Fish have had a role in culture through the ages, serving as deities, religious symbols, fish do not represent a monophyletic group, and therefore the evolution of fish is not studied as a single event. Early fish from the record are represented by a group of small, jawless. Jawless fish lineages are mostly extinct, an extant clade, the lampreys may approximate ancient pre-jawed fish. The first jaws are found in Placodermi fossils, the diversity of jawed vertebrates may indicate the evolutionary advantage of a jawed mouth. It is unclear if the advantage of a hinged jaw is greater biting force, improved respiration, fish may have evolved from a creature similar to a coral-like sea squirt, whose larvae resemble primitive fish in important ways. The first ancestors of fish may have kept the form into adulthood. Fish are a group, that is, any clade containing all fish also contains the tetrapods
6.
Tilapiine cichlid
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The Tilapiini are a tribe within the family Cichlidae commonly known as tilapiine cichlids. Most of the taxa herein are called tilapias, a diverse and economically important group containing the genera Oreochromis, Sarotherodon, a number of smaller genera, such as Alcolapia, Danakilia, Iranocichla, and Steatocranus are also placed herein. They are now placed in the subfamily Pseudocrenilabrinae of African and Middle Eastern cichlids, formerly, the tilapiines were recognised by the ichthyologist Ethylwynn Trewavas. Recent DNA sequence analyses, however, suggest that the Tilapiini as presently delimited are not monophyletic, the first group, as well as Iranocichla, Oreochromis, Sarotherodon and Tristramella, are fairly close to tribes such as the Lamprologini and Tropheini. Unfortunately, the species of Tilapia does not seem to be among them. MtDNA-based phylogenies of tilapiines must be evaluated with caution, however, as they are close to. The reason is that hybridization within any one of major lineages is known to usually produce fertile offspring. Gene pools in these fishes have been kept separate by behavioral cues for millions of years, a small sample size—one to a mere handful of specimens per taxon—as is often used in molecular studies further acerbates the problem. Essentially, most traditional and mtDNA-based phylogenetic hypothesis for tilapiines must be considered with a degree of caution. This problem could be alleviated to some extent by using nDNA sequences, comparing these with the mtDNA data, hybridization effects could be discerned. Also, resolution of nDNA likely is still enough to delimit the clades that apparently exist in the tilapiines if numerous taxa. Researchers could then reanalyze morphological data to discover actual autapomorphies, Evolution seems to run quickly in this group. Even the fast-evolving mtDNA sequences often are incapable of properly resolving interspecies relationships, the precise evolutionary history of some tilapiines may not be properly resolved with presently available methods, for the reasons discussed above. Like other cichlids, tilapiines exhibit complex reproductive behaviours and guard their eggs, Oreochromis and Sarotherodon are mouthbrooders, carrying the eggs and fry in their mouths instead of placing them in a nest. The numerous Oreochromis species are mouthbrooders, meaning only the female looks after the eggs and fry. Instead, they form leks where they compete with one another for further opportunities to mate with females, by contrast, most of the far fewer Sarotherodon species are biparental mouthbrooders, with both parents protecting the eggs and fry. A few, such as Sarotherodon melanotheron, are mouthbrooders, with only the male caring for the eggs. In addition, some species usually placed in Oreochromis might belong into Sarotherodon, klett, Vera & Meyer, Axel, What, if Anything, is a Tilapia
7.
Tribe (biology)
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In biology, a tribe is a taxonomic rank above genus, but below family and subfamily. It is sometimes subdivided into subtribes, in zoology, some examples include the tribes Caprini, Hominini, Bombini, and Thunnini. The standard ending for the name of a tribe is -ini. The tribe Hominini is divided into subtribes by some scientists, subtribe Hominina then comprises humans, the standard ending for the name of a zoological subtribe is -ina. In botany, examples include the tribes Acalypheae and Hyacintheae, the standard ending for the name of a botanical tribe is -eae. The tribe Hyacintheae is divided into subtribes, including the subtribe Massoniinae, the standard ending for the name of a botanical subtribe is -inae. In bacteriology, the form of names is as in botany, e. g. Pseudomonadeae
8.
Brackish water
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Brackish water or briny water is water that has more salinity than fresh water, but not as much as seawater. It may result from mixing of seawater with fresh water, as in estuaries, the word comes from the Middle Dutch root brak. Brackish water is also the primary product of the salinity gradient power process. Because brackish water is hostile to the growth of most terrestrial plant species, without appropriate management it is damaging to the environment. Technically, brackish water contains between 0.5 and 30 grams of salt per litre—more often expressed as 0.5 to 30 parts per thousand, thus, brackish covers a range of salinity regimes and is not considered a precisely defined condition. It is characteristic of many brackish surface waters that their salinity can vary considerably over space and/or time, brackish water condition commonly occurs when fresh water meets seawater. In fact, the most extensive brackish water habitats worldwide are estuaries, the River Thames flowing through London is a classic river estuary. A similar pattern of replacement can be observed with the aquatic plants and this type of ecological succession from a freshwater to marine ecosystem is typical of river estuaries. Salmon are anadromous, meaning live in the sea but ascend rivers to spawn, eels are catadromous, living in rivers and streams. Besides the species migrate through estuaries, there are many other fish that use them as nursery grounds for spawning or as places young fish can feed. Herring and plaice are two commercially important species that use the Thames Estuary for this purpose, estuaries are also commonly used as fishing grounds, and as places for fish farming or ranching. Another important brackish water habitat is the swamp or mangal. Many, though not all, mangrove swamps fringe estuaries and lagoons where the salinity changes with each tide, like estuaries, mangrove swamps are extremely important breeding grounds for many fish, with species such as snappers, halfbeaks, and tarpon spawning or maturing among them. Mangroves represent important nesting site for numerous birds groups such as herons, storks, spoonbills, ibises, kingfishers, the Sundarbans and Bhitarkanika Mangroves are two of the large mangrove forests in the world, both on the coast of the Bay of Bengal. Some seas and lakes are brackish, the Baltic Sea is a brackish sea adjoining the North Sea. Because the salt water coming in from the sea is denser than freshwater, limited mixing occurs because of the lack of tides and storms, with the result that the fish fauna at the surface is freshwater in composition while that lower down is more marine. Cod are an example of a species found in deep water in the Baltic. The Caspian Sea is the worlds largest lake and contains brackish water with a salinity about one-third that of normal seawater, the Caspian is famous for its peculiar animal fauna, including one of the few non-marine seals and the great sturgeons, a major source of caviar
9.
Artisanal fishing
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Artisanal fishing are various small-scale, low-technology, low-capital, fishing practices undertaken by individual fishing households. Many of these households are of coastal or island ethnic groups and these households make short fishing trips close to the shore. Their produce is not processed and is mainly for local consumption. Artisan fishing uses traditional fishing techniques such as rod and tackle, fishing arrows and harpoons, cast nets, artisan fishing may be undertaken for both commercial and subsistence reasons. It contrasts with modern commercial fishing practices in that it is often less wasteful. ISBN 978-92-5-105664-6 Diegues, Antonio Carlos Sea Tenure, traditional knowledge, pauly, D Major trends in small-scale marine fisheries, with emphasis on developing countries, and some implications for the social sciences Maritime Studies 4, 7-22. Tietze, U, Siar, S, Upare, Suchitra M and Upare, M A Livelihood, naar presenting the story of the smallest Bolivian fishing community of Uru-Muratos, Puñaca Tintamaria. See a 12 minutes fragment from the film on YouTube
10.
Africa
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Africa is the worlds second-largest and second-most-populous continent. At about 30.3 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earths total surface area and 20.4 % of its land area. With 1.2 billion people as of 2016, it accounts for about 16% of the human population. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos and it contains 54 fully recognized sovereign states, nine territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition. Africas population is the youngest amongst all the continents, the age in 2012 was 19.7. Algeria is Africas largest country by area, and Nigeria by population, afarensis, Homo erectus, H. habilis and H. ergaster – with the earliest Homo sapiens found in Ethiopia being dated to circa 200,000 years ago. Africa straddles the equator and encompasses numerous climate areas, it is the continent to stretch from the northern temperate to southern temperate zones. Africa hosts a diversity of ethnicities, cultures and languages. In the late 19th century European countries colonized most of Africa, Africa also varies greatly with regard to environments, economics, historical ties and government systems. However, most present states in Africa originate from a process of decolonization in the 20th century, afri was a Latin name used to refer to the inhabitants of Africa, which in its widest sense referred to all lands south of the Mediterranean. This name seems to have referred to a native Libyan tribe. The name is connected with Hebrew or Phoenician ʿafar dust. The same word may be found in the name of the Banu Ifran from Algeria and Tripolitania, under Roman rule, Carthage became the capital of the province of Africa Proconsularis, which also included the coastal part of modern Libya. The Latin suffix -ica can sometimes be used to denote a land, the later Muslim kingdom of Ifriqiya, modern-day Tunisia, also preserved a form of the name. According to the Romans, Africa lay to the west of Egypt, while Asia was used to refer to Anatolia, as Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of Africa expanded with their knowledge. 25,4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya, isidore of Seville in Etymologiae XIV.5.2. Suggests Africa comes from the Latin aprica, meaning sunny, massey, in 1881, stated that Africa is derived from the Egyptian af-rui-ka, meaning to turn toward the opening of the Ka. The Ka is the double of every person and the opening of the Ka refers to a womb or birthplace
11.
Aquaculture of tilapia
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Tilapia has become the third most important fish in aquaculture after carp and salmon, worldwide production exceeded 1,500,000 metric tons in 2002 and increases annually. Tilapia farm projects in these countries have the highest potential to be green or environmentally friendly, in temperate zone localities, tilapia farmers typically need a costly energy source to maintain a tropical temperature range in their tanks. One relatively sustainable solution involves warming the tank water using heat from factories. Tilapiines are among the easiest and most profitable fish to farm due to their omnivorous diet, mode of reproduction, tolerance of high stocking density, and rapid growth. In some regions the fish can be raised in rice fields at planting time, unlike salmon, which rely on high-protein feeds based on fish or meat, commercially important tilapiine species eat a vegetable or cereal-based diet. Tilapia raised in inland tanks or channels are considered safe for the environment, since their waste and disease is contained, however, tilapiines have acquired notoriety as being among the most serious invasive species in many subtropical and tropical parts of the world. Commercially grown tilapia are almost exclusively male, being prolific breeders, female tilapia in the ponds or tanks will result in large populations of small fish. Whole tilapia can be processed into skinless, boneless fillets, the yield is from 30% to 37%, depending on fillet size, Tilapia from aquaculture contain especially high ratios of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids. Apart from the few species found in the Levant, such as the Middle Eastern mango tilapia. However, species originally from Africa have been introduced and have become economically important as food fish in many countries. The FAO has not recorded any production of farmed tilapia by India, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Aquaculture, the R&D arm of Marine Products Export Development Authority, has established a facility in Vijayawada to produce mono-sex tilapia in two strains. The development and dissemination of a high yielding tilapia strain possessing desirable production characteristics is expected to bring about notable economic benefits for the country, farming of Tilapia is not permitted in the country on commercial basis. The Rajiv Gandhi Center for Aquaculture has expressed interest in obtaining the Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia for aquaculture development in the country. The aim is to produce fast-growing high yielding tilapia strains adapted to a range of local farming environments that can be grown at as low a cost as possible. The first is the establishment of a new nucleus of the GIFT strain at the RGCA and this will involve enhancing the capacity of local personnel in selective breeding, genetic improvement, statistical analysis and hatchery management through specialized training courses. Once a high performing tilapia strain has been developed, the establishment of satellite hatcheries will increase the availability and these public and private hatcheries will act as multipliers for the superior genetics developed at RGCA and the sites for dissemination of quality broodstock to fish farmers. The RGCA will gain experience and knowledge on the development of genetic improvement programs for economically important traits and this experience and the development of a standard selective breeding protocol will allow for genetic improvement programs for other aquaculture species that are commonly cultured in India. Hatchery managers, producers and farmers will also improve their capacity to implement on-farm selective breeding programs, in the longer term the project is also expected to contribute to the development of a complete chain of production
12.
Aquaponics
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Aquaponics refers to any system that combines conventional aquaculture with hydroponics in a symbiotic environment. In normal aquaculture, excretions from the animals being raised can accumulate in the water, south China, Thailand, and Indonesia who cultivated and farmed rice in paddy fields in combination with fish are cited as examples of early aquaponics systems. The development of modern aquaponics is often attributed to the works of the New Alchemy Institute. Inspired by the successes of the New Alchemy Institute, and the reciprocating aquaponics techniques developed by Dr. Mark McMurtry et al, the first aquaponics research in Canada was a small system added onto existing aquaculture research at a research station in Lethbridge, Alberta. Canada saw a rise in aquaponics setups throughout the ’90s, predominantly as commercial installations raising high-value crops such as trout, Aquaponics consists of two main parts, with the aquaculture part for raising aquatic animals and the hydroponics part for growing plants. Aquatic effluents, resulting from uneaten feed or raising animals like fish, the effluent-rich water becomes toxic to the aquatic animal in high concentrations but this contains nutrients essential for plant growth. An aquaponic system depends on different live components to work successfully, the three main live components are plants, fish and bacteria. Some systems also include additional components like worms. Many plants are suitable for systems, though which ones work for a specific system depends on the maturity. These factors influence the concentration of nutrients from the fish effluent, green leaf vegetables with low to medium nutrient requirements are well adapted to aquaponic systems, including chinese cabbage, lettuce, basil, spinach, chives, herbs, and watercress. Other plants, such as tomatoes, cucumbers, and peppers, have higher nutrient requirements, plants that are common in salads have some of the greatest success in aquaponics, including cucumbers, shallots, tomatoes, lettuce, chiles, capsicum, red salad onions and snow peas. Some profitable plants for aquaponic systems include chinese cabbage, lettuce, basil, roses, tomatoes, okra, cantaloupe, fruiting plants like melons or tomatoes, and plants with higher nutrient needs need higher stocking densities of fish and more mature tanks to provide enough nutrients. Freshwater fish are the most common aquatic animal raised using aquaponics, although freshwater crayfish, there is a branch of aquaponics using saltwater fish, called saltwater aquaponics. There are many species of warmwater and coldwater fish that adapt well to aquaculture systems, barramundi, silver perch, eel-tailed catfish or tandanus catfish, jade perch and Murray cod are also used. For temperate climates when there isnt ability or desire to maintain water temperature, bluegill, koi and goldfish may also be used, if the fish in the system need not be edible. Other suitable fish include catfish, rainbow trout, perch, common carp, Arctic char, largemouth bass. Although plants can absorb ammonia from the water to some degree, nitrates are assimilated more easily, plants are grown as in hydroponics systems, with their roots immersed in the nutrient-rich effluent water. This enables them to filter out the ammonia that is toxic to the aquatic animals, after the water has passed through the hydroponic subsystem, it is cleaned and oxygenated, and can return to the aquaculture vessels
13.
Invasive species
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One study pointed out widely divergent perceptions of the criteria for invasive species among researchers and concerns with the subjectivity of the term invasive. Such invasive species may be either plants or animals and may disrupt by dominating a region, wilderness areas, particular habitats and this includes non-native invasive plant species labeled as exotic pest plants and invasive exotics growing in native plant communities. It has been used in this sense by government organizations as well as groups such as the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The European Union defines Invasive Alien Species as those that are, firstly, outside their natural distribution area and it is also used by land managers, botanists, researchers, horticulturalists, conservationists, and the public for noxious weeds. The kudzu vine, Andean Pampas grass, and yellow starthistle are examples, an alternate usage broadens the term to include indigenous or native species along with non-native species, that have colonized natural areas. Deer are an example, considered to be overpopulating their native zones and adjacent suburban gardens, by some in the Northeastern, sometimes the term is used to describe a non-native or introduced species that has become widespread. However, not every introduced species has adverse effects on the environment, a nonadverse example is the common goldfish, which is found throughout the United States, but rarely achieves high densities. Scientists include species and ecosystem factors among the mechanisms that when combined, while all species compete to survive, invasive species appear to have specific traits or specific combinations of traits that allow them to outcompete native species. In some cases, the competition is about rates of growth, in other cases, species interact with each other more directly. Researchers disagree about the usefulness of traits as invasiveness markers, one study found that of a list of invasive and noninvasive species, 86% of the invasive species could be identified from the traits alone. Another study found invasive species tended to have only a subset of the presumed traits. Repeated patterns of movement, such as ships sailing to and from ports or cars driving up. An introduced species might become if it can outcompete native species for resources such as nutrients, light, physical space, water. If these species evolved under great competition or predation, then the new environment may host fewer able competitors, allowing the invader to proliferate quickly. Ecosystems in which are being used to their fullest capacity by native species can be modeled as zero-sum systems in which any gain for the invader is a loss for the native, however, such unilateral competitive superiority is not the rule. For example, barbed goatgrass was introduced to California on serpentine soils, which have low water-retention, low nutrient levels, a high magnesium/calcium ratio, and possible heavy metal toxicity. Plant populations on these soils tend to low density, but goatgrass can form dense stands on these soils. Some species, like Kalanchoe daigremontana, produce allelopathic compounds, that might have an effect on competing species
14.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
15.
Introduced species
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Non-native species can have various effects on the local ecosystem. Introduced species that become established and spread beyond the place of introduction are called invasive species, some have a negative effect on a local ecosystem. Some introduced species may have no effect or only minor impact. Some species have been introduced intentionally to combat pests and they are called biocontrols and may be regarded as beneficial as an alternative to pesticides in agriculture for example. In some instances the potential for being beneficial or detrimental in the long run remains unknown, a list of some introduced species is given in a separate article. The effects of introduced species on natural environments have gained much scrutiny from scientists, governments, the terminology associated with introduced species is now in flux for various reasons. The term invasive refers only to those species that become established, for practical purposes, this term is applied only to invasive species that cause damage. With respect to plants, these latter are in this case defined as either ornamental or cultivated plants, also called an exotic or non-native species. Such species might be termed naturalized, established, wild non-native species, if they further spread beyond the place of introduction they are called invasive. The transition from introduction, to establishment and to invasion has been described in the context of plants, introduced species are essentially non-native species. Invasive species are introduced species that spreadwidely or quickly and cause harm, be that to the environment, human health. There have been calls from scientists to consider a species only in terms of their spread. According to a definition, an invasive species is one that has been introduced and become a pest in its new location. The term is used to both a sense of urgency and actual or potential harm. Executive Order 13112 defines invasive species as a species whose introduction does or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health. The biological definition of species, on the other hand, makes no reference to the harm they may cause. From a regulatory perspective, it is neither desirable nor practical to list as undesirable or outright ban all non-native species, regulations require a definitional distinction between non-natives that are deemed especially onerous and all others. Introduced pest species that are listed as invasive, best fit the definition of an invasive species
16.
TT52
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The Theban Tomb TT52 is located in Sheikh Abd el-Qurna, part of the Theban Necropolis, on the west bank of the Nile, opposite to Luxor. It is the place of the Ancient Egyptian official, Nakht. The tomb architecture and decoration conforms to the design of Theban tombs of the New Kingdom by using such scenes that are commonly found in contemporary tombs. The tomb has the typical T-shaped architectural design that was common for non-royal Theban tombs of the New Kingdom, there was a broad hall, which followed from the entrance and court. This led into a chamber, the long hall, and the shrine. These chambers were designed to contain scenes for the service of the dead in their afterlife, however, in the latter tombs both of the chambers are created for different purposes to that of the chambers within the Old Kingdom mastabas. Within the mastaba, the chapel was dedicated to the sustenance of the deceased beyond death by magically providing food. Such scenes are not depicted as often in the New Kingdom tombs. The stela on the wall of the broad hall shows men making offerings to images of the deceased. Beneath this, Nut is shown before a pile of offerings and this scene, therefore, shows that the dead were not wholly reliant on their family for offerings but could rely on a divine source as well. Similar scenes could also be found on the walls of Old Kingdom burials, however, Malek wrote that offerings scenes are rarer in New Kingdom tombs than in the Old Kingdom. Two corresponding scenes are depicted on the east wall next to the entrance to the broad hall and these scenes show Nakht and his wife, Tawy, making offerings to Ra, who is manifested by the sunlight that would emerge from the doorway. A scene on the side of the west wall represents a banquet scene. This genre of scene is represented in New Kingdom tombs. The family of the deceased, in this case Nakht and Tawy, is shown together being entertained by the musicians. Malek wrote domestic scenes are frequent because they emphasise the closeness of the family, however, these scenes may also have a sexual or potent purpose for the afterlife. Mannich wrote that by including scenes in the tomb, the deceased could be guaranteed potency in the hereafter. She writes that banquet scenes are littered with references including the inclusion of mandrakes and lotus flowers
17.
Ancient Egypt
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Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. It is one of six civilizations to arise independently, Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh Narmer. In the aftermath of Alexander the Greats death, one of his generals, Ptolemy Soter and this Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province. The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture, the predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world and its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries. The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history, nomadic modern human hunter-gatherers began living in the Nile valley through the end of the Middle Pleistocene some 120,000 years ago. By the late Paleolithic period, the climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and dry. In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian climate was less arid than it is today. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of grazing ungulates, foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs and the Nile region supported large populations of waterfowl. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first domesticated. The largest of these cultures in upper Egypt was the Badari, which probably originated in the Western Desert, it was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools. The Badari was followed by the Amratian and Gerzeh cultures, which brought a number of technological improvements, as early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from flakes. In Naqada II times, early evidence exists of contact with the Near East, particularly Canaan, establishing a power center at Hierakonpolis, and later at Abydos, Naqada III leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the Nile. They also traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the desert to the west. Royal Nubian burials at Qustul produced artifacts bearing the oldest-known examples of Egyptian dynastic symbols, such as the crown of Egypt. They also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience, which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines. During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a system of hieroglyphs for writing the ancient Egyptian language. The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early Sumerian-Akkadian civilisation of Mesopotamia, the third-century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today
18.
Egyptian hieroglyphs
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Egyptian hieroglyphs were the formal writing system used in Ancient Egypt. It combined logographic, syllabic and alphabetic elements, with a total of some 1,000 distinct characters, cursive hieroglyphs were used for religious literature on papyrus and wood. The later hieratic and demotic Egyptian scripts are derived from hieroglyphic writing, the writing system continued to be used throughout the Late Period, as well as the Persian and Ptolemaic periods. Late survivals of hieroglyphic use are found well into the Roman period, with the closing of pagan temples in the 5th century, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was lost, and the script remained undeciphered throughout the medieval and early modern period. The decipherment of hieroglyphs would only be solved in the 1820s by Jean-François Champollion, the word hieroglyph comes from the Greek adjective ἱερογλυφικός, a compound of ἱερός and γλύφω, supposedly a calque of an Egyptian phrase mdw·w-nṯr gods words. The glyphs themselves were called τὰ ἱερογλυφικὰ γράμματα the sacred engraved letters, the word hieroglyph has become a noun in English, standing for an individual hieroglyphic character. As used in the sentence, the word hieroglyphic is an adjective. Hieroglyphs emerged from the artistic traditions of Egypt. For example, symbols on Gerzean pottery from c.4000 BC have been argued to resemble hieroglyphic writing, proto-hieroglyphic symbol systems develop in the second half of the 4th millennium BC, such as the clay labels of a Predynastic ruler called Scorpion I recovered at Abydos in 1998. The first full sentence written in hieroglyphs so far discovered was found on a seal found in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen at Umm el-Qaab. There are around 800 hieroglyphs dating back to the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, by the Greco-Roman period, there are more than 5,000. However, given the lack of evidence, no definitive determination has been made as to the origin of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt. Since the 1990s, and discoveries such as the Abydos glyphs, as writing developed and became more widespread among the Egyptian people, simplified glyph forms developed, resulting in the hieratic and demotic scripts. These variants were more suited than hieroglyphs for use on papyrus. Hieroglyphic writing was not, however, eclipsed, but existed alongside the other forms, especially in monumental, the Rosetta Stone contains three parallel scripts – hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek. Hieroglyphs continued to be used under Persian rule, and after Alexander the Greats conquest of Egypt, during the ensuing Ptolemaic and Roman periods. It appears that the quality of comments from Greek and Roman writers about hieroglyphs came about, at least in part. Some believed that hieroglyphs may have functioned as a way to distinguish true Egyptians from some of the foreign conquerors, another reason may be the refusal to tackle a foreign culture on its own terms, which characterized Greco-Roman approaches to Egyptian culture generally
19.
Symbol
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A symbol is a mark, sign, or word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object, or relationship. Symbols allow people to go beyond what is known or seen by creating linkages between otherwise very different concepts and experiences, all communication is achieved through the use of symbols. Symbols take the form of words, sounds, gestures, ideas or visual images and are used to other ideas. For example, a red octagon may be a symbol for STOP, on a map, a blue line might represent a river. Alphabetic letters may be symbols for sounds, personal names are symbols representing individuals. A red rose may symbolize love and compassion, the variable x, in a mathematical equation, may symbolize the position of a particle in space. In cartography, a collection of symbols forms a legend for a map The word derives from the Greek symbolon meaning token or watchword. It is an amalgam of syn- together + bole a throwing, a casting, the sense evolution in Greek is from throwing things together to contrasting to comparing to token used in comparisons to determine if something is genuine. The meaning something which stands for something else was first recorded in 1590, later, expanding on what he means by this definition Campbell says, a symbol, like everything else, shows a double aspect. We must distinguish, therefore between the sense and the meaning of the symbol. The term meaning can only to the first two but these, today, are in the charge of science – which is the province as we have said, not of symbols. The ineffable, the unknowable, can be only sensed. Heinrich Zimmer gives an overview of the nature, and perennial relevance. Concepts and words are symbols, just as visions, rituals, through all of these a transcendent reality is mirrored. They are so many metaphors reflecting and implying something which, though thus variously expressed, is ineffable, though thus rendered multiform, Symbols hold the mind to truth but are not themselves the truth, hence it is delusory to borrow them. Each civilisation, every age, must bring forth its own, in the book Signs and Symbols, it is stated that A symbol. Is a visual image or sign representing an idea -- a deeper indicator of a universal truth, Symbols are a means of complex communication that often can have multiple levels of meaning. This separates symbols from signs, as signs have only one meaning, human cultures use symbols to express specific ideologies and social structures and to represent aspects of their specific culture
20.
Reincarnation
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Reincarnation is the philosophical or religious concept that an aspect of a living being starts a new life in a different physical body or form after each biological death. It is also called rebirth or transmigration, and is a part of the Saṃsāra doctrine of cyclic existence and it is a central tenet of all major Indian religions, namely Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism. The idea of reincarnation is found in ancient cultures, and a belief in rebirth/metempsychosis was held by Greek historic figures, such as Pythagoras, Socrates. Unity Church and its founder Charles Fillmore teach reincarnation, in recent decades, many Europeans and North Americans have developed an interest in reincarnation, and many contemporary works mention it. The word reincarnation derives from Latin, literally meaning, entering the flesh again, the Greek equivalent metempsychosis derives from meta and empsykhoun, a term attributed to Pythagoras. An alternate term is transmigration implying migration from one life to another, the term has been used by modern philosophers such as Kurt Gödel and has entered the English language. Another Greek term sometimes used synonymously is palingenesis, being born again, Rebirth is a key concept found in major Indian religions, and discussed with various terms. These religions believe that this reincarnation is cyclic and an endless Saṃsāra and they consider the release from the cycle of reincarnations as the ultimate spiritual goal, and call the liberation by terms such as moksha, nirvana, mukti and kaivalya. Gilgul, Gilgul neshamot or Gilgulei Ha Neshamot refers to the concept of reincarnation in Kabbalistic Judaism, Gilgul means cycle and neshamot is souls. Kabbalistic reincarnation says that humans only to humans and to the same sex only. The origins of the notion of reincarnation are obscure, discussion of the subject appears in the philosophical traditions of India. The Greek Pre-Socratics discussed reincarnation, and the Celtic Druids are also reported to have taught a doctrine of reincarnation, the ideas associated with reincarnation may have arisen independently in different regions, or they might have spread as a result of cultural contact. In ancient European, Iranian and Indian agricultural cultures, the cycles of birth, death. The idea of reincarnation has early roots in the Vedic period, predating the Buddha, the concepts of the cycle of birth and death, samsara, and liberation partly derive from ascetic traditions that arose in India around the middle of the first millennium BCE. Though no direct evidence of this has found, the tribes of the Ganges valley or the Dravidian traditions of South India have been proposed as another early source of reincarnation beliefs. Hinduisms Rigveda makes references to reincarnation in the Brahmanas layer, though these early textual layers of the Vedas, from 2nd millennium BCE, mention and anticipate the doctrine of Karma and rebirth, the idea is not fully developed. It is in the early Upanishads, which are pre-Buddha and pre-Mahavira, the texts of ancient Jainism that have survived into the modern era are post-Mahavira, likely from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE, and extensively mention rebirth and karma doctrines. The Jaina philosophy assumes that the soul exists and is eternal, passing through cycles of transmigration, after death, reincarnation into a new body is asserted to be instantaneous in early Jaina texts
21.
Art of ancient Egypt
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Ancient Egyptian art is the painting, sculpture, architecture and other arts produced by the civilization of ancient Egypt in the lower Nile Valley from about 3000 BC to 30 AD. Ancient Egyptian art reached a level in painting and sculpture. It was famously conservative, and Egyptian styles changed remarkably little over more than three thousand years, much of the surviving art comes from tombs and monuments and thus there is an emphasis on life after death and the preservation of knowledge of the past. Ancient Egyptian art included paintings, sculpture in wood, stone and ceramics, drawings on papyrus, faience, jewelry, ivories and it displays an extraordinarily vivid representation of the ancient Egyptians socioeconomic status and belief systems. This appears as early as the Narmer Palette from Dynasty I, other conventions make statues of males darker than females ones. Egyptian art uses hierarchical proportion, where the size of figures indicates their relative importance, symbolism can be observed throughout Egyptian art and played an important role in establishing a sense of order. The pharaohs regalia, for example, represented his power to maintain order, animals were also highly symbolic figures in Egyptian art. Not all Egyptian reliefs were painted, and less prestigious works in tombs, Stone surfaces were prepared by whitewash, or if rough, a layer of coarse mud plaster, with a smoother gesso layer above, some finer limestones could take paint directly. Pigments were mostly mineral, chosen to withstand sunlight without fading. The binding medium used in painting remains unclear, egg tempera and various gums and it is clear that true fresco, painted into a thin layer of wet plaster, was not used. Instead the paint was applied to dried plaster, in what is called fresco a secco in Italian, small objects including wooden statuettes were often painted using similar techniques. Many ancient Egyptian paintings have survived in tombs, and sometimes temples, the paintings were often made with the intent of making a pleasant afterlife for the deceased. The themes included journey through the afterworld or protective deities introducing the deceased to the gods of the underworld, some tomb paintings show activities that the deceased were involved in when they were alive and wished to carry on doing for eternity. In the New Kingdom and later, the Book of the Dead was buried with the entombed person and it was considered important for an introduction to the afterlife. Egyptian paintings are painted in such a way to show a profile view, for example, the painting to the right shows the head from a profile view and the body from a frontal view. Their main colors were red, blue, green, gold, black, the monumental sculpture of ancient Egypts temples and tombs is world-famous, but refined and delicate small works exist in much greater numbers. The Egyptians used the technique of sunk relief, which is well suited to very bright sunlight. The distinctive pose of standing statues facing forward with one foot in front of the other was helpful for the balance and it was adopted very early and remained unchanged until the arrival of the Greeks
22.
Hathor
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Hathor is an Ancient Egyptian goddess who personified the principles of joy, feminine love, and motherhood. She was one of the most important and popular throughout the history of Ancient Egypt. Hathor was worshipped by royalty and common people alike, in tomb paintings, she is often depicted as Mistress of the West, welcoming the dead into the next life. In other roles, she was a goddess of music, dance, foreign lands and she was believed to assist women in childbirth. She was also believed to be the goddess of miners. Hathor is commonly depicted as a cow goddess with horns in which is set a sun disk with Uraeus, twin feathers are also sometimes shown in later periods as well as a menat necklace. The Ancient Egyptians viewed reality as multi-layered in which deities who merge for various reasons, while retaining divergent attributes and myths, were not seen as contradictory but complementary. In a complicated relationship Hathor is at times the mother, daughter and wife of Ra and, like Isis, is at times described as the mother of Horus, the cult of Osiris promised eternal life to those deemed morally worthy. Originally the justified dead, male or female, became an Osiris but by early Roman times females became identified with Hathor, the Ancient Greeks sometimes identified Hathor with the goddess Aphrodite. Hathor is ambiguously depicted until the fourth dynasty, in the historical era Hathor is shown using the imagery of a cow deity. At times they are regarded as one and the goddess, though likely having separate origins. The evidence pointing to the deity being Hathor in particular is based on a passage from the Pyramid texts which states that the Kings apron comes from Hathor, from the Old Kingdom she was also called Lady of the Sycamore in her capacity as a tree deity. Hathor had a relationship with Ra. At times she is the eye of Ra and considered his daughter and she absorbed this role from another cow goddess Mehet-Weret who was the mother of Ra in a creation myth and carried him between her horns. As a mother she gave birth to Ra each morning on the eastern horizon, the Milky Way was seen as a waterway in the heavens, sailed upon by both the sun deity and the moon, leading the ancient Egyptians to describe it as The Nile in the Sky. Hathor also was favoured as a protector in desert regions, as Serabit el-Khadim was where turquoise was mined, Hathors titles included Lady of Turquoise, Mistress of Turquoise, and Lady of Turquoise Country. Hathors identity as a cow, perhaps depicted as such on the Narmer Palette, meant that she identified with another ancient cow-goddess of fertility. The assimilation of Bat, who was associated with the sistrum, in this later form, Hathors cult became centred in Dendera in Upper Egypt and it was led by priestesses and priests who also were dancers, singers and other entertainers
23.
Tomb
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A tomb is a repository for the remains of the dead. It is generally any structurally enclosed interment space or burial chamber and its central feature is a single, prominent pillar or column, often made of stone. Sarcophagus – a stone container for a body or coffin, often decorated and perhaps part of a monument, sepulchre – a cavernous rock-cut space for interment, generally in the Jewish or Christian faiths. Tumuli are also known as barrows, burial mounds, Hügelgräber or kurgans, a cairn, might also be originally a tumulus. A long barrow is a tumulus, usually for numbers of burials. As indicated, tombs are located in or under religious buildings, such as churches. However, they may also be found in catacombs, on land or, in the case of early or pre-historic tombs. The tomb of Emperor Nintoku is the largest in the world by area, however, the Pyramid of Khufu in Egypt is the largest by volume
24.
Spell (paranormal)
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A spell, charm, invocation, or hex is a set of words, spoken or unspoken, which are considered by its user to invoke some magical effect. Historical attestations exist for the use of some variety of incantations in many cultures around the world. Spells can be used in calling upon or summoning a spirit, demon, god or other supernatural agent, spells would generally be distinguished from magic symbols, words, patterns, recipes, practices and other forms of magic that were not directly exercised by a collection of words. However, some spells were combinations or repetitions of words that were considered to have magic power, surviving examples from northern Europe include For a Swarm of Bees, the Nine Herbs Charm and the Merseburg Incantations. Due to the written record of ancient Egyptian culture, a number of references to magic. In particular the embalming and interring process involved the use of many documented spells, the performance of magic almost always involves the use of language. Whether spoken out loud or unspoken, words are used to access or guide magical power. In The Magical Power of Words S. J. Tambiah argues that the connection between language and magic is due to a belief in the inherent ability of words to influence the universe. Magical speech is therefore an act and is of equal or even greater importance to the performance of magic than non-verbal acts. Not all speech is considered magical, only certain words and phrases or words spoken in a specific context are considered to have magical power. Magical language, according to C. K, Magical language is therefore particularly adept at constructing metaphors that establish symbols and link magical rituals to the world. Malinowski argues that the language of magic is sacred, set, the two forms of language are differentiated through word choice, grammar, style, or by the use of specific phrases or forms, prayers, spells, songs, blessings, or chants, for example. Sacred modes of language often employ archaic words and forms in an attempt to invoke the purity or truth of a religious or a golden age. The use of Hebrew in Judaism is an example, another potential source of the power of words is their secrecy and exclusivity. Much sacred language is differentiated enough from common language that it is incomprehensible to the majority of the population, in this respect, Tambiah argues that magical languages violate the primary function of language, communication. Incantation Invocation Magic word Mantra Prayer
25.
Book of the Dead
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The Book of the Dead is an ancient Egyptian funerary text, used from the beginning of the New Kingdom to around 50 BCE. The original Egyptian name for the text, transliterated rw nw prt m hrw is translated as Book of Coming Forth by Day, another translation would be Book of Emerging Forth into the Light. The Book of the Dead was part of a tradition of texts which includes the earlier Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts. Some of the spells included were drawn from older works. Other spells were composed later in Egyptian history, dating to the Third Intermediate Period, a number of the spells which made up the Book continued to be inscribed on tomb walls and sarcophagi, as had always been the spells from which they originated. The Book of the Dead was placed in the coffin or burial chamber of the deceased, there was no single or canonical Book of the Dead. The surviving papyri contain a selection of religious and magical texts. Some people seem to have commissioned their own copies of the Book of the Dead, the Book of the Dead developed from a tradition of funerary manuscripts dating back to the Egyptian Old Kingdom. The first funerary texts were the Pyramid Texts, first used in the Pyramid of King Unas of the 5th dynasty and these texts were written on the walls of the burial chambers within pyramids, and were exclusively for the use of the Pharaoh. Towards the end of the Old Kingdom, the Pyramid Texts ceased to be a royal privilege. In the Middle Kingdom, a new funerary text emerged, the Coffin Texts, the Coffin Texts used a newer version of the language, new spells, and included illustrations for the first time. The Coffin Texts were most commonly written on the surfaces of coffins. The Book of the Dead first developed in Thebes towards the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period, by the 17th dynasty, the Book of the Dead had become widespread not only for members of the royal family, but courtiers and other officials as well. At this stage, the spells were typically inscribed on linen shrouds wrapped around the dead, the New Kingdom saw the Book of the Dead develop and spread further. The famous Spell 125, the Weighing of the Heart, is first known from the reign of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III, from this period onward the Book of the Dead was typically written on a papyrus scroll, and the text illustrated with vignettes. During the 19th dynasty in particular, the vignettes tended to be lavish, in the Third Intermediate Period, the Book of the Dead started to appear in hieratic script, as well as in the traditional hieroglyphics. The hieratic scrolls were a version, lacking illustration apart from a single vignette at the beginning. At the same time, many burials used additional funerary texts, during the 25th and 26th dynasties, the Book of the Dead was updated, revised and standardised
26.
Sea of Galilee
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The Sea of Galilee, also Kinneret, Lake of Gennesaret, or Lake Tiberias, is a large freshwater lake in Israel. It is approximately 53 km in circumference, about 21 km long and its area is 166.7 km2 at its fullest, and its maximum depth is approximately 43 m. At levels between 215 metres and 209 metres below sea level, it is the lowest freshwater lake on Earth, the lake is fed partly by underground springs although its main source is the Jordan River which flows through it from north to south. The Sea of Galilee is situated in northeast Israel, between the Golan Heights and the Galilee region, in the Jordan Rift Valley, the caused by the separation of the African and Arabian Plates. Consequently, the area is subject to earthquakes, and in the past and this is evident by the abundant basalt and other igneous rocks that define the geology of the Galilee. The lake has been called by different names throughout its history, with changing fate of the towns, the lakes name also changed. This name was found in the scripts of Ugarit, in the Aqhat Epic. Kinneret was listed among the cities in Joshua 19,35. A persistent, though likely erroneous popular etymology of the name presumes that the name Kinneret may originate from the Hebrew word kinnor, the scholarly consensus though is that the origin of the name lies with the important Bronze and Iron Age city of Kinneret, excavated at Tell el-Oreimeh. However, there is no evidence that the city of Kinneret itself was not named after the body of water rather than vice versa, or for the origin of the towns name. Sea of Ginosar The Babylonian Talmud, as well as Flavius Josephus mention the sea by the name Sea of Ginosar after the fertile plain of Ginosar that lies on its western side. Ginosar is yet another name derived from Kinneret, Sea of Tiberias is also the name mentioned in Roman texts and in the Jerusalem Talmud, and was adopted into Arabic as Buhairet Tabariyya, Lake Tiberias. This is the name employed by the medieval Persian and Arab scholars Al-Baladhuri, Al-Tabari, in 1989 remains of a hunter-gatherer site were found under the water at the southern end. Remains of mud huts were found which are the oldest known buildings in the world, the Sea of Galilee lies on the ancient Via Maris, which linked Egypt with the northern empires. The Greeks, Hasmoneans, and Romans founded flourishing towns and settlements on the lake including Hippos. The first-century historian Flavius Josephus was so impressed by the area that he wrote, Josephus also reported a thriving fishing industry at this time, with 230 boats regularly working in the lake. Archaeologists discovered one such boat, nicknamed the Jesus Boat, in 1986, much of the ministry of Jesus occurred on the shores of Lake Galilee. In those days, there was a ribbon development of settlements and villages around the lake and plenty of trade
27.
Mango tilapia
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The mango tilapia is a species of fish from the cichlid family. Other common names include Galilaea tilapia, Galilee St. Peter’s fish and this is a relatively large cichlid at up to 41 centimetres in length and about 1.6 kilograms in weight. This widespread species is found in lakes, rivers and other fresh or brackish habitats in northern and central Africa, ranging as far south as the Guinea region, outside Africa it is found in Syria, Jordan and Israel. It is one of the very few cichlids that is found in Africa north of the Sahara, the typical temperature range is 22–28 °C, but it has been recorded from waters as cold as 9 °C. In addition to the subspecies, four subspecies were recognized in the past. Both uni-parent and bi-parent mouthbrooding is used, and monogamous or polygamous behaviour, mating is usually monogamous for the mango tilapia. The male and female will create a depression in the substrate, afterwards, the male will glide over the depression and fertilize the eggs. Mouth brooding is a tactic which, either male or female or both male and female, protects and carries the eggs in their mouth for a period of about two weeks. However, pair bonding ends after mouth brooding begins, an experiment studying mate choice in the mango tilapia shows results of the correlation between operational sex ratio, characteristics of the body and pairing. In this study, the fish were exposed to different OSR’s, pair bonding was formed quicker between larger fish, and there was a long delay in pairing for the most abundant sex in the OSR. In addition, this showed that mango tilapia that mate within a similar size group have greater reproductive success. There is flexibility for male mango tilapia in their mating styles, during spawning, males can adapt the mating style of territoriality or non territoriality. Also, males can adapt other mating styles, like brooding participating or non participating in egg brooding and pairing or not pair bonding with the selected female. In addition to the mating styles, the males show that they are able to select alternate reproductive styles. Territoriality males were the most dominant group, but male reproductive behavior changes between different reproductive cycles and these mating styles are also important factors in parental care. There are many levels of care in mango tilapia, uniparental and biparental parental care. For the mango tilapia, parental care is important for the survival of the offspring, parents who shared the job of incubation had double the reproductive success of other parents who did the job alone. Rather, for parental care, the parent’s reproductive success for each brood was 20% higher
28.
Gospel of Matthew
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The Gospel According to Matthew is the first book of the New Testament. The narrative tells how the Messiah, Jesus, rejected by Israel, most scholars believe the Gospel of Matthew was composed between AD80 and 90, with a range of possibility between AD70 to 110. The title Son of David identifies Jesus as the healing and miracle-working Messiah of Israel, as Son of Man he will return to judge the world, an expectation which his disciples recognise but of which his enemies are unaware. As Son of God he is God revealing himself through his son, the gospel reflects the struggles and conflicts between the evangelists community and the other Jews, particularly with its sharp criticism of the scribes and Pharisees. The original versions of the Gospel of Matthew and the gospels are lost. The oldest relatively complete extant manuscripts of the Bible are the Codex Vaticanus and the Codex Sinaiticus, besides these, there exist manuscript fragments ranging from a few verses to whole chapters. P104 and P67 are notable fragments of Matthew, in the process of recopying, variations slipped in, different regional manuscript traditions emerged, and corrections and adjustments were made. The Gospel of Matthew is anonymous, the author is not named within the text, the consensus is that Papias does not describe the Gospel of Matthew as we know it, and it is generally accepted that Matthew was written in Greek, not in Aramaic or Hebrew. The majority view of scholars is that Mark was the first gospel to be composed. The author of Matthew did not, however, simply copy Mark, an additional 220 verses, shared by Matthew and Luke but not found in Mark, from a second source, a hypothetical collection of sayings to which scholars give the name Quelle, or the Q source. The author also had at his disposal the Greek scriptures, both as book-scrolls and in the form of collections, and, if Papias is correct. The majority view among scholars is that Matthew was a product of the last quarter of the 1st century, the Christian community to which Matthew belonged, like many 1st-century Christians, were still part of the larger Jewish community, hence the designation Jewish Christian to describe them. The author of Matthew wrote for a community of Greek-speaking Jewish Christians located probably in Syria, Matthew, alone among the gospels, alternates five blocks of narrative with five of discourse, marking each off with the phrase When Jesus had finished. The Gospel of Matthew begins with the words The Book of Genealogy of Jesus Christ, John baptizes Jesus, and the Holy Spirit descends upon him. Jesus prays and meditates in the wilderness for forty days, and is tempted by Satan and his early ministry by word and deed in Galilee meets with much success, and leads to the Sermon on the Mount, the first of the discourses. The sermon presents the ethics of the kingdom of God, introduced by the Beatitudes and it concludes with a reminder that the response to the kingdom will have eternal consequences, and the crowds amazed response leads into the next narrative block. From the authoritative words of Jesus the gospel turns to three sets of three miracles interwoven with two sets of two stories, followed by a discourse on mission and suffering. Opposition to Jesus comes to a head with accusations that his deeds are done through the power of Satan, Jesus in turn accuses his opponents of blaspheming the Holy Spirit
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Saint Peter
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Saint Peter, also known as Simon Peter, Simeon, or Simōn pronunciation, according to the New Testament, was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ, leaders of the early Christian Great Church. Hippolytus of Rome, a 3rd-century theologian, gave him the title of Apostle of the Apostles, according to Catholic teaching, Peter was ordained by Jesus in the Rock of My Church dialogue in Matthew 16,18. He is traditionally counted as the first Bishop of Rome and by Eastern Christian tradition also as the first Patriarch of Antioch. The ancient Christian churches all venerate Peter as a saint and as founder of the Church of Antioch. The New Testament indicates that Peter was the son of John and was from the village of Bethsaida in the province of Galilee or Gaulanitis and his brother Andrew was also an apostle. According to New Testament accounts, Peter was one of twelve apostles chosen by Jesus from his first disciples, originally a fisherman, he played a leadership role and was with Jesus during events witnessed by only a few apostles, such as the Transfiguration. According to the gospels, Peter confessed Jesus as the Messiah, was part of Jesuss inner circle, thrice denied Jesus and wept bitterly once he realised his deed, according to Christian tradition, Peter was crucified in Rome under Emperor Nero Augustus Caesar. It is traditionally held that he was crucified upside down at his own request, Tradition holds that he was crucified at the site of the Clementine Chapel. His remains are said to be contained in the underground Confessio of St. Peters Basilica. According to Catholic doctrine, the direct successor to Saint Peter is the incumbent pope. Two general epistles in the New Testament are ascribed to Peter, the Gospel of Mark was traditionally thought to show the influence of Peters preaching and eyewitness memories. Peters original name was Shimon or Simeon and he was later given the name Peter, New Testament Greek Πέτρος derived from πέτρα, which means rock. In the Latin translation of the Bible this became Petrus, a form of the feminine petra. Another version of this name is Aramaic, , after his name in Hellenised Aramaic. The English, Dutch and German Peter, French Pierre, the Italian Pietro, the Spanish and Portuguese Pedro, the Syriac or Aramaic word for rock is kepa, which in Greek became Πέτρος, also meaning rock. He is also known as Simon Peter, Cephas and Kepha, both Cephas and Kepha also mean rock. In the New Testament, he is among the first of the disciples called during Jesus ministry, Peter became the first listed apostle ordained by Jesus in the early church. Peter was a fisherman in Bethsaida and he was named Simon, son of Jonah or John
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Coin in the fish's mouth
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The coin in the fishs mouth is one of the miracles of Jesus, told in the Gospel of Matthew 17, 24-27. In the Gospel account, in Capernaum the collectors of the temple tax ask Peter whether Jesus pays the tax. When Peter returns to where they are staying, Jesus speaks of the matter, asking his opinion, From whom do the kings of the earth collect duty, Peter answers, from others, and Jesus replies, Then the children are exempt. But so that we may not cause offense, go to the lake, take the first fish you catch, open its mouth and you will find a four-drachma coin. Take it and give it to them for my tax and yours, the story ends at this point, without stating that Peter caught the fish as Jesus predicted. The four-drachma coin would be enough to pay the temple tax for two people. It is usually thought to be a Tyrian shekel, the coin in the fishs mouth is generally seen as a symbolic act or sign, but there is little agreement concerning what it signifies. The Bible does not specify the species of the fish caught by Peter, render unto Caesar Life of Jesus in the New Testament Miracles of Jesus The Tribute Money
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John Dory
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John Dory, St Pierre or Peters Fish, refers to fish of the genus Zeus, especially Zeus faber, of widespread distribution. It is an edible benthic coastal marine fish with a laterally compressed olive-yellow body which has a dark spot. The dark spot is used to flash an evil eye if danger approaches and its large eyes at the front of the head provide it with binocular vision and depth perception, which are important for predators. The John Dory’s eye spot on the side of its body also confuses prey, in New Zealand, Māori know it as kuparu, and on the East Coast of the North Island, they gave some to Captain James Cook on his first voyage to New Zealand in 1769. Several casks of them were pickled, various, often doubtful explanations are given of the origin of the name. It may be an arbitrary or jocular variation of dory, or an allusion to John Dory, others suggest that John derives from the French jaune, yellow. Peter, who brought a fish said to be of that species, other known names for the John Dory are the St. Pierre, or Peters Fish, perhaps explaining why dories were often referred to as Peter Boats, Saint Peter being the patron saint of fishermen. A related legend says that the spot on the fishs flank is St. Peters thumbprint. The John Dory grows to a size of 65 cm and 3 kg in weight. It has 10 long spines on its fin and 4 spines on its anal fin. It has microscopic, sharp scales that run around the body, the fish is an olive green color with a silvery white belly and has a dark spot on its side. Its eyes are near the top of its head and it has a flat, round body shape and is a poor swimmer. The John Dory catches prey by stalking it, then extending its jaw forward in a structure to suck the fish in with some water. The water then flows out through the gills, the pre-maxillary bone, the John Dory is primarily a piscivore, it eats a variety of fish, especially schooling fish such as sardines. Occasionally it eats squid and cuttlefish and their main predators are certain sharks, such as the dusky shark, and other large bony fish. John Dory are coastal fish, found on the coasts of Africa, South East Asia, New Zealand, Australia, the coasts of Japan and they live near the seabed, living in depths from 5 metres to 360 metres. When John Dories are 3 or 4 years of age, they are ready to reproduce and this happens around the end of winter. They are substrate scatterers, which means that they release sperm, typical lifespan is about 12 years in the wild
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Genus
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A genus is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms in biology. In the hierarchy of classification, genus comes above species. In binomial nomenclature, the name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus. Felis catus and Felis silvestris are two species within the genus Felis, Felis is a genus within the family Felidae. The composition of a genus is determined by a taxonomist, the standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. Moreover, genera should be composed of units of the same kind as other genera. The term comes from the Latin genus, a noun form cognate with gignere, linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum, but the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort is considered the founder of the modern concept of genera. The scientific name of a genus may be called the name or generic epithet. It plays a role in binomial nomenclature, the system of naming organisms. The rules for the names of organisms are laid down in the Nomenclature Codes. The standard way of scientifically describing species and other lower-ranked taxa is by binomial nomenclature, the generic name forms its first half. For example, the gray wolfs binomial name is Canis lupus, with Canis being the name shared by the wolfs close relatives. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany. Especially with these names, when the generic name is known from context. Because animals are typically only grouped within subspecies, it is written as a trinomen with a third name. Dog breeds, meanwhile, are not scientifically distinguished, there are several divisions of plant species and therefore their infraspecific names generally include contractions explaining the relation. For example, the genus Hibiscus includes hundreds of other species apart from the Rose of Sharon or common garden hibiscus, Rose of Sharon doesnt have subspecies but has cultivars that carry desired traits, such as the bright white H. syriaca Diana. Hawaiian hibiscus, meanwhile, includes several separate species, since not all botanists agree on the divisions or names between species, it is common to specify the source of the name using author abbreviations
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Tswana language
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The Tswana language, Setswana, is a language spoken in southern Africa by about five million people. Tswana is a language and lingua franca of Botswana. The two South African provinces with largest number of speakers are Gauteng Province and North West Province, until 1994, South African Tswana people were notionally citizens of Bophuthatswana, one of the bantustans of the apartheid regime. The first European to describe the Tswana language was the German traveller H. Lichtenstein and he mistakenly regarded Tswana as a dialect of the Xhosa language, and the name he used for the language Beetjuana may also have covered the Northern- and Southern Sotho languages. In the following years he published other books of the Bible. Masego was the first to speak the language, the first grammar of the Tswana language was published in 1833 by the missionary James Archbell, although it was modelled on a Xhosa grammar. The first grammar of Tswana which regarded it as a language from Xhosa was published by the French missionary E. Casalis in 1841. He changed his mind later, and in a publication from 1882 he noted that the Northern-, in 1876 the South African intellectual and linguist Solomon Plaatje was born, and he became one of the first writers to extensively write in and about the Tswana language. The vowel inventory of Tswana can be seen below, some dialects have two additional vowels, the close-mid vowels /e/ and /o/. The consonant inventory of Tswana can be seen below, the consonant /d/ is merely an allophone of /l/, when the latter is followed by the vowels /i/ or /u/. Tswana also has three click consonants, but these are used in interjections or ideophones, and tend only to be used by the older generation. The three click consonants are the dental click /ǀ/, orthographically ⟨c⟩, the lateral click /ǁ/, orthographically ⟨x⟩, there are some minor dialectal variations among the consonants between speakers of Tswana. For instance, /χ/ is realised as either /x/ or /h/ by many speakers, /f/ is realised as /h/ in most dialects, and /tɬ/ and /tɬʰ/ are realised as /t/ and /tʰ/ in northern dialects. Stress is fixed in Tswana and thus falls on the penult of a word. The syllable on which the falls is lengthened. Tswana has two tones, high and low, although the latter has a wider distribution in words than the former. Tones are not marked orthographically which may lead to ambiguity, if a syllable bears a high tone, the following two syllables will also get high tones, unless they are at the end of the word. The nine classes and their respective prefixes can be seen below, some nouns may be found in several classes
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Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
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Zoology
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The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον, zōion, i. e. animal and λόγος, logos, i. e. knowledge, study. The history of zoology traces the study of the kingdom from ancient to modern times. This ancient work was developed in the Middle Ages by Muslim physicians. During the Renaissance and early period, zoological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in empiricism. Microscopy revealed the unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for cell theory. The growing importance of natural theology, partly a response to the rise of mechanical philosophy, over the 18th and 19th centuries, zoology became an increasingly professional scientific discipline. Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction, cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in Charles Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection. In 1859, Darwin placed the theory of evolution on a new footing, by his discovery of a process by which organic evolution can occur. Darwin gave new direction to morphology and physiology, by uniting them in a biological theory. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation, cell biology studies the structural and physiological properties of cells, including their behavior, interactions, and environment. This is done on both the microscopic and molecular levels, for single-celled organisms such as bacteria as well as the cells in multicellular organisms such as humans. Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences, the similarities and differences between cell types are particularly relevant to molecular biology. Anatomy considers the forms of macroscopic structures such as organs and organ systems and it focuses on how organs and organ systems work together in the bodies of humans and animals, in addition to how they work independently. Anatomy and cell biology are two studies that are related, and can be categorized under structural studies. Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the function as a whole. The theme of structure to function is central to biology, for example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells. The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of physiology to non-human species
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Andrew Smith (zoologist)
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Sir Andrew Smith KCB was a Scottish surgeon, explorer, ethnologist and zoologist. He is considered the father of zoology in South Africa having described many species across a range of groups in his major work. Smith was born in Hawick, Roxburghshire and he qualified in medicine at Edinburgh University obtaining an M. D. degree in 1819, having joined the Army Medical Services in 1816. In 1820 he was ordered to the Cape Colony and was sent to Grahamstown to supervise the medical care of European soldiers and soldiers of the Cape Corps and he was appointed the Albany district surgeon in 1822 and started the first free dispensary for indigent patients in South Africa. He led an expedition into the interior and was able to indulge in his interests of natural history. In 1825 the Governor of the Cape Colony, Lord Charles Somerset, in 1828 Smith was sent to Namaqualand by Lieutenant-Governor of the Eastern District of the Cape of Good Hope Richard Bourke to report on the Bushmen there. As a result, Smith wrote On the origin and history of the Bushmen in 1831, in the same year of 1831 there were rumours of serious unrest in the east, causing Governor Sir Lowry Cole to send Smith to Natal in January 1832. Here he interviewed Dingaan and reported back to Cole, arousing a great deal of interest in the world of the Cape. It was mainly his report that caused Britain to annex Port Natal in 1844, Smith returned with two of Mzilikazis izinDuna who forged an alliance with the Cape Colony on behalf of their chief. Smiths Report of the expedition for exploring Central Africa was published in 1836, except for two short reports that appeared after his return to Cape Town from the interior in 1836, no detailed account of his travels was ever published. Smith met the young geologist Charles Darwin when the voyage of the Beagle touched at the Cape in May 1836. He also gave Darwin some rock samples he had collected the year before and these are now held by the Sedgwick Museum of Earth Sciences. Darwin frequently mentioned Smith in his writings, and sponsored him to membership of the Royal Society in 1857. Smith returned to England in January 1837 and shortly afterwards started publishing the five volumes making up Illustrations of the Zoology of South Africa and he advanced rapidly through the ranks of the medical service, becoming staff surgeon and principal medical officer at Fort Pitt, Chatham in 1841. In 1844 he married his housekeeper Ellen Henderson and converted to her Roman Catholic faith, in 1845 he became assistant to Sir James McGrigor, the director-general of the army medical department, becoming Director-General of the Army Medical Services in 1853 when Sir James retired. He was responsible for the organising of medical services during the Crimean War, amidst serious charges of inefficiency and incompetence from The Times, a commission of inquiry exonerated him and he received honours from universities and learned societies. Ill-health forced his resignation in 1858, when he was created Knight Commander of the Bath, Andrew Smith is commemorated in the scientific names of three species of reptiles. Gekko smithii, a gecko Lepidophyma smithii, a lizard Pangshura smithii, Charles Darwin and Andrew Smith, an overseas exchange
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Pharyngeal teeth
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Pharyngeal teeth are teeth in the pharyngeal arch of the throat of cyprinids, suckers, and a number of other fish species otherwise lacking teeth. Many popular aquarium fish such as goldfish and loaches have these structures, members of the Botia genus such as clown loaches are known to make distinctive clicking sounds when they grind their pharyngeal teeth. Grunts are so called because of the sound they make when they grind them, molas are said to be able to produce sound by grinding their long, claw-like pharyngeal teeth. The Chinese high fin banded shark has a row of pharyngeal teeth with comb-like arrangements. The Cape Fear shiner only has teeth, similar to the teeth of other omnivorous shiners. The redear sunfish has thick pharyngeal teeth composed of hard, movable plates, the pharyngeal jaws of the moray eel possess their own set of teeth. The dentary of the ghost knifefish species Sternarchogiton nattereri has upper and lower pharyngeal tooth plates bearing 9-11 and 7-9 teeth, the mouth cone of a possible new species of Meiopriapulus, a marine worm in the Priapulida, bears pharyngeal teeth. Fossils of the Yunnanozoon and Haikouella possess pharyngeal teeth, the lower pharyngeal bones of cichlids also carry specialized teeth which augment their normal mandibular teeth in the breakdown of food. Animal tooth development Fish jaw Ichthyology terms Hallucigenia
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Moray eel
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Moray eels or Muraenidae are a cosmopolitan family of eels. The approximately 200 species in 15 genera are almost exclusively marine, but several species are seen in brackish water. The smallest moray is likely Snyders moray, which attains a length of 11.5 cm, while the longest species. The largest in terms of mass is the giant moray. The English name, from the early 17th century, derives from the Portuguese moréia, which derives from the Latin mūrēna, in turn from the Greek muraina. The dorsal fin extends from just behind the head along the back, most species lack pectoral and pelvic fins, adding to their serpentine appearance. Their eyes are small, morays rely on their highly developed sense of smell. In some species, the inside of the mouth is also patterned and their jaws are wide, framing a protruding snout. Most possess large teeth used to tear flesh or grasp prey items. Moray eels heads are too narrow to create the low pressure most fishes use to swallow prey, however, they have a second set of jaws in their throat called pharyngeal jaws, which also possess teeth. When feeding, morays launch these jaws into the mouth, where they prey and transport it into the throat. Moray eels are the animals that use pharyngeal jaws to actively capture. Morays secrete a protective mucus over their smooth, scaleless skin and they have much thicker skin and high densities of goblet cells in the epidermis that allows mucus to be produced at a higher rate than in other eel species. This allows sand granules to adhere to the sides of their burrows in sand-dwelling morays and their small, circular gills, located on the flanks far posterior to the mouth, require the moray to maintain a gap to facilitate respiration. Morays are carnivorous and feed primarily on fish, octopuses, squid, cuttlefish. Groupers, barracudas and sea snakes are among their few predators, commercial fisheries exist for several species, but some cause ciguatera fish poisoning. Reef-associated roving coralgroupers have been observed to recruit giant morays to join them in hunting for food, the invitation to hunt is initiated by head-shaking. The rationale for joining of forces is the ability of the morays to enter narrow crevices
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Mandible
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The mandible, lower jaw or jawbone is the largest, strongest and lowest bone in the face. It forms the lower jaw and holds the teeth in place. The mandible sits beneath the maxilla, the bone is formed from a fusion of left and right processes, and the point where these sides join, the mandibular symphysis, is still visible as a faint ridge in the midline. Like other symphyses in the body, this is a midline articulation where the bones are joined by fibrocartilage, the body of the mandible is curved somewhat like a horseshoe and has two surfaces and two borders. From the outside, the mandible is marked in the midline by a faint ridge and this ridge divides below and encloses a triangular eminence, the mental protuberance, the base of which is depressed in the center but raised on either side to form the mental tubercle. On either side of the symphysis, just below the teeth, is a depression, the incisive fossa, which gives origin to the mentalis. Below the second premolar tooth, on side, midway between the upper and lower borders of the body, is the mental foramen, for the passage of the mental vessels. From the inside, the mandible appears concave, near the lower part of the symphysis is a pair of laterally placed spines, termed the mental spines, which give origin to the genioglossus. Immediately below these is a pair of spines, or more frequently a median ridge or impression. In some cases the mental spines are fused to form a single eminence, in others they are absent, above the mental spines a median foramen and furrow are sometimes seen, they mark the line of union of the halves of the bone. Below the mental spines, on side of the middle line, is an oval depression for the attachment of the anterior belly of the digastric. Above the anterior part of line is a smooth triangular area against which the sublingual gland rests, and below the hinder part. To the outer lip of the border, on either side. The ramus of the mandible has four sides, two surfaces, four borders, and two processes. On the outside, the ramus is flat and marked by oblique ridges at its lower part, on the inside, the mandible presents about its center the oblique mandibular foramen, for the entrance of the inferior alveolar vessels and nerve. Behind this groove is a surface, for the insertion of the internal pterygoid muscle. The mandibular canal runs obliquely downward and forward in the ramus, and then horizontally forward in the body, on arriving at the incisor teeth, it turns back to communicate with the mental foramen, giving off two small canals which run to the cavities containing the incisor teeth. In the posterior two-thirds of the bone the canal is situated nearer the surface of the mandible
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Pharyngeal jaw
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Pharyngeal jaws are a second set of jaws contained within an animals throat, or pharynx, distinct from the primary or oral jaws. They are believed to have originated as modified gill arches, in much the way as oral jaws. Most fish species with pharyngeal teeth do not have pharyngeal jaws. A particularly notable exception is the highly mobile pharyngeal jaw of the moray eels and these are possibly a response to their inability to swallow as other fishes do by creating a negative pressure in the mouth, perhaps induced by their restricted environmental niche. Instead, when the moray bites prey, it first bites normally with its oral jaws, capturing the prey. Immediately thereafter, the jaws are brought forward and bite down on the prey to grip it, they then retract, pulling the prey down the moray eels gullet. Another notable example are fish from the family Cichlidae, cichlid pharyngeal jaws have become very specialized in prey processing and may have helped cichlid fishes become one of the most diverse families of vertebrates. However, later based on Lake Victoria cichlids suggest that this trait may also become a handicap when competing with other predator species. The very mobile pharyngeal jaws of moray eels were discovered in 2007 by UC Davis scientists, almost three decades before, the fictional xenomorph creature from Alien series was first depicted showing a second set of jaws for attacking its prey. At that time, pharyngeal jaws in other fishes were already known, uCDavis article Alien Jaws Help Moray Eels Feed National Science Foundation article explaining moray eel pharyngeal jaws Video of a moray eel eating
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Fish jaw
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Most bony fishes have two sets of jaws made mainly of bone. The primary oral jaws open and close the mouth, and a set of pharyngeal jaws are positioned at the back of the throat. The oral jaws are used to capture and manipulate prey by biting and crushing, the pharyngeal jaws, so-called because they are positioned within the pharynx, are used to further process the food and move it from the mouth to the stomach. Cartilaginous fishes, such as sharks and rays, have one set of jaws made mainly of cartilage. They do not have pharyngeal jaws, generally jaws are articulated and oppose vertically, comprising an upper jaw and a lower jaw and can bear numerous ordered teeth. Bony fishes usually develop only one set of teeth, cartilaginous fishes grow multiple sets and replace teeth as they wear. Jaws probably originated in the pharyngeal arches supporting the gills of jawless fish, the earliest jaws appeared in the now extinct placoderms and spiny sharks during the Silurian, about 430 million years ago. The familiar use of jaws for feeding would then have developed as a secondary function before becoming the primary function in many vertebrates, all vertebrate jaws, including the human jaw, evolved from early fish jaws. The appearance of the early vertebrate jaw has been described as perhaps the most profound, fish without jaws had more difficulty surviving than fish with jaws, and most jawless fish became extinct. These linkages can be common and complex in the head of bony fishes, such as wrasses. Especially advanced are the mechanisms of jaw protrusion. For suction feeding a system of linked four-bar linkages is responsible for the opening of the mouth. Other linkages are responsible for protrusion of the premaxilla, linkage systems are widely distributed in animals. The skull of fishes is formed from a series of loosely connected bones, lampreys and sharks only possess a cartilaginous endocranium, with both the upper and lower jaws being separate elements. Bony fishes have additional dermal bone, forming a more or less coherent skull roof in lungfish, the lower jaw defines a chin. Distinctively, these fish have no jaws, cartilaginous fish, such as sharks, also have simple skulls. The cranium is a single structure forming a case around the brain, enclosing the surface and the sides. The most anterior part of the cranium includes a plate of cartilage, the rostrum
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Lateral line
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The lateral line is a system of sense organs found in aquatic vertebrates, used to detect movement, vibration, and pressure gradients in the surrounding water. Lateral lines serve an important role in schooling behavior, predation, for example, fish can use their lateral line system to follow the vortices produced by fleeing prey. Lateral lines are visible as faint lines of pores running lengthwise down each side. Most amphibian larvae and some fully aquatic adult amphibians possess mechanosensitive systems comparable to the lateral line and this plays an essential role in orientation, predatory behavior, defense, and social schooling. The lateral line system is necessary to detect vibrations made by prey, Fish are able to detect movement, produced either by prey or a vibrating metal sphere, and orient themselves toward the source before proceeding to make a predatory strike at it. This behavior persists even in blinded fish, but is diminished when lateral line function was inhibited by CoCl2 application. Cobalt chloride treatment results in the release of cobalt ions, disrupting ionic transport and these behaviors are dependent specifically on mechanoreceptors located within the canals of the lateral line. The role mechanoreception plays in schooling behavior was demonstrated in a 1976 study, a school of Pollachius virens was established in a tank and individual fish were removed and subjected to different procedures before their ability to rejoin the school was observed. Fish that were experimentally blinded were able to reintegrate into the school, therefore, reliance on functional mechanoreception, not vision, is essential for schooling behavior. A study in 2014 suggests that the lateral line system plays an important role in the behavior of Mexican blind cave fish, the major unit of functionality of the lateral line is the neuromast. The neuromast is an organ which allows the sensing of mechanical changes in water. There are two varieties of neuromasts located in animals, canal neuromasts and superficial or freestanding neuromasts. Superficial neuromasts are located externally on the surface of the body, while canal neuromasts are located along the lines in subdermal. Each neuromast consists of hair cells whose tips are covered by a flexible. Hair cells typically possess both glutamatergic afferent connections and cholinergic efferent connections, the receptive hair cells are modified epithelial cells and typically possess bundles of 40-50 microvilli hairs which function as the mechanoreceptors. These bundles are organized in rough staircases of hairs of increasing length order and this use of mechanosensitive hairs is homologous to the functioning of hair cells in the auditory and vestibular systems, indicating a close link between these systems. Hair cells utilize a system of transduction that uses rate coding in order to transmit the directionality of a stimulus, hair cells of the lateral line system produce a constant, tonic rate of firing. As mechanical motion is transmitted through water to the neuromast, the bends and is displaced
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Salton Sea
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The Salton Sea is a shallow, saline, endorheic rift lake located directly on the San Andreas Fault, predominantly in Californias Imperial and Coachella Valleys. The lake occupies the lowest elevations of the Salton Sink in the Colorado Desert of Imperial and its surface is 235.2 ft below sea level as of Feb.5,2017. The deepest point of the sea is 5 ft higher than the lowest point of Death Valley, the sea is fed by the New, Whitewater, and Alamo Rivers, as well as agricultural runoff, drainage systems, and creeks. Over millions of years, the Colorado River has flowed into the Imperial Valley and deposited soil, building up the terrain, the cycle of filling has been about every 400–500 years and has repeated itself many times. The latest natural cycle occurred around 1600–1700 as remembered by Native Americans who talked with the first European settlers, fish traps still exist at many locations, and the Native Americans evidently moved the traps depending upon the cycle. The most recent inflow of water from the now heavily controlled Colorado River was accidentally created by the engineers of the California Development Company in 1905, in an effort to increase water flow into the area for farming, irrigation canals were dug from the Colorado River into the valley. Due to fears of silt buildup, a cut was made in the bank of the Colorado River to further increase the water flow, while it varies in dimensions and area with fluctuations in agricultural runoff and rainfall, the Salton Sea is about 15 miles by 35 miles. With an estimated area of 343 square miles or 350 square miles. The average annual inflow is less than 1,200,000 acre feet, which is enough to maintain a depth of 43 feet. The lakes salinity, about 56 grams per litre, is greater than that of the waters of the Pacific Ocean, recently, the concentration has been increasing at a rate of about 3% per year. About 4,000,000 short tons of salt are deposited in the each year. The area was part of a vast inland sea that covered a large area of Southern California. Eventually, the reached the western shore of the Gulf of California. Were it not for this barrier the entire Salton Sink along with the Imperial Valley would be submerged as the Gulf would extend as far north as Indio. A lake exists only during times it is replenished by the rivers and rainfall and these indicate that the basin was occupied intermittently as recently as a few hundred years ago. Throughout the Spanish period of Californias history, the area was referred to as the Colorado Desert after the Colorado River, in a railroad survey completed in 1855, it was called the Valley of the Ancient Lake. On several old maps from the Library of Congress, it has been found labeled Cahuilla Valley and Cabazon Valley. Salt Creek first appeared on a map in 1867 and Salton Station is on a map from 1900
44.
Lake Naivasha
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Lake Naivasha is a freshwater lake in Kenya, outside the town of Naivasha in Nakuru County, which lies north west of Nairobi. It is part of the Great Rift Valley, the name derives from the local Maasai name Naiposha, meaning rough water because of the sudden storms which can arise. Lake Naivasha is at the highest elevation of the Kenyan Rift valley at 1,884 metres in a complex combination of volcanic rocks. Apart from transient streams, the lake is fed by the perennial Malewa, there is no visible outlet, but since the lake water is relatively fresh it is assumed to have an underground outflow. The lake has an area of 139 km², and is surrounded by a swamp which covers an area of 64 square km. It is situated at an altitude of 1,884 metres, the lake has an average depth of 6 m, with the deepest area being at Crescent Island, at a maximum depth of 30 m. Njorowa Gorge used to form the lakes outlet, but it is now high above the lake, the town of Naivasha lies on the north-east edge of the lake. The lake is home to a variety of types of wildlife including over 400 different species of bird, the fish community in the lake has been highly variable over time, influenced by changes in climate, fishing effort and the introduction of invasive species. The most recent shift in the population followed the accidental introduction of common carp in 2001. Nine years later, in 2010, common carp accounted for over 90% of the mass of fish caught in the lake, there are two smaller lakes in the vicinity of Lake Naivasaha, Lake Oloiden and Lake Sonachi. The Crater Lake Game Sanctuary lies nearby, while the shore is known for its population of European immigrants. Between 1937 and 1950, the lake was used as a place for flying boats on the Imperial Airways passenger. Joy Adamson, the author of Born Free, lived on the shores of the lake in the mid-1960s, on the shores of the lake is Oserian, which gained notoriety in the Happy Valley days between the two world wars. It now forms part of the Oserian flower farm, in 1999, the Lake Naivasha Riparian Association received the Ramsar Wetland Conservation Award for its conservation efforts regarding the Lake Naivasha Ramsar site. Floriculture forms the main industry around the lake, however, the largely unregulated use of lake water for irrigation is reducing the level of the lake and is the subject of concern in Kenya. Fishing in the lake is another source of employment and income for the local population. The lake varies in level greatly and almost dried up entirely in the 1890s, Lake levels in general follow the rainfall pattern in the catchment area. In 1981, the first geothermal plant for Lake Naivasha was commissioned and by 1985, a total of 45 MW of electricity was being generated in the area
45.
Kenya
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Kenya, officially the Republic of Kenya, is a country in Africa and a founding member of the East African Community. Its capital and largest city is Nairobi and it is bordered by Tanzania to the south and southwest, Uganda to the west, South Sudan to the north-west, Ethiopia to the north and Somalia to the north-east. Kenya covers 581,309 km2, and had a population of approximately 48 million people in January 2017, Kenya has a warm and humid tropical climate on its Indian Ocean coastline. The climate is cooler in the grasslands around the capital city, Nairobi, and especially closer to Mount Kenya. Further inland are highlands in Central and Rift Valley regions where tea, in the West are Nyanza and Western regions, there is an equatorial, hot and dry climate which becomes humid around Lake Victoria, the largest tropical fresh-water lake in the world. This gives way to temperate and forested areas in the neighbouring western region. The north-eastern regions along the border with Somalia and Ethiopia are arid and semi-arid areas with near-desert landscapes, Kenya is known for its world class athletes in track and field and rugby. The African Great Lakes region, which Kenya is a part of, has been inhabited by humans since the Lower Paleolithic period, by the first millennium AD, the Bantu expansion had reached the area from West-Central Africa. Bantu and Nilotic populations together constitute around 97% of the nations residents, European and Arab presence in coastal Mombasa dates to the Early Modern period, European exploration of the interior began in the 19th century. The British Empire established the East Africa Protectorate in 1895, which starting in 1920 gave way to the Kenya Colony, Kenya obtained independence in December 1963. Following a referendum in August 2010 and adoption of a new constitution, Kenya is now divided into 47 semi-autonomous counties, the capital, Nairobi, is a regional commercial hub. The economy of Kenya is the largest by GDP in East, agriculture is a major employer, the country traditionally exports tea and coffee and has more recently begun to export fresh flowers to Europe. The service industry is also an economic driver. Additionally, Kenya is a member of the East African Community trading bloc, the Republic of Kenya is named after Mount Kenya. The origin of the name Kenya is not clear, but perhaps linked to the Kikuyu, Embu and Kamba words Kirinyaga, Kirenyaa, if so, then the British may not so much have mispronounced it, as misspelled it. In the 19th century, the German explorer Johann Ludwig Krapf was staying with the Bantu Kamba people when he first spotted the mountain. On asking for the name of the mountain, he was told Kĩ-Nyaa or Kĩĩma- Kĩĩnyaa probably because the pattern of black rock, the Agikuyu, who inhabit the slopes of Mt. Kenya, call it Kĩrĩma Kĩrĩnyaga in Kikuyu, which is quite similar to the Kamba name. Ludwig Krapf recorded the name as both Kenia and Kegnia believed by most to be a corruption of the Kamba version, others say that this was—on the contrary—a very precise notation of a correct African pronunciation /ˈkɛnjə/
46.
Giant kingfisher
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The giant kingfisher is the largest kingfisher in Africa, where it is a resident breeding bird over most of the continent south of the Sahara Desert other than the arid southwest. There are two subspecies, M. m. maxima, found in country, and M. m. gigantea in the rainforest. The forest race is darker, less spotted above, and more barred below than maxima, breeding is from August to January, 3–5 eggs being laid in a riverbank tunnel. The giant kingfisher is 42–48 cm long, with a large crest, the male has a chestnut breast band and otherwise white underparts with dark flank barring, and the female has a white-spotted black breast band and chestnut belly. The call is a loud wak wak wak and this large species feeds on crabs, fish, and frogs, caught in the typical kingfisher way by a dive from a perch. Giant kingfisher - Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds
47.
Oreochromis
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Oreochromis is a large genus of tilapiine cichlids, fishes endemic to Africa and the Middle East. Several species from this genus have been introduced far outside their native range, members of this genus, as well as those of the genera Tilapia and Sarotherodon, share the common name tilapia. The genus contains more than 30 species, and numerous undescribed forms exist, judging from mtDNA sequence analysis, several clades seem to exist. In addition, some species seem closer to Sarotherodon according to the mtDNA data, research is hampered because hybridization runs rampant in these fishes, which confounds mtDNA data, and the fast speed of evolution makes choice of appropriate nuclear DNA sequences difficult. Samonte, Irene E. McAndrew, Brendan J. & Klein, Jan, Classification, molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 20, 361–374
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Near threatened[34]
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