1.
John George Brown
–
John George Brown was a British citizen and an American painter born in Durham, England on November 11,1831. His parents apprenticed him to the career of glass worker at the age of fourteen in an attempt to dissuade him from pursuing painting. After moving to New York City in 1853, he studied with Thomas Seir Cummings at the National Academy of Design where he was elected a National Academician in 1861, Brown was the Academys vice-president from 1899 to 1904. Around 1855, he worked for the owner of the Brooklyn Glass Company and his father-in-law encouraged his artistic abilities, supporting him financially, letting Brown pursue painting full-time. In 1866, he one of the charter members of the Water-Color Society. Brown became famous for his depictions of street urchins found on the streets of New York and his Passing Show and Street Boys at Play are good examples of his popular talent. Browns art is best characterized as British genre paintings adapted to American subjects, essentially literary, Browns paintings are executed with precise detail, but poor in color, and more popular with the general public than with connoisseurs. Wishing to more faithfully capture his subjects as they appeared in life, Brown once said, They will change their dress. Being cautioned expressly on Saturday, and told to return in the same fustian jacket your boy will appear on Monday morning, if he appears at all, and they are constantly having their hair trimmed--perfect dandies. Brown was trying to capture the spirit of the children as people who pull themselves up by their bootstraps. Many years later, Brown claimed that most of the children he painted had grown to become successful businessmen. Brown claimed to bobbies, I do not paint poor boys solely because the public likes such pictures and pays me for them, Brown was one of the most successful genre painters of the late 19th century. He worked as a glassblower in Brooklyn and proceeded to open a studio in 1860 and his paintings of cheery street urchins, vendors and shoeshine boys were quite popular with wealthy collectors. However, Brown falsified his subjects as always happy and healthy with just a touch of grime for cosmetics and these scenes were really below his artistic ability, but Brown did not want to cause social alarm among patrons. Many of Browns paintings were reproduced in lithography and widely distributed with packaged teas, the royalties earned from one lithograph were $25,000. Browns financial success allowed for him to paint country landscape paintings for pleasure, John George Brown exhibited many of his paintings at the National Academy of Design from 1858–1900, where he also taught for many years. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Brown. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Gilman
John George Brown
–
The Cider Mill, 1880, Terra Foundation for American Art, Daniel J. Terra Collection
2.
Girl
–
A girl is a female human from birth through childhood and adolescence to attainment of adulthood when she becomes a woman. The term girl may also be used to mean a young woman, the English word girl first appeared during the Middle Ages between 1250 and 1300 CE and came from the Anglo-Saxon word gerle. The Anglo-Saxon word gerela meaning dress or clothing item also seems to have used as a metonym in some sense. Girl has meant any young unmarried woman since about 1530 and its first noted meaning for sweetheart is 1648. The earliest known appearance of girl-friend is in 1892 and girl next door, meant as a female or young woman with a kind of wholesome appeal. The word girl is sometimes used to refer to an adult female and this usage may be considered derogatory or disrespectful in professional or other formal contexts, just as the term boy can be considered disparaging when applied to an adult man. Hence, this usage is often deprecative and it can also be used deprecatively when used to discriminate against children. In casual context, the word has positive uses, as evidenced by its use in titles of popular music. It has been used playfully for people acting in a fashion or as a way of unifying women of all ages on the basis of their once having been girls. These positive uses mean gender rather than age, the status of girls throughout world history is closely related to the status of women in any culture. Where women enjoy an equal status with men, girls benefit from greater attention to their needs. In Ancient Egypt, the princess Neferure grew up under the reign of her mother, the woman Pharaoh Hatshepsut, women in Ancient Egypt had a relatively high status in society, and as the daughter of the pharaoh, Neferura was provided with the best education possible. Her tutors were the most trusted advisors of her mother and she grew up to take on an important role by taking on the duties of a queen while her mother was pharaoh. Despite the fact women and men had a great deal of equality in Ancient Egypt. For this reason, girls and boys education differed, boys could attend formal schools to learn how to read, write, and do math, while girls would be educated at home to learn the occupations of their mothers. Some women did become literate and were scholars, however, such as Hypatia, girls formal education has traditionally been considered far less important than that of boys. In Europe, exceptions were rare before the press and the Reformation made literacy more widespread. One notable exception to the neglect of girls literacy is Queen Elizabeth I
Girl
Girl
Girl
Girl
3.
Boy
–
A boy is a young male human, usually a child or adolescent. When he becomes an adult, he is described as a man, the most apparent difference between a typical boy and a typical girl is the genitalia. However, some children with ambiguous genitals, and genetically female transgender children. The term boy is primarily used to indicate biological sex distinctions, the term can be joined with a variety of other words to form these gender-related labels as compound words. The word boy comes from Middle English boi, boye, related to other Germanic words for boy, namely East Frisian boi and West Frisian boai. The root is found in Flemish boe, Norwegian dialectal boa. Furthermore, the word may be related to Bōia, an Anglo-Saxon personal name, in English, the words youth, teenager and adolescent may refer to either male or female. Many occasions occur when a male is commonly referred to as a boy. A persons boyfriend or loverboy may be of any age, this applies to a working call-boy, toyboy. Reflecting the general preference for youth, one says pretty boy or Adonis even when a male beauty is clearly of riper age. In terms for such as batty boy or bum boy, age is not essential. A mans group of male friends etc. engaged in Male bonding are called the boys. g. The boys at the office, - police station etc, the members of a student fraternity can be called frat boys, technically preferable to the pleonasm frat-bro, and remain so for life as adults, after graduation. Thus the compound -man can then be replaced by -boy, as in footboy, or boy is simply added, either as a prefix or as a suffix. An adult equivalent is not to be expected when -boy designates an apprentice or lowest rank implying specific on the job training if promotion is to be obtained, as in kitchen boy. Similarly schoolboy only applies to minors, the modern near-synonym pupil originally designated a minor in Roman law as being under a specific adults authority, the use of boy in nicknames, also for adult men, may also connote to the informal or naughty image of boyhood. In such terms as city boy or home boy, the age notion is at most anachronistic, images of boys in art, literature and popular culture often demonstrate assumptions about gender roles. In some Middle Eastern cultures, characteristics affirming boyhood include physiological features associated with prepubescence, such as pubelessness and the inability to ejaculate
Boy
–
Newborn baby boy
Boy
–
A young boy from
Dar es Salaam
Boy
–
Boy in
Spain
Boy
–
A
Tigray boy in
Ethiopia
4.
Masculinity
–
Masculinity is a set of attributes, behaviors and roles generally associated with boys and men. Masculinity is made up of both socially-defined and biologically-created factors, distinct from the definition of the biological sex. Both males and females can exhibit masculine traits and behavior and those exhibiting both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification. Masculine traits include courage, independence and assertiveness and these traits vary by location and context, and are influenced by social and cultural factors. An overemphasis on masculinity and power, often associated with a disregard for consequences, masculine qualities, characteristics or roles are considered typical of, or appropriate for, a boy or man. They have degrees of comparison, more masculine and most masculine, the concept of masculinity varies historically and culturally, although the dandy was seen as a 19th-century ideal of masculinity, he is considered effeminate by modern standards. Masculine norms, as described in Ronald F and these norms reinforce gender roles by associating attributes and characteristics with one gender. The academic study of masculinity received increased attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s and this has sparked investigation of the intersection of masculinity with other axes of social discrimination and concepts from other fields, such as the social construction of gender difference. In many cultures, displaying characteristics not typical of ones gender may be a social problem, in sociology, this labeling is known as gender assumptions and is part of socialization to meet the mores of a society. Non-standard behavior may be considered indicative of homosexuality, despite the fact that expression, gender identity. When sexuality is defined in terms of choice, male homosexuality is interpreted as effeminacy. Social disapproval of excessive masculinity may be expressed as machismo or by such as testosterone poisoning. The relative importance of socialization and genetics in the development of masculinity is debated, the historical development of gender roles is addressed by behavioural genetics, evolutionary psychology, human ecology, anthropology and sociology. All human cultures seem to encourage gender roles in literature, costume and song, examples may include the epics of Homer, the Hengist and Horsa tales, more specialized treatments of masculinity may be found in the Bhagavad Gita and the bushidō of Hagakure. The extent to which masculinity is inborn or conditioned is debated, genome research has yielded information about the development of masculine characteristics and the process of sexual differentiation specific to the human reproductive system. The testis determining factor on the Y chromosome, critical for male sexual development, the activation of SRY halts the process of creating a female, beginning a chain of events leading to testicle formation, androgen production and a number of pre- and post-natal hormonal effects. How a child develops gender identity is also debated, some believe that masculinity is linked to the male body, in this view, masculinity is associated with male genitalia. Others have suggested that although masculinity may be influenced by biology, proponents of this view argue that women can become men hormonally and physically, and many aspects of masculinity assumed to be natural are linguistically and culturally driven
Masculinity
–
In Greek mythology,
Heracles is synonymous with
Apollonian masculinity.
Masculinity
–
A construction worker
Masculinity
–
Competitions of physical skill and strength are a feature of masculinity appearing in some form in virtually every culture. Here, two
U.S. Marines compete in a wrestling match.
Masculinity
–
Male construction workers without appropriate fall-protection equipment
5.
Femininity
–
Femininity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with girls and women. Femininity is socially constructed, but made up of both socially-defined and biologically-created factors and this makes it distinct from the definition of the biological female sex, as both males and females can exhibit feminine traits. People who exhibit a combination of masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification. In some non-English speaking cultures, certain concepts or inanimate objects are considered feminine or masculine, tara Williams has suggested that modern notions of femininity in English speaking society began during the English medieval period at the time of the bubonic plague in the 1300s. Women in the Early Middle Ages were referred to simply within their traditional roles of maiden, wife, after the Black Death in England wiped out approximately half the population, traditional gender roles of wife and mother changed, and opportunities opened up for women in society. Prudence Allen has traced how the concept of woman changed during this period, the words femininity and womanhood are first recorded in Chaucer around 1380. Girls, second-wave feminists said, were then socialized with toys, games, television and school into conforming to feminine values, femininity is sometimes linked with sexual objectification and sexual appeal. Sexual passiveness, or sexual receptivity, is considered feminine while sexual assertiveness. Some queer theorists and other postmodernists, however, have rejected the sex /gender dichotomy as a dangerous simplification, an ongoing debate with regards to sex and psychology concerns the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behavior is due to socialization versus inborn factors. According to Diane F. Halpern, both play a role, but the relative importance of each must still be investigated. The nature versus nurture question, for example, is debated and is continually revitalized by new research findings. Some hold that feminine identity is partly a given and partly a goal to be sought, in 1959, researchers such as John Money and Anke Erhardt proposed the prenatal hormone theory. This theory, however, has been criticized on theoretical and empirical grounds, Money also argued that gender identity is formed during a childs first three years. In Carl Jungs school of psychology, the anima and animus are the two primary anthropomorphic archetypes of the unconscious mind. The anima and animus are described by Jung as elements of his theory of the collective unconscious, a domain of the unconscious that transcends the personal psyche. In the unconscious of the male, it finds expression as a feminine inner personality, anima, equivalently, in the unconscious of the female, it is expressed as a masculine inner personality, animus. In Western cultures, the ideal of feminine appearance has traditionally included long, flowing hair, clear skin, a narrow waist, in other cultures, however, expectations are different. For example, in parts of the world, underarm hair is not considered unfeminine
Femininity
–
In Egyptian mythology,
Isis is synonymous with femininity.
Femininity
–
The Birth of Venus (1486,
Uffizi) is a classic representation of femininity painted by
Sandro Botticelli.
Venus was a
Roman goddess principally associated with love, beauty and
fertility.
Femininity
–
Young Woman Drawing (1801,
Metropolitan Museum of Art) painted by
Marie-Denise Villers (possibly a self-portrait), depicts an independent feminine spirit.
Femininity
–
In some cultures, cosmetics are associated with femininity
6.
Oxford English Dictionary
–
The Oxford English Dictionary is a descriptive dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press. The second edition came to 21,728 pages in 20 volumes, in 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, the title The Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the name in all occurrences in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the edition was published. Since 2000, an edition of the dictionary has been underway. The first electronic version of the dictionary was available in 1988. The online version has been available since 2000, and as of April 2014 was receiving two million hits per month. The third edition of the dictionary will probably appear in electronic form, Nigel Portwood, chief executive of Oxford University Press. As a historical dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary explains words by showing their development rather than merely their present-day usages, therefore, it shows definitions in the order that the sense of the word began being used, including word meanings which are no longer used. The format of the OEDs entries has influenced numerous other historical lexicography projects and this influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works. As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries, the dictionarys latest, complete print edition was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, as entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007, then run in 2011. Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the worlds largest nor the earliest exhaustive dictionary of a language, the Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is the worlds largest dictionary, has similar aims to the OED and took twice as long to complete. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838, the official dictionary of Spanish is the Diccionario de la lengua española, and its first edition was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published in 1716, trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the Society formally adopted the idea of a new dictionary. Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips, later the same year, the Society agreed to the project in principle, with the title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. He withdrew and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor, on 12 May 1860, Coleridges dictionary plan was published and research was started
Oxford English Dictionary
–
Seven of the twenty volumes of the printed version of the second edition of the OED
Oxford English Dictionary
–
Frederick Furnivall, 1825–1910
Oxford English Dictionary
–
James Murray in the Scriptorium at Banbury Road
Oxford English Dictionary
–
The 78 Banbury Road,
Oxford, house, erstwhile residence of
James Murray, Editor of the Oxford English Dictionary
7.
Women and Economics
–
Women and Economics – A Study of the Economic Relation Between Men and Women as a Factor in Social Evolution is a book written by Charlotte Perkins Gilman and published in 1898. ”The 1890s were a period of intense political debate and economic challenges, with the Women’s Movement seeking the vote and other reforms. Women were “entering the work force in swelling numbers, seeking new opportunities, centrally, Gilman argues that women must change their cultural identities. Early on, she mentions that humans are the species in which the female has to depend on the male for survival. This dependence requires women to pay off their debt through domestic services, Gilman argues that women “work longer and harder than most men, and not solely in maternal duties. ”Further, Gilman states that female activities in general are directed by men. These sexual distinctions have led to an odd distribution of power and have been detrimental to both genders, in Gilman’s view and these sexual distinctions have left women behind and allowed men to claim credit for human progress. Gilman argues that women fulfill the roles of mother and martyr. This in turn, has stunted women’s creative and personal growth. Gilman was a confirmed suffragist, but did not believe progress would happen if women were given the vote. ”Gilman also reflects on the strange fact that poorer women who can least afford it, have more children. Gilman talks about the age, when more children were needed to assist with farming. In the industrial age however, more children result in work for the mother. Gilman argued all these points, but still believed motherhood was “the common duty, along with being nurturers, Gilman argues that women are also required to be educators. There is no proof in Gilman’s opinion however, that women who sacrifice to be nurturers and educators will produce better children, Gilman believes that others can assist with these tasks or even do them more effectively. Gilman was one of the first to propose the professionalization of housework, encouraging women to hire housekeepers and this would allow women to participate in the workforce and lead a more worldly life. Gilman believed that women could desire home and family life, but should not have to retain complete responsibility of these areas. Gilman stated that changes would eventually result in “better motherhood and fatherhood, better babyhood and childhood, better food, better homes, better society. ”Women and Economics was published to generally positive reviews. The book was translated into seven different languages and was compared favorably to John Stuart Mill’s The Subjection of Women. The book was well received among academics, despite its lack of academic scholarship. Conservative reviewers even respected the book, albeit slightly grudgingly
Women and Economics
–
Women and men - A Study of the Economic Relation Between Men and Women as a Factor in Social Evolution
8.
Charlotte Perkins Gilman
–
Charlotte Perkins Gilman, also Charlotte Perkins Stetson, was a prominent American feminist, sociologist, novelist, writer of short stories, poetry, and nonfiction, and a lecturer for social reform. She was a utopian feminist and served as a model for future generations of feminists because of her unorthodox concepts. Her best remembered today is her semi-autobiographical short story The Yellow Wallpaper which she wrote after a severe bout of postpartum psychosis. Gilman was born on July 3,1860 in Hartford, Connecticut, to Mary Perkins and she had only one brother, Thomas Adie, who was fourteen months older, because a physician advised Mary Perkins that she might die if she bore other children. During Charlottes infancy, her moved out and abandoned his wife and children. Her schooling was erratic, she attended seven different schools, for a total of just four years. Her mother was not affectionate with her children, to keep them from getting hurt as she had been, she forbade her children to make strong friendships or read fiction. In her autobiography, The Living of Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Gilman wrote that her mother showed affection only when she thought her daughter was asleep. Additionally, her fathers love for literature influenced her, and years later he contacted her with a list of books he felt would be worthwhile for her to read, much of Gilmans youth was spent in Providence, Rhode Island. What friends she had were mainly male, and she was unashamed, for her time and her natural intelligence and breadth of knowledge always impressed her teachers, who were nonetheless disappointed in her because she was a poor student. Her favorite subject was natural philosophy, especially what later would become known as physics, in 1878, the eighteen-year-old enrolled in classes at the Rhode Island School of Design with the monetary help of her absent father, and subsequently supported herself as an artist of trade cards. She was a tutor, and encouraged others to expand their artistic creativity, in 1884, she married the artist Charles Walter Stetson after initially declining his proposal because a gut feeling told her it was not the right thing for her. Their only child, Katharine Beecher Stetson, was born the following year, Charlotte Perkins Gilman suffered a very serious bout of post-partum depression in the months after Katharines birth. This was an age in women were seen as hysterical and nervous beings, thus. In 1888, Charlotte separated from her husband – a rare occurrence in the nineteenth century. The two legally divorced in 1894, in 1894, Gilman sent her daughter east to live with her former husband and his second wife, Grace Ellery Channing, who was a close friend of Gilmans. Gilman reported in her memoir that she was happy for the couple, since Katharines second mother was fully as good as the first, better in some ways. Gilman also held views about paternal rights and acknowledged that her ex-husband had a right to some of society
Charlotte Perkins Gilman
–
Charlotte Perkins Gilman
Charlotte Perkins Gilman
–
Signature
Charlotte Perkins Gilman
–
Charlotte Perkins Gilman Photograph by
Frances Benjamin Johnston (ca. 1900).
Charlotte Perkins Gilman
–
The Yellow Wallpaper, one of Gilman's most popular works, originally published in 1892 before her marriage to George Houghton Gilman
9.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
World War I
–
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
World War I
–
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
World War I
–
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
World War I
–
Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
10.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
11.
Dyke (slang)
–
The term dyke or dike is a slang noun meaning lesbian, it is also a slang adjective describing things associated with lesbianism. The origin of the term is obscure, and many theories have been proposed, the Oxford English Dictionary notes the first attestation as Berrey and Van den Barks 1942 American Thesaurus of Slang. There, dike was the common term. The etymology of term is also obscure, but may have originated as a Virginian variant of deck. However, the term bulldyker preceded dyke in print, appearing in Harlem Renaissance novels in the 1920s, claude McKays 1928 Home to Harlem includes the passage that lesbians are what we calls bulldyker in Harlem. From the context in the novel, the word was considered crude and this may be related to the late-19th-century slang use of dike for the vulva. Bull being used in the sense of masculine and aggressive, a bulldyke would have implied a masculine cunt, in the late 20th and early 21st century, the term was reclaimed by many lesbians. Examples in the include the comic strip Dykes to Watch out For. Matters came to a head when the United States Patent and Trademark Office denied lesbian motorcycle group Dykes on Bikes a trademark for its name, on the grounds that dyke was an offensive word. In 2005, after a court battle involving testimony on the words changing role in the lesbian community. Dyke Marches have become a popular Pride event nationwide and they are generally non-commercial, often in sharp contrast to corporate-sponsored pride events, and are usually inclusive of lesbian, bi, and trans women. A dyke bar is a used to describe any bar or club in which lesbians often attend. As with the word dyke, the term is considered not only slang
Dyke (slang)
–
Dykes on Bikes at
New York City 's 2007
LGBT pride parade.
Dyke (slang)
–
Sirens Motorcycle Club leading the New York City
LGBT pride parade.
Dyke (slang)
–
LGBT history
12.
Judith Halberstam
–
Halberstam was the Associate Professor in the Department of Literature at the University of California at San Diego before working at USC. He is a gender and queer theorist and author, Halberstam, who accepts masculine and feminine pronouns, as well as the name Judith, with regard to his gender identity, focuses on the topic of tomboys and female masculinity for his writings. Jack is a speaker and gives lectures in the United States and internationally on queer failure, sex and media, subcultures, visual culture, gender variance, popular film. Halberstam is currently working on projects including a book on fascism. Halberstam earned a B. A. in English at the University of California, Berkeley in 1985, an M. A. from the University of Minnesota in 1989, and a Ph. D. from the same school in 1991. A lot of people call me he, some call me she. The name Judith Halberstam has also accompanied Jack on some of Halberstams later books, Halberstam acknowledges that he is a bit of a free floater when it comes to pronouns. Halberstam does, however, state that grouping me with someone else who seems to have a female embodiment, in Female Masculinity, Halberstam seeks to identify what constitutes masculinity in society and within the individual. The text first suggests that masculinity is a construction that promotes particular brands of male-ness while at the same time subordinating alternative masculinities, the project specifically focuses on the ways female masculinity has been traditionally ignored in academia and society at large. This interpretation of these characters challenges long-held ideas about what qualities create masculinity, Halberstam then focuses on the bathroom problem. Here, the question of the binary is brought up. Halberstam argues that the problem of only having two separate bathrooms for different genders, with no place for people who do not clearly fit into either category to use, is a problem. The assertion is made that our bathroom system is not adequate for the different genders found in society. The problem of policing that occurs around the bathrooms is also a point for examination of the bathroom problem, not only is this a policing on the legal level. In The Queer Art of Failure, Halberstam argues that failure can be productive, using examples from popular culture, like Pixar animated films, Halberstam explores alternatives to individualism and conformity. In his introduction, Halberstam proposes low theory as a way to deconstruct the normative modes of thought that have established uniform societal definitions of success, Halberstam points out that queer and feminine success is always measured by male, heterosexual standards. The failure to live up to standards, Halberstam argues, can offer unexpected pleasures such as freedom of expression. Halberstam clarifies his points encouraging failure in a lecture called On Behalf of Failure, or relayed through heteronormative marriage, failure is not a bad place to start for a critique of both capitalism and heteronormativity
Judith Halberstam
–
Jack Halberstam, 2011
13.
Adolescence
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Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological development that generally occurs during the period from puberty to legal adulthood. Adolescence is usually associated with the years, but its physical, psychological or cultural expressions may begin earlier. For example, puberty now typically begins during preadolescence, particularly in females, physical growth, and cognitive development can extend into the early twenties. Thus age provides only a marker of adolescence, and scholars have found it difficult to agree upon a precise definition of adolescence. A thorough understanding of adolescence in society depends on information from various perspectives, including psychology, biology, history, sociology, education, and anthropology. Within all of these perspectives, adolescence is viewed as a period between childhood and adulthood, whose cultural purpose is the preparation of children for adult roles. It is a period of transitions involving education, training, employment and unemployment. The end of adolescence and the beginning of adulthood varies by country, Adolescence is usually accompanied by an increased independence allowed by the parents or legal guardians, including less supervision as compared to preadolescence. Major pubertal and biological changes include changes to the sex organs, height, weight, cognitive advances encompass both increment in knowledge and in the ability to think abstractly and to reason more effectively. The study of adolescent development often involves interdisciplinary collaborations, for example, researchers in neuroscience or bio-behavioral health might focus on pubertal changes in brain structure and its effects on cognition or social relations. Sociologists interested in adolescence might focus on the acquisition of social roles, developmental psychologists might focus on changes in relations with parents and peers as a function of school structure and pubertal status. Some scientists have questioned the universality of adolescence as a developmental phase, puberty is a period of several years in which rapid physical growth and psychological changes occur, culminating in sexual maturity. The average age of onset of puberty is at 11 for girls and 12 for boys, every persons individual timetable for puberty is influenced primarily by heredity, although environmental factors, such as diet and exercise, also exert some influences. These factors can contribute to precocious and delayed puberty. Some of the most significant parts of pubertal development involve distinctive physiological changes in height, weight, body composition. These changes are largely influenced by hormonal activity, puberty occurs through a long process and begins with a surge in hormone production, which in turn causes a number of physical changes. It is the stage of life characterized by the appearance and development of sex characteristics. This is triggered by the pituitary gland, which secretes a surge of hormonal agents into the blood stream, initiating a chain reaction to occur
Adolescence
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Two adolescents listening to music
Adolescence
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Adolescents of diverse backgrounds in
Oslo
Adolescence
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Upper body of a teenage boy. The structure has changed to resemble an
adult form.
Adolescence
–
G. Stanley Hall
14.
Western world
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The Western world or the West is a term usually referring to different nations, depending on the context, most often including at least part of Europe. There are many accepted definitions about what they all have in common, the Western world is also known as the Occident. The concept of the Western part of the earth has its roots in Greco-Roman civilization in Europe, before the Cold War era, the traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian countries and culture. Its political usage was changed by the antagonism during the Cold War in the mid-to-late 20th Century. The term originally had a literal geographic meaning, Western culture was influenced by many older great civilizations of the ancient Near East, such as Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, Sumer, Babylonia, and also Ancient Egypt. It originated in the Mediterranean basin and its vicinity, Greece, over time, their associated empires grew first to the east and west to include the rest of Mediterranean and Black Sea coastal areas, conquering and absorbing. Later, they expanded to the north of the Mediterranean Sea to include Western, Central, numerous times, this expansion was accompanied by Christian missionaries, who attempted to proselytize Christianity. There is debate among some as to whether Latin America is in a category of its own, specifically, Western culture may imply, a Biblical Christian cultural influence in spiritual thinking, customs and either ethic or moral traditions, around the Post-Classical Era and after. European cultural influences concerning artistic, musical, folkloric, ethic and oral traditions, the concept of Western culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic, much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. The term has come to apply to countries whose history is marked by European immigration or settlement, such as the Americas, and Oceania. The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire, Roman Catholic Western and Central Europe, as such, maintained a distinct identity particularly as it began to redevelop during the Renaissance. Even following the Protestant Reformation, Protestant Europe continued to see itself as more tied to Roman Catholic Europe than other parts of the civilized world. Use of the term West as a cultural and geopolitical term developed over the course of the Age of Exploration as Europe spread its culture to other parts of the world. Additionally, closer contacts between the West and Asia and other parts of the world in recent times have continued to cloud the use, herodotus considered the Persian Wars of the early 5th century BC a conflict of Europa versus Asia. The terms West and East were not used by any Greek author to describe that conflict, the Great Schism and the Fourth Crusade confirmed this deviation. The Renaissance in the West emerged partly from currents within the Roman Empire, Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a city-state founded on the Italian Peninsula about the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. In its 12-century existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy, to a republic, nonetheless, despite its great legacy, a number of factors led to the eventual decline of the Roman Empire
Western world
–
The
Parthenon (
Athens).
Western world
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Division of the
Roman Empire after 395 into western and eastern part. The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire.
Western world
–
The
Roman Forum (
Rome).
Western world
–
The
Supreme Court of the United States (
Washington, D.C.).
15.
Title IX
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Title IX is a portion of the United States Education Amendments of 1972, Public Law No. §§ 1681–1688, co-authored and introduced by Senator Birch Bayh, it was renamed the Patsy Mink Equal Opportunity in Education Act in 2002, after Patsy Mink, its late House co-author and sponsor. While Title IX is best known for its impact on school and collegiate athletics. In 1967, President Lyndon Johnson sent a series of orders in order to make some clarifications. Before these clarifications were made, the National Organization for Women persuaded President Johnson to include women in his executive orders, most notable is Executive Order 11375, which required all entities receiving federal contracts to end discrimination on the basis of sex in hiring and employment. In 1969, Bernice Sandler used the order to help her fight for her job at the University of Maryland. She used university statistics showing how female employment at the university had plummeted as qualified women were replaced by men, Sandler brought her complaints to the Department of Labors Office for Federal Fair Contracts Compliance where she was encouraged to file a formal complaint. Citing inequalities in pay, rank, admissions and much more, Sandler began to file complaints not only against the University of Maryland, working in conjunction with NOW and Womens Equity Action League, Sandler filed 269 complaints against colleges and universities. In 1970, Sandler joined Representative Edith Greens Subcommittee on Higher Education of the Education and Labor Committee and it was in the congressional hearings that Green and Sandler first proposed Title IX. An early draft was authored by Representative Patsy Mink, with the assistance of Representative Green, in the hearing there was very little mention of athletics. Their focus was more specifically on the hiring and employment practices of federally financed institutions, the first person to introduce Title IX in Congress was its author and chief Senate sponsor, Senator Birch Bayh of Indiana. Prior to Title IXs enactment women were not given the opportunities that men were, men were the ones given academic opportunities such as scholarships and funding while women were not viewed as equal. As a result, Title IX was created, pre- Title IX in 1971 only 1% of the athletic budgets went to female sports on the college level. On the high school male athletes outnumbered female athletes 12.5 to 1. After Title IX, there was a 600% increase in the number of playing college sports. The desire of many schools not to waste a mans place on a woman stems from such stereotyped notions, but the facts absolutely contradict these myths about the weaker sex and it is time to change our operating assumptions. While the impact of this amendment would be far-reaching, Bayh concluded, Title IX became law on June 23,1972. When President Nixon signed the bill, he spoke mostly about desegregation busing, the wording of Title IX is very brief, requiring specific language and clarifications to be articulated in its implementing regulations
Title IX
–
Senator
Birch Bayh of Indiana
Title IX
–
Title IX
Title IX
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Senator Bayh exercises with Title IX athletes at Purdue University, ca. 1970s.
Title IX
–
Representative
Patsy Mink of Hawaii, Title IX co-author, for whom the law was renamed in 2002.
16.
Online Etymology Dictionary
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The Online Etymology Dictionary is a free online dictionary that describes the origins of English-language words. Douglas Harper compiled the etymology dictionary to record the history and evolution of more than 30,000 words, including slang, the core body of its etymology information stems from Ernest Weekleys An Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. Other sources include the Middle English Dictionary and the Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology, in producing his large dictionary, Douglas Harper says that he is essentially and for the most part a compiler, an evaluator of etymology reports which others have made. Harper works as a Copy editor/Page designer for LNP Media Group, as of June 2015, there were nearly 50,000 entries in the dictionary. It is cited in articles as a source for explaining the history
Online Etymology Dictionary
–
Online Etymology Dictionary
Online Etymology Dictionary
–
Screenshot of etymonline.com
17.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
18.
JSTOR
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JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
JSTOR
–
The JSTOR front page
