1.
Irish language
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Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland and it has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. The fate of the language was influenced by the power of the English state in Ireland. Elizabethan officials viewed the use of Irish unfavourably, as being a threat to all things English in Ireland and its decline began under English rule in the 17th century. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was a decrease in the number of speakers. Irish-speaking areas were hit especially hard, by the end of British rule, the language was spoken by less than 15% of the national population. Since then, Irish speakers have been in the minority, efforts have been made by the state, individuals and organisations to preserve, promote and revive the language, but with mixed results. Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates of native speakers ranged from 20,000 to 80,000 people. In the 2011 Census, these numbers had increased to 94,000 and 1.3 million, there are several thousand Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that the active Irish-language scene probably comprises 5 to 10 per cent of Irelands population, there has been a significant increase in the number of urban Irish speakers, particularly in Dublin. In Gaeltacht areas, however, there has been a decline of the use of Irish. Údarás na Gaeltachta predicted that, by 2025, Irish will no longer be the language in any of the designated Gaeltacht areas. Survey data suggest that most Irish people think highly of Irish as a marker of identity. It has also argued that newer urban groups of Irish speakers are a disruptive force in this respect. In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil the name of the language is Gaeilge, before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled Gaedhilge, originally this was the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Irish. Older spellings of this include Gaoidhealg in Classical Irish and Goídelc in Old Irish, the modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge, whereas Goidelic languages, used to refer to the language family including Irish, comes from Old Irish
2.
Ulster Scots dialects
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Ulster Scots or Ulster-Scots, also known as Ullans, generally refers to the dialects of Scots spoken in parts of Ulster in Ireland. Some definitions of Ulster Scots may also include Standard English spoken with an Ulster Scots accent and this is a situation like that of Lowland Scots and Scottish Standard English with words pronounced using the Ulster Scots phonemes closest to those of Standard English. Ulster Scots has been influenced by Hiberno-English, particularly Mid-Ulster English, as a result of the competing influences of English and Scots, varieties of Ulster Scots can be described as more English or more Scots. The earliest Scots writing in Ulster dates from time, and until the late 20th century. While once referred to as Scotch-Irish by several researchers, that has now superseded by the term Ulster Scots. Speakers usually refer to their vernacular as Braid Scots, Scotch or the hamely tongue, occasionally, the term Hiberno-Scots is used, but it is usually used for the ethnic group rather than the vernacular. During the middle of the 20th century, the linguist R. J. Gregg established the boundaries of Ulsters Scots-speaking areas based on information gathered from native speakers. Ulster Scots is spoken in east Antrim, north Down, north-east County Londonderry and it is also spoken in the Laggan district and parts of the Finn Valley in east Donegal and in the south of Inishowen in north Donegal. Other estimates range from 35,000 in Northern Ireland, to a total of 100,000 including the Republic of Ireland. In the 2011 census of Northern Ireland,16,373 people stated that they can speak, read, write and understand Ulster Scots and 140,204 people reported having some ability in Ulster Scots. Enthusiasts such as Philip Robinson, the Ulster-Scots Language Society and supporters of an Ulster-Scots Academy are of the opinion that Ulster Scots is a language in its own right. That position has been criticised by the Ulster-Scots Agency, a BBC report stating, other linguists treat it as a variety of the Scots language, Caroline Macafee, for example, writes that Ulster Scots is clearly a dialect of Central Scots. The Concise Ulster Dictionary writes that Ulster Scots is one dialect of Lowland Scots, the Northern Ireland Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure considers Ulster Scots to be the local variety of the Scots language. It has been said that its status varies between dialect and language, the North/South Co-operation Northern Ireland Order 1999, which gave effect to the implementation bodies incorporated the text of the agreement in its Schedule 1. The Good Friday Agreement recognises Ulster Scots as part of the wealth of the island of Ireland. This reflects the wording used in the St Andrews Agreement to refer to the enhancement and development of the Ulster Scots language, heritage, there is still controversy on the status of Ulster Scots. In the core areas of Scots settlement, Scots outnumbered English settlers by five or six to one, literature from shortly before the end of the unselfconscious tradition at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries is almost identical with contemporary writing from Scotland. W. G. Lyttle, writing in Paddy McQuillans Trip Tae Glesco, uses the typically Scots forms kent and begood, now replaced in Ulster by the more mainstream Anglic forms knew, knowed or knawed and begun
3.
Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
4.
Gaelic Ireland
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Gaelic Ireland was the Gaelic political and social order, and associated culture, that existed in Ireland from the prehistoric era until the early 17th century. Before the Norman invasion of 1169, Gaelic Ireland comprised the whole island, thereafter, it comprised that part of the country not under foreign dominion at a given time. For most of its history, Gaelic Ireland was a hierarchy of territories ruled by a hierarchy of kings or chiefs. Warfare between these territories was common, occasionally, a powerful ruler was acknowledged as High King of Ireland. Society was made up of clans and, like the rest of Europe, was structured according to class. Throughout this period, the economy was mainly pastoral and money not used. A Gaelic Irish style of dress, music, dance, sport, architecture, Gaelic Ireland was initially pagan and had an oral culture. Inscription in the alphabet began in the protohistoric period, perhaps as early as the 1st century. The conversion to Christianity accompanied the introduction of literature, and much of Irelands rich pre-Christian mythology and sophisticated law code were preserved, in the Early Middle Ages, Ireland was an important centre of learning. Irish missionaries and scholars were influential in western Europe, and helped to spread Christianity to much of Britain, in the 9th century, Vikings began raiding and founding settlements along Irelands coasts and waterways, which became its first large towns. Over time, these settlers were assimilated and became the Norse-Gaels, after the Norman invasion of 1169–71, large swathes of Ireland came under the control of Norman lords, leading to centuries of conflict with the native Irish. The King of England claimed sovereignty over this territory – the Lordship of Ireland –, however, the Gaelic system continued in areas outside Anglo-Norman control. The territory under English control gradually shrank to a known as the Pale and, outside this. In 1542, Henry VIII of England declared the Lordship a Kingdom, the English then began to conquer the island. By 1607, Ireland was fully under English control, bringing the old Gaelic political and social order to an end, Gaelic Ireland had a rich oral culture and appreciation of deeper and intellectual pursuits. Filí and draoithe were held in high regard during Pagan times and orally passed down the history, later, many of their spiritual and intellectual tasks were passed on to Christian monks, after said religion prevailed from the 5th century onwards. However, the continued to hold a high position. Poetry, music, storytelling, literature and other art forms were highly prized and cultivated in both pagan and Christian Gaelic Ireland, hospitality, bonds of kinship and the fulfilment of social and ritual responsibilities were highly important
5.
Norman invasion of Ireland
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The Norman invasion of Ireland took place in stages during the late 12th century, at a time when Gaelic Ireland was made up of several kingdoms, with a High King claiming lordship over all. In May 1169, Cambro-Norman mercenaries landed in Ireland at the request of Diarmait Mac Murchada, the ousted King of Leinster, Diarmait and the Normans seized Leinster within weeks and launched raids into neighbouring kingdoms. This military intervention had the backing of King Henry II of England and was authorized by Pope Adrian IV, and there and then the high king stood strong and lay down too led by Richard Strongbow de Clare. By May 1171, Strongbow had assumed control of Leinster and seized the Norse-Irish city kingdoms of Dublin, Waterford and that summer, High King Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair led an Irish counteroffensive against the Normans, but they managed to hold most of their conquered territory. In October 1171, King Henry landed a large Anglo-Norman army in Ireland to establish control over both the Cambro-Normans and the Irish, the Norman lords handed their conquered territory to Henry. He let Strongbow hold Leinster in fief and declared the cities to be crown land, many Irish kings also submitted to him, likely in the hope that he would curb Norman expansion. Henry, however, granted the kingdom of Meath to Hugh de Lacy. After Henrys departure in 1172, Norman expansion and Irish counteroffensives continued, the 1175 Treaty of Windsor acknowledged Henry as overlord of the conquered territory and Ruaidrí as overlord of the rest of Ireland, with Ruaidrí also swearing fealty to Henry. However, the Treaty soon fell apart, the Anglo-Norman lords continued to invade Irish kingdoms, in 1177, Henry adopted a new policy. He declared his son John to be Lord of Ireland and authorized the Norman lords to conquer more land, the territory they held became the Lordship of Ireland and formed part of the Angevin Empire. The largely successful nature of the invasion has been attributed to a number of factors and these include the Normans military superiority and programme of castle-building, the lack of a unified opposition from the Irish, and the Churchs support for Henrys intervention. The Norman invasion was a watershed in the history of Ireland, marking the beginning of more than 700 years of direct English and, later, in the 12th century, Gaelic Ireland was made up of several over-kingdoms, which each comprised several lesser kingdoms. At the top was the High King, who received tribute from the other kings, the five port towns of Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, and Limerick were inhabited by the Norse-Irish and had their own rulers. The Normans had conquered England beginning in 1066, over the following decades, Norman lords conquered much of south Wales and established their own semi-independent lordships there. According to historian John Gillingham, after the Norman conquest, a new imperialist attitude emerged among Englands elite, in September 1155, King Henry II of England held a council at Winchester. According to Robert of Torigni, Henry discussed plans to invade Ireland, however, the plans were put on hold, allegedly due to opposition from his mother, the Empress Matilda. Some of the initiative for invasion may have come from Anglo-Norman church leaders – especially Theobald and that same year, Pope Adrian IV issued the papal bull Laudabiliter, which authorized Henry to conquer Ireland as a means of promoting the Gregorian Reforms in the Irish church. Irish church leaders had legislated for reform, notably at the synods of Cashel, Ráth Breasail, however, implementing the reforms was slow and difficult
6.
Normans in Ireland
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The Normans in Ireland were a group of Normans who invaded the various realms of Gaelic Ireland. They can in many ways be seen as a branch of the Normans in England, some of the Normans became Gaelicised, especially in the West. These Normans nominally owed their position and claims to territory due to the King of England and were closely associated with the Gregorian Reform of the Catholic Church in Ireland. Their fortunes took a dip in the 17th century and much of their caste merged with native Irish Gaels under the denominator of Irish Catholic and this was because a New English Protestant elite had arrived as a new ruling class in Ireland during the Tudor period. Some Normans opted to assimilate with these Anglo-Irish people and their descendants live in Ireland to this day and have spread out through the Irish diaspora, but no longer commonly identify as Norman. Some of the most prominent Norman families were the Burkes, FitzGeralds, one of the most popular Irish surnames, Walsh, derives from Normanised Welshmen who arrived in Ireland as part of this group. Historians disagree about what to call the Normans in Ireland at different times in its existence, Irish historian Edward MacLysaght makes the distinction in his book, Surnames of Ireland, between Hiberno-Norman and Anglo-Norman surnames. This sums up the difference between Queens English Rebels and the Loyal Lieges. The Geraldines of Desmond or the Burkes of Connacht, for instance, the Butlers of Ormond, on the other hand, could not accurately be described as Hiberno-Norman in their political outlook and alliances, especially after they married into the Royal Family. Some contend it is ahistorical to trace a single Old English community back to 1169 as the real Old English community was a product of the sixteenth century in the Pale. Up to that time, the identity of people had been much more fluid, it was the administrations policies which created an oppositional. Brendan Bradshaw, in his study of the poetry of late sixteenth century Tír Chónaill, points out that the Normans were not referred to there as Seanghaill, breandán Ó Buachalla essentially agreed with him, Tom Dunne and Tom Bartlett were less sure. It was noted in 2011 that Irish nationalist politicians elected between 1918 and 2011 could often be distinguished by surname, fine Gael parliamentarians were more likely to bear surnames of Norman origin than those from Fianna Fáil, who had a higher concentration of Gaelic surnames. Many of the Old English were dispossessed in the political and religious conflicts of the 16th and 17th centuries, the Norman community in Ireland was, however, never monolithic. However, in the provinces, the Normans in Ireland, were at times indistinguishable from the surrounding Gaelic lords, such people became regarded as more Irish than the Irish themselves as a result of this process. Beyond the Pale, the term English, if and when it was applied, referred to a layer of landowners and nobility. The division between the Pale and the rest of Ireland was therefore in reality not rigid or impermeable, there was no religious division in medieval Ireland, beyond the requirement that English-born prelates should run the Irish church. To the New English, many of the Old English were degenerate, the poet Edmund Spenser was one of the chief advocates of this view
7.
Manorialism
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Manorialism was an essential element of feudal society. It was the principle of rural economy that originated in the Roman villa system of the Late Roman Empire. It was slowly replaced by the advent of a market economy. These obligations could be payable in several ways, in labor, in kind, or, on rare occasions, in examining the origins of the monastic cloister, Walter Horn found that as a manorial entity the Carolingian monastery. Manorialism died slowly and piecemeal, along with its most vivid feature in the landscape and it outlasted serfdom as it outlasted feudalism, primarily an economic organization, it could maintain a warrior, but it could equally well maintain a capitalist landlord. It could be self-sufficient, yield produce for the market, or it could yield a money rent, the last feudal dues in France were abolished at the French Revolution. In parts of eastern Germany, the Rittergut manors of Junkers remained until World War II, in Quebec, the last feudal rents were paid in 1970 under the modified provisions of the Seigniorial Dues Abolition Act of 1935. The term is most often used with reference to medieval Western Europe, antecedents of the system can be traced to the rural economy of the later Roman Empire. With a declining birthrate and population, labor was the key factor of production, the workers of the land were on their way to becoming serfs. The legal status of adscripti, bound to the soil, contrasted with barbarian foederati, the process of rural self-sufficiency was given an abrupt boost in the eighth century, when normal trade in the Mediterranean Sea was disrupted. The lord held a court, governed by public law. Not all territorial seigneurs were secular, bishops and abbots also held lands that entailed similar obligations, by extension, the word manor is sometimes used in England to mean any home area or territory in which authority is held, often in a police or criminal context. In the generic plan of a manor from Shepherds Historical Atlas. As concerns for privacy increased in the 18th century, manor houses were located a farther distance from the village. In an agrarian society, the conditions of land tenure underlie all social or economic factors, there were two legal systems of pre-manorial landholding. One, the most common, was the system of holding land allodially in full outright ownership, the other was a use of precaria or benefices, in which land was held conditionally. To these two systems, the Carolingian monarchs added a third, the aprisio, which linked manorialism with feudalism and he solved this problem by allotting desert tracts of uncultivated land belonging to the royal fisc under direct control of the emperor. These holdings aprisio entailed specific conditions, the earliest specific aprisio grant that has been identified was at Fontjoncouse, near Narbonne
8.
Plantations of Ireland
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Plantations in 16th- and 17th-century Ireland involved the confiscation of land by the English crown and the colonisation of this land with settlers from the island of Great Britain. They followed smaller-scale immigration to Ireland as far back as the 12th century, unofficial plantations carried out privately by landlords also took place such as that of Antrim and Down. The Crown granted these lands to colonists from England and this process began during the reign of Henry VIII and continued under Mary I and Elizabeth I. It was accelerated under James I, Charles I and Oliver Cromwell, in their time, the early plantations in the 16th century tended to be based on small exemplary colonies. The later plantations were based on mass confiscations of land from Irish landowners and the subsequent importation of numerous settlers and labourers from England and Wales, and later from Scotland. The final official plantations were established under the English Commonwealth and Cromwells Protectorate during the 1650s, apart from the plantations, significant immigration into Ireland continued well into the 18th century, from both Great Britain and continental Europe. The plantations changed the demography of Ireland by creating large communities with a British, the elite of these communities replaced the older Catholic ruling class, which had shared with the general population a common Irish identity and set of political attitudes. The new elite represented both English and Scottish interests in Ireland, the physical and economic nature of Irish society was also changed, as new concepts of ownership, trade and credit were introduced. These changes led to the creation of a Protestant ruling class, the early Plantations of Ireland occurred during the Tudor conquest of Ireland. The Crown government at Dublin intended to pacify and Anglicise the country under English rule, the government intended to develop Ireland as a peaceful and reliable possession, without risk of rebellion or foreign invasion. Wherever the policy of surrender and regrant failed, land was confiscated, to this end, two forms of plantation were adopted in the second half of the 16th century. The first was the plantation, in which small colonies of English would provide model farming communities that the Irish could emulate. One such colony was planted in the late 1560s, at Kerrycurrihy near Cork city, the second form set the trend for future English policy in Ireland. It was punitive in nature, as it provided for the plantation of English settlers on lands confiscated following the suppression of rebellions, the first such scheme was the Plantation of Kings County and Queens County in 1556, naming them after the new Catholic monarchs Philip and Mary respectively. The new county towns were named Philipstown and Maryborough, the OMoore and OConnor clans, which occupied the area, had traditionally raided the English-ruled Pale around Dublin. The Lord Deputy of Ireland, the Earl of Sussex, ordered that they be dispossessed and replaced with an English settlement, however, the plantation was not a great success. The OMoores and OConnors retreated to the hills and bogs and fought an insurgency against the settlement for much of the following 40 years. In 1578, the English finally subdued the displaced OMoore clan by massacring most of their fine at Mullaghmast in Laois, rory Óg Ó Moore, the leader of rebellion in the area, was hunted down and killed later that year
9.
Ordnance Survey Ireland
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Ordnance Survey Ireland is the national mapping agency of Ireland. It was established in 2002 as a body corporate and it is the successor to the former Ordnance Survey of Ireland. It and the Ordnance Survey of Northern Ireland are the successors to the Irish operations of the British Ordnance Survey. OSI is part of the Irish public service, OSI has made modern and historic maps of the state free to view on its website. OSI is headquartered at Mountjoy House in the Phoenix Park in Dublin, Mountjoy House was also the headquarters, until 1922, of the Irish section of the British Ordnance Survey. Under the Ordnance Survey Ireland Act 2001, the Ordnance Survey of Ireland was dissolved and it employs 235 staff in the Phoenix Park and in six regional offices in Cork, Ennis, Kilkenny, Longford, Sligo and Tuam. OSI had sales of €13.3 million in 2012, the board also publishes a series of 1,50000 maps of the entire island known as the Discovery Series and a series of 1,25000 maps of places of interest and the Geology of Ireland. Thomas Colby, the long-serving Director-General of the Ordnance Survey in Great Britain, was the first to suggest that the Ordnance Survey be used to map Ireland. In 1824, a committee was established under the direction of Thomas Spring Rice, MP for Limerick, to oversee the foundation of an Irish Ordnance Survey. Spring Rice believed in the importance of Irish involvement in the process, but was overruled by the Duke of Wellington. Instead, the Irish Ordnance Survey was initially staffed entirely by members of the British Army, the resulting maps portrayed the country in a degree of detail never attempted before, and when the survey of the whole country was completed in 1846, it was a world first. The concrete triangulation posts built on the summits of many Irish mountains can still be seen to this day, the Royal Engineer officers in charge of the operation were Thomas Colby and Lieutenant Thomas Larcom. They were assisted by George Petrie, who headed the Surveys Topographical Department which employed the likes of John ODonovan, captain J. E. Portlock compiled extensive information on agricultural produce and natural history, particularly geology. The total cost of the Irish Survey was £860,000, the original survey was later revisited and revised maps issued on a number of occasions. All of these maps are in the public domain and while the originals can be hard to find. The British Ordnance Survey ceased to map Ireland just before the creation of the Irish Free State in 1922. The new Ordnance Survey of Northern Ireland officially came into existence on 1 January 1922, while the new Ordnance Survey of Ireland came into being slightly later, the OSI was initially part of the Irish Army under the Department of Defence. All staff employed were military personnel until the 1970s, when the first civilian employees were recruited, in more recent times, the Ordnance Survey of Ireland replaced traditional ground surveying with mapping based primarily on aerial photography
10.
Civil parish
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In England, a civil parish is a territorial designation which is the lowest tier of local government below districts and counties, or their combined form, the unitary authority. It is a parish, in contrast to an ecclesiastical parish. A civil parish can range in size from a town with a population of around 80,000 to a single village with fewer than a hundred inhabitants. In a limited number of cases a parish might include a city where city status has been granted by the Monarch. Reflecting this diverse nature, a parish may be known as a town, village. Approximately 35% of the English population live in a civil parish, as of 31 December 2015 there were 10,449 parishes in England. On 1 April 2014, Queens Park became the first civil parish in Greater London, before 2008 their creation was not permitted within a London borough. The division of land into ancient parishes was linked to the system, parishes. The manor was the unit of local administration and justice in the early rural economy. Later the church replaced the court as the rural administrative centre. After the dissolution of the monasteries, the power to levy a rate to fund relief of the poor was conferred on the authorities by the Act for the Relief of the Poor 1601. Both before and after this optional social change, local charities are well-documented, the parish authorities were known as vestries and consisted of all the ratepayers of the parish. As the number of ratepayers of some parishes grew, it increasingly difficult to convene meetings as an open vestry. In some, mostly built up, areas the select vestry took over responsibility from the body of ratepayers. This innovation improved efficiency, but allowed governance by a self-perpetuating elite, by the 18th century, religious membership was becoming more fractured in some places, due for instance to the progress of Methodism. The legitimacy of the parish came into question and the perceived inefficiency. Sanitary districts covered England in 1875 and Ireland three years later, the replacement boards were each entitled to levy their own rate in the parish. The church rate ceased to be levied in many parishes and became voluntary from 1868, the ancient parishes diverged into two distinct systems of parishes during the 19th century
11.
County Tipperary
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County Tipperary is a county in Ireland. Tipperary County Council is the government authority for the county. It is located in the province of Munster, the county is named after the town of Tipperary, and was established in the early thirteenth century, shortly after the Norman invasion of Ireland. The population of the county was 160,441 at the 2016 census. The largest towns are Clonmel, Nenagh and Thurles, Tipperary is the sixth largest of the 32 counties by area and the 12th largest by population. It is the third largest of Munsters 6 counties by size and it is also the largest landlocked county in Ireland. The region is part of the plain of Ireland, but the diverse terrain contains several mountain ranges, the Knockmealdown, the Galtee, the Arra Hills. Most of the county is drained by the River Suir, the part by tributaries of the River Shannon, the eastern part by the River Nore. No part of the county touches the coast, the centre is known as the Golden Vale, a rich pastoral stretch of land in the Suir basin which extends into counties Limerick and Cork. Parishes were delineated after the Down Survey as a subdivision, with multiple townlands per parish. The civil parishes had some use in local taxation and were included on the nineteenth century maps of the Ordnance Survey of Ireland, for poor law purposes, District Electoral Divisions replaced the civil parishes in the mid-nineteenth century. There are 199 civil parishes in the county, townlands are the smallest officially defined geographical divisions in Ireland, there are 3,159 townlands in the county. Following the Norman invasion of Ireland, the Kingdom of Munster was claimed as a lordship, by 1210, the sheriffdom of Munster shired into the shires of Tipperary and Limerick. In 1328, Tipperary was granted to the Earls of Ormond as a county palatine or liberty, the grant excluded church lands such as the archiepiscopal see of Cashel, which formed the separate county of Cross Tipperary. The county was divided again in 1838. When the Local Government Act 1898 established county councils to replace the grand jury for civil functions and their names were changed from Tipperary North/South Riding to North/South Tipperary by the Local Government Act 2001, which redesignated all administrative counties as simply counties. The Local Government Reform Act 2014 has amalgamated the two counties and restored a single county of Tipperary, following the Local Government Reform Act 2014, Tipperary County Council is the local government authority for the county. The authority is a merger of two separate authorities North Tipperary County Council and South Tipperary County Council which operated up until June 2014
12.
Old English
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Old English or Anglo-Saxon is the earliest historical form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers probably in the mid 5th century, Old English developed from a set of Anglo-Frisian or North Sea Germanic dialects originally spoken by Germanic tribes traditionally known as the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. As the Anglo-Saxons became dominant in England, their language replaced the languages of Roman Britain, Common Brittonic, a Celtic language, Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, Mercian, Northumbrian, Kentish and West Saxon. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the standard of the later Old English period, although the dominant forms of Middle. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong Old Norse influence due to Scandinavian rule, Old English is one of the West Germanic languages, and its closest relatives are Old Frisian and Old Saxon. Like other old Germanic languages, it is different from Modern English. Old English grammar is similar to that of modern German, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs have many inflectional endings and forms. The oldest Old English inscriptions were using a runic system. Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the Norman invasion. While indicating that the establishment of dates is a process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections. Perhaps around 85 per cent of Old English words are no longer in use, Old English is a West Germanic language, developing out of Ingvaeonic dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms which became the Kingdom of England and this included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern Scotland, which for several centuries belonged to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. Other parts of the island – Wales and most of Scotland – continued to use Celtic languages, Norse was also widely spoken in the parts of England which fell under Danish law. Anglo-Saxon literacy developed after Christianisation in the late 7th century, the oldest surviving text of Old English literature is Cædmons Hymn, composed between 658 and 680. There is a corpus of runic inscriptions from the 5th to 7th centuries. The Old English Latin alphabet was introduced around the 9th century, with the unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms by Alfred the Great in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the West Saxon dialect. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, a later literary standard, dating from the later 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester, and was followed by such writers as the prolific Ælfric of Eynsham. This form of the language is known as the Winchester standard and it is considered to represent the classical form of Old English
13.
County Antrim
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County Antrim ) is one of six counties that form Northern Ireland and one of the nine counties of the province of Ulster, situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland. Adjoined to the north-east shore of Lough Neagh, the county covers an area of 3,046 square kilometres and has a population of about 618,000, County Antrim has a population density of 203 people per square kilometer /526 people per square mile. The majority of Belfast, the city of Northern Ireland, is in County Antrim. It is currently one of two counties of Ireland to have a majority of the population from a Protestant background, according to the 2001 census. The other is County Down to the south, a large portion of Antrim is hilly, especially in the east, where the highest elevations are attained. The range runs north and south, and, following this direction, the most remarkable cliffs are those formed of perpendicular basaltic columns, extending for many miles, and most strikingly displayed in Fair Head and the celebrated Giants Causeway. From the eastern coast the hills rise instantly but less abruptly, all are somewhat exposed to the easterly winds prevalent in spring. It is partially arable, and supports a small population, islandmagee is a peninsula separating Larne Lough from the North Channel. The valleys of the Bann and Lagan, with the shores of Lough Neagh. These two rivers, both rising in County Down, are the ones of importance. The latter flows to Belfast Lough, the former drains Lough Neagh, the fisheries of the Bann and of Lough Neagh are of value both commercially and to sportsmen, the small town of Toome, at the outflow of the river, being the centre. Immediately below this point lies Lough Beg, the Small Lake, County Antrim has a number of air, rail and sea links. Northern Irelands main airport, Belfast International Airport, at Aldergrove is in County Antrim, Belfast International shares its runways with the Royal Air Force base RAF Aldergrove, which otherwise has its own facilities. It is the fifth-largest regional air cargo centre in the UK, there are regular services to Great Britain, Europe and North America. The region is served by George Best Belfast City Airport, a mile east of Belfast city centre on the County Down side of the city. Two of Northern Irelands main ports are in County Antrim, Larne, ferries sail from Larne Harbour to destinations including Cairnryan and Troon in Scotland, and Fleetwood in England. The Port of Belfast is Northern Irelands principal maritime gateway, serving the Northern Ireland economy and it is a major centre of industry and commerce and has become established as the focus of logistics activity for Northern Ireland. Around two-thirds of Northern Irelands seaborne trade, and a quarter of that for Ireland as a whole, is handled at the port, the population of County Antrim was 615,384 according to recent census information, making it the most populous county in Northern Ireland
14.
Northern Ireland
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Northern Ireland is a constituent unit of the United Kingdom in the north-east of Ireland. It is variously described as a country, province, region, or part of the United Kingdom, Northern Ireland shares a border to the south and west with the Republic of Ireland. In 2011, its population was 1,810,863, constituting about 30% of the total population. Northern Ireland was created in 1921, when Ireland was partitioned between Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland by an act of the British parliament, Northern Ireland has historically been the most industrialised region of Ireland. After declining as a result of the political and social turmoil of the Troubles, its economy has grown significantly since the late 1990s. Unemployment in Northern Ireland peaked at 17. 2% in 1986, dropping to 6. 1% for June–August 2014,58. 2% of those unemployed had been unemployed for over a year. Prominent artists and sports persons from Northern Ireland include Van Morrison, Rory McIlroy, Joey Dunlop, Wayne McCullough, some people from Northern Ireland prefer to identify as Irish while others prefer to identify as British. Cultural links between Northern Ireland, the rest of Ireland, and the rest of the UK are complex, in many sports, the island of Ireland fields a single team, a notable exception being association football. Northern Ireland competes separately at the Commonwealth Games, and people from Northern Ireland may compete for either Great Britain or Ireland at the Olympic Games. The region that is now Northern Ireland was the bedrock of the Irish war of resistance against English programmes of colonialism in the late 16th century, the English-controlled Kingdom of Ireland had been declared by the English king Henry VIII in 1542, but Irish resistance made English control fragmentary. Victories by English forces in war and further Protestant victories in the Williamite War in Ireland toward the close of the 17th century solidified Anglican rule in Ireland. In Northern Ireland, the victories of the Siege of Derry and their intention was to materially disadvantage the Catholic community and, to a lesser extent, the Presbyterian community. In the context of open institutional discrimination, the 18th century saw secret, militant societies develop in communities in the region and act on sectarian tensions in violent attacks. Following this, in an attempt to quell sectarianism and force the removal of discriminatory laws, the new state, formed in 1801, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, was governed from a single government and parliament based in London. Between 1717 and 1775 some 250,000 people from Ulster emigrated to the British North American colonies and it is estimated that there are more than 27 million Scotch-Irish Americans now living in the US. By the close of the century, autonomy for Ireland within the United Kingdom, in 1912, after decades of obstruction from the House of Lords, Home Rule became a near-certainty. A clash between the House of Commons and House of Lords over a controversial budget produced the Parliament Act 1911, which enabled the veto of the Lords to be overturned. The House of Lords veto had been the unionists main guarantee that Home Rule would not be enacted, in 1914, they smuggled thousands of rifles and rounds of ammunition from Imperial Germany for use by the Ulster Volunteers, a paramilitary organisation opposed to the implementation of Home Rule
15.
Inishowen
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Inishowen is a peninsula in County Donegal, Republic of Ireland. It is the largest peninsula on the island of Ireland, Inishowen is a picturesque location with a rich history. The peninsula includes Irelands most northerly point, Malin Head, along with Lagg sand dunes and it is bordered to the north by the Atlantic Ocean, to the east by Lough Foyle, and to the west by Lough Swilly. It is joined at the south to the rest of the island and is mostly in County Donegal in the Republic of Ireland, the peninsula is separated from the rest of Northern Ireland by the River Foyle. After the last ice age the peninsula was an island, other major hills are located in the Malin Head peninsula, as well as the Urris Hills in west Inishowen. Inishowen has several harbours, some of which are used for fishing purposes, including Greencastle, Bunagee. A seasonal ferry service crosses the Foyle, connecting Greencastle with Magilligan in County Londonderry, while another crosses the Swilly, the village of Fahan has a privately built marina. Inch, located in Lough Swilly, is no longer an island, as it has a causeway connecting it to the mainland at Tooban. Lough Swilly is a fjord-like lough, and was of importance for many years to the British Empire as a deep-water harbour. It is also famous as the point of the Flight of the Earls. The outline of this land is plainly visible due to its flatness proving a marked contrast to the mountainous area surrounding it. Predating the formation of County Donegal by centuries, the area was named Inis Eoghain after Eógan mac Néill, son of Niall of the Nine Hostages, whose name was also used for Tyrone. Later, after the decline of the Meic Lochlainn, the chieftainship of Inis Eoghain was usurped by the Ó Dochartaigh clan, Inishowen has many historical monuments, dating back to early settlements, and including the ruins of several castles, and the fort at Grianán Aileach. The ancient Grianán Ailigh fort at Burt was the one seat of the High Kings of Ireland. It was restored in the century, although some damage in recent years has resulted in the partial collapse of the south side wall. Among the main ruins of Inishowen are Carrickabraghey on the Isle of Doagh. In 1196, John de Courcy, an Anglo-Norman knight who had invaded Ulster in 1177, defeated the King of the Cenél Conaill, two years later he returned to devastate Inishowen. However, in subsequent campaigns de Courcy was defeated by the ONeill clan led by their chief Áed Méith, in 1608 Sir Cahir ODoherty, the last Gaelic Lord of Inishowen and a former ally of the Crown, launched ODohertys Rebellion by burning Derry
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County Donegal
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County Donegal is a county of Ireland. It is part of the Border Region of the Republic of Ireland and is in the province of Ulster and it is named after the town of Donegal in the south of the county. Donegal County Council is the council for the county and Lifford serves as the county town. The population of the county is 158,755 according to the 2016 census and it has also been known as Tyrconnell, after the historic territory of the same name. In terms of size and area, it is the largest county in Ulster, uniquely, County Donegal shares a small border with only one other county in the Republic of Ireland – County Leitrim. The greater part of its border is shared with three counties of Northern Ireland, County Londonderry, County Tyrone and County Fermanagh. While Lifford is the county town, Letterkenny is by far the largest town in the county with a population of 19,588, Letterkenny and the nearby city of Derry form the main economic axis of the northwest of Ireland. Indeed, what became the City of Derry was officially part of County Donegal up until 1610, there are two Gaeltacht districts in the west, The Rosses, centred on the town of Dungloe, and Gweedore. Another Gaeltacht district is located in the north-west, Cloughaneely, centred on the town of Falcarragh, the most northerly part of the island of Ireland is the location for three peninsulas of outstanding natural beauty, Inishowen, Fanad and Rosguill. The main population centre of Inishowen, Irelands largest peninsula, is Buncrana, in the east of the county lies the Finn Valley. The Laggan district is centred on the town of Raphoe, according to the 1841 Census, County Donegal had a population of 296,000 people. As a result of famine and emigration, the population had reduced by 41,000 by 1851, by the time of the 1951 Census the population was only 44% of what it had been in 1841. The 2006 Census, undertaken by the States Central Statistics Office, had County Donegals population standing at 147,264, according to the 2011 Census, the countys population had grown to 161,137. It has an indented coastline forming natural sea loughs, of which both Lough Swilly and Lough Foyle are the most notable. The Slieve League cliffs are the sixth-highest sea cliffs in Europe, the climate is temperate and dominated by the Gulf Stream, with warm, damp summers and mild wet winters. Two permanently inhabited islands, Arranmore and Tory Island, lie off the coast, Irelands second longest river, the Erne, enters Donegal Bay near the town of Ballyshannon. The River Erne, along with other Donegal waterways, has been dammed to produce hydroelectric power, the River Foyle separates part of County Donegal from parts of both counties Londonderry and Tyrone. A survey of the marine algae of County Donegal was published in 2003
17.
Moycullen
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Moycullen is a Gaeltacht village in County Galway, Ireland, about 10 km northwest of Galway city. It is near Lough Corrib, on the N59 road to Oughterard and Clifden, moycullen is now a satellite town of Galway with most residents commuting to the city for work, school, and business. It is home to two senior GAA clubs, a club and a basketball club. Most townlands are anglisations of the original Irish-language names
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County Galway
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County Galway is a county in Ireland. In the West of Ireland, it is part of the province of Connacht and is named after the city of Galway, there are several Irish-speaking areas in the west of the county. The population of the county is 258,552 according to the 2016 census, while it is named after the city of Galway, a different authority governs that territory. The county proper is administered by Galway County Council, the first inhabitants in the Galway area arrived over 7000 years ago. Shell middens indicate the existence of people as early as 5000 BC, the county originally comprised several kingdoms and territories which predate the formation of the county. These kingdoms included Aidhne, Uí Maine, Maigh Seóla, Conmhaícne Mara, Soghain, County Galway became an official entity around 1569 AD. In modern times, a number of inhabited islands are administered by the county. With the arrival of Christianity many monasteries were built in the county, monasteries kept written records of events in the area and of its people. These were followed by a number of law-tracts, genealogies, annals, extant manuscripts containing references to Galway include, Nearly 20% of the population of County Galway live in the Gaeltacht. County Galway is home to the largest Gaeltacht Irish-speaking region in Ireland, there are over 48,907 people living within this region which extends from Galway city westwards through Connemara. The region consists of the following Irish speaking areas, Galway City Gaeltacht, Gaeltacht Cois Fharraige, Conamara Theas, Aran Islands, all schools within the Gaeltacht use the Irish language for classroom instruction. There is also a constituent college of NUIG called Acadamh na hOllscolaíochta Gaeilge in Carraroe. Spiddal is the largest town in the region, Galway city is also home to Irelands only Irish-language theatre Taibhdhearc na Gaillimhe. There is a strong Irish-language media presence in this area too, the Aran Islands are also part of the Galway Gaeltacht. There are about 30,000 -40,000 Irish speakers in County Galway, there are 3,006 attending the ten Gaelscoil and three Gaelcholáiste outside of the Galway Gaeltacht. According to the Irish Census 2006 there are 10,788 in the county who identify themselves as being daily Irish speakers outside of the education system. Prior to the enactment of the Local Government Act 2001, the county was a whole despite the presence of two local authorities. Since that time, the administrative re-organisation has reduced the extent of the county by the extent of the area under the jurisdiction of Galway City Council
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Gaeltacht
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Gaeltacht is an Irish-language word used to denote any primarily Irish-speaking region. The boundaries of the Gaeltacht have included a percentage of resident English-speakers since British colonisation. It is now recognised that the Gaeltacht is threatened by serious language decline, research published in 2015 showed that of the 155 electoral divisions in the Gaeltacht, only 21 are communities where Irish is spoken on a daily basis by 67% or more of the population. 67% is regarded by some academics as a point for language survival. In 1926 the official Gaeltacht came into being after the report of the first Gaeltacht Commission Coimisiún na Gaeltachta, the exact boundaries were not defined. The quota at the time was 25%+ Irish-speaking, although in many cases Gaeltacht status was accorded to areas that were weaker than this. The Irish Free State recognised that there were Irish-speaking or semi-Irish-speaking districts in 15 of its 26 counties, in the 1950s another Gaeltacht Commission concluded that the Gaeltacht boundaries were ill-defined. It recommended that the Gaeltacht status admittance of an area be based solely on the strength of the language there, the Gaeltacht districts were initially defined precisely in the 1950s, excluding many areas which had witnessed a decline in the language. This left Gaeltacht areas in seven of the states 26 counties and this would threaten the future of the Gaeltacht. Parents felt that the educational system cancelled their efforts to pass on Irish as a language to their children. The study added that a significant number of Gaeltacht schools had switched to teaching through English, in 2002 the third Coimisiún na Gaeltachta stated in its report that the erosion of Irish in the Gaeltacht was now such that it was only a matter of time before the Gaeltacht disappeared. In some areas Irish had already ceased to be a community language, even in the strongest Gaeltacht areas, current patterns of bilingualism were leading to the dominance of English. Policies implemented by the State and voluntary groups were having no effect, a new language reinforcement strategy was required, one that had the confidence of the community itself. The Commission recommended, among other things, that the boundaries of the official Gaeltacht should be redrawn. It also recommended a comprehensive study to assess the vitality of the Irish language in the remaining Gaeltacht districts. The study was undertaken by Acadamh na hOllscolaíochta Gaeilge, and on 1 November 2007 Staidéar Cuimsitheach Teangeolaíoch ar Úsáid na Gaeilge sa Ghaeltacht appeared, in response to this situation, the government introduced the Gaeltacht Bill 2012. Its stated aim was to provide for a new definition of based on language criteria. This status could only be revoked if the area failed to prepare a language plan, the Bill was also criticised for placing all responsibility for the maintenance of Irish on voluntary organisations, with no increase in resources
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County Cavan
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County Cavan is a county in Ireland. It is in the province of Ulster and is part of the Border Region and it is named after the town of Cavan and is based on the historic Gaelic territory of East Breffny. Cavan County Council is the authority for the county, which has a population of 76,092 according to the 2016 census. Cavan borders six counties, Leitrim to the west, Fermanagh and Monaghan to the north, Meath to the south-east, Longford to the south-west, Cavan shares a 70 km border with County Fermanagh in Northern Ireland. Cavan is the 19th largest of the 32 counties in area and it is also the sixth largest of Ulsters nine counties in size and the seventh largest by population. There are eight historic baronies in the county, while baronies continue to be officially defined units, they are no longer used for many administrative purposes. Their official status is illustrated by Placenames Orders made since 2003, the county is characterised by drumlin countryside dotted with many lakes and hills. The north-western area of the county is sparsely populated and mountainous, the Breifne mountains contain the highest point, Cuilcagh, at 665 metres. Cavan is the source of many rivers, Shannon Pot on the slopes of Cuilcagh is the source of the River Shannon, the longest river in Ireland at 386 km. The River Erne is a river which rises from Beaghy Lough. The Glyde and the Owenroe also source in Cavan, Cavan is known as The Lakeland County and is reputed to contain 365 lakes. At 18.8 km2, Lough Sheelin is the countys largest lake, it is situated in the south of the county, a large complex of lakes form in the north and west of Cavan into designated Specially Protected Areas, an example is Lough Oughter. Other important wildlife protected lakes such as Lough Gowna and Lough Ramor are in the south, Cavan has a mainly hilly landscape and contains just under 7,000 hectares of forested area,3. 6% of Cavans total land area. The county contains forests such as Bellamont Forest near Cootehill, Killykeen Forest Park at Lough Oughter, Dún na Rí Forest Park, met Éireann records the climate data for Cavan from their station at Ballyhaise. Under Köppen climate classification, Cavan experiences a temperate oceanic climate with cold winters, mild humid summers. The average maximum January temperature is 8.2 °C, while the average maximum July temperature is 19.8 °C. On average, the sunniest months are May and June, while the wettest month is October with 104.4 mm of rain, in 2010, record low temperatures for November, December and January were recorded in Cavan. In late December, the temperature at the fell to −15.4 °C
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County Fermanagh
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County Fermanagh is one of the thirty-two counties of Ireland and one of the six counties of Northern Ireland. The county covers an area of 1,691 km² and has a population of about 61,805, Enniskillen is the county town and largest in both size and population. Fermanagh is within the province of Ulster. Fermanagh is one of four counties of Northern Ireland to have a majority of its population from a Catholic background, according to the 2011 census. Fermanagh borders County Tyrone to the north-east, County Monaghan to the south-east, County Cavan to the south-west, County Leitrim to the west, the county town, Enniskillen, is the largest settlement in Fermanagh, situated in the middle of the county. It is mainly rural and is situated largely in the basin of the River Erne and it is dominated by two connected lakes, Upper and Lower Lough Erne, and, including water, spans an area of 1,851 km². It is approximately 120 km from Belfast and 160 km from Dublin, Fermanagh accounts for 13. 2% of land mass of Northern Ireland and 30% of Fermanagh is covered with lakes and waterways. The Annals of Ulster which cover medieval Ireland between AD431 to AD1540 were written at Belle Isle on Lough Erne near Lisbellaw, Fermanagh was a stronghold of the Maguire clan and Donn Carrach Maguire was the first of the chiefs of the Maguire dynasty. However, on the confiscation of lands relating to Hugh Maguire, Fermanagh was divided in similar manner to the other five escheated counties among Scottish and English undertakers and native Irish. The chief families to benefit under the new settlement were the families of Cole, Blennerhasset, Butler, Hume, and Dunbar. Fermanagh was made into a county by statute of Elizabeth I, the closure of all the lines of Great Northern Railway within County Fermanagh in 1957 left the county as the first non-island county in the UK without a railway service. With the creation of Northern Irelands district councils, Fermanagh District Council the only one of the 26 that contained all of the county from which it derived its name. For the purposes of elections to the UK Parliament, the territory of Fermanagh is part of the Fermanagh, agriculture and tourism are two of the most important industries in Fermanagh. The main types of farming in the area are beef, dairy, sheep, pigs, most of the agricultural land is used as grassland for grazing and silage or hay rather than for other crops. The waterways are used by cabin cruisers, other small pleasure craft. The main town of Fermanagh is Enniskillen, only Ballinamallard United F. C. take part in the Northern Ireland football league system. All other Fermanagh clubs play in the Fermanagh & Western FA league systems, Fermanagh Mallards F. C. played in the Womens Premier League until 2013. Famous Football players from Fermanagh include Roy Carroll, Harry Chatton, Barry Owens, famous people born, raised in or living in Fermanagh. P
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County Monaghan
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County Monaghan is a county in Ireland. It is part of the Border Region and is in the province of Ulster and it is named after the town of Monaghan. Monaghan County Council is the authority for the county. The population of the county is 60,483 according to the 2011 census, the county has existed since 1585, when the Mac Mathghamhna rulers of Airgíalla agreed to join the Kingdom of Ireland. Following the Irish War of Independence and the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, Monaghan is the fifth smallest of the Republics 26 counties in area and fourth smallest by population. It is the smallest of Ulsters nine counties in size and also the smallest in terms of population, Cremorne Dartree Farney Monaghan Trough 1. Ballybay =1,461 Notable mountains include Slieve Beagh, Mullyash Mountain and Coolberrin Hill, lakes include Lough Avaghon, Dromore Lough, Drumlona Lough, Lough Egish, Emy Lough, Lough Fea, Inner Lough, Muckno Lough and White Lough. Notable rivers include the River Fane, the River Glyde, the Ulster Blackwater, Monaghan has a number of forests, including Rossmore Forest and Dartrey Forest. Managed by Coillte since 1988, the majority of trees are conifers, due to a long history of intensive farming and recent intensive forestry practices, only small pockets of native woodland remain. The Finn Bridge is a crossing point over the River Finn to County Fermanagh. Lead was formerly mined in County Monaghan, Mines included Annaglogh Lead Mines and Lisdrumgormley Lead Mines. In 1585, the English lord deputy of Ireland, Sir John Perrot, visited the area and they requested that Ulster be divided into counties and land in the kingdom of Airgíalla be apportioned to each of the McMahon chiefs. A commission was established to accomplish this and County Monaghan came into being, the county was subdivided into five baronies, Farney, Cremorne, Dartrey, Monaghan and Truagh, which was left under the control of the McKenna chieftains. After the defeat of the rebellion of Hugh ONeill, The ONeill and the Ulster chieftains in 1603, the lands were instead left in the hands of the native chieftains. In the Irish Rebellion of 1641 the McMahons and their allies joined the rebellion of Irish Catholics. Following their defeat, some colonisation of the county place with Scottish and English families. County Monaghan is traversed by the derelict Ulster Canal, however Waterways Ireland are embarking on a scheme to reopen the canal from Lough Erne into Clones, Monaghan is divided into four local electoral areas, Carrickmacross, Castleblayney, Clones and Monaghan. The towns of Ballybay, Carrickmacross, Castleblayney, Clones and Monaghan are represented by nine-member town councils which deal with matters such as the provision of utilities
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County Tyrone
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County Tyrone is one of the six historic counties of Northern Ireland. It is also one of the traditional counties of Ireland. It is no used as an administrative division for local government. Adjoined to the south-west shore of Lough Neagh, the county covers an area of 3,155 km² and has a population of about 177,986, with its county town being Omagh. The name Tyrone is derived from Irish Tír Eoghain, meaning land of Eoghan, historically, it was anglicised as Tirowen or Tyrowen, which are closer to the Irish pronunciation. Historically Tyrone stretched as far north as Lough Foyle, and comprised part of modern-day County Londonderry east of the River Foyle. The majority of County Londonderry was carved out of Tyrone between 1610–1620 when that went to the Guilds of London to set up profit making schemes based on natural resources located there. Tyrone was the stronghold of the various ONeill clans and families. In 1608 during ODohertys Rebellion areas of the country were plundered, however, ODohertys men avoided the estates of the recently fled Earl of Tyrone around Dungannon, fearing Tyrones anger if he returned from his exile. With an area of 3,155 square kilometres, Tyrone is the largest county in Northern Ireland, the length of the county, from the mouth of the River Blackwater at Lough Neagh to the western point near Carrickaduff hill is 55 miles. The breadth, from the corner, southeast of Fivemiletown, to the northeastern corner near Meenard Mountain is 37.5 miles. Annaghone lays claim to be the centre of Northern Ireland. Tyrone is connected by land to the county of Fermanagh to the southwest, Monaghan to the south, Armagh to the southeast, Londonderry to the north, across Lough Neagh to the east, it borders County Antrim. It is the eighth largest of Irelands thirty-two counties by area and it is the second largest of Ulsters nine traditional counties by area and fourth largest by population. It is one of four counties in Northern Ireland which currently has a majority of the population from a Catholic community background, in 1900 County Tyrone had a population of 197,719, while in 2011 it was 177,986. The major sports in Tyrone are Gaelic games, association football, Gaelic football is the most popular sport in the county with Gaelic football being more widely played than hurling. The Tyrone GAA football side has had success since 2000. They have also won fourteen Ulster titles and two National League titles, association football also has a large following
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Connacht
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Connacht /ˈkɒnɔːt/ or Connaught is one of the provinces of Ireland, situated in the west of the country. Two of its greatest kings, Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair and his son Ruaidri Ua Conchobair greatly expanded the kingdoms dominance, the English colony in Connacht shrank from c. Only with in the late 1500s, during the Tudor conquest of Ireland, was Connacht shired into its present counties, the province of Connacht has the greatest number of Irish language speakers at between 5–10% of the population. There are Gaeltacht areas in Counties Galway and Mayo, the province of Connacht has no official function for local government purposes, but it is an officially recognised subdivision of the Irish state. It is listed on ISO-3166-2 as one of the four provinces of Ireland, along with counties from other provinces, Connacht lies in the Midlands-North-West constituency for elections to the European Parliament. The Irish language is spoken in the Gaeltacht areas of Counties Mayo and Galway, the Galway Gaeltacht is the largest Irish-speaking region in Ireland covering Cois Fharraige, parts of Connemara, Conamara Theas, Aran Islands, Dúithche Sheoigeach and Galway City Gaeltacht. Irish-speaking areas in County Mayo can be found in Iorras, Acaill, according to the 2011 census Irish is spoken outside of the education system on a daily basis by 14,600 people. There are between 40, 000–55,000 Irish speakers in the province, over 30,000 in Galway, there is also the 4,265 attending the 18 Gaelscoils and three Gaelcholáiste outside the Gaeltacht across the province. The GDP of the province of Connacht is around 15 billion euro, the province is divided into five counties, Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon and Sligo. Connacht is the smallest of the four Irish provinces, with a population of 542,547, Galway is the only official city in the province. The highest point of Connacht is Mweelrea, in County Mayo, the largest island in Connacht is Achill. The biggest lake is Lough Corrib, much of the west coast is ruggedly inhospitable and not conducive for agriculture. It contains the main areas in Connacht, including the Twelve Bens, Maumturks, Mweelrea, Croagh Patrick, Nephin Beg, Ox Mountains. Killary Harbour, Irelands only true fjord, is located at the foot of Mweelrea, Connemara National Park is in County Galway. The Aran Islands, featuring prehistoric forts such as Dún Aonghasa, have been a regular tourist destination since the 19th century, inland areas such as east Galway, Roscommon and Sligo have enjoyed greater historical population density due to better agricultural land and infrastructure. Rivers and lakes include the River Moy, River Corrib, the Shannon, Lough Mask, Lough Melvin, Lough Allen, the largest urban area in Connacht is Galway, with a population of 76,778. Other large towns in Connacht are Sligo, Castlebar and Ballina, the name Connacht comes from the medieval ruling dynasty, the Connacht, later Connachta, whose name means descendants of Conn, from the mythical king Conn of the Hundred Battles. Before the Connachta dynasty, the province was known as Cóiced Ol nEchmacht, in Modern Irish, the province is usually called Cúige Chonnacht, the Province of Connacht, where Chonnacht is plural genitive case with lenition of the C to Ch
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County Clare
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County Clare is a county in Ireland, in the Mid-West Region and the province of Munster. Clare County Council is the local authority, the county had a population of 117,196 at the 2011 census. Clare is north-west of the River Shannon covering an area of 3,400 square kilometres. Clare was founded by the noble Luke Fitzgerald, A knight of Internal Audit, Clare is the 7th largest of Irelands 32 traditional counties in area and the 19th largest in terms of population. It is bordered by two counties in Munster and one county in Connacht, County Limerick to the south, County Tipperary to the east, clares nickname is the Banner County. The county is divided into the baronies of Bunratty Lower, Bunratty Upper, Burren, Clonderalaw, Corcomroe, Ibrickan, Inchiquin, Islands, Moyarta, Tulla Lower and these in turn are divided into civil parishes, which are divided into townlands. These divisions are cadastral, defining land boundaries and ownership, rather than administrative, bodies of water define much of the physical boundaries of Clare. To the southeast is the River Shannon, Irelands longest river, the border to the northeast is defined by Lough Derg which is the third largest lake on Ireland. To the west is the Atlantic Ocean, and to the north is Galway Bay, County Clare contains The Burren, a unique karst region, which contains rare flowers and fauna. At the western edge of The Burren, facing the Atlantic Ocean, are the Cliffs of Moher, the highest point in County Clare is Moylussa,532 m, in the Slieve Bernagh range in the east of the county. Clare is one of the richest places for these tombs in Ireland, the most noted one is in The Burren area, it is known as Poulnabrone dolmen which translates to hole of sorrows. The remains of the people inside the tomb have been excavated and dated to 3800 BC, Ptolemy created a map of Ireland in his Geographia with information dating from 100 AD, it is the oldest written account of the island with geographical features. Within his map Ptolemy names the Gaelic tribes inhabiting it and the areas in which they resided and it was renamed Thomond, meaning North Munster and spawned Brian Boru during this period, perhaps the most noted High King of Ireland. From 1118 onwards the Kingdom of Thomond was in place as its own petty kingdom, after the Norman invasion of Ireland, Thomas de Clare established a short-lived Norman lordship of Thomond, extinguished at the Battle of Dysert ODea in 1318 during Edward Bruces invasion. There are two hypotheses for the origins of the county name Clare. One hypothesis is that the name is derived from Thomas_de_Clare, _Lord_of_Thomond who was embroiled in local politics. An alternative hypothesis is that the county name Clare comes from the settlement of Clare whose Irish name Clár refers to a crossing over the River Fergus. In 1543, during the Tudor conquest of Ireland, Murrough OBrien by surrender, Henry Sidney as Lord Deputy of Ireland responded the Desmond Rebellion by creating the presidency of Connaught in 1569 and presidency of Munster in 1570
26.
Poyntzpass
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Poyntzpass is a village on the border between County Armagh and County Down in Northern Ireland. It is situated in the parish of Ballymore and the historic barony of Orior Lower. and is within the Armagh City. It had a population of 614 people in the 2011 Census and it was formerly a part of the South Armagh constituency and now is part of the Newry and Armagh constituency, and was one of the places in South Armagh where the Ulster Covenant could be signed. The village covers the townlands of Tullynacross, Brannock, Federnagh, the first half derives from Colonel Charles Poyntz. The pass which gave name to the town is on a route southwards and was named after Lieutenant Charles Poyntz from Gloucestershire who defended it against Hugh ONeill. At Drumbanagher are vestiges of the entrenchment surrounding the principal strong hold of the Earl of Tyrone, during his wars with Queen Elizabeth, poyntz-Pass is now one of the most fertile and beautiful spots in this part of the country. To the south is Drumbanagher Castle, the residence of Lieut. -Col. That portion of the town which is in the county of Armagh was built about 1790, the town comprises 116 houses in one principal street, intersected by a shorter one. A castle was situated in Poyntzpass. Its remnants were visible until the middle of the 19th century, for more information see The Troubles in Poyntzpass, which includes a list of incidents in Poyntzpass during the Troubles resulting in two or more fatalities. The 17th century rapparee Redmond OHanlon was a Poyntzpass native, Charles Davis Lucas, first recipient of the Victoria Cross, was born and grew up nearby. International rugby players Simon and Rory Best are from the village, in 1910, these surnames were recorded in Poyntzpass in the Ulster towns directory. Some names do not appear on either the 1910 Ulster Towns Directory or the 1911 census, created around 1960, it was inactive from 1970 but was revived in 1977. It currently competes at Junior level in county competitions, and combines with Whitecross, Poyntzpass straddles the main Belfast-Dublin railway line, and has a Northern Ireland Railways railway station. Poyntzpass railway station was opened on 6 January 1862, the Newry Canal which flows through Poyntzpass follows the Armagh/Down border and was one of the first major canals to be constructed in Britain or Ireland. However, it never fulfilled its promise to bring industry. Its summit level is one mile from the village at Acton Lake, the Meeting Place - Poyntzpass Community Centre. Poyntzpass Presbyterian Church List of villages in Northern Ireland List of towns in Northern Ireland
27.
Ballyshannon
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Ballyshannon is a town in County Donegal, Ireland. It is located at the end of the county where the N3 and N15 cross the River Erne. Ballyshannon, which means The Mouth of Seannachs Ford, after a warrior, Seannach. Just west of the town, the Erne widens and its waters meander over a long sandy estuary, the northern bank of the river rises steeply away from the riverbank, while the southern bank is flat with a small cliff that runs parallel to the river. From its idyllic setting, the town looks out over the estuary and has views of mountains, lakes. This site yielded numerous artefacts including silver long cross pennies and halfpennies dating from the reign of Henry III, other finds included bone beads, shroud pins, and pieces of quartz which were found placed in the hands of many of the skeletons. Nothing remains to mark either tomb, the last vestige of the mound on Mullaghnashee having been obliterated in 1798 when a fort was constructed on the hill-top. The 18th-century churchyard and the burial ground were both referred to as Sidh Aedh Ruaidh, the Fairy Mound of Red Hugh. The sheeman in Mullgoose means fairies, the Vikings, according to the Annals of Ulster, attacked nearby Inishmurray Island in 795. Later they used the River Erne to attack inland, burning Devenish Island Monastery in 822, the Annals also record that in 836, all the churches of Loch Erne, together with Cluain Eois and Daimhinis were destroyed by the gentiles. In 923 and 916 respectively, a fleet of foreigners on Loch Erne plundered the islands of the lake, as well as the surrounding territories. But the salmon-leap at Ballyshannon is a scene of such a nature, as is not to be found elsewhere. It was in Ballyshannon, around 1793, that Viscount Castlereagh, known at the time as The Hon. Robert Stewart, he was serving as a young Army officer and M. P. for Down in the Irish Parliament at the time. Lodging in the old Military Barracks in the town, Stewart retired for the night, looking into the fire he saw the form of a boy emerge from the flames, grow larger and larger and vanish. The radiant boy is a figure in English and Irish folklore. William Allingham later wrote a poem about the incident, the Enniskillen and Bundoran Railway opened in 1868 and had a station at Ballyshannon. The Great Northern Railway operated the E&BR line from 1876 and absorbed the company in 1896, the partition of Ireland in 1922 turned the boundary with County Fermanagh into an international frontier. Henceforth Ballyshannons only railway link with the rest of the Irish Free State was via Northern Ireland, the Government of Northern Ireland closed much of the GNR network on its side of the border in 1957, including the E&BR as far as the border
28.
William Reeves (bishop)
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William Reeves was an Irish antiquarian and the Church of Ireland Bishop of Down, Connor and Dromore from 1886 until his death. He was the last private keeper of the Book of Armagh and this grandfather had fought at the Battle of Bunkers Hill, and Reeves was born at his house in Charleville. From 1823, Reeves was educated at the school of John Browne in Leeson Street, Dublin, in October 1830, he entered Trinity College, Dublin, where he quickly gained a prize for Hebrew. In his third year, he became a scholar and went on to graduate BA in 1835 and he proceeded to read medicine, won the Berkeley Medal, and graduated MB in 1837. His object in taking his degree was that he intended to become a clergyman. In 1838, he was appointed Master of the school in Ballymena, County Antrim. The next year, he was ordained a priest of the Church of Ireland at Derry, by 1845, Reeves was corresponding with the Irish scholar John ODonovan, and an archive of their letters between 1845 and 1860 is preserved at University College, Dublin. In July 1845, Reeves visited London, Reevess career was furthered by his learned work. His first book, published in 1847, was his Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Down, Connor and Dromore, by the time he published his Acts of Archbishop Colton he was also a Doctor of divinity. In 1850, as in 1847, he was Perpetual Curate of Kilconriola and he had worked on this with Dr James Henthorn Todd, who was patron of the living at Lusk. Reevess edition of Adomnáns Life of Columba has been called the best and fullest collection of materials on the early Irish Church in one volume, with regard to the Celtic Church, Reeves himself described Adomnáns work as –. an inestimable literary relic. Perhaps, with all its defects, the most valuable monument of ancient institution which has escaped the ravages of time. In 1853, Reeves bought from the Brownlow family the important 9th-century manuscript known as the Book of Armagh and he sold the book for the same sum to Archbishop Beresford, who had agreed to present it to Trinity, Reevess alma mater. Crockfords Clerical Directory for 1868 gives him as Reeves, William, DD, Rural Dean, Reeves was a friend of Margaret Stokes and with his colleague Todd is credited with setting off her interest in Irish antiquities. In 1875 Reeves was appointed Dean of Armagh, a position he held until 1886 when he was appointed as Bishop of Down, Connor, in 1891 he was elected as President of the Royal Irish Academy. As bishop, he resided at Conway House, Dunmurry, County Antrim, Reeves died in Dublin on 12 January 1892, while still President of the Academy. At the time of his death, he was working on an edition of the Book of Armagh. The work was completed by Dr John Gwynn and published in 1913, in November 1889, Reeves had bought the important collection of Irish manuscripts of Robert Shipboy MacAdam, a Belfast business man and archaeologist
29.
Carrickmore
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Carrickmore is a town in County Tyrone, Northern Ireland. It lies in the heart of the county on a raised site colloquially called The Rock and it is situated in the historic barony of Omagh East and the civil parish of Termonmaguirk. It had a population of 612 in the 2001 Census, in the 2011 Census 2,330 people lived in the Termon Ward, which covers the Carrickmore and Creggan areas. The area is steeped in history and there are tales and legends connected with St. Colmcille. A wide range of historic monuments can be found in the Carrickmore area, including cairns, stone circles, standing stones and raths. The Dean Brian Maguirc College, a second level school, is named after Dean Brian McGurk who was Vicar-General to St Oliver Plunkett during the Penal Times. Carrickmore holds the annual Tyrone County Commemoration of the 1916 Easter Rising, two historical figures from the Clan na Gael and Irish Republican Brotherhood hailed from the Carrickmore area, Joseph McGarrity and Patrick McCartan, who helped fund the 1916 Easter Rising. Irish Civil rights campaigner, activist and author, the Rev. Denis Faul, Faul died of cancer in a hospital in Dublin on 21 June 2006, and is buried in the cemetery of St. Colmcilles Catholic Church in the village. Barry McElduff is the elected MLA for the area and has represented Carrickmore at council level also, St Colmcilles Bed, Chair and Well, Situated on the hill beside St Colmcilles Roman Catholic Church, Creggan Road. Dunmisk Fort, Evidence of Irelands first glass manufacturing plant, accessed from the main Galbally to Carrickmore Road. Patrician Hall, An independent Community, Culture, Arts and Multi-purpose building in the centre of the village and it was renowned across Ireland has one of the top venues for Showbands in the 1960s and 1970s. It also hosts the annual Mid-Ulster Drama Festival every March as well as other festivals, the National Graves Monument, A memorial to republicans killed during the Anglo-Irish conflict. It is located at the junction of Main Street and Legnashamer Road and it is also the place the local GAA teams return to after winning sporting events. The Nally Stand in Carrickmore also has a museum charting the history of Patrick Nally, as well as the history of Carrickmore club, Carrickmore is served by Ulsterbus route 86, which runs between Dungannon and Omagh via Dungannon, Donaghmore, Pomeroy, Carrickmore, Drumnakilly and Omagh. The Portadown, Dungannon and Omagh Junction Railway opened Carrickmore railway station on 2 September 1861, the Ulster Transport Authority closed the station on 5 October 1959 and the line on 15 February 1965. The townlands that make up the area of Carrickmore border on the parishes of Ballygawley, Beragh, Galbally, Kildress, Kileeshil, Carrickmore also shares the parish of Termonmagurk with Loughmacrory and Creggan. Carrickmore has the smallest townland in Ireland known as Old Church Yard, Carrickmore St. Main areas of employment are engineering, quarrying and farming. The larger surrounding towns of Cookstown, Dungannon and Omagh also provide other forms of employment, Carrickmore is classified as a town by the NI Statistics and Research Agency
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Clonskeagh
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Clonskeagh or Clonskea, is a southern suburb of Dublin, Ireland. The district straddles the River Dodder, whilst located fully within the traditional County Dublin, Clonskeagh lies partially within the administrative area of Dublin City Council but mostly in that of Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown. Roebuck Road defines the southernmost end of Clonskeagh, this area is known as Roebuck. Residents of Roebuck consider themselves to live in an area from Clonskeagh. The area is defined by the Clonskeagh Road and its extension into Roebuck Road. To the west is Windy Arbour, but there is no point at which the border might be defined. Clonskeagh is primarily an area, developed in the early decades of the 20th century. It has a village green with a few local shops. In the mid-1970s, Clonskeagh consisted of low-density housing with significant areas of open land. Since then, the closure of the Masonic Boys School has led to commercial redevelopment north of Clonskeagh Road and former church land adjacent to Bird Avenue and Roebuck Road now has housing. Since 2000, housing development has intensified land use further by building in larger gardens, replacing houses by apartments and this may be resisted by residents objecting to planning applications. The Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland which was founded in 1992 is also based in Clonskeagh, there is a mid-20th century Catholic church on Bird Avenue, and the Islamic Cultural Centre of Ireland and primary school is on Roebuck Road. The former Vergemount Fever Hospital at Clonskeagh is now a nursing facility for the elderly. There are also several green spaces, as well as a health and fitness club. The first ever All-Ireland Senior Football Championship final was held in Beech Hill, Clonskeagh, one of the features of the area, M. P. who founded the Irish Home Rule Movement lived in a cottage on the junction of Wynnsward Drive and the Clonskeagh Road. Seán MacBride, former Irish politician and Cabinet Minister, and his mother, Maud Gonne, lived at Roebuck House, chief Baron and Judge Christopher Palles was also a resident after his retirement. List of towns and villages in Ireland Roebuck Castle- the most heraldic house in Dublin
31.
Dublin (barony)
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Dublin is one of the baronies of Ireland, an historical geographical unit of land. It was created by the 1840 Acts from lands that were previously liberties in the county of the City of Dublin and its name and area were confirmed by the Dublin Baronies Act 1842. It is separated from the city proper by the line of the Grand canal with the Grand Canal Dock forming the land boundary along with the Great South Wall. Sandymount Strand at Irishtown forms the boundary in a narrow strip of land extending as far as Blackrock. The Barony of Rathdown, whose town is Dún Laoghaire. To the west lies the barony of Uppercross, whose town is Tallaght. Baronies were created after the Norman invasion as subdivisions of counties and were used for administration, Baronies continue to be regarded as officially defined units, but they are no longer used for many administrative purposes. While they have been obsolete since 1898, they continue to be used in land registration and specification such as in planning permissions. In many cases, a barony corresponds to an earlier Gaelic túath which had submitted to the Crown and this is not true in the case of this barony which was only created in 1840 out of parts of the Liberties of the City of Dublin. Previously, many of these townlands were part of the Barony of Dublin City, both baronies lie within the former county borough of Dublin, since 2001 redesignated the City of Dublin. There are six civil parishes either wholly or partly in the barony, the core of the barony is the civil parish of Donnybrook. With the exception of St Bartholemews, each of the remaining parishes only contributes a single townland to the barony, note, the area of Newtown Blackrock in the barony at the Main Street is an exclave of the townland proper which lies in the adjacent Barony of Rathdown. List of subdivisions of County Dublin Dublin City Council St Bartholomews Church, Dublin, marks Church, Dublin, the former church of the eponymous civil parish St. logainm. ie. Department of Community, Rural and Gaeltacht Affairs
32.
Moorland
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Moorland nowadays generally means uncultivated hill land, but includes low-lying wetlands. It is closely related to heath although experts disagree on precisely what distinguishes the types of vegetation, generally, moor refers to highland, high rainfall zones, whereas heath refers to lowland zones which are more likely to be the result of human activity. Most of the worlds moorlands are very diverse ecosystems, in the extensive moorlands of the tropics biodiversity can be extremely high. Moorland also bears a relationship to tundra, appearing as the tundra retreats, the boundary between tundra and moorland constantly shifts with climate change. Heathland and moorland are the most extensive areas of vegetation in the British Isles. The eastern British moorlands are similar to heaths but are differentiated by having a covering of peat, on western moors the peat layer may be several metres thick. There is uncertainty about how many moors were created by human activity, how much the deforestation was caused by climatic changes and how much by human activity is uncertain. A variety of habitat types are found in different world regions of moorland. The wildlife and vegetation forms often lead to high endemism because of the severe soil, for example, in Englands Exmoor is found the rare horse breed the Exmoor Pony, which has adapted to the harsh conditions of that environment. In Europe, the fauna consists of bird species such as red grouse, hen harrier, merlin, golden plover, curlew, skylark, meadow pipit, whinchat, ring ouzel. Other species dominate in moorlands elsewhere, reptiles are few due to the cooler conditions. In Europe, only the common viper is frequent, though in other regions moorlands are commonly home to dozens of reptile species, amphibians such as frogs are well represented in moorlands. When moorland is overgrazed, woody vegetation is often lost, being replaced by coarse, unpalatable grasses and bracken, some hill sheep breeds, such as Scottish Blackface and the Lonk, thrive on the austere conditions of heather moors. Burning of moorland has been practised for a number of reasons and this is recorded in Britain in the fourteenth century. Uncontrolled burning frequently caused problems, and was forbidden by statute in 1607, with the rise of sheep and grouse management in the nineteenth century it again became common practice. Heather is burnt at about 10 or 12 years old when it will regenerate easily, left longer, the woodier stems will burn more aggressively and will hinder regrowth. Burning of moorland vegetation needs to be carefully controlled as the peat itself can catch fire. In addition, uncontrolled burning of heather can promote alternative bracken, as a result, burning is now a controversial practice, Rackham calls it second-best land management
33.
Common land
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A person who has a right in, or over, common land jointly with another or others is called a commoner. This article deals mainly with land in England, Wales. Common land or former common land is referred to as a common, for instance. This manorial system, founded on feudalism, granted rights of use to different classes. These would be appurtenant rights, that is the ownership of rights belonged to tenancies of particular plots of land held within a manor, a commoner would be the person who, for the time being, was the occupier of a particular plot of land. Some rights of common were said to be in gross, that is and this was more usual in regions where commons are more extensive, such as in the high ground of Northern England or on the Fens, but also included many village greens across England and Wales. Most land with appurtenant commons rights is adjacent to the common or even surrounded by it, example rights of common are, Pasture. Right to pasture cattle, horses, sheep or other animals on the common land, right to take sods of turf for fuel. Common in the Soil This is a term used for rights to extract minerals such as sands, gravels, marl, walling stone. Right to turn out pigs for a period in autumn to eat mast, right to take sufficient wood for the commoners house or holding, usually limited to smaller trees, bushes and fallen branches. On most commons, rights of pasture and pannage for each commoner are tightly defined by number and type of animal, on some commons, the rights are not limited by numbers, and instead a marking fee is paid each year for each animal turned out. However, if excessive use was made of the common, for example, in overgrazing, a common would be stinted, that is and these regulations were responsive to demographic and economic pressure. Thus rather than let a common become degraded, access was restricted even further, Pasture commons are those where the primary right is to pasture livestock. These habitats are often of high nature conservation value, because of their very long continuity of management extending in some cases over many hundreds of years. In the past, most pasture commons would have been grazed by mixtures of cattle, sheep, the modern survival of grazing on pasture commons over the past century is uneven. When not in use for those purposes, such commons were grazed, examples include the common arable fields around the village of Laxton in Nottinghamshire, and a common meadow at North Meadow, Cricklade. Lammas rights entitled commoners to pasture following the harvest, between Lammas day,12 August, to 6 April, even if they did not have rights to the land. Such rights sometimes had the effect of preventing enclosure and building development on agricultural land, most of the medieval common land of England was lost due to enclosure
34.
Parish
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A parish is a church territorial unit constituting a division within a diocese. A parish is under the care and clerical jurisdiction of a parish priest, who might be assisted by one or more curates. Historically, a parish often covered the same area as a manor. By extension the term refers not only to the territorial unit. In England this church property was technically in ownership of the parish priest ex-officio, the eighth Archbishop of Canterbury Theodore of Tarsus appended the parish structure to the Anglo-Saxon township unit, where it existed, and where minsters catered to the surrounding district. In the wider picture of ecclesiastical polity, a parish comprises a division of a diocese or see, parishes within a diocese may be grouped into a deanery or vicariate forane, overseen by a dean or vicar forane, or in some cases by an archpriest. Some churches of the Anglican Communion have deaneries as units of an archdeaconry, in the Roman Catholic Church, each parish normally has its own parish priest, who has responsibility and canonical authority over the parish. These are called assistant priests, parochial vicars, curates, or, in the United States, associate pastors, each diocese is divided into parishes, each with their own central church called the parish church, where religious services take place. An example is that of personal parishes established in accordance with the 7 July 2007 motu proprio Summorum Pontificum for those attached to the form of the Roman Rite. Most Catholic parishes are part of Latin Rite dioceses, which cover the whole territory of a country. There can also be overlapping parishes of eparchies of Eastern Catholic Churches, the Church of England geographical structure uses the local parish church as its basic unit. The parish system survived the Reformation with the Anglican Churchs secession from Rome remaining largely untouched, Church of England parishes nowadays all lie within one of 44 dioceses divided between the provinces of Canterbury,30 and York,14. A chapelry was a subdivision of a parish in England. It had a status to a township but was so named as it had a chapel which acted as a subsidiary place of worship to the main parish church. In England civil parishes and their parish councils evolved in the 19th century as ecclesiastical parishes began to be relieved of what became considered to be civic responsibilities. Thus their boundaries began to diverge, the word parish acquired a secular usage. Since 1895, a council elected by public vote or a parish meeting administers a civil parish and is formally recognised as the level of local government below a district council. The parish is also the level of church administration in the Church of Scotland
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District electoral division
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A district electoral division is a former name given to a low-level territorial division in Ireland. In 1994, both district electoral divisions and wards were renamed as electoral divisions, in the Republic of Ireland, DEDs are the smallest legally defined administrative areas in the state for which small area population statistics are published from the Census. In the European Union, Local administrative units are basic components of Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics regions, the District electoral division is at the level of LAU-2. There are a total of 3,440 electoral divisions within the Republic of Ireland, District electoral divisions originated as subdivisions of poor law unions, grouping a number of townlands together to elect one or more members to a Poor Law Board of Guardians. The boundaries of electoral divisions were drawn by a Poor Law Boundary Commission. This meant that while DEDs were almost always contiguous, they bear little relation to natural community boundaries. With the reform of government in Northern Ireland in 1973. These councils were divided into wards, each containing a number of townlands or parts of townlands. As a result, district electoral divisions no longer exist in Northern Ireland, rural district councils outside County Dublin were abolished in 1925, with the remaining councils in Dublin being abolished in 1930. This meant that district electoral divisions no longer had any electoral purpose in their own right, however, they continued to be used for other administrative purposes, such as low-level census divisions, and building blocks for delimiting Dáil constituencies. Electoral areas for local authorities are not required to observe electoral division boundaries, outside Dublin, most DED boundaries have remained unchanged since the 1850s. 2006 Census of Ireland Preliminary Report 2006 census boundaries, including EDs, boroughs, Urban & Dispensary Districts & District Electoral Divisions
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Republic of Ireland
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Ireland, also known as the Republic of Ireland, is a sovereign state in north-western Europe occupying about five-sixths of the island of Ireland. The capital and largest city is Dublin, which is located on the part of the island. The state shares its land border with Northern Ireland, a part of the United Kingdom. It is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the Celtic Sea to the south, Saint Georges Channel to the south-east, and it is a unitary, parliamentary republic. The head of government is the Taoiseach, who is elected by the Dáil and appointed by the President, the state was created as the Irish Free State in 1922 as a result of the Anglo-Irish Treaty. It was officially declared a republic in 1949, following the Republic of Ireland Act 1948, Ireland became a member of the United Nations in December 1955. It joined the European Economic Community, the predecessor of the European Union, after joining the EEC, Ireland enacted a series of liberal economic policies that resulted in rapid economic growth. The country achieved considerable prosperity between the years of 1995 and 2007, which known as the Celtic Tiger period. This was halted by a financial crisis that began in 2008. However, as the Irish economy was the fastest growing in the EU in 2015, Ireland is again quickly ascending league tables comparing wealth and prosperity internationally. For example, in 2015, Ireland was ranked as the joint sixth most developed country in the world by the United Nations Human Development Index and it also performs well in several national performance metrics, including freedom of the press, economic freedom and civil liberties. Ireland is a member of the European Union and is a member of the Council of Europe. The 1922 state, comprising 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland, was styled, the Constitution of Ireland, adopted in 1937, provides that the name of the State is Éire, or, in the English language, Ireland. Section 2 of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 states, It is hereby declared that the description of the State shall be the Republic of Ireland. The 1948 Act does not name the state as Republic of Ireland, because to have done so would have put it in conflict with the Constitution. The government of the United Kingdom used the name Eire, and, from 1949, Republic of Ireland, for the state, as well as Ireland, Éire or the Republic of Ireland, the state is also referred to as the Republic, Southern Ireland or the South. In an Irish republican context it is referred to as the Free State or the 26 Counties. From the Act of Union on 1 January 1801, until 6 December 1922, during the Great Famine, from 1845 to 1849, the islands population of over 8 million fell by 30%
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Royal Mail
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Royal Mail plc is a postal service company in the United Kingdom, originally established in 1516. The companys subsidiary, Royal Mail Group Limited, operates the brands Royal Mail, General Logistics Systems, an international logistics company, is a wholly owned subsidiary of Royal Mail Group. The company provides mail collection and delivery services throughout the UK, letters are deposited in a pillar or wall box, taken to a post office, or collected in bulk from businesses. Deliveries are made at least once every day except Sundays and bank holidays at uniform charges for all UK destinations, Royal Mail generally aims to make first class deliveries the next business day throughout the nation. For most of its history, Royal Mail has been a public service, however, following the Postal Services Act 2011, a majority of the shares in Royal Mail were floated on the London Stock Exchange in 2013. The UK government initially retained a 30% stake in Royal Mail, however it sold its shares in 2015. The Royal Mail can trace its history back to 1516, when Henry VIII established a Master of the Posts, upon his accession to the throne of England at the Union of the Crowns in 1603, James VI and I moved his court to London. One of his first acts from London was to establish the royal postal service between London and Edinburgh, in an attempt to control over the Scottish Privy Council. The Royal Mail service was first made available to the public by Charles I on 31 July 1635, the monopoly was farmed out to Thomas Witherings. In the 1640s Parliament removed the monopoly from Witherings and during the Civil War, to keep his monopoly in those troubled times Prideaux improved efficiency and used both legal impediments and illegal methods. In 1653 Parliament set aside all previous grants for postal services, in July 1655 the Post Office was put under the direct government control of John Thurloe, a Secretary of State, and best known to history as Cromwells spymaster general. Previous English governments had tried to prevent conspirators communicating, Thurloe preferred to deliver their post having surreptitiously read it, the first Postmaster General was appointed in 1661, and a seal was first fixed to the mail. Between 1719 and 1763, Ralph Allen, postmaster at Bath, signed a series of contracts with the post office to develop and he organised mail coaches which were provided by both Wilson & Company of London and Williams & Company of Bath. The early Royal Mail Coaches were similar to ordinary family coaches, the first mail coach ran in 1784, operating between Bristol and London. Delivery staff received uniforms for the first time in 1793, the first mail train ran in 1830, on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The Post Offices money order system was introduced in 1838, in December 1839 the first substantial reform started when postage rates were revised by the short-lived Uniform Fourpenny Post. Greater changes took place when the Uniform Penny Post was introduced on 10 January 1840 whereby a single rate for delivery anywhere in Great Britain and Ireland was pre-paid by the sender. A few months later, to certify that postage had been paid on a letter, the sender could affix the first adhesive postage stamp, other innovations were the introduction of pre-paid William Mulready designed postal stationery letter sheets and envelopes
38.
Postcode
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A postal code is a series of letters and/or digits, sometimes including spaces or punctuation, included in a postal address for the purpose of sorting mail. In February 2005,117 of the 190 member countries of the Universal Postal Union had postal code systems, one example is the French CEDEX system. There are a number of synonyms for postal code, some are country-specific, Postal code, The general term is used in Canada. Postcode, This solid compound is popular in many English-speaking countries and is also the term in the Netherlands. Eircode, The standard term in Ireland, CAP, The standard term in Italy, CAP is an acronym for codice di avviamento postale. CEP, The standard term in Brazil, CEP is an acronym for código de endereçamento postal, NPA in French-speaking Switzerland and Italian-speaking Switzerland. PIN code / Pincode, The standard term in India, PIN is an acronym for postal index number, PLZ, The standard term in Germany, Austria, German-speaking Switzerland and Liechtenstein, PLZ is an abbreviation of Postleitzahl. ZIP code, The standard term in the United States and the Philippines, the development of postal codes reflects the natural evolution in which postal delivery grew more complicated as populations grew and the built environment became more complex. This process occurred first in large cities, the nucleus of a postal code idea thus began with postal district numbers within large cities. London was first subdivided into 10 districts in 1857, and Liverpool in 1864, by World War I or possibly earlier, such postal district or zone numbers existed in various European large cities. By 1930 or earlier the idea of extending postal district or zone numbering plans beyond large cities to cover even small towns and this was the concept that would create postal codes as we define them today. Modern postal codes were first introduced in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in December 1932, the next country to introduce postal codes was Germany in 1941, followed by Argentina in 1958, the United States in 1963 and Switzerland in 1964. The United Kingdom began introducing its current system in Norwich in 1959, but as almost all existing combinations are now used, these letters were allowed for new locations starting 2005. The letter combinations SS, SD, and SA are not used for historical reasons. Postal codes in Canada do not include the letters D, F, I, O, Q, or U, as the OCR equipment used in automated sorting could easily confuse them with other letters and digits. The letters W and Z are used, but are not currently used as the first letter and this serves two purposes, to avoid confusion in OCR, but it also helps to avoid accidental double-entendre by avoiding the creation of word look-alikes as Eircodes last 4 characters are random. Most of the postal systems are numeric, only a few are alphanumeric. Alphanumeric systems can, given the number of characters, encode many more locations
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The Troubles
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The Troubles is the common name for the ethno-nationalist conflict in Northern Ireland during the late 20th century. Also known internationally as the Northern Ireland conflict, it is described as a guerrilla war or low-level war. The most recent instalment of violence began in the late 1960s and is deemed to have ended with the Good Friday Belfast Agreement of 1998. Although the Troubles mainly took place in Northern Ireland, violence spilled over at times parts of the Republic of Ireland, England and mainland Europe. The conflict was political and nationalistic, fuelled by historical events. It also had an ethnic or sectarian dimension, although it was not a religious conflict, a key issue was the constitutional status of Northern Ireland. Unionists/loyalists, who are mostly Protestants and consider themselves British, want Northern Ireland to remain within the United Kingdom, Irish nationalists/republicans, who are predominantly Catholics, want Northern Ireland to be reunited with the 26 counties which make up the Republic of Ireland in an independent united Ireland. This campaign was met with violence by loyalists who viewed the campaign as a stalking horse. This eventually led to the deployment of British troops, initially to protect Catholic civilians, the security forces of the Republic played a smaller role. More than 3,500 people were killed in the conflict, of whom 52% were civilians, 32% were members of the British security forces, there has been sporadic violence since the Good Friday Agreement was signed, including a campaign by anti-ceasefire republicans. The Troubles refers to the recent three-decade conflict between nationalists and unionists, the term the Troubles was previously used to refer to the Irish revolutionary period, it was adopted to refer to the escalating violence in Northern Ireland after 1969. The violence was characterised by the campaigns of Irish republican and Ulster loyalist paramilitary groups. It thus became the focus for the longest major campaign in the history of the British Army, nationalists regard the state forces as forces of occupation or partisan combatants in the conflict. One part of the Agreement is that Northern Ireland will remain within the United Kingdom unless a majority of the Northern Irish electorate vote otherwise and it also established the Northern Ireland Executive, a devolved power-sharing government, which must consist of both unionist and nationalist parties. In 1609, Scottish and English settlers, known as planters, were given land escheated from the native Irish in the Plantation of Ulster. As the Penal Laws started to be phased out in the part of the 18th century, there was more competition for land. With Roman Catholics allowed to buy land and enter trades from which they had formerly been banned, tensions arose resulting in the Protestant Peep ODay Boys and Catholic Defenders. This created polarisation between the communities and a reduction in reformers among Protestants, many of whom had been growing more receptive to democratic reform
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Irish Catholics
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Irish Catholics are people who are Catholic and Irish. Divisions between Irish Catholics and Irish Protestants played a role in the history of Ireland from the 16th to the 20th century, especially the Home Rule Crisis. While religion broadly marks the delineation of these divisions, the contentions were primarily political, in the Irish Rebellion of 1798 Catholics and Presbyterians, who were not part of the established Church of Ireland, found common cause. Irish Catholics are found in countries around the world, especially in the English-speaking world. Emigration following the Famine in the late 1840s saw the population drop from over 8 million to just over 4 million, today, Irish Catholics are very well established in the United States and are part of mainstream American society. Endnotes Library of Congress The Irish Catholic Diaspora in America, describes the book ISBN 0-8132-0896-3 St. Colman Mac Duagh On Irish Catholics of Australia
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Protestantism
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Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
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Irish nationalism
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Irish nationalism asserts that the Irish people are a nation. Since the partition of Ireland, the term refers to support for a united Ireland. Irish nationalists assert that rule from London has been to the detriment of Irish interests and this vision sought to overcome the old ethnic divide between Gaeil and Gaill which had been a feature of Irish life since the 12th century. Protestantism in England introduced an element to the 16th century Tudor conquest of Ireland, as many of the native Gaels. The Plantations of Ireland dispossessed many native Catholic landowners in favour of Protestant settlers from England and Scotland, in addition, the Plantation of Ulster, begun in 1609, planted a sizeable colony of English and Scottish Protestant settlers into the north of Ireland. Irish aristocrats waged many campaigns against the English presence, a prime example is the rebellion of Hugh ONeill which became known as the Nine Years War of 1594–1603, which aimed to expel the English and make Ireland a Spanish protectorate. The Confederate Catholics of Ireland, also known as the Confederation of Kilkenny, emphasised the idea of Ireland as a Kingdom independent from England and they demanded autonomy for the Irish Parliament, full rights for Catholics and an end to the confiscation of Catholic-owned land. The Cromwellian conquest of Ireland destroyed the Confederate cause and resulted in the permanent dispossession of the old Catholic landowning class. A similar Irish Catholic monarchist movement emerged in the 1680s and 1690s, the Jacobites demanded that Irish Catholics have a majority in an autonomous Irish Parliament, the restoration of confiscated Catholic land, and an Irish-born Lord Deputy of Ireland. Like the Confederates, they suffered defeat, in the Williamite War in Ireland. Thereafter, the largely English Protestant Ascendancy dominated Irish government and landholding, the Penal Laws discriminated against non-Anglicans. However, the Irish Catholic movements of the 16th century were led by a small landed. Professor Kevin Whelan has traced the emergence of the modern Catholic-nationalist identity that formed in 1760–1830, parliamentarians who wanted more self-government formed the Irish Patriot Party, led by Henry Grattan, who achieved substantial legislative independence in 1782–83. Grattan and radical elements of the Irish Whig party campaigned in the 1790s for Catholic political equality and he wanted useful links with Britain to remain, best understood by his comment, The channel forbids union, the ocean forbids separation. Grattans movement was notable for being both inclusive and nationalist as many of its members were descended from the Anglo/Irish minority, many other nationalists such as Samuel Neilson, Theobald Wolfe Tone and Robert Emmet were also descended from plantation families which had arrived in Ireland since 1600. From Grattan in the 1770s to Parnell up to 1890, nearly all the leaders of Irish separatism were Protestant nationalists, modern Irish nationalism with democratic aspirations began in the 1790s with the founding of the Society of the United Irishmen. It sought to end discrimination against Catholics and Presbyterians and to found an independent Irish republic and they were sponsored by the French Republic, which was then the enemy of the Holy See. The United Irishmen led the Irish Rebellion of 1798, which was repressed with great bloodshed, as a result, the Irish Parliament voted to abolish itself in the Act of Union of 1800–01 and thereafter Irish MPs sat in London
