1.
Touring car racing
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Touring car racing is an auto racing competition with heavily modified road-going cars. It is popular in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Britain, Germany, Sweden, while not as fast as Formula One, the similarity of the cars both to each other and to fans own vehicles makes for entertaining, well-supported racing. Aerodynamic aids are added to the front and rear of the cars. Regulations are usually designed to limit costs by banning some of the exotic technologies available. Touring cars share some similarity with American stock car racing governed by NASCAR, however, touring cars are, at least notionally, derived from production cars while todays NASCAR vehicles are based on a common design. For the casual observer, there can be a deal of confusion when it comes to classifying closed-wheel racing cars as touring cars or sports cars. In truth, there is very little technical difference between the two classifications, and nomenclature is often a matter of tradition. Touring cars are based upon family cars, while GT racing cars are based upon more powerful and expensive sports cars. More recently, there has been a push to make GT cars closer to the road cars with the GT3 set of regulations. Most sports car championships only allow rear-wheel drive cars, while touring cars generally have a lower technical level than sports cars, there are some exceptions. Over time Touring Cars has drifted from its role as racing cars based on road cars with categories like NASCAR. This in turn has led to the rise of Production car racing to fulfil the role performed by Touring Cars. Worldwide Modern World Touring Car Championship started in 2005, evolving from the reborn European Touring Car Championship, running at major international racing facilities, this series is supported by BMW, SEAT and Chevrolet. The latter fields a team, whereas the other two only sell racing kits to be installed on their cars, providing technical support to their customers. In 2011 Volvo also entered the championship, fielding a team as an evaluation for a possible heavier commitment to the series. The World Touring Car Championship features 1. 6-litre cars built to Super 2000 regulations based on FIA Group N, following the trend of recent FIA rules, cost control is a major theme in the technical regulation. In 2011 the rules concerning the engine capacity have changed, switching from 2000 cc to 1600 cc turbo engines, Cars equipped with the old 2000 cc engines are still eligible in the championship. Many technologies that have featured in production cars are not allowed, for example, variable valve timing, variable geometry, ABS brakes
2.
Maxwell automobile
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The Maxwell was a brand of automobiles manufactured in the United States of America from about 1904 to 1925. The present-day successor to the Maxwell company is Fiat Chrysler Automobiles, Maxwell automobile production began under the Maxwell-Briscoe Company of Tarrytown, New York. In 1907, following a fire destroyed the Tarrytown, NY, factory, Maxwell-Briscoe constructed what was then the largest automobile factory in the world in New Castle. This factory continued as a Chrysler plant following its takeover of Maxwell until its demolition in 2004, Maxwell was the only profitable company of the combine named United States Motor Company, which was formed in 1910. Due to a conflict between two of its backers, the United States Motor Company collapsed in 1913 after the failure of its last supporting car manufacturer, in 1913, the Maxwell assets were purchased by Walter Flanders, who reorganized the company as the Maxwell Motor Company, Inc. The company moved to Highland Park, Michigan, some of the Maxwells were also manufactured at two plants in Dayton, Ohio. For a time, Maxwell was considered one of the three top automobile firms in America, along with General Motors and Ford, by 1914, Maxwell had sold 60,000 cars. At $695, this five-seat tourer had high-tension magneto ignition, electric horn and electric starter and headlights, Maxwell eventually over-extended and wound up deeply in debt, with over half of its production unsold in the post-World War I recession in 1920. Chrysler arranged to take a controlling interest in Maxwell Motors, subsequently re-incorporating it in West Virginia with himself as the chairman, one of his first tasks was to correct the faults in the Maxwell, whose quality had faltered. This improved version of the car was marketed as the Good Maxwell, around the time of Chryslers takeover Maxwell was also in the process of merging, awkwardly at best, with the ailing Chalmers Automobile Company. Chalmers ceased production in late 1923, in 1925, Chrysler formed his own company, the Chrysler Corporation. That same year, the Maxwell line was phased out and the Maxwell company assets were absorbed by Chrysler, and this former Maxwell would undergo yet another transformation in 1928, when a second reworking and renaming would bring about the creation of the first Plymouth. Maxwell was one of the first car companies to market to women. In 1909 it generated a great deal of publicity when it acted as the sponsor for the first woman to drive coast-to-coast across the United States and this achievement was accomplished by Alice Huyler Ramsey, who was an early advocate of women drivers. By 1914 the company had strongly aligned itself with the womens rights movement and that year it announced its plan to hire as many male sales personnel as female. In 1920 the Maxwell Company contracted with actor and producer Nell Shipman to create a promotional film featuring the Maxwell. She was able to stretch the money budgeted for the project into a feature entitled Something New. Maxwell dealers presented this motion picture at various venues to promote the car, the Maxwell Company had assisted in the films production by supplying a car and by deploying a mechanic to the filming location
3.
Car body style
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Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
4.
Vehicle
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A vehicle is a mobile machine that transports people or cargo. Typical vehicles include wagons, bicycles, motor vehicles, railed vehicles, Land vehicles are classified broadly by what is used to apply steering and drive forces against the ground, wheeled, tracked, railed or skied. ISO 3833-1977 is the standard, also used in legislation, for road vehicles types, terms. Boats were used between 4000 BC-3000 BC in Sumer, ancient Egypt and in the Indian Ocean, there is evidence of camel pulled wheeled vehicles about 3000–4000 BC. Wheeled vehicles pulled by men and animals ran in grooves in limestone, in 200 CE, Ma Jun built a south-pointing chariot, a vehicle with an early form of guidance system. Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages, the earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a stained-glass window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau dating from around 1350. In 1515, Cardinal Matthäus Lang wrote a description of the Reisszug, the line originally used wooden rails and a hemp haulage rope and was operated by human or animal power, through a treadwheel. 1769 Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is often credited with building the first self-propelled mechanical vehicle or automobile in 1769. In Russia, in the 1780s, Ivan Kulibin developed a human-pedalled, three-wheeled carriage with modern features such as a flywheel, brake, gear box and bearings, however and it was introduced by Drais to the public in Mannheim in summer 1817. 1903 Wright brothers flew the first controlled, powered aircraft 1907 First helicopters Gyroplane no.1, there are over 1 billion bicycles in use worldwide. In 2002 there were an estimated 590 million cars and 205 million motorcycles in service in the world, at least 500 million Chinese Flying Pigeon bicycles have been made, more than an other single model of vehicle. The most-produced model of vehicle is the Honda Super Cub motorcycle. The most-produced car model is the Toyota Corolla, with at least 35 million made by 2010, by far, most vehicles use wheels which employ the principle of rolling to enable displacement with very little rolling friction. It is essential that a vehicle have a source of energy to drive it, energy can be extracted from the surrounding environment, as in the case of a sailboat, a solar-powered car or a streetcar. Energy can also be stored, in any form, provided it can be converted on demand, the most common type of energy source is fuel. Batteries also facilitate the use of motors, which have their own advantages. On the other hand, batteries have low densities, short service life, poor performance at extreme temperatures. Like fuel, batteries store energy and can cause burns
5.
Roadster (automobile)
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A roadster, sometimes referred to as a spider or spyder, is an open two-seat car with emphasis on sporting appearance or character. Initially an American term for a car with no weather protection. The roadster is also a style of racing car driven in United States Auto Club Championship Racing, including the Indianapolis 500 and this type of racing car was superseded by mid-engined cars. In the nineteenth century, the word denoted a horse suitable for traveling. By the end of the century the definition had expanded to include bicycles and tricycles. In 1916, the Society of Automobile Engineers defined a roadster as and it may have additional seats on running boards or in rear deck. Additional seating in the deck was known as a rumble seat or a dickey seat. The main seat for the driver and passenger was usually further back in the chassis than it would have been in a touring car, Roadsters usually had a hooded dashboard. The earliest roadster automobiles had only basic bodies without doors, windshields, by the 1920s they were appointed similarly to touring cars, with doors, windshields, simple folding tops, and side curtains. When roadsters of this era were equipped with seats, the seats folded into the body when not in use. They are popular with collectors, often valued over other open styles, the term roadster as applied to automobiles is American in origin, before World War II, the British equivalent was a two-seat tourer. By the 1970s, the roadster was applied to open two-seat cars of sporting appearance or character. Roadsters had become almost as well-equipped as convertibles, including side windows that retract into the doors, Roadsters of that time included the Alfa Romeo Spider, MGB, and Triumph TR4. A roadster is still defined as a car with two seats, with some roadsters having power tops or retractable hardtops. A few manufacturers and fabricators still offer roadsters that meet the older definitions and these include Morgan, with the windowless Roadster, Caterham, with the doorless Seven, and Ariel, with the bodyless Atom. The American hot rod is based on pre–World War II roadsters, late run Model Ts and 1932 Fords were the most popular starting points. The term roadster applies to front-engined AAA/USAC Championship cars, associated with the Indianapolis 500, the roadster engine and drive shaft are offset from the centerline of the car. This allows the driver to sit lower in the chassis and facilitates a weight offset which is beneficial on oval tracks, one story of why this type of racing car is referred to as a roadster is that a team was preparing a new car for the Indianapolis 500
6.
Convertible (car)
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A convertible or cabriolet is an automobile body style that can convert between an open-air mode and an enclosed one, varying in degree and means by model. Convertibles evolved from the phaeton, an open vehicle without glass side windows that sometimes had removable panels of fabric or other material for protection from the elements. Historically, a retractable roof consisted of a frame covered with a folding. A lesser seen detachable hardtop provided a more weatherproof and secure alternative, as technology improved, a retractable hardtop which removes and stows its own rigid roof in its trunk appeared, increasingly becoming the most popular form. A semiconvertible also known as a coach has a retractable or removable top which retains fully framed windows on its doors. A landaulet is a convertible with a fully enclosed front cabin. Other common terms include cabriolet, cabrio, soft top, and drop top, and where the roof is more than emergency weather protection, open two-seater, rag top, spider. The erected top secures to the frame header with manual latches, semimanual latches. The folded convertible top is called the stack, a tonneau cover provides a solution. A range of materials is available for soft tops, automakers had problems in securing raw materials to fulfill orders after World War II, including canvas in various shades for convertible tops and limiting their manufacture. Polyvinyl chloride material was used for many convertible tops, the material consists of two layers, a top layer made of PVC, which has a specific structure depending on the vehicle model, and a lower layer made of fabric. Side windows were not existent in open cars, which may have detachable side screens, rear windows have evolved similarly, with plastic rear windows appearing as late as the first-generation Porsche Boxster. Plastic windows can degrade, fade, yellow, and crack over time, a windblocker or wind deflector minimizes noise and rushing air reaching the occupants. Mazda pioneered a version on the RX7 convertible which featured an integral rigid opaque panel that folded up from behind the front seats, current convertibles feature windblockers of various designs including detachable fold-up designs, vertically retractable glass, minimal flaps – or other integrated wind controlling systems. According to the responsible for the 2008 Chrysler Sebring, its windblocker reduces wind noise by roughly 11 to 12 dB. Mercedes and Audi currently offer a heating duct to the area of the seat on SLK, SL. Windblockers are also available on the aftermarket for use on convertibles that do not have them, the Volvo C70 retractable hardtop includes a door-mounted side-impact protection inflatable curtain which inflates upward from the interior belt-line – vs. downward like the typical curtain airbag. The curtain has an extra stiff construction with double rows of slats that are offset from each other
7.
Hardtop
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A hardtop is a rigid form of automobile roof. They may be detachable for separate storing, retractable within the vehicle itself, the term is also used to describe such vehicles, principally the last. Hardtops may be either two-door or four-door, and tend to be more expensive, early automobiles were open, described as having a torpedo, runabout, phaeton, or touring car bodystyle. In time, some were made with rudimentary weather protection composed of a canvas top. Some instead had removable rigid roofs, which were cumbersome and laborious to seasonally alternate, once fully closed bodies became the norm, it was considered fashionable to remove the central roof support post to give them a more open touring look. The Springfield design featured folding upper frames on the doors and the glass frames is removable. By the time of World War I some automakers offered a removable roof, typically with a frame with a canvas or leather covering. They typically used side curtains like the conventional folding soft tops, the elaborate cloth covered California top originated in the West, with either a permanent or a folding frame. These were designed with an emphasis on proportions to accent and provide distinctiveness to the appearance of the automobile, one objective of these aftermarket tops was to bring the cost of the closed car nearer to the prices of corresponding open cars. Automobile dealers were encouraged to equip a car with a California top to demonstrate that they were cool and clean in summer. The hard tops were frequently equipped with windows that retracted like a roller blind for open sided motoring offering a low-cost compromise between an open and closed car. The metal-framed Carson top was an addition for the 1930s Ford convertibles or roadsters because it turned these models into an almost instant hardtop. The design mimicked a convertible top, but lacking the bulky folding mechanisms enabled the removable hardtop to have a much lower, following the ascendancy of steel tops for closed bodies in the 1930s, detachable hardtops with metal roofs began to appear. After World War II, the availability of new types of plastic, because the convertible top mechanism is itself expensive, the hardtop was customarily offered as an additional, extra-cost option. On early Thunderbirds, buyers could choose between a detachable hardtop and a canvas top at no additional cost, but paid extra for both. Some open cars continue to offer it as an option, for example, some Mazda MX-5s are believed to have been delivered with an accessory hardtop, which is compulsory for some auto racing series. The automotive usage of the term hardtop is most often applied for a roof body style without a b or center pillar. They were sometimes called a hardtop convertible because they were designed to look like a convertible with the top raised, while some early models retained side window frames and B-pillars, by the 1950s, most were pillarless hardtops
8.
Studebaker Big Six
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The Studebaker Big Six was an automobile produced by the Studebaker Corporation of South Bend, Indiana between 1918 and 1926, being designated the Model EG, the EK and the EP. In 1927, it was renamed the President pending introduction of a smaller and smoother straight-eight engine for new models after January 1928. Between 1918 and 1920, the Big Six was offered only as a touring car. By 1926, the Big Six could be bought in a variety of specialty body styles including a dual-cowl Phaeton,1918 to 1919 Big Sixes were powered by Studebakers 354 in³ Straight-6 engine that produced 60 bhp at 2000 rpm. By 1926, the engine was delivering 75 bhp at 2400 rpm, the cars wheelbase was varied between 1918120 in and 1926 when the car was available in either short 120 in or long 127 in wheelbases. In the 1920s, twelve of the fourteen Arizona counties issued Studebakers to their sheriffs, because of their reputation for power, reliability, in 1925, the company published a pamphlet about the Arizona sheriffs Studebakers, and named their Big Six Sport Phaeton model the Sheriff. One of the Arizona sheriffs Big Six cars has been restored, at the 1924 New York Auto Show, Studebaker featured a 1918 Big Six that had a verified odometer reading of over 500,000 miles, as a testament to the longevity and durability of Studebaker vehicles. In the case of the Big Six President,1928 would mark the introduction of Studebakers famed 313-in³ Straight-8 which developed 100 bhp at 2600 rpm. The larger straight-six engine was utilised in the GB Commander before being replaced with a 248-in³ engine in 1929 and these sixes were the last descendants of rugged cars designed for poor roads in the early 20th century—loaded with torque and massively strong in construction. They were not suited to the higher cruising speeds which were possible by better roads in later years. The Standard Catalog of American Cars 1805-1945, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Media related to Studebaker Big Six at Wikimedia Commons
9.
SAE International
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Principal emphasis is placed on transport industries such as automotive, aerospace, and commercial vehicles. SAE International has more than 127,000 members globally, membership is granted to individuals, not through companies. Aside from its efforts, SAE International also devotes resources to projects and programs in STEM education, professional certification. In the early 1900s there were dozens of manufacturers in the United States. Auto manufacturers and parts companies joined trade groups that promoted business, a desire to solve common technical design problems and develop engineering standards was emerging. Engineers in the business expressed a desire to have free exchange of ideas in order to expand their individual technical knowledge base. Two magazine publishers, Peter Heldt of The Horseless Age, and these questions could best be dealt with by a technical society. The field of activity for this society would be the technical side of automobiles. Horace Swetland wrote on automotive engineering concerns, and became an original SAE officer, about two years after Heldts editorial, the Society of Automobile Engineers was founded in New York City. Four officers and five managing officers volunteered, in 1905 Andrew L. Riker served as president, and Henry Ford served as the societys first vice president. The initial membership was engineers with annual dues of US$10, by 1916 SAE had 1,800 members. Aeronautics was an industry at that time. Early supporters of the concept of a society to represent aeronautical engineers were Thomas Edison, Glenn Curtiss, Glenn Martin, out of the meeting in 1916 came a new organization, to represent engineers in all types of mobility-related professions. SAE member Elmer Sperry created the term automotive from Greek autos, the Society of Automobile Engineers became the Society of Automotive Engineers. Charles Kettering presided over SAE during World War I and saw membership pass the 5,000 mark, during this time, SAE emphasized the importance of developing member activity through local chapters – called Sections. By 1980, membership surpassed 35,000 and over the two decades the society, like the industries and individuals it serves, became larger, more global, more diverse. By the mid-1980s, membership edged close to 50,000, by the end of the 1990s, as of 2016, the society serves more than 127,000 members, with more than a quarter from outside of North America. Ongoing harmonization efforts seek to bridge gaps between North American SAE technical prescriptions and the UN standards in use outside North America, SAE publishes more than 1,600 technical standards and recommended practices for passenger cars and other roadgoing vehicles
10.
Tonneau
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Tonneau cover describes a hard or soft cover used to protect unoccupied passenger seats in a convertible or roadster, or the cargo bed in a pickup truck. Hard tonneau covers open by a hinging or folding mechanism while soft covers open by rolling up, the tonneau cover is used to conceal and or cover cargo. When the cover is pulled out, it keeps out of the sun. A tonneau is a rear passenger compartment, rounded like a barrel, on an automobile and, by extension. The word is French, meaning cask, most tonneau covers were fixed in place as an optional element at purchase, but some could be removed as on the Crestmobile or the two-part of the early MGB. Early tonneaus normally had a hinged door, but single. The first US side-door tonneau was made by Peerless, and others quickly followed and this led to the development of the modern sedan/saloon, with Cadillac manufacturing the first US production closed-body four-door car in 1910. When the street was muddy or dirty the car would be backed up to the curb so tonneau passengers could exit on the sidewalk, early open-bodied touring-type automobiles used tonneau covers to protect unoccupied rear seats. The skins covered gaping cockpits that would otherwise disturb airflow and create undue drag, as a result, tonneau covers are available for open sports cars such as the Porsche Boxster, MGA, Triumph, and Austin-Healey. These covers, made of leather or vinyl, cover the passenger compartment. Tonneau covers may be used in lieu of hard or soft convertible tops, as air courses over the windshield at speed, it creates turbulence as it cascades into and bounces out of the cockpit. This condition is called buffeting, and can be annoying, a tonneau cover reduces buffeting at all speeds. Heat produced by a heater leaves as that turbulence exchanges the cockpits warmer air for cooler ambient air, a tonneau cover is capable of both retaining heat and shielding a driver from UV exposure. Tonneau covers are used in utility vehicles and pickup trucks to cover and secure the truck bed, the most common style is the roll-up tonneau made from cloth or vinyl, which uses a rib-like structure to support the fabric and keep it taut. A snap-based system is used, but has become less common due to truck owners not wanting to install the snaps on their vehicle as they typically require drilling or permanent adhesive. Roll-up Tonneaus are opened by rolling the cover up toward the cab of the truck, another style of truck bed tonneau cover is a retractable unit, which is mounted at the front and sides of the bed and rolls up or retracts from the tailgate towards the cab. The retractable tonneau is typically made of vinyl, plastic or aluminum, fiberglass, hard plastic or aluminum tonneau covers are also common. Some may be painted to match the truck, are solid in construction and these covers are usually heavy and require gas struts to assist in opening and closing
11.
Ford Model T
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The Ford Model T is an automobile that was produced by Ford Motor Company from October 1,1908, to May 26,1927. The Ford Model T was named the most influential car of the 20th century in the 1999 Car of the Century competition, ahead of the BMC Mini, Citroën DS, and Volkswagen Type 1. With 16.5 million sold it stands eighth on the top ten list of most sold cars of all time as of 2012, although automobiles had already existed for decades, they were still mostly scarce and expensive at the Model Ts introduction in 1908. Positioned as reliable, easily maintained mass market transportation, it was a runaway success, in a matter of days after the release,15,000 orders were placed. The first production Model T was produced on August 12,1908 and left the factory on September 27,1908, at the Ford Piquette Avenue Plant in Detroit, Michigan. On May 26,1927, Henry Ford watched the 15 millionth Model T Ford roll off the line at his factory in Highland Park. There were several cars produced or prototyped by Henry Ford from the founding of the company in 1903 until the Model T was introduced, although he started with the Model A, there were not 19 production models, some were only prototypes. The production model immediately before the Model T was the Model S, a version of the companys largest success to that point. The follow-up was the Ford Model A, the company publicity said this was because the new car was such a departure from the old that Henry wanted to start all over again with the letter A. The Model T was Fords first automobile mass-produced on moving assembly lines with completely interchangeable parts, Henry Ford said of the vehicle, I will build a car for the great multitude. It will be enough for the family, but small enough for the individual to run. It will be constructed of the best materials, by the best men to be hired, after the simplest designs that modern engineering can devise. But it will be so low in price that no man making a good salary will be unable to own one –, although credit for the development of the assembly line belongs to Ransom E. The Model T was designed by Childe Harold Wills, and Hungarian immigrants Joseph A. Galamb, Henry Love, C. J. Smith, Gus Degner and Peter E. Martin were also part of the team. Production of the Model T began in the quarter of 1908. Collectors today sometimes classify Model Ts by build years and refer to these as model years and this is a retroactive classification scheme, the concept of model years as we conceive it today did not exist at the time. The nominal model designation was Model T, although design revisions did occur during the two decades of production. The Model T had a front-mounted 177-cubic-inch inline four-cylinder engine, producing 20 hp, according to Ford Motor Company, the Model T had fuel economy on the order of 13–21 mpg‑US
12.
Runabout (car)
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A runabout is a car body style that was popular in North America until about 1915. It was a light, basic style with no windshield, top, or doors, runabouts eventually became indistinguishable from roadsters and the term fell out of use in the United States. The approach has evolved into the city car. The runabout was a light, inexpensive, open car with basic bodywork and no windshield, top, most runabouts had just a single row of seats, providing seating for two passengers. Some also had a seat at the rear to provide optional seating for one or two more passengers, those without rumble seats may have had a trunk platform, a box. They differed from buggies and high wheelers mainly by having smaller wheels, early runabouts had their engines under the body toward the middle of the chassis. This sometimes made difficult, as on the Oldsmobile Curved Dash where the body had to be removed in order to access the engine. The Gale runabout dealt with this problem by hinging the body at the rear of the car such that it could be tilted to access the engine, some later runabouts had the engine in what became the conventional position at the front of the car. Runabouts were popular in North America from the late 19th century to about 1915 and they were designed for light use over short distances. By the mid-1910s, they became almost indistinguishable from roadsters, the 1964 GM Runabout was a three wheel concept car first exhibited at Futurama II, part of the 1964 New York Worlds Fair. The car was designed specifically for housewives and had detachable shopping carts built into it, the term runabout is still in use in Britain, denoting a small car used for short journeys. Anderson, Sandra, Crozier, Justin, Gilmour, Lorna, Grandison, Alice, McKeown, Cormac, Stibbs, Anne, Summers, Elspeth, N.1 a small car used for short journeys Clough, Albert L. New York, NY USA, E. P. Dutton, a general term for a light two-passenger car of the early 1900s. Haajanen, Lennart W. Illustrated Dictionary of Automobile Body Styles, the story of Veteran & Vintage Cars. Chapter One The Pioneer Days 1769 –1904, the Oldsmobile merits its niche in history as the first true example of mass-production, some 3,750 being turned out in 1903 alone. Despite the Oldsmobiles known reliability, the makers handbook launches out on the first page of text with the alarming suggestion, in Fox, Richard Wightman, Lears, T. J. Jackson. The Power of Culture, Critical Essays in American History, Chicago, IL US, University of Chicago
13.
Ford Motor Company
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The Ford Motor Company is an American multinational automaker headquartered in Dearborn, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. It was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16,1903, the company sells automobiles and commercial vehicles under the Ford brand and most luxury cars under the Lincoln brand. Ford also owns Brazilian SUV manufacturer, Troller, and Australian performance car manufacturer FPV, in the past, it has also produced tractors and automotive components. Ford owns an 8% stake in Aston Martin of the United Kingdom, and it also has a number of joint-ventures, one in China, one in Taiwan, one in Thailand, one in Turkey, and one in Russia. It is listed on the New York Stock Exchange and is controlled by the Ford family, Fords former UK subsidiaries Jaguar and Land Rover, acquired in 1989 and 2000 respectively, were sold to Tata Motors in March 2008. Ford owned the Swedish automaker Volvo from 1999 to 2010, in 2011, Ford discontinued the Mercury brand, under which it had marketed entry-level luxury cars in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Middle East since 1938. During the financial crisis at the beginning of the 21st century, it was close to bankruptcy, Ford is the second-largest U. S. -based automaker and the fifth-largest in the world based on 2015 vehicle production. At the end of 2010, Ford was the fifth largest automaker in Europe, Ford is the eighth-ranked overall American-based company in the 2010 Fortune 500 list, based on global revenues in 2009 of $118.3 billion. In 2008, Ford produced 5.532 million automobiles and employed about 213,000 employees at around 90 plants, the company went public in 1956 but the Ford family, through special Class B shares, still retain 40 percent voting rights. The Ford Motor Company was launched in a factory in 1903 with $28,000 in cash from twelve investors, most notably John. During its early years, the company produced just a few cars a day at its factory on Mack Avenue and later its factory on Piquette Avenue in Detroit, Michigan. Groups of two or three men worked on car, assembling it from parts made mostly by supplier companies contracting for Ford. Henry Ford was 39 years old when he founded the Ford Motor Company and it has been in continuous family control for over 100 years and is one of the largest family-controlled companies in the world. The first gasoline powered automobile had been created in 1885 by the German inventor Carl Benz, between 1903 and 1908, Ford produced the Models A, B, C, F, K, N, R, and S. Hundreds or a few thousand of most of these were sold per year, in 1908, Ford introduced the mass-produced Model T, which totalled millions sold over nearly 20 years. In 1927, Ford replaced the T with the Model A, Ford launched the first low-priced car with a V8 engine in 1932. In an attempt to compete with General Motors mid-priced Pontiac, Oldsmobile, Henry Ford purchased the Lincoln Motor Company in 1922, in order to compete with such brands as Cadillac and Packard for the luxury segment of the automobile market. The creation of a laboratory in Dearborn, Michigan in 1951, doing unfettered basic research
14.
Ford Anglia
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The Ford Anglia is a compact car which was designed and manufactured by Ford UK. It is related to the Ford Prefect and the later Ford Popular, the Anglia name was applied to various models between 1939 and 1967. A total of 1,594,486 Anglias were produced and it was replaced by the Ford Escort. The first Ford Anglia model, the E04A, was released on 31 October 1939 as smallest model in the UK Ford range and it replaced the Ford 7Y and was a facelifted version of that model. The Anglia was a vehicle aimed at the cheap end of the market. Styling was typically late-1930s, with an upright radiator, there were standard and deluxe models, the latter having better instrumentation and, on pre-war models, running boards. Both front and rear suspensions used transverse leaf springs, and the brakes were mechanical, the two-door Anglia is similar to the longer, four-door, E93A Ford Prefect. A bulge at the back enabled a spare wheel to be removed from its vertical outside stowage on the back of the car and stowed flat on the boot floor, which usefully increased luggage space. Some back seat leg room was sacrificed to the luggage space, the Anglia replaced the 7Y saloon, but the van version of the earlier model continued to be built until 1946, after which some very minor changes sufficed to rebaptize the van the E04C. The domestic market engine was the 933 cc straight-four side-valve engine familiar to drivers of predecessor models since 1933, a minor styling change was made in December 1947, with the name “Anglia” now incorporated in the top of the grille surround. A contemporary road test commended the Anglias ability to pull away from 5 or 6 mph in top gear, compulsory driving tests had only recently been introduced in the UK. Most potential buyers would approach the vehicle without the benefit of formal driving tuition, the cars did have synchromesh between second and top gears, but not between first and second, so many would have sought, wherever possible, to avoid en route changes down to first. Production, hindered by the diversion of Fords factory to production during the Second World War. Initial sales in Britain actually began in early 1940, production was suspended in early 1942, and resumed in mid-1945. The E04A was also built in Australia from 1940 to 1945 and was produced in tourer and roadster body styles, the former had a rear seat and the latter was a two-seater convertible. The Australian-built Anglia A54A used the chassis and front panels of the English E04A and was offered in 4-door sedan, tourer, coupe utility, the 8HP 933cc engine was used and all models featured running boards. Three different types of radiator grille were fitted to A54A models, both the original and the revised E04A grilles were used and a third style, unique to the A54A, was introduced in 1948. This featured a centrally placed vertical chrome strip, the 1949 model, code E494A, was a makeover of the previous model with a rather more 1940s style front-end, including the sloped, twin-lobed radiator grille
15.
Morgan Four Seater
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The Morgan Four Seater is a model from the Morgan Motor Company with four full seats but little luggage space. It is a car, with snap-on top and side curtains. The Four-Seater Tourer has been offered since 1937, on the 4-4 chassis and its incarnation as the 4/4 1948-50, the Plus 4, the 4/41600. Currently it is offered as a four-cylinder Plus 4 or with the Ford V-6 engine used in the Morgan Roadster, reportedly only about 50 four-seaters are built per year. The body design had few changes from 1937 until the 1990s when the seat area was redesigned. In the earlier body the rear passengers sat higher than the front ones, in 2006 a body with further redesign was introduced. The changes in the latest body include longer doors for access, improved rear seating
16.
Humber Limited
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Humber Limited was a British manufacturer of bicycles, motorcycles and motor vehicles incorporated and listed on the stock exchange in 1887. It took the name Humber & Co Limited because of the reputation of the products of one of the constituent businesses that had belonged to Thomas Humber. A financial reconstruction in 1899 transferred its business to Humber Limited, from an interest in motor vehicles beginning in 1896, the motor division became much more important than the cycle division and the cycle trade marks were sold to Raleigh in 1932. The motorcycles were withdrawn from sale during the depression of the 1930s, Humber is now a dormant marque for automobiles as well as cycles. Following their involvement in Humber through Hillman in 1928 the Rootes brothers acquired 60 per cent of Humbers ordinary capital, the two Rootes brothers joined the Humber board in 1932 and began to make Humber the holding company for vehicle manufacturing members of what became their Rootes Group. By 1960 annual production was around 200,000 vehicles, previous insistence on Rootes family control, however, may have led to under-capitalisation of the business. Building a brand new car, the Hillman Imp, proved beyond Humber and Rootes Group resources, such was the publics recognition of Humber products and their high quality and reliability the whole new organisation was named Humber & Co Limited though Humbers was not the largest component. Thomas Humber agreed to manage the enterprise with its works in Coventry. He retired in 1892 at the end of his 5-year contract, the directors expressed the greatest interest in the new industry of motor carriages and cycles for which extensive works were to be erected by the monopoly at Levallois Perret. The chairman of the new monopoly was chairman of Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Co, negotiations between the parties were completed by Ernest Terah Hooley. The ambitious new monopoly was not successful, disputes between the partners dragged through the English courts until the turn of the century. A severe economic recession in 1899 then brought about a financial reconstruction, First series production cars In 1896 Humber built a prototype and nine production motorcars in their new Coventry premises. In November 1896 a car was exhibited at the Stanley Cycle Show in London and they are claimed to be the first series production cars made in England. Having now found an engine they were gearing up for production, the first Humber car was produced in 1898 was a three-wheeled tricar. Their first conventional four-wheeled car appeared in 1901, Cars went into production in Beeston near Nottingham as well as Stoke, Coventry but to separate designs. Just as with bicycles Beeston Humber products retained their high quality image, the Beeston works closed in 1908 on the opening of the new works at Stoke. Humbers profit went from £16,500 in 1905 to £106,500 the next year, on 12 March 1908 the new works was officially opened at Stoke, then just outside the city of Coventry. New buildings covered 13.5 acres and allowed for the employment of 5,000 hands, the new works was designed to be capable of producing 150 cars and 1,500 cycles per week
17.
B pillar
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Pillars are the vertical or near vertical supports of a cars window area or greenhouse—designated respectively as the A, B, C or D-pillar, moving from the front to rear, in profile view. The consistent alphabetical designation of a cars pillars provides a reference for design discussion. As an example, rescue teams employ pillar nomenclature to facilitate communication when cutting wrecked vehicles, the B pillars are sometimes referred to as posts. This pillar provides structural support the roof panel and is designed for latching the front door. As the most costly body components to develop or re-tool, a roof and door design are a major factor in meeting safety. Some designs employ slimmer, chamfered windscreen pillars, A pillars, as perhaps the most complex of all the structures on the vehicle, the center or B-pillar may be a multi-layered assembly of various lengths and strengths. Closed vehicles without a B-pillar are widely called hardtops and have available in two or four-door body styles, in sedans, coupes and wagons. Designs without a center or B pillar for roof support behind the front doors offer increased occupant visibility, while in turn requiring underbody strengthening to maintain structural rigidity. In the early 1970s, General Motors broadened their definition of hardtop to include models with a B-pillar although, up to then, thus a two-door hardtop or a three box designed coupé could have its rearmost pillar called the C-pillar even in the absence of a B-pillar. Conversely additional doors, such as on limousines, will create additional B-pillars, the B-pillars are then numbered, B1, B2, and so forth. In addition to the pillar nomenclature derived from viewing an automobile in profile, some cars have a two-part windshield or a split rear window. Posts for quarter windows are not considered a named pillar, automobile design Automotive head-up display Blind spot Driver visibility Quarter glass Art of Automotive C Pillars—flickr photo group created 2005-07-26, webpage accessed 2008-02-10
18.
Barchetta
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A barchetta was originally an Italian style of open two-seater sports car which was built for racing. Weight and wind resistance were kept to a minimum, and any equipment or decoration were sacrificed in order to maximize performance. Although most barchettas were made from the late 1940s through the 1950s, typically handmade in aluminium on a tubular frame, the classic barchetta body is devoid of bumpers and any weather equipment such as a canvas top or sidescreens, and has no provision for luggage. Some barchettas have no windscreen, others, a shallow racing-type screen or aero screen, Classic barchettas either have no doors, in which case entry and exit entails stepping over the side of the car, or very small doors without exterior handles. The name has been associated with the model ever since, the MM in the car’s designation stands for Mille Miglia, the race it won in 1948 and 1949. In 1949 the 166MM barchetta also won the 24 Hours of Le Mans and the Targa Florio and it also won the 1949 Spa 24 Hours. The car’s unadorned, lightweight aluminium body was designed by Carrozzeria Touring’s head of design, motor Trend Classic rated the 166MM barchetta sixth out of the ten greatest Ferraris of all time. The OSCA MT4, a 1452 cc,130 bhp barchetta made by the Maserati brothers, was for eight years the most successful under-1,500 cc sports racing car in the world. Other, even more diminutive OSCA, barchettas were powered by engines of 750 cc and 850 cc. Giovanni Moretti, another designer and manufacturer, ferrari revived the name in 2001 for their 550 Pininfarina Barchetta, which marked Pininfarina’s 70th anniversary. The car was first shown at the 2001 Salon de lAutomobile and 448 examples were built and it is n many ways. the legitimate successor to such legendary open Ferraris as the 166MM. Designed as a roadster for use on roads and not as a full-bred racing car, the 550 Barchetta has a rudimentary convertible top whose mechanism is said to require strength, skill. The top is intended only for use in a sudden downpour. The top doesnt look as if it would survive the sacrilege of an automatic carwash, the list price of the 550 Barchetta was $245,000. The 1995-97 Renault Spider, although mid-engined, was designed very much in the barchetta style, Renault sponsored a one-make race series for it. Despite its name, the 1995-2005 Fiat Barchetta was not a car in the barchetta style or tradition. Red Barchetta is a song by rock band Rush from their album Moving Pictures
19.
Phaeton body
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A phaeton is a style of open automobile or carriage without weather protection. It is a development of the fast, lightweight phaeton carriage. Originally meant to denote a faster and lighter vehicle than a touring car, a popular style of phaeton was the dual cowl phaeton, with a cowl separating the rear passengers from the driver and front passenger. A victoria carriage was easily adaptable to this type of vehicle, phaetons fell from favour when closed cars and convertible body styles became widely available during the 1930s. Convertibles and pillarless hardtops were marketed as phaetons after actual phaetons were phased out, a phaeton differs from a convertible in having no winding or sliding windows in the doors or the body, and no permanent roof, whether rigid or folding. A detachable folding or rigid roof could be added before a drive in preparation for inclement weather and this was mainly temporary and partial relief rather than the more permanent, watertight protection offered by a convertible. As a result, a phaeton was much lighter than the sturdier, since the body was entirely open, it was easy to add or remove an extra row of seating where space had been left in the original construction. The term phaeton had historically described a light, open four-wheeled carriage, when automobiles arrived it was applied to a light two-seater with minimal coachwork. The term was interchangeable with spyder, derived from a form of phaeton carriage known as a spider. However, there were also double phaetons, with two rows of seats, triple phaetons, or even closed phaetons. Eventually, the term became so widely and loosely applied that almost any vehicle with two axles and a row or rows of seats across the body could be called a phaeton. After 1912, American use of the term began to be most closely associated with the triple phaeton body configurations that had room for three seats, whether all three were installed or not. Common usage further evolved to refer to a body with a seating area extended for added leg room or for an extra row of seating. This often gave the vehicle the appearance that it was meant to be chauffeur-operated and this also led to the term phaeton becoming similar to, and eventually interchangeable with, the term touring car. The phaeton and the car were popular up to the 1930s, after which they were supplanted by the convertible. The Willys-Overland Jeepster was the last true phaeton produced by a major US automaker and these were dual-cowl phaetons custom-built on stretched Chrysler Crown Imperial Limousine chassis. After open cars disappeared from the market, manufacturers used the term phaeton to describe cars that resembled the open phaeton or touring car. Buick included a convertible body style in its line during the 1930s that was actually a four-door convertible, as the doors had windows in them
20.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
21.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
22.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
23.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
24.
Pittsburgh Press
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The Pittsburgh Press, published from 1884 to 1992, was a major afternoon daily newspaper in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, US. At one time, the Press was the second largest newspaper in Pennsylvania, for four years starting in 2011, the brand was revived and applied to an afternoon online edition of the Post-Gazette. Originally The Evening Penny Press, the changed to The Pittsburg Press in 1887. The paper referred to the city and its sports teams as Pittsburg until August 1921, in 1923, the Press was acquired by the Scripps-Howard Syndicate. During the 1960s, it entered into a Joint Operating Agreement with the competing Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, the Post-Gazette had previously purchased and merged with the Hearst Corporations Pittsburgh Sun-Telegraph leaving just itself and the much larger Pittsburgh Press. The JOA was to be managed by the Pittsburgh Press owners as the Press had the larger circulation and was the stronger of the two papers. Under the JOA, the Post-Gazette became a 6-day morning paper, and this arrangement was in effect until Scripps began bargaining with the Teamsters union, whose contract with the Press expired in 1991. In return, Scripps received The Monterey County Herald, the sale required a ruling by the U. S. Department of Justice as the JOA was regulated by the Newspaper Preservation Act of 1970. The outcome was a surprise to people in Pittsburgh, as the Press had a much higher profile. Before the 1992 strike, many assumed that the smaller Post-Gazette would cease publication when the JOA expired, the departure of the Press also meant that Scripps was exiting the Pittsburgh market entirely. Block Communications announced on November 14,2011 that it was bringing back the Press in an edition for the afternoon. Although published electronically, the new Press was formatted with a fixed layout replicating that of a printed newspaper. The experiment ended with the issue of September 25,2015, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette current owner of the Press name and present day heir to its archives
25.
Car
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A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
26.
Car classification
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Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
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Microcar
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A microcar is the smallest automobile classification, usually applied to very small cars. Such small cars were referred to as cyclecars until the 1940s. More recent models are called bubble cars due to their bubble-shaped appearance. The definition of a microcar has varied considerably in different countries, since there are usually tax and/or licensing advantages to the classification, multiple restrictions are often imposed, starting with engine size. The Bruce Weiner Microcar Museum says Engine sizes of 700cc and less and 2 doors or less, may have all gears operable in reverse as well as in forward gear such as the Messerschmitt KR200. Fitted with lifting bodywork instead of doors, less than 85 cubic feet/2400 litres interior volume. There are also a variety of trucks, usually of the forward control or van style to provide more cargo room. These might be used for local deliveries on narrow streets where standard small pickup trucks would be inconvenient, a motorised quadricycle is a four-wheeled vehicle that can be registered as a motorcycle. They are analogous to mopeds or light motorcycles rather than cars, consequently, they can be driven by underage drivers or in some cases even without a license, and they are free of car taxes. Their speed is limited to ca.45 km/h either through a speed or power limit. The economy of operating such a car has also often been helped by three-wheeled microcars or cars with very small engines being treated as motorcycles for tax. In some countries, drivers of microcars are exempt from licensing conditions, the microcars may have a special category or may be considered motorcycles and therefore no car driving licence is needed. This assures a certain market among people who do not want to stand for, or who cannot pass an auto drivers licence test. More negatively, at least in Austria, Belgium and France, also, motorized quadricycles may be forbidden from motorways. In some European countries, taxes formerly depended on engine displacement and this has given rise to names of such cars as Citroën 2CV and Renault 4CV. Reduced global warming from carbon dioxide emission has now added to this list. In the UK before October 2000, a person who passed a motorcycle test was automatically granted a full sub-category B1 licence as an additional entitlement with the full Category A licence, since 2000 a provisional car licence has to be requested. Another advantage is the ease of parking, some microcars can be parked perpendicular, where other cars park parallel, or lifted by hand, like a motor scooter, to get into a tight spot
28.
City car
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A city car is a small car designed to be used primarily in urban areas and conurbations. The term is used along with terms for small cars including subcompact in North America. The Euro NCAP calls all small cars superminis, the European Commission refers to A-segment. In Japan, the kei car is a type of small car. The original concept for the city car came about as a result of the market for entry level vehicles in the 1920s and 1930s. The great depression caused the market for large, luxurious vehicles to collapse, as a result, manufactures had no choice but to build small, cheap vehicles that people could afford, similar to early 20th century runabouts. However, these vehicles were not specifically branded as vehicles to use in cities or congested areas and they were purely for use as peoples cars, cars designed to be cheap, sell a large number of units, and put people who had not owned cars on wheels. A number of small, cheap cars were sold before the war, including the 1920s Austin 7, 1930s Fiat 500 Topolino. However, these early microcars werent true city cars, most were designed, built, with the exception of a few examples, these were also not designed for specific use in cities. As the European economy improved, Fiat launched the new 500 in 1957 and in 1959, BMC would introduce its well-known city car, there were other new projects from 1969 through 1972. While many of these cars can be considered city cars today, exceptions are the smaller Fiats, especially the 1957 Fiat 500 and 126. They were in the region of 3.0 metres in length, in the 1970s the Citroën LNA and related three-door Peugeot 104 offered compact city sized cars of around 3.3 m, and the Fiat Panda followed in 1980. In Japan, regulations defining kei cars were established on 8 July 1949, production of compliant vehicles started around 1955–1958 by Daihatsu, Mitsubishi, Subaru, and Suzuki. In the late 1980s, superminis had physically grown so much that many buyers wanted even smaller four-seat cars, combined with an original exterior and interior design, it quickly became a best-seller, although it was not officially imported to right-hand drive markets including the United Kingdom. However, the Fiat Cinquecento, launched towards the end of 1991, was made for right-hand drive markets, in 1996, the Ford Ka was presented with its radical New Edge design. Its egg-shaped body did not leave much room in the rear seats and it was especially popular with British buyers. During the second half of the 1990s, South Korean brands Daewoo and Hyundai introduced their city car entries, both for the Asian and European markets. The Hyundai Atos, launched in 1997, was 3,500 millimetres long and 1,600 millimetres high and its boxy shape provoked mixed reactions
29.
Kei car
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Kei car, K-car, or kei jidōsha, is a Japanese category of small vehicles, including passenger cars, microvans, and pickup trucks. This especially advantaged class of cars was developed to popularize motorization in the postwar era, while successful in Japan, the genre is generally too specialized and too small to be profitable in export markets. The cars feature yellow license plates, earning them the name yellow-plate cars in English-speaking circles, because regulations only restrict physical size and engine displacement, manufacturers have been able to introduce many advanced technologies to the class. As a result, kei cars are available with forced-induction engines, automatic and CV transmissions, front-, rear-, and four-wheel drive, air conditioning, GPS. These standards originated in the following the end of the Second World War. To promote the growth of the car industry, as well as to offer a delivery method to small business and shop owners. Originally limited to a mere 150 cc in 1949, dimensions, in 1955, the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry also set forth goals to develop a national car that was larger than kei cars produced at the time. This goal influenced Japanese automobile manufacturers to determine how best to focus their product development efforts for the kei cars. The small exterior dimensions and engine displacement reflected the driving environment in Japan, power outputs also kept climbing, reaching a peak in the 40 PS Daihatsu Fellow Max SS of July 1970. Sales increased steadily, reaching a peak of 750,000 in 1970, Honda and Mazda withdrew from the contracting passenger kei car market, in 1974 and 1976, respectively, although they both maintained a limited offering of commercial vehicles. Until 31 December 1974, kei cars used smaller license plates than regular cars, as of 1975, kei cars received the medium-sized standard plates. To set them apart from regular-sized cars, the plates were now yellow and black rather than white, sales had been steadily declining, reaching a low-water mark of 150,000 passenger cars in 1975, 80% less than 1970 sales. Many were beginning to doubt the existence of the kei car. The even stricter emissions standards which were to be introduced in 1975 as part of a program of cleaning the air proved problematic for kei car manufacturers. This was particularly hard for Daihatsu and Suzuki, which focused on two-stroke engines, tiny Suzuki was worse off, with the companys entire production consisting of two-stroke kei cars. Daihatsu, though, had both the engineering backing and powerful connections of their owner, Toyota, to aid them in meeting the new requirements. All manufacturers of kei cars were clamoring for relaxing the dimension conditions, in the end, the Japanese legislature relented, increasing the overall length and width restrictions by 200 mm and 100 mm, respectively. Engine size was increased to 550 cc, taking effect from January 1,1976, the new standards were announced on 26 August 1975, leaving very little time for manufacturers to update their offerings
30.
Subcompact car
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A subcompact car is the American term for an automobile with a class size smaller than a compact car, usually not exceeding 165 inches in length, but larger than a microcar. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, a car is classified as subcompact if it has between 85 cubic feet and 99 cu ft of interior volume. The subcompact segment equates roughly to A-segment and B-segment in Europe, or city car, in 2012, the New York Times described the differences, saying today’s small cars actually span three main segments in the global vehicle market. The tiny A-segment cars include the Chevrolet Spark and Smart Fortwo, they’re extremely short and very light. Slightly larger are B-segment cars like the Ford Fiesta and Chevrolet Sonic, the A- and B-cars are known as subcompacts. Previously, cars in this size were variously categorized, including small automobile and this type of car has been around since the 1940s with the Crosley, and in the 1950s with the captive import, the Nash Metropolitan. A number of imported models, notably the Volkswagen Beetle and various small British cars, were marketed as economy cars during this time. The AMC Gremlin was described at its April 1970 introduction as the first American-built import, the Chevrolet Vega and Ford Pinto subcompacts were introduced in September 1970 for the 1971 model year. The Pontiac Astre, the Canadian-born re-badged Vega variant was released in the U. S, the Camaro was scheduled for cancellation, but sales stabilized with the end of the 1970s energy crisis. The Monza with its GM variants Pontiac Sunbird, Buick Skyhawk, Plymouth Turismo, Oldsmobile Starfire, at this time another segment started opening up below Gremlin, Pinto and Vega that became the new subcompact segment. The Chevrolet Chevette was GMs new entry-level subcompact introduced as a 1976 model and it was an Americanized design from Opel, GMs German subsidiary. S. Renault Alliance, a version of the Renault 9, in Kenosha, Wisconsin, during the 1990s GM offered the Geo brand featuring the Suzuki-built Metro subcompact. Because of consumer demand for fuel-efficient cars during the late-2000s, sales of cars made it the fastest growing market category in the U. S. The Ford Fiesta is still only European subcompact car ever offered in North America, and there are even subcompact SUVs like the Jeep Renegade and the Mazda CX-3 Car classification Mini SUV Economy car Official US government car size class definitions
31.
Supermini
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Supermini is a class of automobile larger than a city car but smaller than a small family car. Superminis are usually available in hatchback body styles, the term subcompact car is used for similar cars in North America. The term supermini developed in the U. K. in the 1970s as car manufacturers sought a new design to surpass the influential Mini, launched in 1959, while manufacturers produced new designs, the term was adopted as an informal categorisation. By 1977, the term supermini was used regularly by the British newspaper The Times and that year, two modern superminis - the Ford Fiesta and Vauxhall Chevette - featured among Britains 10 best selling cars. A new British car launch that year was the Chrysler Sunbeam supermini, also selling well were the Fiat 127, Renault 5 and Volkswagen Polo, as well as the Japanese built Datsun Cherry and the Peugeot 206. In October 1984, the Consumers Association used the term in its annual Car Buying Guide and it gave an explanation at the start of a section entitled Small Hatchbacks. It said small hatchbacks were known popularly as superminis and while similar to the Mini they were more spacious inside and this definition made clear that a supermini was something larger than a Mini yet smaller than a typical car of the time. In its 1984 report, it included such cars as the Austin Metro, Vauxhall Nova, the Fiat Uno, launched during the first half of 1983, was widely praised for its high roof which set new standards for interior space and practicality in this size of car. The Peugeot 205, also launched in 1983, won plaudits for its styling and excellent ride. By the mid-80s, the term had become established as a car classification term. After the arrival of the hugely popular Fiat Uno and Peugeot 205 in 1983, launched as replacement for the strong-selling, long-running Renault 5. The Fiat Punto, which replaced the Uno at the beginning of 1994, both the Clio and Punto were European Car of the Year award winners. The Peugeot 205 was gradually phased out following the launch of the smaller 106 in 1991 and the larger 306 in 1993, finally ceasing production in 1998 on the launch of the Peugeot 206. The Mk2 Nissan Micra, built by the Japanese carmaker at its facility near Sunderland. The Fiat 500, launched in 2007 on the 50th anniversary of the original model, a-segment C-segment Economy car Kei car Micro car / Bubble car Mini MPV Mini SUV Vehicle size class
32.
Family car
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A family car is a car classification used in Europe to describe normally-sized cars. The name comes from the suitability of these cars to carry a whole family locally or on vacations, most family cars are hatchbacks or sedans, although there are MPVs, estates and cabriolets with the same structure as with the other body style. The term covers two types of family cars, small family cars are between 4.30 m and 4.45 m long if they are hatchbacks, or between 4.40 m and 4.70 m if they are saloon or estate models. Since the 1990s there have been multi-purpose vehicle based on them, called compact MPVs like the Citroën C4 Picasso/Xsara Picasso and the Renault Scénic. Large family cars were usually around 4.50 m in length by the early 1990s, examples of large family cars include the Ford Mondeo, Opel/Vauxhall Insignia, Peugeot 508, and Volkswagen Passat. Large family cars can also be such as the Citroen C5, Honda Accord, Mazda6, Mitsubishi Galant. Equivalently sized cars in North America are usually called mid-size cars, examples of cars in that class include the Ford Fusion, Chevrolet Malibu and the Toyota Camry
33.
Compact car
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The dimension standards are absolute, meaning special consideration is not made for SUVs, CUVs, minivans, station wagons or hatchbacks. Compact car is a largely North American term denoting an automobile smaller than a mid-size car, Compact cars usually have wheelbases between 100 inches and 109 inches. The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines a car as measuring between 100 cubic feet and 109 cubic feet of combined passenger and cargo volume capacity. Vehicle class size is defined in the U. S. by environmental laws in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40—Protection of Environment, Section 600. 315-82 Classes of comparable automobiles. Passenger car classes are defined based on interior volume index or seating capacity, in the United States, the compact car segment currently holds a 16% share of the market. This segment is dominated by import models, one of the first truly small cars on the U. S. market, in the sense that it was considerably smaller than the standard- size cars of its day, was the Austin Bantam that appeared in 1930. Production of the British-based city car lasted only four years with a total of 20,000 units, although other little cars such as the Crosley focused on low price and economy, Americans did not take easily to small cars. The U. S. market after World-War II experienced growth in sales in standard-sized cars, by 1947, Chevrolet had prototypes of the Cadet, an economy car developed by Earle S. MacPherson. Ford also experimented with a car and, unlike Chevrolets Cadet, production ensued for the European market as a large car. In 1950, Nash introduced a convertible Rambler model and it was built on a 100-inch wheelbase to which a station wagon, hardtop, and sedan versions were added. Compared to European standards, they were large, conceived by George W. Mason, the term compact was coined by George W. Romney as a euphemism for small cars with a wheelbase of 110 inches or less. The Nash Rambler established a new segment, it became known as Americas first small car. Several competitors to the Nash Rambler arose from the ranks of Americas other independent automakers, other early compact cars included the Henry J from Kaiser-Frazer, as well as the Willys Aero and the Hudson Jet. In 1952, Ford Division assistant general manager Robert S. McNamara started the Market Research Unit, in 1954,64,500 of over 5 million cars sold in the United States were imports or small American cars. Ford alone sold over 1.4 million big cars, yet 5 percent of those surveyed said they would consider a small car. These models also gave rise to compact vans that were sized similarly to the Volkswagen Type 2 microbus and were based from the Falcon, Corvair, and Valiant automobile platforms. Ford Division marketing research manager George Brown said smaller cars appealed to people with a college education, the cars had to offer not only high gas mileage but also headroom, legroom, and plenty of trunk space. Within a few years after that, the compacts had given rise to a new class called the car, named after the Ford Mustang
34.
Mid-size car
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A mid-size car is the North American/Australian standard for an automobile with a size equal to or greater than that of a compact. In Europe mid-sizers are referred to as D-segment or large family cars, the automobile that defined this size in the United States was the Rambler Six that was introduced in 1956, although it was called compact car at that time. The mid-size class then grew out of the compacts of the early-1960s, for example, the Ford Fairlane was referred to at its introduction in 1962 as a compact intermediate because it was barely bigger than its close relative, the Falcon. General Motors first entries in the class, such as the Oldsmobile F-85, Pontiac Tempest, and Buick Special were not mechanically related to the compact Chevrolet Corvair, at that time vehicle classes were defined more by their wheelbase than interior passenger space and cargo capacity. The class began to rapidly, and for the next ten years each expansion in size in the full-size field was followed by a proportionate growth in the mid-size models. By the mid-1960s, they were as big as the cars of the mid-1950s. By the mid-1970s, they were nearly as big as the cars of the mid-1960s. During the 1970s, the class was generally defined as vehicles with wheelbases between 112 inches and 118 inches. A turning point occurred in the late 1970s, when rising costs and government fuel economy regulations caused all car classes to shrink. Automakers moved previously full-size nameplates to smaller platforms, new official size designations in the U. S. were introduced by the EPA, which defined market segments by passenger and cargo space. Formerly mid-sized cars that were built on the platform, like the AMC Matador sedan, had a combined passenger and cargo volume of 130 cubic feet. The situation was complicated when General Motors began to downsize its models about two years before everybody else, in 1978, the Chevrolet Malibu nameplate had been redesigned on a 108-inch wheelbase, while the Ford Granada moved to the 105-inch wheelbase of the Ford Fairmonts Fox platform in 1981. Both competed with the Chrysler standard and extended K-cars, often classified as compact, former mid-size platforms such as the Plymouth Satellite would be rebranded as full-size, rebodied, or dropped in the face of the downsized Chevrolet Caprice. Some were subsequently replaced by used to be large compacts. The Granada would be badged with the LTD moniker before being replaced by the class-defining Ford Taurus, similarly, import models such as the Honda Accord and Toyota Camry that had been classified by the EPA as compact in 1985 grew to the mid-size class by the 1990s. The Accord later grew even larger, its eighth North American sedan version was classified by the EPA as a full-size car, the current ninth generation North American sedan was slightly smaller than its immediate predecessor, putting it once again in the mid-size class. Mid-size vehicles today usually have wheelbases between 105 inches and 110 inches, another widely used definition is that of the EPA, which classifies cars between 110 cubic feet and 119 cubic feet of interior volume as mid-size. Mid-size cars are the most popular category of cars sold in the United States, in Japan, the term mid-size car probably does not have the intermediate sense that it does in other markets
35.
Full-size car
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A full-size car is a marketing term used in North America for an automobile larger than a mid-size car. Traditional U. S. full-size passenger cars were designed to be comfortable for six occupants, the United States Environmental Protection Agency currently uses the term large car to denote full-size cars based on their combined interior passenger and luggage volume. The traditional full-size passenger cars that were built by the U. S. Full-size cars were also denoted for their length, nearing 4,953 mm in basic low-priced, family sedans. The luxury models often tended to reach 5,350 mm. Previously, the term first appeared in the early 1960s to distinguish what also became known as standard-size cars from the new compact and intermediate models then being introduced. The U. S. EPA defines large size as 120 ft³ or more of combined passenger, a majority of U. S. automakers manufactured full size automobiles were constructed using a body-on-frame platform. This platform was phased out in 2011 when the Ford Panther vehicles ended production, use of the term in North America became popular after the introduction of compacts by the U. S. Detroit Big Three for the 1960 model year, and then a few years later the introduction of what became known as mid-size cars. The term was most correctly applied to close to the width limit carrying nameplates of The Low Priced Three, Chevrolet, Ford. Manufacturers contributed to the lack of distinction by marketing models of their brands into the lower price ranges with what had previously been considered medium-priced brands. For 1977, General Motors downsized its cars, with overall width cut from approximately 80 in to the mid-70 inch range. Chevrolet, Pontiac, and the less expensive Oldsmobile and Buick models had a 116-inch wheelbase, more expensive Oldsmobile and Buick models, plus the Cadillac had a 119 in wheelbase, but no more width. Ford and Chrysler downsized for 1979, the latter even building its Chrysler R platform, by this time, a huge increase in gasoline prices had made it difficult to sell any large cars, downsized or not. Chrysler had the misfortune of introducing two consecutive new designs of its largest cars, in 1974 and 1979, during times when gasoline prices suddenly increased. The EPA interior volumes for passenger and cargo for the most part resulted in mid-size, full-size, the 1980s Chrysler M platform, classified as large cars at the time, were derived from the Dodge Aspen/Plymouth Volare platform, originally marketed as large compacts. While many modern cars are referred to as full-size, they do not qualify for the term as used in the 1960s and 1970s. Consumer acceptance of large SUVs approaching 80 inches in width shows interest remains in vehicles capable of seating with reasonable comfort. Police cars in the United States are almost always full-size cars and this is usually due to the amount of interior space for an arrestee as well as trunk volume for computer and electrical equipment. Interior space and trunk volume also make such vehicles popular for taxi use, since the discontinuation of the Ford Crown Victoria Police Interceptor the de facto replacement has been a variation of the Ford Taurus
36.
Custom car
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Although the two are related, custom cars are distinct from hot rods. The extent of this difference has been the subject of debate among customizers and rodders for decades, additionally, a street rod can be considered a custom. A development of hot rodding, the change in name corresponded to the change in the design of the cars being modified, the first hot rods were pre-World War II cars, with running boards and simple fenders over the wheels. Early model cars were modified by removing the running boards and either removing the fenders entirely or replacing them with very light cycle fenders, later models usually had fender skirts installed. The firm was started by ex-employees of Howard Dutch Darrin, who had designed, strother MacMinn called the Yankee Doodle Roadster by Coachcraft the “first American custom sports car. Engine swaps were done, the object of which was to put the most powerful engine in the lightest possible frame, initially this involved lowering the rear end as much as possible with the use of lowering blocks on the rear springs. Later cars were given a job either adding a dropped front axle or heating front coil springs to make the front end of the car much lower than the rear. Much later some hot rods and custom cars swapped the old solid rear axle for an independent rear axle, sometimes the grille of one make of car replaced by another, the 1937 Buick grille was often used on a Ford. In the 1950s and 1960s, the swap of choice was the 1953 De Soto. With the change in design to encase the wheels in fenders and to extend the hood to the full width of the car. In addition, there was tremendous automotive advertising and subsequent public interest in the new models in the 1950s. Hence custom cars came into existence, swapping headlamp rings, grilles, bumpers, chrome side strips, and tail lights, as well as frenching and tunnelling head- and taillights. The bodies of the cars were changed by cutting through the metal, removing bits to make the car lower, welding it back together. By this means, chopping made the lower, sectioning made the body thinner from top to bottom. Channeling was cutting notches in the floorpan where the body touches the frame to lower the whole body, fins were often added from other cars, or made up from sheet steel. In the custom car culture, someone who changed the appearance without also substantially improving the performance was looked down upon. More recently, Juxtapoz Magazine, founded by the artist Robert Williams, has covered Kustom Kulture art, Custom cars are distinct from cars in stock condition. Builders may adopt the visual and performance characteristics of some relevant modification styles, there are now several different custom themes, including, Rat rod, imitates the unfinished and amateur-built appearance of hot rods of the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s Restomod - restored and modernized
37.
Hot rod
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Hot rods are typically old, classic American cars with large engines modified for linear speed. The origin of the hot rod is unclear. Some automotive historians say that the term originated with stolen vehicles being refitted with another engine, in the early days of automobile manufacturing there was no identical matching transmission, body frame, and engine numbers. It was possible to change engines and repaint the car or truck and in turn it into a different vehicle. The term hot was equivalent to being stolen, the term rod was equivalent to any motorized vehicle. Another possible origin includes replacement of the camshaft with a new version, roadsters were the cars of choice because they were light, easy to modify, and inexpensive. The term became commonplace in the 1930s or 1940s as the name of a car that had been hopped up by modifying the engine for higher performance, a term common in the early days was gow job. This has fallen into disuse except with historians, the term has broadened to apply to other items that are modified for a particular purpose, such as hot-rodded amplifier. The activity increased in popularity after World War II, particularly in California, many cars were prepared by bootleggers in response to Prohibition to enable them to avoid revenue agents, some police vehicles were also modified in response. The first hot rods were old cars, modified to reduce weight, speedster was a common name for the modified car. Wheels and tires were changed for improved traction and handling, Hot rod was sometimes a term used in the 1950s as a derogatory term for any car that did not fit into the mainstream. Hot rodders modifications were considered to improve the appearance as well, engine swaps often involved fitting the Ford flathead engine, or flatty, in a different chassis, the 60 horse in a Jeep was a popular choice in the 40s. In the 1950s, the block was often fitted with crankshafts of up to 4.125 in stroke. In addition, rodders in the 1950s routinely bored them out by 0.1875 in, due to the tendency of blocks to crack as a result of overheating, a perennial problem, in the 50s and 60s, the flatty was supplanted by the early hemi. By the 1970s, the small-block Chevy was the most common option, and since the 80s, after World War II there were many small military airports throughout the country that were either abandoned or rarely used that allowed hot rodders across the country to race on marked courses. Originally drag racing had tracks as long as one mile or more, as hot rodding became more popular in the 1950s, magazines and associations catering to hot rodders were started. These were led by Honk. and Car Craft, as some hot rodders also raced on the street, a need arose for an organization to promote safety, and to provide venues for safe racing. Hot rodders including Wally Parks created the National Hot Rod Association to bring racing off the streets and they created rules based on safety and entertainment, and allowed Hot Rodders of any caliber the ability to race
38.
Lead sled
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Auto body repair used to be achieved through the application of molten lead to damaged body panels, and the same techniques were adapted for aftermarket cosmetic modifications. Channeled, cutting the underside of the body to lower the body on the frame. French/Frenched/Frenching, recessing headlights, tail lights, license plates and radio antennas into the body for an exotic look, emblem removal, all original manufacturers emblems were removed as these were considered to detract from the vehicle. The thought was anything that produces a hiccup, a bulge or extrudes from the body is not aerodynamic, the object of the master craftsman is to make the body as smooth, sleek, and sexy as possible. Trim removal, all trim was removed as these dressings detracted from the lines of the car. Drip rail removal, rain drip rails were removed from the roof as they detracted from the smoothness of the vehicle, door handle and door lock removal, door handles and door locks were removed because these parts detracted from the smoothness of the vehicle. Electric solenoids and switches were installed in parts of the body, typically underneath the rocker panels. The entire process of removing badges, trim, and doorhandles was referred to as shaving, grill modifications, the original grill was heavily modified, or substituted with the grill from a completely different make, model, and year car. In the late 1940s and 1950s, plastic body filler and fiberglass did not exist, instead, bar lead was used as a body filler. A true craftsman pulled and pushed out dents with body spoons, hammers, any sheet metal that was still slightly wavy, the bodyman heated bars of lead and flowed the lead onto the body with an oxygen-acetylene torch similar to work done by a tin smith. The bars of lead were what we today call “solder” but were not the material we are familiar with today. The lead bars or strips ranged anywhere from a quarter of an inch to one inch in width, Lead craftsman call the process of melting the lead “running lead” and this is a highly specialized ancient trade passed from a master craftsman to an apprentice. An apprentice bodyman typically would remove the part from the car. In contrast, the master craftsman could control the heat of the lead in a position without having to remove the body part. An apprentice bodyman most likely would have to grind and hand file the lead to a finish for repainting. The master craftsman on the hand did not have to grind and only had to hand file. The true craftsman controlled the flow of lead with his torch, “Lead” referred to the body material used and the extra weight added by the repair material. Sled” referred to the lowering of the vehicle, giving these vehicles the appearance that they were “slip sliding” down the highway, as time progressed, plastics such as Bondo were introduced to the market
39.
Lowrider
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A lowrider is a class or style of customized vehicle. Given these specific characteristics, it is important to note that while a lowrider is always a lowered car, the term is used to describe a class of vehicle, not simply the height from ground to chassis. The term lowrider can also refer to the driver of the car and it began in the Mexican-American Barrios of Los Angeles California in the mid-to-late 1940s and during the post-war prosperity of the 1950s. Initially, some youths would place sandbags in the trunk of their cars in order to create a lowered effect. This method was replaced by lowering blocks, cut spring coils, z’ed frames, the aim of the lowriders is to cruise as slowly as possible, Low and Slow being their motto. In 1959, a customizer named Ron Aguirre developed a way of bypassing the law with the use of hydraulic Pesco pumps, the following year saw the emergence of the Chevrolet Impala, which featured an X-shaped frame that was perfectly suited for lowering and modification with hydraulics. Between 1960 and 1975, customizers adapted and refined GM X-frames, hydraulics, today, the lowriding scene is diverse with many different participating cultures, vehicle makes and visual styles. Essentially all the options available to todays custom automobile creator are also available to the lowrider builder, and lowrider style varies greatly from region to region
40.
T-bucket
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A T-bucket is a hot rod, based on a Ford Model T of the 1915 to 1927 era, but extensively modified. Model Ts were hot-rodded and customized from the 1920s on, and this car was named Lightning Bug, better known as the Kookie Kar, after being redesigned by Grabowski and appearing in the TV show 77 Sunset Strip, driven by character Gerald Kookie Kookson. The exposure it gained led to numerous copies being built, a genuine T-bucket has the two-seater body of a Model T roadster, this bucket-shaped body shell giving the cars their name. A Model T-style radiator is fitted, and even these can sometimes be barely up to the task of cooling the large engines fitted. Windshields, when fitted, are vertical glass like the original Model T. Today, T-buckets remain common. They generally feature an engine for the size and weight of the car, generally a V8, along with tough drivetrains to handle the power. The front wheels are much narrower than the rear wheels. Since the last Model Ts were built in 1927, most modern T-buckets use replica fiberglass bodies, of the only two or three bodies built by Diablo, one was purchased by Southern California hot rod builder Buzz Pitzen and became the worlds first fiberglass T-bucket. Most are built purely for street or show use, and the big engines are more for show than for need — many are more powerful than the vehicles can make use of. Although the body shell is original in appearance, engines of a variety of makes are commonly used. The small-block Chevrolet is a choice, since it is relatively small, light, easy to obtain and to improve. Four-cylinder engines are also, especially if the car is used regularly. Many install blowers on their engines, and people use modern fuel-injected engines
41.
Luxury vehicle
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Luxury vehicle is a marketing term for a vehicle that provides luxury — pleasant or desirable features beyond strict necessity — at increased expense. The term is also broad, highly variable and relative and it is a perceptual, conditional and subjective attribute that may be comprehended differently by different people, What is a luxury car to some. Therefore, automakers differentiate among their product lines in collusion with the car-buying public, while a high price is the most frequent factor, it is styling, engineering, and even public opinion which cars had the highest and lowest status associated with them. Every era in history has had a group of car marques and models that have been expensive to purchase, due to their alleged superiority of their design. Aimed at wealthy buyers, such automobiles might be generically termed luxury cars and this term is also used for unique vehicles produced during an era when luxury was individualistic consideration, and coachwork could be tailored to an owner like a bespoke suit. Although there is literature about specific marques, there is a lack of systematic. Luxury vehicle makers may either be stand-alone companies in their own right, such as BMW and Mercedes-Benz, badge engineering is often used for cost savings, for example, the Lincoln vehicles that are based on Ford platforms or Acura models derived from Honda. Though widely used, the term luxury is broad and highly variable and it is a perceptual, conditional and subjective attribute and may be understood differently by different people, What is a luxury car to some. According to the European Commission, the luxury segment is classified as F-segment. However, the boundaries between the segments are increasingly becoming blurred and diluted as features once exclusive to luxury vehicles become standard equipment on even small cars. ACRISS is a system used by many car rental companies in the US for classifying vehicles. The system includes Luxury and Premium categories, Australia, In Australia, for taxation purposes a luxury car is defined as a passenger car whose value exceeds a certain threshold. France, In France the term voiture de luxe is used, Germany, In Germany the term Upper class is used. Russia, Russian markets use the term representative class vehicle, the classification varies, for instance Consumer Guide Automotive in the U. S. The premium compact segment is targeted at a market of consumers who found the existing entry-level luxury offerings to be too expensive. By offering a smaller, lighter, more fuel-efficient, and less expensive vehicle, premium compacts introduces younger buyers to the luxury marque, in hopes of retaining the coveted customer loyalty. This includes the Acura CSX, Audi A3, Buick Verano, BMW2 Series, BMW i3, Cadillac ELR, Chrysler 200, Lexus CT, Mercedes-Benz CLA-Class, Mercedes-Benz B-Class, Saab 9-2X, and the Volvo V40. Premium compacts compete with well-equipped midsize cars, and with options they overlap much with compact executive cars, Premium compacts may share components with mass market cars from the marques parent company, and/or have less sophisticated platforms compared to upmarket vehicles in the lineup
42.
Compact executive car
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Compact executive car is a car classification term applied to premium cars smaller than executive cars. In European classification, compact cars are part of the D-segment. In North American terms, close equivalents are compact premium car, compact car, entry-level luxury car. Compact executive cars are available in saloon, estate, coupé. During the late-1960s, buyer preferences fragmented the market, moving to intermediates, personal/specialty, increasing fuel prices and competition pushed AMC to exploit special market segments left untended by the giants. In 1978, AMC introduced its new Concord luxury compact represent an upgraded, more luxurious, more comfortable, more silent, more opulent automobile. On March 31st,2016, Tesla revealed a prototype of the Model 3, an electric compact premium car. Cadillac continued its sales leadership in the market by making changes with the market and introduced the 1982 Cadillac Cimarron. Today, automakers are responding to changes in the marketplace and in the mind-set of consumers looking for status on a budget. Traditional luxury car makers are gearing up to small models that will test whether affluent U. S. car buyers are ready to concede that bigger isnt always better. Facing higher fuel costs and traffic, changes are sweeping through the car market. Two of the earliest European compact executives were created by the Nuffield Organization and introduced in 1952 under the MG, the badge engineered Magnette and 4/44 twins had monocoque construction. Another monocoque compact executive was the Austin Cambridge which was brought to the market in 1954, BMC offered larger Battista Farina designed saloons in 1959, which included the all-new Austin Cambridge Mk. III, Morris Oxford Series V, Riley 4/68-4/72 and Wolseley 15/60-16/60 derivatives, other British compact executive contenders included the 1955 Hillman Minx, Singer Gazelle and sportier Sunbeam Rapier triplets from the Rootes Group. After Leyland bought the Standard-Triumph company, the Standard name was discontinued in 1963 in favour of the more saleable Triumph brand, in 1965 Leyland introduced the Triumph 1300 which was their first front-wheel drive vehicle. This evolved into the Triumph 1500 before being re-engineered for rear-wheel drive for the 1970 Triumph Toledo, the latter was fitted with a 16v, SOHC engine and is considered the worlds first mass-produced multi-valve car. By the time the Austin-Rover group formed in 1983, the Austin Montego - which was available in sporting MG Montego guise - was about to be launched. Like the later Rover 600, Austin marketed the Montego as both a family and a car and correspondingly made it available with luxurious Vanden Plas trim
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Executive car
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Executive car is a British term for an automobile larger than a large family car. In official use, the term is adopted by Euro NCAP, the term was coined in the 1960s to describe cars targeted at successful professionals and middle-to-senior managers. It was often a car but retained enough performance and comfort to be desirable to private motorists. Early executive cars typically offered engines of between 2.0 and 3.5 litres in size, compared with 1.6 to 2.4 litres of a family car. One of the earliest modern executive cars was introduced by Jaguar Cars in 1955 and its retrospectively known as the Mark 1 but was sold as the 2.4 Litre and 3.4 Litre. The unitary construction Mark 1 evolved into the Mark 2 and was offered with a larger 3.8 litre engine, the Jaguar S-Type and Jaguar 420 were derived from this model. This was replaced by the avant-garde XF in 2007 which is currently in its second generation. Daimler created ultra-luxurious versions of both the Jaguar Mark 2, called the Daimler 2.5 V8 and later Daimler V8-250, the executive car market was further defined in the 1960s with sporty, upmarket mid-size saloons appearing from numerous brands. In 1962 Rover previewed the innovative 2000, later available as 2200 and 3500 models, in 1963 Triumph debuted their own 2000, later expanded to 2500, which competed head-on with the Rover even when both companies became subsidiaries of British Leyland in 1968. Both cars were successful and dominated executive car sales in Britain. These cars offered the sophistication expected of a car but in a smaller. Luxurious trim, an engine and automatic transmission were available to give the cars an upmarket positioning. They were replaced in 1981 by a car with a hatchback body. The Princess and Ambassador were closer in spirit to the FWD Renault 20/30 than their in-house rivals, in the 1970s Rover replaced the P6 with the larger SD1, marketed as either 2000,2300,2600,3500 or 2400 D, depending on engine size. It was this car that was converted to the Standard 2000 in India long after Rover replaced the SD1 with the front-wheel drive Rover 800. Rovers last executive car, the 75, appeared in 1998, ford identified some of the higher-equipped Cortina models as Executives. An example of Fords executive car of the 1970s and 1980s was the Granada, larger Vauxhall models from the VX4/90 and Ventora through to the Carlton firmly fitted into this category. In the twenty-first century it is German executive models like the BMW 5-Series which are the biggest sellers in the car market
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Personal luxury car
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A personal luxury car is an American car classification describing a highly styled, mass produced, luxury vehicle with an emphasis on image over practicality. In the U. S. the four-seat 1958 Ford Thunderbird launched the luxury car as a major market segment. Personal luxury cars are characteristically two-door coupés or convertibles with two-passenger or 2+2 seating and they are distinguished on the performance end from GT and sports cars by their greater emphasis on comfort and convenience. On the luxury scale, by their appointments, features, and style, there is great variability within the market, however, however, they have additional styling elements and sometimes baroque designs. During the 1910s, the car took the form of a low-slung runabout, relatively light in construction. In the Twenties, these runabouts became roadsters, still with the light-but-powerful connotation, in the ultra-luxury segment, antecedents of the concept are the highly expensive, often custom-bodied sporting luxury cars of the 1920s and 1930s. The Great Depression and World War II temporarily eroded the market for these expensive bespoke cars before post-War recovery saw a reemergence in Europe. On the sedate end of the spectrum appeared such erect yet swift premium ultra luxury two-door sedans, such as the H. J. Mulliner bodied, on the other, performance oriented GTs, relatively comfortable low-slung cars intended for high-speed, long-distance travel. France, successful in this segment before the war, chose to exit the market by applying strict tax horsepower regulations. Italian marques such as Ferrari and Maserati took the GT lead, offering distinctive, often custom-bodied two-seat, in between could be found such combinations of luxury and performance as the Mercedes-Benz 300SL and 190SL, BMW507, Alfa Romeo 1900 Sprint, and DKW 1000Sp. These were all very high price Veblen goods, GMs Buick division also offered the Roadmaster Riviera coupe as its top level luxury coupe in 1954. Packard introduced a large 2-door luxury coupe called the Packard Caribbean in 1953, in 1955, Chrysler introduced the 300 series 2-door coupe, with a powerful 300bhp engine, giving the car its name. There was a car aimed at this market as well - the 1956 Studebaker Silver Hawk range of two-door 2+2 performance hardtops in the GT tradition. The automaker Studebaker ceased operations in 1963, the first step to the evolution of the personal luxury car as a mass market segment in the United States was Ford Motor Companys two-seat 1955 Thunderbird. Ford termed the 1955 model a personal car, during the Second World War American servicemen stationed in Europe began to experience the benefits of the nimble sports cars, particularly in Britain, and many shipped them home on their return. The Thunderbird was a softly sprung car, with a powerful V8 engine, the model sold 53,000 units, achieving niche success for a two-seat car. Ford Motor Company also tried creating a vehicle with the 1955 introduction of the near bespoke Continental Mark II. The Mark II was only available as a 2 door coupé, nearly handmade, the Mark II sold for around $10,000, the equivalent of a new Rolls-Royce or two Cadillacs
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Minivan
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A minivan is a vehicle designed primarily for passengers, with two or three rows of seating accessed via large doors. In international markets, the minivan is classified as multi-purpose vehicle or people carrier, in North America, the term minivan derives from the size comparison to traditional full-size vans. Full-size vans derived their underpinnings upon full-size pickup trucks, while the first generation of minivans sold in North America derived from either compact pickup trucks or passenger cars. Predecessors include the 1936 Stout Scarab, which featured a removable table, the DKW Schnellaster, manufactured from 1949 to 1962 was one of the first vehicles to feature the characteristics of modern minivans. In 1950, the Volkswagen Type 2 adapted a bus-shaped body to the compact Volkswagen Beetle, Fiat built a similar vehicle, the 1956 Multipla based on the Fiat 600 with the same cab over engine and door layout. In 1972, designers at Ford Motor Company developed the Ford Carousel prototype as a variant of the redesign of the 1975 Ford E-Series. The vehicle was never produced, due to the fuel crisis. Nearly a decade later, the concept was revisited by designers, in the late 1970s Chrysler began a six-year development program to design a small affordable van that looked and handled more like a car. The automaker introduced the first modern minivans in 1983, the front-wheel-drive Dodge Caravan, in Taiwan, the Taiwanese market features the Luxgen M7. BYD M6 is the choice of minivan in China. The Japanese market has had the Mazda Bongo since 1966 and more recently includes the Toyota Alphard, the Nissan Elgrand, in South Korea, minivans include the Kia Carnival and SsangYong Rodius. The Buick GL8 is produced and sold since 2000 in China under the Buick brand name by SAIC-GM, for the 1984 model year, the Chrysler minivans arrived on the market to great success. The minivan replaced the station wagon as the passenger car of choice in the US. In 1987 Chrysler introduced the extended-length minivans, the Chrysler Town & Country debuted in 1990. The term minivan came into use in North America in contrast to full-size vans, the minivans market share peaked in 2000 with sales of 1.4 million units in US. This shrank to half a million in 2013. In 2014, sales of minivans in America increased 6% over 2013, the remaining 6% of the segment is shared largely by the Ford Transit Connect, Kia Sedona, Mazda 5, and Nissan Quest. Toyota, former models included the Van/Wagon from 1984 to 1989, General Motors, former models included the Chevrolet Astro/GMC Safari from 1985 to 2005, a rear-wheel drive minivan based on light trucks
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Compact MPV
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A compact MPV is a car classification used in Europe to describe multi-purpose vehicle versions of small family cars, fitting between the mini MPV and large MPV sub-segments. In Japan, the term space wagon is used to refer to this type of vehicle. Concept cars that many aspects of the compact MPV approach to space effiency in a small footprint include American Motors 1977 Concept 80 AM Van,1978 Lancia Megagamma. The first production vehicle to be described by that term was the Renault Scénic, in Japan, the 1982 Nissan Prairie was introduced featuring many features now associated with the MPV format, along with the Mitsubishi Space Runner in 1991. Examples from Japanese manufacturers were the Toyota Gaia, Nissan Lafesta, some models have an extended version, for example the Citroën Grand C4 Picasso, Ford Grand C-Max, BMW 2-Series Gran Tourer, and Renault Grand Scénic. Most compact MPVs have better flexibility than other styles, for example. Due to the architecture, the bonnet may be shorter. Compact MPVs remain predominantly a European phenomenon, although they are also built, as of 2016, the only MPVs sold widely in the United States are the Kia Rondo and the Ford C-Max. Larger MPVs are referred to as minivan in the U. S. examples are the Hyundai Trajet, Kia Carnival, Mitsubishi Grandis, Ford Galaxy, Volkswagen Sharan and Renault Espace. Generally, compact MPVs are five and seven-seaters — the first, the two rear seats are sometimes smaller than the others, enough for children or for short distances. In some cars, these seats can only carry a limited weight, some compact MPVs referred to as six-seaters have three seats both in the front and rear row — examples are the Fiat Multipla and the Honda FR-V. Many automakers are releasing modified compact MPVs with off-road accessories, either as a level or under a new nameplate. Examples of the first are the Renault Scénic Conquest and Seat Altea Freetrack, in some cases, a compact SUV is released with shared platform and structural and mechanical elements with a compact MPV. The Peugeot 3008 combines the roominess of a MPV to a high ground-clearance or all-wheel-drive Hybrid4 capability
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Mini MPV
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MPV stands for multi-purpose vehicle, although the full name is rarely used. The term Leisure Activity Vehicle is sometimes used for van based MPVs, a mini MPV is generally based on a supermini platform, sharing interiors, engines and specifications with their supermini derivative. Mini MPVs are generally the length as a supermini. Euro NCAP do not differentiate between mini and compact MPVs, classing them all as small MPVs, examples include the Citroën C3 Picasso and its crossover version the Citroën C3 Aircross, Hyundai ix20, Ford B-Max, Fiat Idea, Suzuki Ertiga, Kia Soul and Toyota Avanza. The Renault Kangoo or the Fiat Qubo are two examples of a van-based MPV marketed as a LAV and they have become popular in Europe in the 1990s as a cheaper alternative to car-based MPVs. An early example of the category was the Matra Rancho introduced in 1977 based on a Simca pick-up
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