1.
Southeast Alaska
–
The majority of Southeast Alaskas area is part of the Tongass National Forest, the United States largest national forest. In many places, the border runs along the crest of the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains. The region is noted for its scenery and mild rainy climate, Southeast Alaska is the northern terminus of the Inside Passage, a protected waterway of convoluted passages between islands and fjords, beginning in Puget Sound in Washington state. This was an important travel corridor for Tlingit and Haida Native peoples, in modern times it is an important route for Alaska Marine Highway ferries as well as cruise ships. Southeast Alaska has an area of 35,138 square miles comprising seven entire boroughs. Although it has only 6.14 percent of Alaskas land area, it is larger than the state of Maine, the Southeast Alaskan coast is roughly as long as the west coast of Canada. The 2010 census population of Southeast was 71,616 inhabitants, the largest islands are, from North to South, Chichagof Island, Admiralty Island, Baranof Island, Kupreanof Island, Revillagigedo Island and Prince of Wales Island. Major bodies of water of Southeast Alaska include Glacier Bay, Lynn Canal, Icy Strait, Chatham Strait, Stephens Passage, Frederick Sound, Sumner Strait, and Clarence Strait. On August 20,1902, President Theodore Roosevelt established the Alexander Archipelago Forest Reserve, Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park Sitka National Historical Park Wrangell-St. The most common species are sitka spruce and western hemlock. Major cities are Juneau, Ketchikan, and Sitka, other towns are Petersburg, Wrangell, Metlakatla, Haines, Hoonah, Angoon, Kake, Craig, Klawock, Thorne Bay, Yakutat, Skagway, and Gustavus. This region is home to the easternmost town in Alaska. This area is the homeland of the Tlingit, and home of a historic settling of Haida as well as a modern settlement of Tsimshian. The region is connected to Seattle and the American Pacific Northwest economically and culturally. In modern times, southeastern Alaskans can often be identified by their choices, notably Xtratuf boots. Major industries in Southeast Alaska include commercial fishing and tourism and its members include Alcan Forest Products and Viking Lumber, which had been founded in Maine. Debates over whether to expand logging in the federally owned Tongass are not uncommon, mining remains important in the northern area with the Juneau mining district and Admiralty mining district hosting active mines as of 2015. Gold was discovered in 1880 and played an important part in the history of the region
2.
Alaska
–
Alaska is a U. S. state located in the northwest extremity of North America. To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas–the southern parts of the Arctic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by area, the 3rd least populous, approximately half of Alaskas residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area. Alaskas economy is dominated by the fishing, natural gas, military bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy. The United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30,1867, the area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11,1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U. S. on January 3,1959, the name Alaska was introduced in the Russian colonial period when it was used to refer to the peninsula. It was derived from an Aleut, or Unangam idiom, which refers to the mainland of Alaska. Literally, it means object to which the action of the sea is directed, Alaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States and has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the Aleutian Islands extend into the Eastern Hemisphere. Alaska is the only non-contiguous U. S. state on continental North America and it is technically part of the continental U. S. but is sometimes not included in colloquial use, Alaska is not part of the contiguous U. S. often called the Lower 48. The capital city, Juneau, is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system. Alaskas territorial waters touch Russias territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian Big Diomede Island, Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U. S. states combined. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by total area at 663,268 square miles, over twice the size of Texas, Alaska is larger than all but 18 sovereign countries. Counting territorial waters, Alaska is larger than the area of the next three largest states, Texas, California, and Montana. It is also larger than the area of the 22 smallest U. S. states. Also referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage, this is the region of Alaska closest to the rest of the United States, as such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the Alaska Purchase. The region is dominated by the Alexander Archipelago as well as the Tongass National Forest and it contains the state capital Juneau, the former capital Sitka, and Ketchikan, at one time Alaskas largest city. The Alaska Marine Highway provides a vital transportation link throughout the area. The Interior is the largest region of Alaska, much of it is uninhabited wilderness, Fairbanks is the only large city in the region
3.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
United States Forest Service
–
The United States Forest Service is an agency of the U. S. Department of Agriculture that administers the nations 154 national forests and 20 national grasslands, which encompass 193 million acres. Major divisions of the include the National Forest System, State and Private Forestry, Business Operations. Managing approximately 25% of federal lands, it is the major national land agency that is outside the U. S. Department of the Interior. The concept of the National Forests was born from Theodore Roosevelt’s conservation group, Boone and Crockett Club, in 1876, Congress created the office of Special Agent in the Department of Agriculture to assess the quality and conditions of forests in the United States. Hough was appointed the head of the office, in 1881, the office was expanded into the newly formed Division of Forestry. The Forest Reserve Act of 1891 authorized withdrawing land from the domain as forest reserves. In 1901, the Division of Forestry was renamed the Bureau of Forestry, gifford Pinchot was the first United States Chief Forester in the Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt. As of 2009, the Forest Service has a budget authority of $5.5 billion. The Forest Service employs 34,250 employees in 750 locations, including 10,050 firefighters,737 law enforcement personnel, and 500 scientists. The mission of the Forest Service is To sustain the health, diversity and its motto is Caring for the land and serving people. As the lead agency in natural resource conservation, the US Forest Service provides leadership in the protection, management, and use of the nations forest, rangeland. The agencys ecosystem approach to management integrates ecological, economic, and social factors to maintain and enhance the quality of the environment to meet current, the everyday work of the Forest Service balances resource extraction, resource protection, and providing recreation.5 billion trees per year. Further, the Forest Service fought fires on 2,996,000 acres of land in 2007, the Forest Service organization includes ranger districts, national forests, regions, research stations and research work units and the Northeastern Area Office for State and Private Forestry. Each level has responsibility for a variety of functions, the Chief of the Forest Service is a career federal employee who oversees the entire agency. The Chief reports to the Under Secretary for Natural Resources and Environment in the U. S. Department of Agriculture, there are five deputy chiefs for the following areas, National Forest System, State and Private Forestry, Research and Development, Business Operations, and Finance. The Forest Service Research and Development deputy area includes five stations, the Forest Products Laboratory. Station directors, like regional foresters, report to the Chief, Research stations include Northern, Pacific Northwest, Pacific Southwest, Rocky Mountain, and Southern. There are 92 research work units located at 67 sites throughout the United States, there are 80 Experimental Forests and Ranges that have been established progressively since 1908, many sites are more than 50 years old
6.
Temperate rainforest
–
Temperate rainforests are coniferous or broadleaf forests that occur in the temperate zone and receive heavy rainfall. For temperate rain forests of North America, Alabacks definition is widely recognized, the North American definition would in turn exclude a part of temperate rain forests in other countries. Temperate forests cover a part of the Earth, but temperate rainforests only occur in a few regions around the world. Jiri and across the southern coastline, southwest Japans Taiheiyo forests, coastal New South Wales. In Eastern North America, there are scattered pockets of temperate rainforest also exist along the Allegheny Plateau and these areas include sections of West Virginia, Western Pennsylvania, as well as Western Upstate New York and the Adirondack Mountains. A good example of these forests are found in Zoar Valley in Upstate New York, Cook Forest State Park within the Allegheny National Forest, like Eastern North America, much precipitation is in the form of rain and snow. In terms of the province system used by botany, the bulk of the region is the Rocky Mountain Floristic Region. They vary in their species composition, but are all predominantly coniferous, sometimes with an understory of broadleaved trees, most of the precipitation occurs in winter but summer fogs moisture is extracted by the trees and produces a fog drip keeping the forest moist. The Northern California coastal forests are home to the Coast Redwood, in the other ecoregions, Coast Douglas-fir, Sitka Spruce, Western Hemlock and Western redcedar are the most important tree species. A common feature of Pacific temperate rain forests of North America is the Nurse log, a fallen tree which as it decays, provides ecological facilitation to seedlings. Trees such as the Coast Douglas-fir, Western Hemlock, Western Red Cedar, Pacific Yew, Some of the largest expanses of old growth are found in Olympic National Park, Mount Rainier National Park, Tongass National Forest, Mount St. These inland rainforests have more continental climate with a proportion of the precipitation falling as snow. Being closer to the Rocky Mountains, there is more of a mammalian fauna. Some of the best interior rain forests are found in Mount Revelstoke National Park, Red spruce and Fraser fir are dominant canopy trees in high mountain areas. In higher elevation, Fraser fir is dominant, in middle elevation red spruce and Fraser fir grow together, below the spruce-fir forest, at around 1,200 metres, are forests of American beech, yellow birch, maple birch, and oak. Skunk cabbage and ground juniper are northern species that were pushed into the areas from the north, the mild and wet environment supports the high diversity of fungi. Over 2000 species live in area and scientists estimate many unidentified fungi may be there. Temperate rain forests occur in the Valdivian temperate rain forests and Magellanic subpolar forests ecoregions, the Valdivian and Magellanic temperate rainforests are the only temperate rain forests in South America
7.
World Wide Fund for Nature
–
It was formerly named the World Wildlife Fund, which remains its official name in Canada and the United States. It is the worlds largest conservation organization with five million supporters worldwide, working in more than 100 countries, supporting around 1,300 conservation. WWF is a foundation, with 55% of funding from individuals and bequests, 19% from government sources, the groups mission is to stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature. Currently, much of its work concentrates on the conservation of three biomes that contain most of the biodiversity, oceans and coasts, forests. Among other issues, it is concerned with endangered species, sustainable production of commodities. The Conservation Foundation, a precursor to WWF, was founded in 1947 by Fairfield Osborn in New York City in support of capitalism-friendly ecological practices. The advisory council included leading scientists such as Charles Sutherland Elton, G Evelyn Hutchinson, Aldo Leopold, Carl Sauer, and Paul Sears. It supported much of the work cited by Rachel Carsons Silent Spring, including that of John L. George, Roger Hale, Robert Rudd. In 1990, the Conservation Foundation was merged into WWF, after becoming an affiliate of WWF in 1985, the organization now known as the Conservation Foundation in the United States is the former Forest Foundation of DuPage County. The idea for a fund on behalf of endangered animals was initially proposed by Victor Stolan to Sir Julian Huxley in response to articles he published in the British newspaper The Observer, nicholson thought up the name of the organization. WWF was conceived on 29 April 1961, under the name of World Wildlife Fund, godfrey A. Rockefeller also played an important role in its creation, assembling the first staff. For sending experts to danger spots and training, making it all possible that their needs are met before it is too late. WWF has set up offices and operations around the world, the organization also began to run its own conservation projects and campaigns, and by the 1980s started to take a more strategic approach to its conservation activities. In 1986, the changed its name to World Wide Fund for Nature. However, it continued at that time to operate under the name in the United States. We shant save all we should like to, but we shall save a great deal more than if we had never tried, – Sir Peter Scott In 1996, the organization obtained general consultative status from UNESCO. WWFs giant panda logo originated from a panda named Chi Chi that had transferred from Beijing Zoo to London Zoo in 1958. The logo was founded by Young in 1966, the organization also needed an animal that would have an impact in black and white printing
8.
Pacific temperate rainforests (WWF ecoregion)
–
The Pacific temperate rainforests ecoregion of North America is the largest temperate rain forest ecoregion on the planet as defined by the World Wildlife Fund. The Pacific temperate rain forests are characterized by an amount of rainfall, in some areas more than 300 cm per year. This ecoregion is a subregion of the Cascadia bioregion and these rain forests occur in a number of ecoregions, which vary in their species composition, but are predominantly of conifers, sometimes with an understory of broadleaf trees, ferns and shrubs. Notably, the three tallest species of trees are found here, dense growths of epiphytes and mosses cover the trees, and lush vegetation is present everywhere. About 200 million years ago, the landscape was dominated by conifers, when flowering plants emerged, they quickly prevailed, causing most conifers to become extinct, and those that survived to adapt to harsh conditions. The northern Pacific temperate rain forests are relatively young, emerging in the past few years following the retreat of the ice sheets of the last ice age. The ecosystem of Pacific temperate rain forests is so productive that the biomass on the best sites is at least four times greater than that of any area in the tropics. In sheer mass of living and decaying material - trees, mosses, shrubs, in part, this is due to the rarity of fire. Unlike drier forests, which burn periodically, temperate forests are naturally subject to only small-scale disturbances, such as blow-downs. This rain forest spans a range of latitude - from about 40 degrees north to about 60 degrees north. The differences in climate from south to create several major forest zones. At the southern limit in northern California is the coast redwood zone, beginning at the California/Oregon border, and extending through the north end of Vancouver Island is the seasonal rain forest zone. The major tree species here are Douglas fir, western red cedar, Sitka spruce, beyond the northern end of Vancouver Island, is the perhumid rain forest zone. Douglas fir wanes as a dominant species, and the forest is made up of western red cedar, Sitka spruce. The Gulf of Alaska begins where the fjords of southeast Alaska end, here the forest occupies only a very narrow strip between the ocean and the icy alpine zone. The cedar trees no longer thrive in this climate, and the dominant trees are limited to Sitka spruce. The northern limits of the rain forest are scattered in thin bands in the northern Prince William Sound, Kenai Fjords, eastern Kodiak Island, and western Cook Inlet. The first survey to explore the forest canopy in the Carmanah Valley of Vancouver Island yielded 15,000 new species
9.
Alexander Archipelago
–
The Alexander Archipelago is a 300 miles long archipelago, or group of islands, of North America off the southeastern coast of Alaska. It contains about 1,100 islands, which are the tops of the coastal mountains that rise steeply from the Pacific Ocean. Deep channels and fjords separate the islands and cut them off from the mainland, the northern part of the Inside Passage is sheltered by the islands as it winds its way among them. The islands have irregular, steep coasts and dense evergreen and temperate rain forests, the vast majority of the islands are part of the Tongass National Forest. All the islands are rugged, densely forested, and have an abundance of wildlife, the Tlingit and Kaigani Haida people are native to the area. The Tsimshian people found on Annette Island are not originally from the area, ketchikan on Revillagigedo Island and Sitka on Baranof Island are the largest towns on the islands. The most populous neighborhoods of the largest town in the region, Juneau, are on the mainland, though portions of the city lie on Douglas Island. Tourism, fishing, and logging are the industries of the islands. In 1774 Juan José Pérez Hernández sighted the south coast of Dall Island, in 1792 Jacinto Caamaño sighted Revillagigedo Island and the Gravina Islands, discovering Clarence Strait. An 1844 Russian chart shows Kupreanof separated from Mitkof Island and Etolin, Wrangell, Woronkofski, the archipelago was a locus of the Maritime Fur Trade during the early 19th century. Control of the islands passed from Russia to the United States with the Alaska Purchase in 1867, according to Donald Orths Dictionary of Alaska Place Names, the Alexander Archipelago received its name from the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1867. The island chain is named for Tsar Alexander II of Russia, on an 1860 map of Russian America, the island group is called the King George III Archipelago. Alexander Archipelago Wolf Catherine Island British Columbia Coast Boundary Ranges Bell Island Kadin Island Alexander Archipelago
10.
Fjord
–
Geologically, a fjord or fiord is a long, narrow inlet with steep sides or cliffs, created by glacial erosion. Norways coastline is estimated at 29,000 kilometres with 1,190 fjords, a fjord is formed when a glacier cuts a U-shaped valley by ice segregation and abrasion of the surrounding bedrock. Glacial melting is accompanied by the rebounding of Earths crust as the ice load, in some cases this rebound is faster than sea level rise. Most fjords are deeper than the adjacent sea, Sognefjord, Norway, fjords generally have a sill or shoal at their mouth caused by the previous glaciers reduced erosion rate and terminal moraine. In many cases this causes extreme currents and large saltwater rapids. Saltstraumen in Norway is often described as the worlds strongest tidal current and these characteristics distinguish fjords from rias, which are drowned valleys flooded by the rising sea. Drammensfjorden is cut almost in two by the Svelvik ridge, a moraine that during the ice cover was under sea level. During the winter there is usually little inflow of freshwater. Surface water and deeper water are mixed during winter because of the cooling of the surface. In the deep there is still fresh water from the summer with less density than the saltier water along the coast. Offshore wind, common in the areas during winter, sets up a current on the surface from the inner to the outer parts. This current on the surface in turn pulls dense salt water from the coast across the fjord threshold, during the summer season there is usually a large inflow of river water in the inner areas. This freshwater gets mixed with saltwater creating a layer of water with a slightly higher surface than the ocean which in turn sets up a current from the river mouths towards the ocean. This current is more salty towards the coast and right under the surface current there is a reverse current of saltier water from the coast. In the deeper parts of the fjord the cold water remaining from winter is still, fjords with a shallow threshold this deep water is not replaced every year and low oxygen concentration makes the deep water unsuitable for fish and animals. In the most extreme cases there is a constant barrier of freshwater on the surface, gaupnefjorden branch of Sognefjorden is strongly affected by freshwater as glacial river flow in. Velfjorden has little inflow of freshwater, as late as 2000, some coral reefs were discovered along the bottoms of the Norwegian fjords. These reefs were found in fjords from the north of Norway to the south, the marine life on the reefs is believed to be one of the most important reasons why the Norwegian coastline is such a generous fishing ground
11.
Glacier
–
A glacier is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight, it forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. Glaciers slowly deform and flow due to stresses induced by their weight, creating crevasses, seracs and they also abrade rock and debris from their substrate to create landforms such as cirques and moraines. Glaciers form only on land and are distinct from the much thinner sea ice, between 35°N and 35°S, glaciers occur only in the Himalayas, Andes, Rocky Mountains, a few high mountains in East Africa, Mexico, New Guinea and on Zard Kuh in Iran. Glaciers cover about 10 percent of Earths land surface, continental glaciers cover nearly 13,000,000 km2 or about 98 percent of Antarcticas 13,200,000 km2, with an average thickness of 2,100 m. Greenland and Patagonia also have huge expanses of continental glaciers, Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth. Within high altitude and Antarctic environments, the temperature difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater. A large piece of compressed ice, or a glacier, appears blue as large quantities of water appear blue and this is because water molecules absorb other colors more efficiently than blue. The other reason for the color of glaciers is the lack of air bubbles. Air bubbles, which give a color to ice, are squeezed out by pressure increasing the density of the created ice. The word Glaceon is a loanword from French and goes back, via Franco-Provençal, to the Vulgar Latin glaciārium, derived from the Late Latin glacia, the processes and features caused by or related to glaciers are referred to as glacial. The process of establishment, growth and flow is called glaciation. The corresponding area of study is called glaciology, Glaciers are important components of the global cryosphere. Glaciers are categorized by their morphology, thermal characteristics, and behavior, cirque glaciers form on the crests and slopes of mountains. A glacier that fills a valley is called a valley glacier, a large body of glacial ice astride a mountain, mountain range, or volcano is termed an ice cap or ice field. Ice caps have a less than 50,000 km2 by definition. Glacial bodies larger than 50,000 km2 are called ice sheets or continental glaciers, several kilometers deep, they obscure the underlying topography. Only nunataks protrude from their surfaces, the only extant ice sheets are the two that cover most of Antarctica and Greenland. They contain vast quantities of water, enough that if both melted, global sea levels would rise by over 70 m
12.
Coast Mountains
–
The mountain ranges name derives from its proximity to the sea coast, and is often referred to as the Coast Range. The range includes volcanic and non-volcanic mountains and the ice fields of the Pacific and Boundary Ranges. The Coast Mountains are approximately 1,600 kilometres long and average 300 kilometres in width, covered in dense temperate rainforest on its western exposures, the range rises to heavily glaciated peaks, including the largest temperate-latitude ice fields in the world. On its eastern flanks, the tapers to the dry Interior Plateau. The Coast Mountains are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire—the ring of volcanoes, the Coast Mountains consists of three subdivisions known as the Pacific Ranges, the Kitimat Ranges, and the Boundary Ranges. The Pacific Ranges are the southernmost subdivision of the Coast Mountains, included in this subdivision is four of the five major coastal icecaps in the southern Coast Mountains. These are the largest temperate-latitude icecaps in the world and fuel a number of major rivers, other than logging and a large ski resort at the resort town of Whistler, most of the land in the range is completely undeveloped. Mount Waddington, the highest mountain of the Coast Mountains, lies in the Waddington Range of the Pacific Ranges, just north of the Pacific Ranges lies the central subdivision known as the Kitimat Ranges. This subdivision extends from the Bella Coola River and Burke Channel in the south to the Nass River in the north, the third and northernmost subdivision of the Coast Mountains is the Boundary Ranges, extending from the Nass River in the south to the Kelsall River in the north. This precipitation is among the heaviest in North America, the eastern slopes are relatively dry and less steep and protect the British Columbia Interior from the Pacific weather systems, resulting in dry warm summers and dry cold winters. Beyond the eastern slopes is a 154,635 km2 plateau occupying the southern, included within the Interior Plateau is a coalescing series of layered flood basalt lava flows. These sequences of fluid volcanic rock cover about 25,000 km2 of the Interior Plateau and have a volume of about 1,800 km3, the Coast Mountains consists of deformed igneous and metamorphosed structurally complex pre-Tertiary rocks. These originated in locations around the globe, the area is built of several different terranes of different ages with a broad range of tectonic origins. Further north the northwesterly structural trend of the Coast Mountains lies partly in a continental rift responsible for the creation of several volcanoes. These volcanoes form part of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province, the most volcanically active area in Canada, the first event began 130 million years ago when a group of active volcanic islands approached a pre-existing continental margin and coastline of North America. This subduction zone eventually jammed and shut down completely 115 million years ago, ending the Omineca Arc, compression resulting from this collision crushed, fractured and folded rocks along the old continental margin. The Insular Belt then welded onto the continental margin by magma that eventually cooled to create a large mass of igneous rock. This large mass of rock is the largest granite outcropping in North America
13.
Border
–
Borders are geographic boundaries of political entities or legal jurisdictions, such as governments, sovereign states, federated states, and other subnational entities. Some borders—such as an internal administrative border, or inter-state borders within the Schengen Area—are often open. Other borders are partially or fully controlled, and may be crossed only at designated border checkpoints. Mostly contentious, borders may even foster the setting up of buffer zones, a difference has also been established in academic scholarship between border and frontier, the latter denoting a state of mind rather than state boundaries. In the past, many borders were not clearly defined lines, instead there were often intervening areas often claimed, a special case in recent times was the neutral zones that were set up along parts of Saudi Arabias borders with Kuwait and Iraq. In modern times, marchlands have been replaced by clearly defined and demarcated borders, for the purposes of border control, airports and seaports are also classed as borders. Most countries have some form of control to regulate or limit the movement of people, animals. Some borders require presentation of legal paperwork like passports and visas, or other identity documents, moving goods across a border often requires the payment of excise tax, often collected by customs officials. Animals moving across borders may need to go into quarantine to prevent the spread of infectious diseases. Most countries prohibit carrying illegal drugs or endangered animals across their borders, moving goods, animals, or people illegally across a border, without declaring them or seeking permission, or deliberately evading official inspection, constitutes smuggling. Controls on car liability insurance validity and other formalities may also take place, in places where smuggling, migration, and infiltration are a problem, many countries fortify borders with fences and barriers, and institute formal border control procedures. But some borders are merely signposted and this is common in countries within the European Schengen Area and on rural sections of the Canada–United States border. Borders may even be unmarked, typically in remote or forested regions. The frontiers were particularly porous for the movement of migrants. A border may have been, Agreed by the countries on both sides Imposed by the country on one side Imposed by third parties, e. g, in addition, a border may be a de facto military ceasefire line. Political borders are imposed on the world through human agency, political borders are often classified by whether or not they follow conspicuous physical features on the earth. Natural borders are geographical features that present natural obstacles to communication, existing political borders are often a formalization of these historical, natural obstacles. Some geographical features that often constitute natural borders are, Oceans, oceans create very costly natural borders, very few nation-states span more than one continent
14.
Canada
–
Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
15.
British Columbia
–
British Columbia is the westernmost province of Canada, with a population of more than four million people located between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. British Columbia is also a component of the Pacific Northwest and the Cascadia bioregion, along with the U. S. states of Idaho, Oregon, Washington and Alaska. The first British settlement in the area was Fort Victoria, established in 1843, subsequently, on the mainland, the Colony of British Columbia was founded by Richard Clement Moody and the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment, in response to the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. Port Moody is named after him, in 1866, Vancouver Island became part of the colony of British Columbia, and Victoria became the united colonys capital. In 1871, British Columbia became the province of Canada. Its Latin motto is Splendor sine occasu, the capital of British Columbia remains Victoria, the fifteenth-largest metropolitan region in Canada, named for the Queen who created the original European colonies. The largest city is Vancouver, the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada, the largest in Western Canada, in October 2013, British Columbia had an estimated population of 4,606,371. British Columbia evolved from British possessions that were established in what is now British Columbia by 1871, First Nations, the original inhabitants of the land, have a history of at least 10,000 years in the area. Today there are few treaties and the question of Aboriginal Title, notably, the Tsilhqotin Nation has established Aboriginal title to a portion of their territory, as a result of the recent Supreme Court of Canada decision. BCs economy is diverse, with service producing industries accounting for the largest portion of the provinces GDP and it is the endpoint of transcontinental railways, and the site of major Pacific ports that enable international trade. Though less than 5% of its vast 944,735 km2 land is arable and its climate encourages outdoor recreation and tourism, though its economic mainstay has long been resource extraction, principally logging, farming, and mining. Vancouver, the provinces largest city and metropolitan area, also serves as the headquarters of many western-based natural resource companies and it also benefits from a strong housing market and a per capita income well above the national average. The Northern Interior region has a climate with very cold winters. The climate of Vancouver is by far the mildest winter climate of the major Canadian cities, the provinces name was chosen by Queen Victoria, when the Colony of British Columbia, i. e. the Mainland, became a British colony in 1858. The current southern border of British Columbia was established by the 1846 Oregon Treaty, British Columbias land area is 944,735 square kilometres. British Columbias rugged coastline stretches for more than 27,000 kilometres and it is the only province in Canada that borders the Pacific Ocean. British Columbias capital is Victoria, located at the tip of Vancouver Island. Only a narrow strip of the Island, from Campbell River to Victoria, is significantly populated, much of the western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered by thick, tall and sometimes impenetrable temperate rainforest
16.
Boundary Ranges
–
The Boundary Ranges, also known in the singular and as the Alaska Boundary Range, are the largest and most northerly subrange of the Coast Mountains. To their northeast is the Tagish Highland, which is a subregion of the Yukon Plateau, both highlands are considered in some descriptions as included in the Coast Mountains. The Alexander Archipelago lies offshore and is entirely within Alaska, despite the height of Mount Ratz and its neighbours, most of the Boundary Ranges are considerably lower than the Pacific Ranges of the southern Coast Mountains. The larger icefields of the Boundary Ranges are at a lower elevation than their southern counterparts in the Pacific Ranges because of the difference in latitude. Physiographically, they are a section of the larger Pacific Border province, the granitic intrusions that form the Boundary Ranges are remnants of a Late Cretaceous volcanic arc system called the Coast Range Arc
17.
Ketchikan, Alaska
–
Ketchikan is a city in the Ketchikan Gateway Borough, Alaska, United States, the southeasternmost city in Alaska. With a population at the 2010 census of 8,050, it is the fifth-most populous city in the state, estimates put the 2014 population at 13,787 people. Ketchikan is located on Revillagigedo Island, so named in 1793 by Captain George Vancouver, Ketchikan is named after Ketchikan Creek, which flows through the town, emptying into the Tongass Narrows a short distance southeast of its downtown. Ketchikan comes from the Tlingit name for the creek, Kitschk-hin and it may mean the river belonging to Kitschk, other accounts claim it means Thundering Wings of an Eagle. In modern Tlingit this name is rendered as Kichx̱áan, Ketchikan Creek served as a summer fish camp for Tlingit natives for untold years before the town was established by Mike Martin in 1885. According to the U. S. Postal Service, one of Ketchikans two zip codes,99950, is the highest-numbered in the United States, Ketchikans economy is based upon government services, tourism and commercial fishing. Civic boosters have dubbed the community the Salmon Capital of the World, the Misty Fiords National Monument is one of the areas major attractions, and the Tongass National Forest has long been headquartered in Ketchikan, mostly in the citys historic Federal Building. For most of the half of the 20th century, a large portion of Ketchikans economy. The mill closed in 1997 in the wake of the passage of the Tongass Timber Reform Act of 1990, which reduced timber harvest targets in the national forest. Most of the totems at Saxman Totem Park and Totem Bight State Park are recarvings of older poles, the Totem Heritage Center displays preserved 19th-century poles rescued from abandoned village sites near Ketchikan. Ketchikan is located on Revillagigedo Island,700 miles north of Seattle, Washington and it is surrounded by the Tongass National Forest, which is managed by the United States Forest Service from headquarters in the Ketchikan Federal Building downtown. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 5.9 square miles. 4.4 square miles of it is land and 1.5 square miles of it is water, the ½-mile wide channel called the Tongass Narrows separates Ketchikan from Gravina Island, where Ketchikan International Airport is located. Deer Mountain, a 3, 001-foot peak, rises immediately east of the downtown area. Ketchikan has a greatly modified and moderated by its maritime location. Winters are cool but far milder than its latitude alone may suggest, summers are mild, as August’s high averages 64.4 °F. Another feature of the climate is the high amount of rainfall, with an equivalent average of 153 inches per year, falling more heavily in autumn. Further east in North America, winters on these parallels are extremely cold, the record high temperature in Ketchikan was 89 °F on June 20,1958, and August 14,1977
18.
Craig, Alaska
–
Craig is a first-class city in the Prince of Wales-Hyder Census Area in the Unorganized Borough in the U. S. state of Alaska. The population was 1,201 at the 2010 census, Craig is the largest town on Prince of Wales Island, the fourth largest island in the USA. Craig is approximately 56 miles by air northwest of Ketchikan and 220 miles south of Juneau. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 9.4 square miles. Originally, Craigs townsite was a fishing camp used for gathering herring e. Craig Miller constructed a cold storage plant and packing company at the present site of Craig, the commercial fishing industry was responsible for Craigs relatively large population compared to neighboring communities. In the 1930s, record pink salmon runs brought many new settlers, the 1950s saw a collapse of the fishing industry because of depleted salmon populations. In 1972, a sawmill was established nearby providing a steady source of year-round employment. Today, Craig relies on fishing, fish processing. On September 7,1982, the fishing boat Investor was found burning off the coast of Craig, the boats owner, Mark Coulthurst, from Blaine, Washington, his wife Irene, and their two young children were among the victims. In September 1984, a suspect, John Kenneth Peel, from Bellingham, peels first trial ended in a hung jury, and his retrial, in 1988, ended in his acquittal. On January 5,2013 at 3,58 am ET Craig was hit by a 7. 5-magnitude offshore earthquake 63 miles west of the town, regional tsunami warnings and advisories were issued. Voluntary evacuations of the town occurred, despite this, no fatalities, serious injuries, or incidents of damage were reported and the tsunami threat never materialized other than minor, localized sea level rises. Craigs demographic characteristics have varied following trends in the fishing industry. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,397 people,523 households, the population density was 209.1 people per square mile. There were 580 housing units at a density of 86.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 67. 07% White,0. 07% Black or African American,21. 69% Native American,0. 57% Asian,0. 57% from other races,2. 79% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 25. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 3. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.63 and the average family size was 3.16
19.
Hoonah, Alaska
–
Hoonah is a largely Tlingit community on Chichagof Island, located in Alaskas panhandle in the southeast region of the state. It is 30 miles west of Juneau, across the Alaskan Inside Passage, Hoonah is the only first-class city on Chichagof Island, the 109th largest island in the world and the 5th largest island in the United States. At the 2000 census the population was 860, though summer population can swell to over 1,300 depending on fishing, boating, hiking and hunting conditions, Hoonah became the official spelling in 1901, with establishment of the Hoonah branch of the United States Post Office. Xunaa means protected from the North Wind in the Tlingit language, the clans comprising the Huna Tlingit originally settled what is now Glacier Bay National Park as well as Icy Strait, Cross Sound, and the outer coast north to Sea Otter Creek. Two catastrophic events forced the Tlingit from their homeland, rapid advance in Glacier Bay. Tlingit oral tradition recounts these events as well as the clans ultimate resettlement in Xunaa. A partial timeline of modern Hoonah history is below, 1750s - Xunaa was settled by clans fleeing glacial advance in Glacier Bay 1880 - The North West Trading Company built the first store in Hoonah,1881 - The Presbyterian Home Mission and school was built. 1887 -450 to 500 people were wintering in the village,1901 - Hoonah post office was opened. 1912 - The Hoonah Packing Co. built a large cannery north of town, the cannery was shut down and is now a tourist attraction at Icy Strait Point. The United States federal government assisted in rebuilding Hoonah,1953 - Last year that Icy Strait Salmon Company operated as a full-fledged canning operation. From this point until 1999 the property functioned as a maintenance,1964 - First High School graduating class from Hoonah High School graduated in May 2001 - Groundbreaking ceremony for Icy Strait Point, at abandon Hoonah Packing Company site. 2004 - Celebrity MV Mercury makes inaugural call at Icy Strait Point, the worlds largest zipline opens at Icy Strait Point. 2010 - Alaska State Troopers assisted Hoonah police in a 2-day manhunt for a man who was reported to be armed in an area in the city. He was later apprehended without incident,2010 - A fire and subsequent series of explosions destroyed the Icy Strait Lumber Mill. No criminal activity was suspected in the fire,2010 - Two police officers from the city were shot and killed in an ambush on Front Street. The suspect subsequently barricaded himself inside of his own home on August 29,2010, State, local and federal law enforcement officers and SWAT personnel from agencies throughout Alaska responded in the wake of the shooting. The suspect, John Marvin, was taken into custody the next day, the officers killed in the incident were, Officer Matthew D. Tokuoka,39 and Sgt. Tokuoka was a former Marine who served in operations, Wallace was a former All-American collegiate wrestler
20.
Juneau, Alaska
–
The City and Borough of Juneau, is the capital city of Alaska. It is a municipality located on the Gastineau Channel in the Alaskan panhandle. Juneau has been the capital of Alaska since 1906, when the government of what was then the District of Alaska was moved from Sitka as dictated by the U. S. Congress in 1900. Downtown Juneau is nestled at the base of Mount Juneau and across the channel from Douglas Island, as of the 2010 census, the City and Borough had a population of 31,276. In 2014, the estimate from the United States Census Bureau was 32,406. Fairbanks, however, is the second most populous area in the state. Juneaus daily population can increase by roughly 6,000 people from visiting cruise ships between the months of May and September, the city is named after a gold prospector from Quebec, Joe Juneau, though the place was for a time called Rockwell and then Harrisburg. The Tlingit name of the town is Dzántiki Héeni, and Auke Bay just north of Juneau proper is called Áakw in Tlingit, the Taku River, just south of Juneau, was named after the cold taakh wind, which occasionally blows down from the mountains. Juneau is rather unusual among U. S. capitals in that there are no roads connecting the city to the rest of Alaska or to the rest of North America, the absence of a road network is due to the extremely rugged terrain surrounding the city. This in turn makes Juneau a de facto island city in terms of transportation, since all goods coming in and out must go by plane or boat, in spite of the city being located on the Alaskan mainland. Downtown Juneau sits at sea level, with tides averaging 16 feet, the Mendenhall glacier has been gradually retreating, its front face is declining both in width and height. The Alaska State Capitol in downtown Juneau was originally built as the Federal and Territorial Building in 1931, prior to statehood, it housed federal government offices, the federal courthouse and a post office. It also housed the territorial legislature and many other territorial offices, today, Juneau remains the home of the state legislature and the offices of the governor and lieutenant governor. Some other executive offices have moved elsewhere in the state. The Aakw Kwáan had a village and burying ground here, in the 21st century it is known as Indian Point. They annually harvested herring during the season, and celebrated this bounty. They consider it sacred territory, both because of the ground and the importance of the point in their traditions of gathering sustenance from the sea. They continue to gather clams, gumboots, grass and sea urchins here, the city and state supported Sealaska Heritage Institute in documenting the 78-acre site, and in August 2016 it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places
21.
Petersburg, Alaska
–
Petersburg is a census-designated place in Petersburg Borough, Alaska, United States. The population was 2,824 according to 2009 Census Bureau estimates, the borough encompasses Petersburg and Kupreanof, plus mostly uninhabited areas stretching to the Canada–US border and the southern boundary of the City and Borough of Juneau. While the city of Petersburg ceased to exist as an administrative entity. Tlingits from Kupreanof Island had long used a fish camp at the north end of Mitkof Island. Earlier cultures of people also used the island, remnants of fish traps. European explorers to Mitkof Island encountered the Tlingit, in the nineteenth century, Peter Buschmann, a Norwegian immigrant, settled here, building a cannery, sawmill, docks and early structures. The settlement was named Petersburg after him, and it flourished as a fishing port, Petersburg originally incorporated as a town on April 2,1910. The town had attracted immigrants of Scandinavian origin, thus giving Petersburg the nickname Little Norway. The Sons of Norway hall was built on one of the piers, three other canneries were built and the four have operated continuously since. With the establishment of the cannery, Alaskan Natives, including Chief John Lott, began to work there, the 1939 Slattery Report on Alaskan development identified the region as one of the areas where new settlements would be established through Jewish immigration. Fisheries were the mainstay of the economy, in 1965, Petersburg fishermen founded Icicle Seafoods. PAF was traded on the NYSE and had one of the largest processors in Alaska for a half century. The shareholders, including Board members Fred File, Fred Haltiner, the company was originally known as PFI but in 1977 changed its name officially to Icicle Seafoods. While the City of Petersburg ceased to exist as a separate entity, Petersburg is located on the north end of Mitkof Island, where the Wrangell Narrows meets Frederick Sound. Petersburg is halfway between Juneau,190 km to the north, and Ketchikan,180 km to the south. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 46.0 square miles. Mitkof Island is largely covered by low mountains, the lowlands are mainly made up of muskeg, a type of soil made up of plants in various states of decomposition. It is approximately 20 miles from its end to its south
22.
Sitka, Alaska
–
As of the 2010 census, the population was 8,881. In terms of area, it is the largest city-borough in the U. S. with a land area of 2,870.3 square miles. Urban Sitka, the part that is thought of as the city of Sitka, is on the west side of Baranof Island. The current name Sitka means People on the Outside of Baranof Island, Sitkas location was originally settled by the Tlingit people over 10,000 years ago. The Russians settled Old Sitka in 1799, calling it Redoubt Saint Michael, the governor of Russian America, Alexander Baranov, arrived under the auspices of the Russian-American Company, a colonial trading company chartered by Tsar Paul I. In June 1802, Tlingit warriors destroyed the settlement, killing many of the Russians. Baranov was forced to levy 10,000 rubles in ransom for the return of the surviving settlers. Baranov returned to Sitka in August 1804, with a large force, the ship bombarded the Tlingit fort on the 20th, but was not able to cause significant damage. The Russians then launched an attack on the fort and were repelled, however, after two days of bombardment, the Tlingit hung out a white flag on the 22nd, and then deserted the fort on the 26th. Following their victory at the Battle of Sitka, the Russians established New Archangel as a permanent settlement named after Arkhangelsk, the Tlingit re-established a fort on the Chatham Strait side of Peril Strait to enforce a trade embargo with the Russian establishment. In 1808, with Baranov still governor, Sitka was designated the capital of Russian America, bishop Innocent lived in Sitka after 1840. The Cathedral of Saint Michael was built in Sitka in 1848 and became the seat of the Russian Orthodox bishop of Kamchatka, the Kurile and Aleutian Islands, and Alaska. Swedes, Finns and other Lutherans worked for the Russian-American Company, Sitka was the site of the transfer ceremony for the Alaska purchase on October 18,1867. Russia was going through economic and political turmoil after it lost the Crimean War to Britain, France, russia offered to sell it to the United States. Secretary of State William Seward had wanted to purchase Alaska for quite time as he saw it as an integral part of Manifest Destiny. While the agreement to purchase Alaska was made in April 1867, the cost to purchase Alaska was $7.2 million. Sitka served as the capital of the Alaska Territory until 1906, the Alaska Native Brotherhood was founded in Sitka in 1912 to address racism against Alaska Native people in Alaska. By 1914 the organization had constructed the Alaska Native Brotherhood Hall on Katlian Street, in 1937, the United States Navy established the first seaplane base in Alaska on Japonski Island
23.
Wrangell, Alaska
–
The City and Borough of Wrangell is a borough in the U. S. state of Alaska. As of the 2010 census the population was 2,369, incorporated as a Unified Home Rule Borough on May 30,2008, Wrangell was previously a city in the Wrangell-Petersburg Census Area. The Tlingit people residing in the Wrangell area, who were there centuries before Europeans, alternately they use the autonym Shxʼát Ḵwáan, where the meaning of shxʼát is unknown. It also includes Thoms Place, a former census-designated place on Wrangell Island, Tlingit people and their ancestors have inhabited this island for thousands of years. According to Naanyaa. aayí clan traditions, Tlingit people migrated down the Stikine River during a time when the river still flowed underneath glaciers. Later settlements on the coast included Chʼuxʼáasʼaan Waterfall Town, Ḵeishangita. aan Red Alder Head Village, Kʼaatsʼḵu Noow Among the Sharps Fort, An. áan Village that Rests, and many others. The numerous petroglyphs found at Petroglyph Beach just north of Wrangell, as well as those scattered on the beaches of the islands in the vicinity. It is also known and somewhat forgotten, that first peoples coastal migration to the Stikine River happened from the south, the Nass River people had several migrations into the area. The Git Setti people tell of their story in a totem raised in Wrangell in 1894 called Kickssetti Totem. The salt water inlet that is now Wrangell Harbor was traditionally called Ḵaachx̱ana. áakʼw, before the harbor mouth was dredged and cleared in the late 19th century, the mouth of this inlet would often go dry at low tide, which led to its being called a lake. Ḵaachx̱án was a man from the village known as Ḵaalchʼalʼaan or Chʼaalʼít. aan, meaning Willow House Village. The village site today is known as Old Town or Old Wrangell, Ḵaachx̱án was supposedly a hermit who preferred living away from his relatives, and lived in a smokehouse located on the rear shore of the lake, which was named after him. Wrangell was founded by Russians as one of the oldest non-Native settlements in Alaska and they started trading for furs with area Tlingit in 1811 at the site of present-day Wrangell. This house was located about 13 miles north of Old Wrangell, the British Hudsons Bay Company leased the fort in 1839 and named the stockade Fort Stikine. The Tlingit had used the Stikine River as a route to the interior since ancient times. Two epidemics of smallpox in 1836 and 1840 sharply reduced the Tlingit population in the area by half, as they had no acquired immunity, the HBC abandoned the fort in 1849 after the area’s stocks of sea otter and beaver were depleted, ending the fur trade. Fort Stikine remained under British rule until Alaskas purchase by the United States in 1867, in 1868, the U. S. built a military post called Fort Wrangell at the site, and it remained active until 1877. The community around the post continued to grow through commerce with prospectors in the rushes of 1861, 1874–77
24.
Yakutat, Alaska
–
The City and Borough of Yakutat is a borough in the U. S. state of Alaska. Incorporated as a non-unified Home Rule Borough on September 22,1992, the name is Tlingit, Yaakwdáat but it originally derives from an Eyak name diyaʼqudaʼt and was influenced by the Tlingit word yaakw. The borough covers an area six times the size of the U. S. state of Rhode Island. As of the 2010 census, the population was 662, the U. S. Census Bureau has defined the former City of Yakutat as a census-designated place within the borough. The only other significant population center in the borough is the community of Icy Bay, the original settlers in the Yakutat area are believed to have been Eyak-speaking people from the Copper River area. Tlingits migrated into the area and assimilated the Eyaks before the arrival of Europeans in Alaska, Yakutat was only one of a number of Tlingit and mixed Tlingit-Eyak settlements in the region, although all the others have been depopulated or abandoned. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, English, French, Spanish, the Shelikhov-Golikov company, precursor of the Russian-American Company, built a fort in Yakutat in 1795 to facilitate trade in sea otter pelts. It was known as New Russia, Yakutat Colony, or Slavorossiya, when the Russians cut off access to the fisheries nearby, a Tlingit war party attacked and destroyed the fort. By 1886, after the Alaska Purchase by the United States, in 1889 the Swedish Free Mission Church opened a school and sawmill in the area. A cannery, another sawmill, a store and a railroad were constructed from 1903 by the Stimson Lumber Company, many people moved to the current site of Yakutat to be closer to the Stimson cannery, which operated through 1970. During World War II, the USAAF stationed a large aviation garrison near Yakutat, the troops were withdrawn after the war but the runway is still in use as Yakutat Airport, which offers scheduled airline service. Fishing is currently the largest economic activity in Yakutat, Yakutat Tlingit Tribe received a Language Preservation Grant from the Administration for Native Americans in 2004. With this, they have reinvigorated their efforts to teach the Tlingit language to middle-aged, YTT received another ANA grant in 2007 and is expanding its role in the schools. All the YTT Tlingit language revitalization work focuses on using communicative approaches to language teaching, such as TPR. While working at a cannery from 1912 to 1941, Seiki Kayamori extensively photographed Yakutat. A large set of prints of his work is held by Yakutat City Hall. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the borough has an area of 9,463 square miles. The 2010 census also defines a smaller census-designated place named Yakutat which hasa total area of 104.1 square miles, yakutats population center is located at 59°32′49″N 139°43′38″W, at the mouth of Yakutat Bay
25.
Theodore Roosevelt
–
Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was an American statesman, author, explorer, soldier, naturalist, and reformer who served as the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909. As a leader of the Republican Party during this time, he became a force for the Progressive Era in the United States in the early 20th century. Born a sickly child with debilitating asthma, Roosevelt successfully overcame his health problems by embracing a strenuous lifestyle and he integrated his exuberant personality, vast range of interests, and world-famous achievements into a cowboy persona defined by robust masculinity. Home-schooled, he began a lifelong naturalist avocation before attending Harvard College and his first of many books, The Naval War of 1812, established his reputation as both a learned historian and as a popular writer. Upon entering politics, he became the leader of the faction of Republicans in New Yorks state legislature. Returning a war hero, he was elected governor of New York in 1898, the state party leadership distrusted him, so they took the lead in moving him to the prestigious but powerless role of vice presidential candidate as McKinleys running mate in the election of 1900. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously across the country, helping McKinleys re-election in a victory based on a platform of peace, prosperity. Following the assassination of President McKinley in September 1901, Roosevelt succeeded to the office at age 42, making conservation a top priority, he established a myriad of new national parks, forests, and monuments intended to preserve the nations natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America, where he began construction of the Panama Canal and he greatly expanded the United States Navy and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project the United States naval power around the globe. His successful efforts to end the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize, elected in 1904 to a full term, Roosevelt continued to promote progressive policies, but many of his efforts and much of his legislative agenda were eventually blocked in Congress. Roosevelt successfully groomed his close friend, William Howard Taft, to succeed him in the presidency, after leaving office, Roosevelt went on safari in Africa and toured Europe. Returning to the United States, he became frustrated with Tafts approach, failing to win the Republican presidential nomination in 1912, Roosevelt founded his own party, the Progressive, so-called Bull Moose Party, and called for wide-ranging progressive reforms. The split among Republicans enabled the Democrats to win both the White House and a majority in the Congress in 1912, Republicans aligned with Taft nationally would control the Republican Party for decades. Frustrated at home, Roosevelt led an expedition to the Amazon basin. During World War I, he opposed President Woodrow Wilson for keeping the country out of the war, and offered his military services, although planning to run again for president in 1920, Roosevelt suffered deteriorating health and died in early 1919. Roosevelt has consistently ranked by scholars as one of the greatest American presidents. Historians admire Roosevelt for rooting out corruption in his administration, but are critical of his 1909 libel lawsuits against the World and his face was carved into Mount Rushmore, alongside those of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln. Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27,1858, at East 20th Street in New York City and he was the second of four children born to socialite Martha Stewart Mittie Bulloch and glass businessman and philanthropist Theodore Roosevelt Sr
26.
Calvin Coolidge
–
John Calvin Coolidge Jr. was the 30th President of the United States. A Republican lawyer from Vermont, Coolidge worked his way up the ladder of Massachusetts state politics and his response to the Boston Police Strike of 1919 thrust him into the national spotlight and gave him a reputation as a man of decisive action. Soon after, he was elected as the 29th vice president in 1920, elected in his own right in 1924, he gained a reputation as a small-government conservative, and also as a man who said very little, although having a rather dry sense of humor. Coolidge restored public confidence in the White House after the scandals of his predecessors administration, as a Coolidge biographer wrote, He embodied the spirit and hopes of the middle class, could interpret their longings and express their opinions. That he did represent the genius of the average is the most convincing proof of his strength, Coolidges retirement was relatively short, as he died at the age of 60 in January 1933, less than two months before his immediate successor, Herbert Hoover, left office. Though his reputation underwent a renaissance during the Ronald Reagan administration, John Calvin Coolidge Jr. was born in Plymouth Notch, Windsor County, Vermont, on July 4,1872, the only U. S. president to be born on Independence Day. He held various offices, including justice of the peace and tax collector. Coolidges mother was the daughter of a Plymouth Notch farmer and she was chronically ill and died, perhaps from tuberculosis, when Coolidge was twelve years old. His younger sister, Abigail Grace Coolidge, died at the age of fifteen, probably of appendicitis, Coolidges father remarried in 1891, to a schoolteacher, and lived to the age of eighty. Coolidges family had roots in New England, his earliest American ancestor, John Coolidge, emigrated from Cottenham, Cambridgeshire, England, around 1630 and settled in Watertown. Another ancestor, Edmund Rice, arrived at Watertown in 1638, Coolidges great-great-grandfather, also named John Coolidge, was an American military officer in the Revolutionary War and one of the first selectmen of the town of Plymouth Notch. His grandfather, Calvin Galusha Coolidge, served in the Vermont House of Representatives, many of Coolidges ancestors were farmers, and numerous distant cousins were prominent in politics. Coolidge attended Black River Academy and then Amherst College, where he distinguished himself in the class, as a senior joined the fraternity Phi Gamma Delta. While there, Coolidge was profoundly influenced by philosophy professor Charles Edward Garman, the only hope of perfecting human relationships is in accordance with the law of service under which men are not so solicitous about what they shall get as they are about what they shall give. Yet people are entitled to the rewards of their industry, what they earn is theirs, no matter how small or how great. But the possession of property carries the obligation to use it in a larger service, at his fathers urging after graduation, Coolidge moved to Northampton, Massachusetts to become a lawyer. To avoid the cost of law school, Coolidge followed the practice of apprenticing with a local law firm, Hammond & Field. John C. Hammond and Henry P. Field, both Amherst graduates, introduced Coolidge to law practice in the county seat of Hampshire County, in 1897, Coolidge was admitted to the bar, becoming a country lawyer
27.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
28.
Point Baker, Alaska
–
Point Baker is a census-designated place in Prince of Wales-Hyder Census Area, Alaska, United States. The population was 35 at the 2000 census, Point Baker is located at 56°21′9″N 133°37′43″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 1.0 square mile. The lawsuit stopped planned clear cutting on 400,000 acres on the end of Prince of Wales Island. The lawsuit was initiated by Alan Stein and the Point Baker Association which had about 30 fishermen members from the communities of Pt baker and Port Protection. On December 24,1975, Van der Hedyt issued an injunction against all clearcutting on the North end of the island from Red Bay to Calder Bay, Congress lifted the injunction when it passed the National Forest Management Act in 1976. Twice more Pt Baker made headlines, in 1989 many of its residents opposed clear cutting in Salmon Bay which was protected by Congress in the Tongass Timber Reform Act of 1990. This statute also protected all the streams in the Tongass with 100-foot-wide buffer strips during logging operations. As of February 2010, Senators Murkowski and Begich are pushing Senate Bill 881 through Congress, the bill has gone through extensive community meetings and subsequently the bill has changed and controversial areas, such as north Prince of Wales, have been removed from the draft bill. The draft bill privatizes significant acreage of National Forest Land by conveying it into the ownership of SEALASKA. In 2011, having failed to pass S881 and almost lost her seat as a result to Joe Miller in the election, nine Alaskan towns have opposed the bill so far. Sealaska would get the largest volume class timber remaining which is vital to protecting wolves and goshawks, the population density was 36.4 people per square mile. There were 23 housing units at a density of 23. 9/sq mi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 91. 43% White,2. 86% Native American,15. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.69 and the family size was 3.00. In the CDP, the age distribution of the population shows 25. 7% under the age of 18,2. 9% from 18 to 24,25. 7% from 25 to 44,25. 7% from 45 to 64, the median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 105.9 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 116.7 males. The median income for a household in the CDP was $28,000, males had a median income of $0 versus $31,250 for females
29.
Muskeg
–
Muskeg is an acidic soil type common in Arctic and boreal areas, although it is found in other northern climates as well. Muskeg is approximately synonymous with bogland, but muskeg is the term in Western Canada and Alaska. The term became common in these areas because it is of Cree origin, large tracts of this soil existing in Siberia may be called muskeg or bogland interchangeably. Muskeg consists of plants in various states of decomposition, ranging from fairly intact sphagnum moss, to sedge peat. Pieces of wood can make up five to 15 percent of the peat soil, Muskeg tends to have a water table near the surface. The sphagnum moss forming it can hold 15 to 30 times its own weight in water, Muskeg patches are ideal habitats for beavers, pitcher plants, agaric mushrooms and a variety of other organisms. Muskeg forms because permafrost, clay or bedrock prevents water drainage, the water from rain and snow collects, forming permanently waterlogged vegetation and stagnant pools. It needs two conditions to develop, abundant rain and cool summers, a dead plant that falls on dry soil is normally attacked by bacteria and fungi and quickly rots. If the same plant lands in water or on saturated soil, less oxygen is available under water, so aerobic bacteria and fungi fail to colonize the submerged debris effectively. In addition, cool temperatures retard bacterial and fungal growth and this causes slow decomposition, and thus the plant debris gradually accumulates to form peat and eventually muskeg. Depending on the topography of the land, muskeg can reach depths greater than 30 metres. Although at first glance resembles a plain covered with short grasses. Small stands of stunted and often dead trees, which vaguely resemble Bonsai trees, grow where land protrudes above the water table and its grassland appearance invites the unwary to walk on it, but even the most solid muskeg is spongy and waterlogged. Traveling through muskeg is a strange and dangerous experience for the unaccustomed, Muskeg can grow atop bodies of water, especially small ponds and streams. Because of the water beneath, the muskeg surface sometimes ripples underfoot, thinner patches allow large animals to fall through, becoming trapped under the muskeg and drowning. Moose are at a disadvantage in muskeg due to their long legs, minimal hoof area. Hunters and hikers may occasionally encounter young moose in muskeg-covered ponds submerged up to their torsos or necks, Muskeg can be a significant impediment to transportation. During the 1870s, muskeg in Northern Ontario was reported to have swallowed a railroad engine whole when a track was laid on muskeg instead of clearing down to bedrock
30.
Roadless area conservation
–
Roadless area conservation is a conservation policy limiting road construction and the resulting environmental impact on designated areas of public land. In the United States, roadless area conservation has centered on U. S. Forest Service areas known as inventoried roadless areas, the most significant effort to support the conservation of these efforts was the Forest Service 2001 Roadless Area Conservation Rule. Access roads provide convenient access for industry as well as for a variety of activities, such as sightseeing, fishing, hunting. However, these activities can cause erosion, pollution, species loss, in addition, the building of roads can lead to further development of splinter roads that take off from them, and the encroachment of human settlement and development in sensitive areas. In the United States, roadless areas make up 58.5 million acres, or about 30%, of National Forest lands in 38 states and these areas provide critical habitat for more than 1,600 threatened, endangered, or sensitive plant and animal species. Roadless rules are also seen as a way to save taxpayers money, america’s National Forests are currently covered with 386,000 miles of roads, enough to encircle the earth 15 times. A $4. 5-billion maintenance backlog exists on National Forest roads, one example of roadless area conservation is Alaskas Denali National Park, which is prized for its expansive roadless area. There is but one 90-mile access road into the park, only official vehicles are permitted after 30 miles and this new approach raises a substantial question about the rules potential effect on the environment. In 2011, an appeals court in Denver, Colorado upheld the government’s authority to prohibit Western states from building roads on public land. The Alaska case was the final litigation challenging the rule nationwide, the Court held that no further challenges are allowed, because the statute of limitations has run out. A notable American proponent of wilderness areas was writer Edward Abbey in his book Desert Solitaire
31.
Habitat fragmentation
–
Habitat fragmentation describes the emergence of discontinuities in an organisms preferred environment, causing population fragmentation and ecosystem decay. Not only causes loss of the amount of habitat, but by creating small, habitat fragmentation is the landscape level of the phenomenon, and patch level process. Thus meaning, it covers, the areas, edge effects. Evidence of habitat destruction through natural processes such as volcanism, fire, habitats which were once continuous become divided into separate fragments. After intensive clearing, the separate fragments tend to be small islands isolated from each other by cropland, pasture, pavement. The latter is often the result of slash and burn farming in tropical forests, one of the major ways that habitat fragmentation affects biodiversity is by reducing the amount of suitable habitat available for organisms. Habitat fragmentation often involves both habitat destruction and the subdivision of previously continuous habitat, plants and other sessile organisms are disproportionately affected by some types of habitat fragmentation because they cannot respond quickly to the altered spatial configuration of the habitat. As the remaining patches are smaller, they tend to support smaller populations of species. Small populations are at a risk of a variety of genetic consequences that influence their long-term survival. Remnant populations often contain only a subset of the diversity found in the previously continuous habitat. Processes that act upon underlying genetic diversity such as adaptation have a pool of fitness-maintaining alleles to survive in the face of environmental change. Populations can maintain genetic diversity through migration, in continuous habitats, migrants have few barriers to establish themselves in suitable sites. The percentage preservation of habitats is closely related to both genetic and species biodiversity preservation. Generally a 10% remnant contiguous habitat will result in a 50% biodiversity loss, minor fluctuations in climate, resources, or other factors that would be unremarkable and quickly corrected in large populations can be catastrophic in small, isolated populations. Thus fragmentation of habitat is an important cause of species extinction, population dynamics of subdivided populations tend to vary asynchronously. In an unfragmented landscape a declining population can be rescued by immigration from an expanding population. In fragmented landscapes, the distance between fragments may prevent this from happening, additionally, unoccupied fragments of habitat that are separated from a source of immigrants by some barrier are less likely to be repopulated than adjoining fragments. Even small species such as the Columbia spotted frog are reliant on the rescue effect, studies showed 25% of juveniles travel a distance over 200m compared to 4% of adults
32.
Bill Clinton
–
William Jefferson Clinton is an American politician who served as the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001. Prior to the Presidency he was the 40th Governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981, before that, he served as Arkansas Attorney General from 1977 to 1979. A member of the Democratic Party, Clinton was ideogically a New Democrat, Clinton is married to Hillary Clinton, who served as United States Secretary of State from 2009 to 2013 and U. S. Senator from New York from 2001 to 2009, and served the Democratic nominee for President in 2016, Bill Clinton and Hillary Rodham both earned degrees from Yale Law School, where they met and began dating. As Governor of Arkansas, Clinton overhauled the states education system, Clinton was elected President of the United States in 1992, defeating incumbent George H. W. Bush. At age 46, he was the third-youngest president and the first from the Baby Boomer generation, Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history and signed into law the North American Free Trade Agreement. After failing to pass health care reform, the Democratic House was ousted when the Republican Party won control of the Congress in 1994. Two years later, in 1996, Clinton became the first Democrat since Franklin D. Roosevelt to be elected to a second term, Clinton passed welfare reform and the State Childrens Health Insurance Program, providing health coverage for millions of children. Clinton was acquitted by the U. S. Senate in 1999, the Congressional Budget Office reported a budget surplus between the years 1998 and 2000, the last three years of Clintons presidency. In foreign policy, Clinton ordered U. S. Clinton left office with the highest end-of-office approval rating of any U. S. President since World War II, since then, Clinton has been involved in public speaking and humanitarian work. He created the William J. Clinton Foundation to address international causes, such as the prevention of AIDS, in 2004, Clinton published his autobiography, My Life. In 2009, Clinton was named the United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti, since leaving office, Clinton has been rated highly in public opinion polls of U. S. Presidents. Clinton was born on August 19,1946, at Julia Chester Hospital in Hope, Arkansas and he was the son of William Jefferson Blythe Jr. a traveling salesman who had died in an automobile accident three months before his birth, and Virginia Dell Cassidy. His parents had married on September 4,1943, but this later proved to be bigamous. Soon after their son was born, his mother traveled to New Orleans to study nursing, leaving her son in Hope with her parents Eldridge and Edith Cassidy, who owned and ran a small grocery store. At a time when the Southern United States was segregated racially, in 1950, Bills mother returned from nursing school and married Roger Clinton Sr. who owned an automobile dealership in Hot Springs, Arkansas, with his brother and Earl T. Ricks. The family moved to Hot Springs in 1950, although he immediately assumed use of his stepfathers surname, it was not until Clinton turned fifteen that he formally adopted the surname Clinton as a gesture toward his stepfather. In Hot Springs, Clinton attended St. Johns Catholic Elementary School, Ramble Elementary School, and Hot Springs High School—where he was a student leader, avid reader
33.
United States House of Representatives
–
The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
34.
Steve Chabot
–
Steven Joseph Steve Chabot /ˈʃæbət/ is an American politician who has been the United States Representative for Ohios 1st congressional district since 2011. Chabot, a member of the Republican Party, previously represented the district from 1995 to 2009, Chabot was born in 1953 in Cincinnati, Ohio, the son of Gerard Joseph and Doris Leona Chabot, paternally, he is of French-Canadian descent. He graduated from La Salle High School in Cincinnati in 1971 and he went on to obtain a Juris Doctor degree from Northern Kentucky Universitys Salmon P. Chase College of Law, in Highland Heights, Kentucky, in 1978. He worked as a school teacher in 1975–1976 while taking law classes at night. As a practicing attorney from 1978 to 1994, Chabot handled domestic disputes and he operated out of small law office in Westwood. Chabot ran unsuccessfully for the Cincinnati City Council as an independent candidate in 1979, then, running as a Republican, he won a seat in 1985 and was re-elected in 1987 and 1989. In 1988, he ran for the U. S. House of Representatives against seven-term incumbent Democrat Tom Luken, who defeated Chabot 56–44%. After that, he was appointed a Commissioner of Hamilton County, Ohio, in 1990, in 1994, he ran for the U. S. House again and defeated Democratic incumbent David S. Mann of Ohios 1st congressional district, 56%–44%. In 1996, he defeated Democrat Mark Longabaugh, member of the Cincinnati City Council, in 1998, he defeated Cincinnati Mayor Roxanne Qualls, 53% to 47%. In the series of debates during that campaign, Qualls criticized Chabot for not funneling enough federal spending back to his home district, Chabot countered that he would not support wasteful or unnecessary federal programs. In 2000, he defeated City Councilman and Harvard graduate John Cranley 53–44%, in 2002, he defeated Greg Harris, with 65% of the vote. In 2004, he defeated Greg Harris again, with 60% of the vote,2006 He defeated Democratic challenger John Cranley again, this time by a narrower margin of 52–48%. 2008 Chabot was defeated by State Representative Steve Driehaus 52%–48%,2010 In a rematch, Chabot defeated Democratic incumbent Steve Driehaus, Libertarian Jim Berns, and Green Party nominee Richard Stevenson. Chabot won by a margin 51%–46%,2012 Steve Chabot defeated Democratic nominee Jeff Sinnard 58%–38%, with Green nominee Rich Stevenson, and Libertarian nominee Jim Berns picking up the balance. Chabot has voted against allowing embryonic stem cell research, Chabot authored a bill prohibiting a form of late-term abortion called partial-birth abortion, referred to in some medical literature by its less common name of intact dilation and extraction. President George W. Bush signed the bill into law on November 5,2003, Chabot opposes the regulation of indirect campaign contributions from corporations and unions. Chabot endorsed Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election, Chabot supports a great increase in defense spending. He wants to eliminate public spending on the arts and he has voted against trade adjustment assistance for workers who have lost their jobs due to globalization
35.
Presidency of Barack Obama
–
The presidency of Barack Obama began at noon EST on January 20,2009, when Barack Obama was inaugurated as President of the United States, and ended on January 20,2017. Obama, a Democrat, took office as the 44th United States president following a victory over Republican John McCain in the 2008 presidential election. Four years later, in the 2012 election, he defeated Mitt Romney to win re-election and he was the first African American president, the first multiracial president, the first non-white president, and the first president to have been born in Hawaii. Obama was succeeded by Republican Donald Trump, who won the 2016 presidential election, Obama also appointed Supreme Court Justices Elena Kagan and Sonia Sotomayor, the latter of whom became the first Hispanic American on the Supreme Court. Democrats controlled both houses of Congress until Republicans won a majority in the House of Representatives in the 2010 elections, following the elections, Obama and Congressional Republicans engaged in a protracted stand-off over government spending levels and the debt ceiling. In his second term, Obama took steps to combat climate change, signing an international climate agreement. Obama also presided over the implementation of the Affordable Care Act and other legislation passed in his first term, the number of American soldiers in Afghanistan fell dramatically during Obamas second term, though U. S. soldiers remained in Afghanistan throughout Obamas presidency. The presidential transition period began following Obamas election to the presidency in November 2008, John Podesta, Valerie Jarrett, and Pete Rouse co-chaired the Obama-Biden Transition Project. During the transition period, Obama announced nominations for his Cabinet, in November 2008, Congressman Rahm Emanuel accepted Obamas offer to serve as White House Chief of Staff. Obama was inaugurated on January 20,2009, succeeding George W. Bush, Obama officially assumed the presidency at 12,00 pm, EST, and completed the oath of office at 12,05 pm, EST. He delivered his inaugural address immediately following his oath, following his inauguration, Obama and the Senate worked to confirm his nominees to the United States Cabinet. Obama nominated several former Clinton administration officials to the Cabinet and to other positions, on April 28,2009, the Senate confirmed former Kansas governor Kathleen Sebelius as Secretary of Health and Human Services, completing Obamas initial Cabinet. In March 2016, Obama nominated Chief Judge Merrick Garland of the D. C. Circuit to fill Scalias seat, garlands nomination remained before the Senate for longer than any other Supreme Court nomination in history, and the nomination expired with the end of the 114th Congress. President Donald Trump is widely expected to appoint a successor to Scalia, Obamas presidency saw the continuation of battles between both parties over the confirmation of judicial nominees. Democrats continually accused Republicans of stalling nominees throughout Obamas tenure, after several nomination battles, Senate Democrats in 2013 reformed the use of the filibuster so that it could no longer be used on executive or judicial nominations. Obamas judicial nominees were significantly more diverse than those of previous administrations, with more appointments going to women, some of the first actions of Obamas presidency focused on reversing measures taken by the Bush administration following the September 11 attacks. Another order, Executive Order 13491, banned torture and other coercive techniques, on January 29, Obama signed a bill for the first time in his presidency, the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 revised the statute of limitations for filing pay discrimination lawsuits. On February 3, he signed the Childrens Health Insurance Program Reauthorization Act, on March 9,2009, Obama lifted restrictions on federal funding of embryonic stem cell research
36.
John W. Sedwick
–
John W. Sedwick is a Senior United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the District of Alaska. Sedwick was born in 1946 in Kittanning, Pennsylvania and he attended Dartmouth College where he received a B. A. in 1968. He then served in the United States Air Force as a Sergeant and he graduated with a J. D. from Harvard Law School in 1972. Later, he went into practice in Anchorage, Alaska. He then served as the Director, Division of Land and Water Management, Department of Natural Resources, State of Alaska and he returned to private practice, 1982-1992. Sedwick was nominated by George H. W. Bush on July 2,1992 as a judge of the United States District Court for the District of Alaska to a seat vacated by Andrew J. Kleinfeld. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on October 8,1992 and he served as chief judge, 2002-2009. On March 13,2011, John W. Sedwick assumed senior status and he was succeeded by Sharon L. Gleason. John W. Sedwick at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a public domain publication of the Federal Judicial Center
37.
Alaska Natives
–
Alaska Natives are indigenous peoples of Alaska, United States, Iñupiat, Yupik, Aleut, Eyak, Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, and a number of Northern Athabaskan cultures. They are often defined by their language groups, alaskan Natives are enrolled in federally recognized Alaska Native tribal entities, who in turn belong to 13 Alaska Native Regional Corporations, who administer land and financial claims. Ancestors of the Alaska Natives are known to have migrated into the thousands of years ago. Some are descendants of a wave of migration in which people settled across the northern part of North America. They never migrated to southern areas, for this reason, genetic studies show they are not closely related to Native Americans in South America. Throughout the Arctic and northern areas, the ancestors of the Alaska Natives established varying indigenous and they developed sophisticated ways to deal with the challenging climate and environment, and cultures rooted in the place. Historic groups have been defined by their languages, which belong to several language families. Arriving from Siberia by ship in the century, Russians began to trade with Alaska Natives. New settlements around trading posts were started by Russians, including Russian Orthodox missionaries and these were the first to translate Scripture into Native languages. British and American traders generally did not reach the area until the nineteenth century, in the 21st century, the numerous congregations of Russian Orthodox Christians in Alaska are generally composed mostly of Alaska Natives. Rather than hunting the marine life, the Russians forced the Aleuts to do the work for them, as word spread of the riches in furs to be had, competition among Russian companies increased and they forced the Aleuts into slavery. Catherine the Great, who became Empress in 1763, proclaimed good will toward the Aleut, on some islands and parts of the Alaska Peninsula, groups of traders had been capable of relatively peaceful coexistence with the local inhabitants. Other groups could not manage the tensions, Russians took hostages, families were split up, and individuals were forced to leave their villages and settle elsewhere. The growing competition between the companies, merging into fewer, larger and more powerful corporations, created conflicts that aggravated the relations with the indigenous populations. Over the years, the situation became catastrophic for the natives, as the Shelikhov-Golikov Company and later Russian-American Company developed as a monopoly, it used skirmishes and systematic violence as a tool of colonial exploitation of the indigenous people. When the Aleut revolted and won victories, the Russians retaliated, killing many and destroying their boats and hunting gear. The most devastating effects were from disease, during the first two generations of Russian contact,80 percent of the Aleut population died from Eurasian infectious diseases and these were then endemic among the Europeans, but the Aleut had no immunity against the new diseases. In 1971 the United States Congress passed the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act and it provided for the establishment of 13 Alaska Native Regional Corporations to administer those claims
38.
Tlingit
–
The Tlingit are an indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest Coast of North America. Their language is Lingít, meaning People of the Tides, the Russian name Koloshi or the related German name Koulischen may be encountered referring to the people in older historical literature, such as Shelikhovs 1796 map of Russian America. The Tlingit have a kinship system, with children considered born into the mothers clan. Their culture and society developed in the temperate rainforest of the southeast Alaska coast, the Tlingit maintained a complex hunter-gatherer culture based on semi-sedentary management of fisheries. An inland group, known as the Inland Tlingit, inhabits the far part of the province of British Columbia. With regular travel up rivers, the Tlingit developed extensive trade networks with Athabascan tribes of the interior. They also overlap in territory with various Athabascan peoples, such as the Tahltan, Kaska, in Canada, the modern communities of Atlin, British Columbia, Teslin, Yukon, and Carcross, Yukon have reserves and are the representative Interior Tlingit populations. The territory occupied by the modern Tlingit people in Alaska is not restricted to particular reservations, the corporation in the Tlingit region is Sealaska Corporation, which serves the Tlingit as well as the Haida and Tsimshian in Alaska. Tlingit people as a participate in the commercial economy of Alaska. As a consequence, they live in typically American nuclear family households with private ownership of housing, many also possess land allotments from Sealaska or from earlier distributions predating ANCSA. Despite the legal and political complexities, the territory occupied by the Tlingit can be reasonably designated as their modern homeland. Tlingit people today consider the land from around Yakutat south through the Alaskan Panhandle, and including the lakes in the Canadian interior, as being Lingít Aaní, the Land of the Tlingit. Northern Tinglit live north of Frederick Sound to Cape Spencer, and including Glacier Bay and their territory can be battered by Pacific storms. These academic classifications are supported by similar self-identification among the Tlingit, the Tlingit culture is multifaceted and complex, a characteristic of Northwest Pacific Coast people with access to easily exploited rich resources. In Tlingit culture a heavy emphasis is placed upon family and kinship, wealth and economic power are important indicators of rank, but so is generosity and proper behavior, all signs of good breeding and ties to aristocracy. Tlingit society is divided into two moieties, the Raven and the Eagle and these in turn are divided into numerous clans, which are subdivided into lineages or house groups. They have a kinship system, with descent and inheritance passed through the mothers line. These groups have heraldic crests, which are displayed on poles, canoes, feast dishes, house posts, weavings, jewelry
39.
Haida people
–
The Haida, historically sometimes spelled Hydah, are an indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest Coast of North America. In British Columbia, the term Haida Nation refers both to the people as a whole and their government, the Council of the Haida Nation, the Kaigani are part of the Central Council Tlingit Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska government. The Haida language has sometimes been classified as one of the Na-Dene group, Haida society continues to produce a robust and highly stylized art form, a leading component of Northwest Coast art. While frequently expressed in large carvings, Chilkat weaving, or ornate jewellery. Haida span the boundary between British Columbia and Alaska and their heartland is the two large and many smaller islands known as Haida Gwaii, which means island of the people in Haida. The name Queen Charlotte Islands was subsequently given back to the Crown in a ceremony between the British Columbia government and the Council of the Haida Nation. Haida also live in Southeast Alaska, particularly on the half of Prince of Wales Island in communities such as Hydaburg. Haida also live in cities in mainland British Columbia and the western United States. The Haida are known for their craftsmanship, trading skills, and seamanship and they are thought to have been warlike and to practice slavery. Canadian Museum of Civilization anthropologist Diamond Jenness has compared the tribe to Vikings, oral histories and archaeological evidence indicate that the Haida have occupied Haida Gwaii for over 17,000 years. In that time they have established a connection with the islands lands and oceans, established highly structured societies. The Haida have occupied southern Alaska for over the last 200 years, the Haida were important trading partners with Russian, Spanish, British, and American fur traders and whalers. According to sailing records they diligently maintained strong trade relationships with westerners, coastal people, like other groups on the Northwest Coast, the Haida defended themselves with fortifications, including palisades, trapdoors and platforms. They took to water in large ocean-going canoes, big enough to accommodate as many as 60 paddlers, the aggressive tribe were particularly feared in sea battles, although they did respect rules of engagement in their conflicts. The Haida took captives from defeated enemies, between 1780 and 1830, the Haida turned their aggression towards European and American traders. Among the half-dozen ships the tribe captured were the Eleanor and the Susan Sturgis, the tribe made use of the weapons they so acquired, utilizing cannons and canoe-mounted swivel guns. In 1856, an expedition in search of a route across Vancouver Island was at the mouth of the Qualicum River when they observed a fleet of Haida canoes approaching. They observed these attackers holding human heads, ebeys scalp was purchased from the Kake by an American trader in 1860
40.
Tsimshian
–
The Tsimshian are an indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest Coast. Their communities are mostly in coastal British Columbia and far southern Alaska, around Terrace and Prince Rupert in British Columbia, the Tsimshian people consist of approximately 10,000 members of seven First Nations. The Tsimshian are one of the largest First Nations peoples in northwest British Columbia, some Tsimshian migrated to Annette Island, Alaska, where their descendants in the Metlakatla Indian Community number about 1450. Similar to numerous Native American peoples, the Tsimshian have a kinship system, with a societal structure based on a clan system. Descent and property are figured through the maternal line, early anthropologists and linguists had classified the Gitksan and Nishga as Tsimshian because of apparent linguistic affinities. The three were all referred to as Coast Tsimshian, even though some communities were not coastal and these three groups, however, identify as separate nations. Tsimshian translates to Inside the Skeena River, at one time the Tsimshian lived on the upper reaches of the Skeena River near present-day Hazelton, British Columbia. The majority of Tsimshian still live in the lower Skeena River watershed near Kitimat, there are distinct groups of Tsimshian native peoples, the Nishga, the Gitksan, the Coast Tsimshian, and the Southern Tsimshian. The southern Tsimshian language had more prestige than the others and was used ceremonially by the Nishga. Kitkatla is still considered to be the most conservative of the Tsimshian villages, over time, these groups developed a new dialect of their ancestral language and came to regard themselves as a distinct population, the Tsimshian-proper. They continued to share the rights and customs of those who are known as the Gitxsan, in late prehistoric times, the Coastal Tsimshian gradually moved their winter villages out to the islands of Venn. They returned to their villages along the lower Skeena River when the salmon returned. Archaeological evidence shows 5,000 years of inhabitation in the Prince Rupert region. Kitkatla was probably the first Tsimshian village contacted by Europeans when Captain Charles Duncan, when the Hudsons Bay Company moved their fort to modern-day Port Simpson in 1834, nine Tsimshian villages moved to the surrounding area. Many of the Tsimshian peoples in Canada still live in these regions, throughout the second half of the 19th century, epidemics of infectious disease contracted from Europeans ravaged their communities, as the First Nations had no acquired immunity to these diseases. In 1862 a smallpox epidemic killed many of the Tsimshian people, altogether, one in four Tsimshian died in a series of at least three large-scale outbreaks. In 1835, the population of the Tsimshian peoples was estimated at 8,500. By 1885, the population had dropped to 4,500,817 of whom moved to Alaska two years later
41.
Juneau City and Borough, Alaska
–
The City and Borough of Juneau, is the capital city of Alaska. It is a municipality located on the Gastineau Channel in the Alaskan panhandle. Juneau has been the capital of Alaska since 1906, when the government of what was then the District of Alaska was moved from Sitka as dictated by the U. S. Congress in 1900. Downtown Juneau is nestled at the base of Mount Juneau and across the channel from Douglas Island, as of the 2010 census, the City and Borough had a population of 31,276. In 2014, the estimate from the United States Census Bureau was 32,406. Fairbanks, however, is the second most populous area in the state. Juneaus daily population can increase by roughly 6,000 people from visiting cruise ships between the months of May and September, the city is named after a gold prospector from Quebec, Joe Juneau, though the place was for a time called Rockwell and then Harrisburg. The Tlingit name of the town is Dzántiki Héeni, and Auke Bay just north of Juneau proper is called Áakw in Tlingit, the Taku River, just south of Juneau, was named after the cold taakh wind, which occasionally blows down from the mountains. Juneau is rather unusual among U. S. capitals in that there are no roads connecting the city to the rest of Alaska or to the rest of North America, the absence of a road network is due to the extremely rugged terrain surrounding the city. This in turn makes Juneau a de facto island city in terms of transportation, since all goods coming in and out must go by plane or boat, in spite of the city being located on the Alaskan mainland. Downtown Juneau sits at sea level, with tides averaging 16 feet, the Mendenhall glacier has been gradually retreating, its front face is declining both in width and height. The Alaska State Capitol in downtown Juneau was originally built as the Federal and Territorial Building in 1931, prior to statehood, it housed federal government offices, the federal courthouse and a post office. It also housed the territorial legislature and many other territorial offices, today, Juneau remains the home of the state legislature and the offices of the governor and lieutenant governor. Some other executive offices have moved elsewhere in the state. The Aakw Kwáan had a village and burying ground here, in the 21st century it is known as Indian Point. They annually harvested herring during the season, and celebrated this bounty. They consider it sacred territory, both because of the ground and the importance of the point in their traditions of gathering sustenance from the sea. They continue to gather clams, gumboots, grass and sea urchins here, the city and state supported Sealaska Heritage Institute in documenting the 78-acre site, and in August 2016 it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places
42.
Northern Pacific coastal forests (WWF ecoregion)
–
The Northern Pacific coastal forests are temperate coniferous forest ecoregion of the Pacific coast of North America. The Pacific Coastal Mountain icefields and tundra ecoregion lies inland, at elevations in the Coast Mountains. The ecoregion receives high rainfall, which varies based on exposure. It contains a quarter of the worlds remaining temperate rain forest, conifers are the characteristic trees, and the predominant species are Sitka spruce, western hemlock, and mountain hemlock, together with shore pine, western red cedar, and yellow cedar. Sites with poor drainage and along river channels are home to trees, including alder, black cottonwood. Much of the lies within the Tongass National Forest, Chugach National Forest. List of ecoregions in the United States Northern Pacific coastal forests
43.
British Columbia Coast
–
The British Columbia Coast or BC Coast is Canadas western continental coastline on the Pacific Ocean. The usage is synonymous with the term West Coast of Canada, the aerial distance from Victoria on the Strait of Juan de Fuca to Stewart, British Columbia on the Alaska border at the head of the Portland Canal is 965 kilometres in length. The dominant landforms of the BC Coast are the Insular Mountains, comprising most of Vancouver Island and Haida Gwaii, and the Coast Mountains, which extend beyond into Alaska and the Yukon. The British Columbia Coast is mostly part of the Pacific temperate rain forests ecoregion as defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature, in the system used by Environment Canada, established by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation, the area is defined as the Pacific Maritime Ecozone. The great fjords of the British Columbia Coast rival those of Norway in length and depth but have even higher mountain scenery with a more alpine flavour. Many of the islands offshore are much larger than those along the Norwegian coast, many large enough to have major fjords of their own, as well as their own mountain ranges. The waterway route through these islands between Vancouver and Prince Rupert, and between Seattle, Washington, and Alaska, is known as the Inside Passage. It has played a role in U. S. -Canada relations more than once, the islands of Howe Sound are classed among the southern Gulf Islands, but they adjoin the mainland rather than Vancouver Island and are usually considered separately. The natural fecundity of the environment—rich in seafood, game and greenery—combined with the ease of travel is seen in all cases to have generated a dynamic and gifted civilization. The fishery of the Pacific Northwest Coast is legendary, especially for its salmon runs. Salmon runs have diminished since pre-Contact years and the advent of commercial canning and, ultimately. Other commercial fisheries include halibut, herring and herring roe, sea urchin and other specialty sushis, hake, haddock, cod, crab, scheduled Passenger Services operating on the British Columbia Coast are dominated by BC Ferries and the Alaska Marine Highway. Dozens of smaller ferries ply lesser routes between the Gulf Islands and the mainland or Vancouver Island as well as on lakes in the Interior where no bridges exist. Other runs connect Horseshoe Bay to the Sunshine Coast and Bowen Island, from there, a ferry operates to Comox. The Alaska Marine Highway operates regular ferry sailings from Bellingham, Washington to Ketchikan, Wrangell, Sitka, Juneau, Skagway, Haines, the Alaska Marine Highway also operates a vessel from Prince Rupert to Ketchikan and other Southeast ports. Other scheduled passenger services are run by various shipping and water-taxi companies. Non-scheduled passenger services include all major lines and various small luxury craft sharters, as well as shuttles to. Yellow Point Lodge, Nanaimo Painters Lodge, Desolation Sound Nations of Southeast Alaska and Georgia Strait-Puget Sound are included as they are part of the same cultural and historical ecumene
