1.
Barricade tape
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Barricade tape is brightly colored tape that is used to warn or catch the attention of passersby of an area or situation containing a possible hazard. It acts as an impediment to prevent accidental entrance to that area or situation. Barricade tape is also known as tape or barrier tape or in reference to the safety hazard involved as notice tape, caution tape, warning tape. In case the tape is used by an organization the tape is named police tape, Barricade tape is made with durable, resilient, tear-proof plastic materials such as polyethylene, polypropylene, or nylon. It is at least 2 mm thick and 3 inches wide, however, different manufacturers offer different sizes and thicknesses of barricade tape. Other common sizes of tape are 2,4 or 6 inches wide and 4 or 10 mm thick. Barricade tape often has a background and pre-printed bold warning text. It is also possible to purchase plain barricade tape and write a message on it. Barricade tape is used according to the specifications set by OSHA. Barricade tape may be use primarily as a safety precaution for various industries and procedures, Construction Tape – is used in construction zones to notify people about ongoing construction and that there are possible hazards within the demarcated area. Construction tape usually employs a yellow-black color combination and incorporates printed text, such as Under Construction, Caution, Work Zone and this type of barrier tape is commonly found at the site of renovations, demolition, and minor repairs. Hazard Tape – is used in containing a substantial danger. Examples include electrocution hazards or areas within which there is a risk of exposure to toxic chemicals, hazard tape is available in different color combinations, each of which indicates certain classes of threat. For example, yellow-black tape is used to signal the presence of a physical hazard and this type of barrier tape is commonly used in laboratories, production areas, and industrial zones. Traffic Control Device Tape – this type of tape, as its name implies is used to control traffic. Traffic control device tapes are used as traffic signal to redirect traffic during parade or whenever a road is closed. These are usually brightly colored, either in solid orange or orange-white combination, police Tape or Law Enforcement Tape – this type of barrier tape is used to isolate, protect and preserve a crime scene. Police tape is used to notify the public that an investigation is on going and this is usually seen with a yellow-white, yellow-black or blue-white color combination
2.
Cone
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A cone is a three-dimensional geometric shape that tapers smoothly from a flat base to a point called the apex or vertex. A cone is formed by a set of segments, half-lines, or lines connecting a common point. If the enclosed points are included in the base, the cone is a solid object, otherwise it is a two-dimensional object in three-dimensional space. In the case of an object, the boundary formed by these lines or partial lines is called the lateral surface, if the lateral surface is unbounded. In the case of line segments, the cone does not extend beyond the base, while in the case of half-lines, in the case of lines, the cone extends infinitely far in both directions from the apex, in which case it is sometimes called a double cone. Either half of a cone on one side of the apex is called a nappe. The axis of a cone is the line, passing through the apex. If the base is right circular the intersection of a plane with this surface is a conic section, in general, however, the base may be any shape and the apex may lie anywhere. Contrasted with right cones are oblique cones, in which the axis passes through the centre of the base non-perpendicularly, a cone with a polygonal base is called a pyramid. Depending on the context, cone may also mean specifically a convex cone or a projective cone, cones can also be generalized to higher dimensions. The perimeter of the base of a cone is called the directrix, the base radius of a circular cone is the radius of its base, often this is simply called the radius of the cone. The aperture of a circular cone is the maximum angle between two generatrix lines, if the generatrix makes an angle θ to the axis, the aperture is 2θ. A cone with a region including its apex cut off by a plane is called a cone, if the truncation plane is parallel to the cones base. An elliptical cone is a cone with an elliptical base, a generalized cone is the surface created by the set of lines passing through a vertex and every point on a boundary. The slant height of a circular cone is the distance from any point on the circle to the apex of the cone. It is given by r 2 + h 2, where r is the radius of the cirf the cone and this application is primarily useful in determining the slant height of a cone when given other information regarding the radius or height. The volume V of any conic solid is one third of the product of the area of the base A B and the height h V =13 A B h. In modern mathematics, this formula can easily be computed using calculus – it is, up to scaling, the integral ∫ x 2 d x =13 x 3
3.
Traffic
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Traffic on roads may consist of pedestrians, ridden or herded animals, vehicles, streetcars, buses and other conveyances, either singly or together, while using the public way for purposes of travel. Organized traffic generally has well-established priorities, lanes, right-of-way, Traffic is formally organized in many jurisdictions, with marked lanes, junctions, intersections, interchanges, traffic signals, or signs. Traffic is often classified by type, heavy vehicle, other vehicle. Different classes may share speed limits and easement, or may be segregated, some jurisdictions may have very detailed and complex rules of the road while others rely more on drivers common sense and willingness to cooperate. Organization typically produces a combination of travel safety and efficiency. Events which disrupt the flow and may cause traffic to degenerate into a disorganized mess include road construction, collisions, on particularly busy freeways, a minor disruption may persist in a phenomenon known as traffic waves. A complete breakdown of organization may result in traffic congestion and gridlock, simulations of organized traffic frequently involve queuing theory, stochastic processes and equations of mathematical physics applied to traffic flow. The word traffic originally meant trade and comes from the Old Italian verb trafficare, the origin of the Italian words is unclear. Rules of the road and driving etiquette are the practices and procedures that road users are required to follow. These rules usually apply to all users, though they are of special importance to motorists and cyclists. These rules govern interactions between vehicles and with pedestrians, the basic traffic rules are defined by an international treaty under the authority of the United Nations, the 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic. Not all countries are signatory to the convention and, even among signatories, there are also unwritten local rules of the road, which are generally understood by local drivers. These rules should be distinguished from the procedures required to operate ones vehicle. Traffic going in opposite directions should be separated in such a way that they do not block each others way, the most basic rule is whether to use the left or right side of the road. In many countries, the rules of the road are codified, in the United Kingdom, the rules are set out in the Highway Code, which includes obligations but also advice on how to drive sensibly and safely. In the United States, traffic laws are regulated by the states and municipalities through their respective traffic codes, most of these are based at least in part on the Uniform Vehicle Code, but there are variations from state to state. However, states such as South Carolina have completely criminalized their traffic law, so, for example, vehicles often come into conflict with other vehicles and pedestrians because their intended courses of travel intersect, and thus interfere with each others routes. The general principle that establishes who has the right to go first is called right of way and it establishes who has the right to use the conflicting part of the road and who has to wait until the other does so
4.
Lane
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In the context of traffic control, a lane is part of a roadway that is designated for use by a single line of vehicles, to control and guide drivers and reduce traffic conflicts. Most public roads have at least two lanes, one for traffic in each direction, separated by lane markings, on multilane roadways and busier two-lane roads, lanes are designated with road surface markings. Major highways often have two multi-lane roadways separated by a median, some roads and bridges that carry very low volumes of traffic are less than 15 feet wide, and are only a single lane wide. Vehicles travelling in opposite directions must slow or stop to each other. In rural areas, these are often called country lanes, in urban areas, alleys are often only one lane wide. Urban and suburban one lane roads are designated for one-way traffic. A traffic lane or travel lane is a lane for the movement of vehicles traveling from one destination to another, a through lane or thru lane is a traffic lane for through traffic. At intersections, these may be indicated by arrows on the pavement pointing straight ahead, an express lane of a road is used for faster moving traffic and has less access to exits/off ramps. In other areas, an express lane may refer to a HOV lane, a reversible lane is a lane where the direction of traffic can be changed to match the peak flow. They are used to accommodate periods of traffic flow, especially rush hour where the flow is predominantly in one direction, on roads that cannot be easily widened such as over bridges. One or more lanes are removed from the flow and added to the peak flow. An auxiliary lane is an other than a through lane. An acceleration lane or merge lane allows traffic entering a highway to accelerate to the speed of traffic before merging with it. A turn lane is set aside for slowing down and making a turn, by removing turning traffic from the through lanes, motorist safety is improved and delay is removed, but crossing distances for pedestrians are lengthened, increasing their exposure to collisions. A two-way center turn lane is a lane in the center of a roadway to allow drivers traveling in either direction to pause before turning across oncoming traffic while waiting for a gap in traffic. A passing lane is provided on busy two-lane roads to allow drivers to pass slower vehicles without having to cross the center line. A climbing lane, truck lane, or crawler lane is provided on steep mountain grades. The lane is marked only on the stretch and usually a short distance afterward
5.
Road
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Roads consist of one or two roadways, each with one or more lanes and any associated sidewalks and road verges. Roads that are available for use by the public may be referred to as parkways, avenues, freeways, interstates, highways, or primary, secondary, and tertiary local roads. In urban areas roads may diverge through a city or village and be named as streets, serving a function as urban space easement. Modern roads are normally smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel, historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal construction or maintenance. In the United Kingdom there is ambiguity between the terms highway and road. The Highway code details rules for road users and this includes footpaths, bridleways and cycle tracks, and also road and driveways on private land and many car parks. Vehicle Excise Duty, a use tax, is payable on some vehicles used on the public road. The definition of a road depends on the definition of a highway, in the United States, laws distinguish between public roads, which are open to public use, and private roads, which are privately controlled. The assertion that the first pathways were the trails made by animals has not been universally accepted, others believe that some roads originated from following animal trails. The Icknield Way is given as an example of type of road origination. By about 10,000 BC, rough roads/pathways were used by human travelers, the worlds oldest known paved road was constructed in Egypt some time between 2600 and 2200 BC. Stone-paved streets are found in the city of Ur in the Middle East dating back to 4000 BC, corduroy roads are found dating to 4000 BC in Glastonbury, England. The Sweet Track, a timber causeway in England, is one of the oldest engineered roads discovered. Built in winter 3807 BC or spring 3806 BC, tree-ring dating enabled very precise dating and it was claimed to be the oldest road in the world until the 2009 discovery of a 6, 000-year-old trackway in Plumstead, London. Brick-paved streets were used in India as early as 3000 BC, in 500 BC, Darius I the Great started an extensive road system for Persia, including the Royal Road, which was one of the finest highways of its time. The road remained in use after Roman times, a hybrid of road transport and ship transport beginning in about 1740 is the horse-drawn boat in which the horse follows a cleared path along the river bank. From about 312 BC, the Roman Empire built straight strong stone Roman roads throughout Europe and North Africa, at its peak the Roman Empire was connected by 29 major roads moving out from Rome and covering 78,000 kilometers or 52,964 Roman miles of paved roads. In the 8th century AD, many roads were built throughout the Arab Empire, the most sophisticated roads were those in Baghdad, which were paved with tar
6.
M6 motorway
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Here, just short of the Scottish border it becomes the A74 which continues to Glasgow as the M74. It is also part of the east−west route between the Midlands and the east-coast ports, the section from the M1 to the M6 Toll split near Birmingham forms part of the unsigned E-road E24 and the section from the M6 Toll and the M42 forms part of E05. The motorway has major junctions with the M56 and M62 at Warrington, giving access to Chester, Manchester, the M6 then heads north past Wigan, Preston and Lancaster. The first section of the motorway and the first motorway in the country was the Preston By-pass and it was built by Tarmac Construction and opened by the Prime Minister Harold Macmillan on 5 December 1958. In January 1959 the Preston by-pass was closed because of rapid surface deterioration over a stretch of 100 yards due to water freezing, motorists were diverted to the old road while the UK road research laboratory at Harmondsworth pondered the importance of surface water drainage. Later, other sections of the motorway were constructed, and finally it was all linked together, the second phase of construction was completed in 1960, forming the Lancaster by-pass. Some 100 miles south, the Stafford by-pass was completed in 1962, by 1965, the remaining sections of motorway Stafford–Preston and Preston–Lancaster had been completed. 1968 saw the completion of the Walsall to Stafford link as well as the Penrith by-pass some 150 miles north in Cumberland, in 1970, the Lancaster–Penrith link was completed, along with a short section of motorway by-passing the south of Walsall. The most northerly section of the motorway opened in 1970. Junction 6 in Birmingham is widely known as Spaghetti Junction because of its complexity, on the elevated ground between Shap and Tebay, the north- and south-bound carriages split apart. At this point a road runs between the two carriageways without a link to the motorway. The section of the M6 that runs over Shap Fell in Cumbria is 1,050 ft above sea level, the northbound entry slip road at Lancaster was unusually short, presenting problems for traffic joining the motorway. The M6 crosses the River Lune at this point and unless the bridge had been made wider and this junction was upgraded from an earlier emergency-vehicles-only access point, which explains the substandard design. The route was intended to replace the old A6, which it does along the northern section starting with the Preston Bypass. However, a closer approximation to the overall actual route of the M6 is provided by following the A45, A34, A50, A49. South of Preston, the A6 route is instead supplemented by the M61 as far as Manchester, south of Manchester, there is no true motorway replacement for the old road. Across the Pennines, the old road remains the main local through-route, in July 1972 the UK Minister for Transport Industries announced that 86 miles of UK motorway particularly prone to fog would benefit from lighting in a project which should be completed by 1973. Sections to be illuminated included the M6 between junctions 10 and 11, and between junctions 20 and 27, the road opened on 5 December 2008, the 50th anniversary of the M6 Preston By-pass
7.
Kerosene
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Kerosene, also known as paraffin, lamp oil and coal oil, is a combustible hydrocarbon liquid which is derived from petroleum, widely used as a fuel in industry as well as households. Its name derives from Greek, κηρός meaning wax, and was registered as a trademark by Abraham Gesner in 1854 before evolving into a genericized trademark and it is sometimes spelled kerosine in scientific and industrial usage. Liquid paraffin is a more viscous and highly refined product which is used as a laxative, paraffin wax is a waxy solid extracted from petroleum. Kerosene is widely used to power jet engines of aircraft and some rocket engines, in parts of Asia, where the price of kerosene is subsidized, it fuels outboard motors on small fishing boats. World total kerosene consumption for all purposes is equivalent to about 1.2 million barrels per day, to prevent confusion between kerosene and the much more flammable and volatile gasoline, some jurisdictions regulate markings or colorings for containers used to store or dispense kerosene. For example, in the United States, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania requires that portable containers used at retail service stations be colored blue and it is miscible in petroleum solvents but immiscible in water. The American Society for Testing and Materials standard specification D-3699-78 recognizes two grades of kerosene, grades 1-K and 2-K, regardless of crude oil source or processing history, kerosenes major components are branched and straight chain alkanes and naphthenes, which normally account for at least 70% by volume. Aromatic hydrocarbons in this range, such as alkylbenzenes and alkylnaphthalenes. Olefins are usually not present at more than 5% by volume, the flash point of kerosene is between 37 and 65 °C, and its autoignition temperature is 220 °C. The pour point of kerosene depends on grade, with aviation fuel standardized at −47 °C. 1-K grade kerosene freezes around -40 °C, heat of combustion of kerosene is similar to that of diesel fuel, its lower heating value is 43.1 MJ/kg, and its higher heating value is 46.2 MJ/kg. In the United Kingdom, two grades of heating oil are defined, BS2869 Class C1 is the lightest grade used for lanterns, camping stoves, wick heaters, and mixed with gasoline in some vintage combustion engines as a substitute for tractor vaporising oil. BS2869 Class C2 is a heavier distillate, which is used as heating oil. Premium kerosene is sold in 5 or 20 liter containers from hardware, camping. Standard kerosene is usually dispensed in bulk by a tanker and is undyed, National and international standards define the properties of several grades of kerosene used for jet fuel. Flash point and freezing point properties are of particular interest for operation and safety, the process of distilling crude oil/petroleum into kerosene, as well as other hydrocarbon compounds, was first written about in the 9th century by the Persian scholar Rāzi. In his Kitab al-Asrar, the physician and chemist Razi described two methods for the production of kerosene, termed naft abyad, using an apparatus called an alembic, one method used clay as an absorbent, whereas the other method used ammonium chloride. The distillation process was repeated until all most of the volatile hydrocarbon fractions had been removed, Kerosene was also produced during the same period from oil shale and bitumen by heating the rock to extract the oil, which was then distilled
8.
Burford
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Burford /ˈbɜːrfərd/ is a medieval town on the River Windrush in the Cotswold hills in West Oxfordshire, England. It is often referred to as the gateway to the Cotswolds, Burford is located 18 miles west of Oxford and 22 miles southeast of Cheltenham, about 2 miles from the Gloucestershire boundary. The toponym derives from the Old English words burh meaning fortified town or hilltown and ford, the 2011 Census recorded the population of Burford parish as 1,410 and Burford Ward as 1,847. Burford Priory is a house that stands on the site of a 13th-century Augustinian priory hospital. In the 1580s an Elizabethan house was built incorporating remnants of the building and it was remodelled in Jacobean style, probably after 1637, by which time the estate had been bought by William Lenthall, Speaker of the House of Commons in the Long Parliament. After 1912 the house and later the chapel were restored for the philanthropist Emslie John Horniman, from 1949 Burford Priory housed the Society of the Salutation of Our Lady, a community of Church of England nuns. In the 1980s, its numbers dwindled, so in 1987 it became a community including Church of England Benedictine monks. In 2008 the community sold the property and it is now a private dwelling, the town began in the middle Saxon period with the founding of a village near the site of the modern priory building. This settlement continued in use until just after the Norman conquest of England when the new town of Burford was built, on the site of the old village a hospital was founded which remained open until the Dissolution of the Monasteries by King Henry VIII. The modern priory building was constructed some 40 years later, in around 1580, the town centres most notable building is the Church of England parish church of Saint John the Baptist, which is a Grade I listed building. It is known for its merchants guild chapel, memorial to Henry VIIIs barber-surgeon, Edmund Harman, featuring South American Indians, in 1649 the church was used as a prison during the Civil War, when the New Model Army Banbury mutineers were held there. Some of the 340 prisoners left carvings and graffiti, which survive in the church. The town centre also has some 15th-century houses and the baroue style townhouse that is now Burford Methodist Church, between the 14th and 17th centuries Burford was important for its wool trade. The Tolsey, midway along Burfords High Street, which was once the point for trade, is now a museum. Burford has twice had a bell-foundry, one run by the Neale family in the 17th century, Henry Neale was a bell-founder between 1627 and 1641 and also had a foundry at Somerford Keynes in Gloucestershire. Edward Neale had joined him as a bell-founder at Burford by 1635, numerous Neale bells remain in use, including at St Britius, Brize Norton, St Marys, Buscot, St James the Great, Fulbrook and SS Peter and Paul, Steeple Aston. A few Neale bells that are no longer rung are displayed in Burford parish church, Henry Bond had a bell-foundry at Westcot from 1851 to 1861. He then moved it to Burford where he continued until 1905 and he was then succeeded by Thomas Bond, who continued bell-founding at Burford until 1947
9.
Oxfordshire
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Oxfordshire is a county in South East England bordering on Warwickshire, Northamptonshire, Buckinghamshire, Berkshire, Wiltshire and Gloucestershire. The county has major education and tourist industries and is noted for the concentration of performance companies and facilities. Oxford University Press is the largest firm among a concentration of print and publishing firms, the main centre of population is the city of Oxford. The highest point is White Horse Hill, in the Vale of White Horse, oxfordshires county flower is the Snakes-head Fritillary. Historically the area has always had some importance, since it contains valuable agricultural land in the centre of the county, largely ignored by the Romans, it was not until the formation of a settlement at Oxford in the eighth century that the area grew in importance. Alfred the Great was born across the Thames in Wantage, Vale of White Horse, the University of Oxford was founded in 1096, though its collegiate structure did not develop until later on. The university in the county town of Oxford grew in importance during the Middle Ages, the area was part of the Cotswolds wool trade from the 13th century, generating much wealth, particularly in the western portions of the county in the Oxfordshire Cotswolds. Morris Motors was founded in Oxford in 1912, bringing industry to an otherwise agricultural county. The importance of agriculture as an employer has declined rapidly in the 20th century though, nonetheless, Oxfordshire remains a very agricultural county by land use, with a lower population than neighbouring Berkshire and Buckinghamshire, which are both smaller. The Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry, the army unit in the area, was based at Cowley Barracks on Bullingdon Green. Conversely, the Caversham area of Reading, now administratively in Berkshire, was part of Oxfordshire as was the parish of Stokenchurch. This is a chart of trend of gross value added of Oxfordshire at current basic prices published by the Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling. Oxfordshire has a comprehensive education system with 23 independent schools and 35 state secondary schools. Only eight schools do not have a form, these are mostly in South Oxfordshire. The county has two universities, the ancient University of Oxford and the modern Oxford Brookes University, both located in Oxford, in addition, Wroxton College, located in Banbury, is affiliated with Fairleigh Dickinson University of New Jersey. The dreaming spires of the buildings of the University of Oxford are among the reasons for Oxford being the sixth most visited city in the United Kingdom for international visitors. Among many notable University buildings are the Sheldonian Theatre, built 1664–68 to the design of Sir Christopher Wren, Blenheim Palace close to Woodstock was built by the great architect John Vanbrugh for John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, after he had won the battle of Blenheim. The gardens, which can be visited, were designed by the landscape gardener Capability Brown, in the palace, which can also be visited by the public, Sir Winston Churchill was born in 1874
10.
Pacific Gas and Electric Company
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The Pacific Gas and Electric Company is an investor-owned electric utility with publicly traded stock that is headquartered in the Pacific Gas & Electric Building in San Francisco. PG&E provides natural gas and electricity to most of the northern two-thirds of California, PG&E is overseen by the California Public Utilities Commission. It is the subsidiary of the holding company PG&E Corporation which has a market capitalization of $29.37 billion. It was founded by George H. Roe during the period after Californias Gold Rush, PG&E is one of three regulated, investor-owned utilities s in California—the other two being Southern California Edison and Sempra Energys San Diego Gas & Electric. In the 1850s, manufactured gas was introduced in the United States as a means of lighting, gasworks were built in the larger eastern American cities, but there was no gas industry in the West, however. In San Francisco, street lighting was available only on Merchant Street, Joseph G. Eastland, an engineer and clerk at the foundry, joined them in gathering as much information on gas making as they could find. The council specified that gas should be supplied to households at such rates as will make it to their interest to use it in preference to any other material. The Donahue brothers and Eastland incorporated the San Francisco Gas Company on August 31,1852, the company became the first gas utility in the West. Its official seal bore the inscription Fiat Lux—let there be light—the same slogan later adopted by the University of California, there were 11 original stockholders, and the three Donahue brothers subscribed for 610 of the 1,500 shares. The original location for the gas works was bounded by First, Fremont, Howard and Natoma streets south of Market, work on the plant started in November,1852, and it was ready for operation only a few months later. On the night of February 11,1854, the streets of San Francisco were for the first time lighted by gas, to celebrate the event, the company held a gala banquet at the Oriental Hotel. Gas lighting quickly gained public favor, in the first year of operation, there were 237 customers. That number more than doubled the year, to 563. By the end of 1855, the company had more than 6 ½ miles of pipe and 154 street lamps were in operation. The growing popularity of gas light led to the establishment of competing gas companies, including Aubin Patent Gas Company and these smaller companies were quickly acquired by the San Francisco Gas Company. However, one rival provided serious competition, the City Gas Company was founded in April 1870 by the Bank of California to compete with the gas monopoly held by the Donahue brothers operation. City Gas began operation in 1872 and initiated a war with the San Francisco Gas Company. In 1873, the companies negotiated their consolidation as a compromise, on April 1,1873, the San Francisco Gas Light Company was formed, representing a merger of the San Francisco Gas Company, the City Gas Company, and the Metropolitan Gas Company
11.
Oakland, California
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Oakland /ˈoʊklənd/ is the largest city and the county seat of Alameda County, California, United States. The city was incorporated in 1852, Oaklands territory covers what was once a mosaic of California coastal terrace prairie, oak woodland, and north coastal scrub. Its land served as a resource when its hillside oak and redwood timber were logged to build San Francisco. In the late 1860s, Oakland was selected as the terminal of the Transcontinental Railroad. Following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, many San Francisco citizens moved to Oakland, enlarging the citys population, increasing its housing stock and it continued to grow in the 20th century with its busy port, shipyards, and a thriving automobile manufacturing industry. Oakland is known for its sustainability practices, including a top-ranking for usage of electricity from renewable resources, in addition, due to a steady influx of immigrants during the 20th century, along with thousands of African-American war-industry workers who relocated from the Deep South during the 1940s. Oakland is the most ethnically diverse city in the country. The earliest known inhabitants were the Huchiun Indians, who lived there for thousands of years, the Huchiun belonged to a linguistic grouping later called the Ohlone. In Oakland, they were concentrated around Lake Merritt and Temescal Creek, in 1772, the area that later became Oakland was claimed, with the rest of California, by Spanish settlers for the King of Spain. In the early 19th century, the Spanish crown granted the East Bay area to Luis María Peralta for his Rancho San Antonio, the grant was confirmed by the successor Mexican republic upon its independence from Spain. Upon his death in 1842, Peralta divided his land among his four sons, Most of Oakland fell within the shares given to Antonio Maria and Vicente. The portion of the parcel that is now Oakland was called encinal—Spanish for oak grove—due to the oak forest that covered the area. In 1851, three men—Horace Carpentier, Edson Adams, and Andrew Moon—began developing what is now downtown Oakland, on May 4,1852, the Town of Oakland incorporated. Two years later, on March 25,1854, Oakland re-incorporated as the City of Oakland, with Horace Carpentier elected the first mayor, the city and its environs quickly grew with the railroads, becoming a major rail terminal in the late 1860s and 1870s. In 1868, the Central Pacific constructed the Oakland Long Wharf at Oakland Point, a number of horsecar and cable car lines were constructed in Oakland during the latter half of the 19th century. The first electric streetcar set out from Oakland to Berkeley in 1891, at the time of incorporation, Oakland consisted of the territory that lay south of todays major intersection of San Pablo Avenue, Broadway, and Fourteenth Street. The city gradually annexed farmlands and settlements to the east and the north, Oaklands rise to industrial prominence, and its subsequent need for a seaport, led to the digging of a shipping and tidal channel in 1902. This resulted in the town of Alameda being made an island
12.
Thermoplastic
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A thermoplastic, or thermosoftening plastic, is a plastic material, a polymer, that becomes pliable or moldable above a specific temperature and solidifies upon cooling. Most thermoplastics have a molecular weight. The polymer chains associate through intermolecular forces, which weaken rapidly with increased temperature, thermoplastics differ from thermosetting polymers, which form irreversible chemical bonds during the curing process. Thermosets do not melt, but decompose and do not reform upon cooling, above its glass transition temperature and below its melting point, the physical properties of a thermoplastic change drastically without an associated phase change. Some thermoplastics do not fully crystallize below the transition temperature. Amorphous and semi-amorphous plastics are used when high optical clarity is necessary, amorphous and semi-amorphous plastics are less resistant to chemical attack and environmental stress cracking because they lack a crystalline structure. Brittleness can be decreased with the addition of plasticizers, which increases the mobility of amorphous chain segments to effectively lowers the transition temperature. Modification of the polymer through copolymerization or through the addition of side chains to monomers before polymerization can also lower it. Naval Research Laboratory developed thermoplastic armor, that can be repaired in the field by a user via tools for pressing irons, acrylic, a polymer called poly, is also known by trade names such as Lucite, Perspex and Plexiglas. It serves as a substitute for glass for items such as aquariums, motorcycle helmet visors, aircraft windows, viewing ports of submersibles. It is extensively used to make signs, including lettering and logos, in medicine, it is used in bone cement and to replace eye lenses. Acrylic paint consists of PMMA particles suspended in water, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene is a terpolymer synthesized from styrene and acrylonitrile in the presence of polybutadiene. ABS is a material that exhibits high impact resistance and mechanical toughness. It poses few risks to health under normal handling. It is used in consumer products, such as toys, appliances. Nylon belongs to a class of polymers called polyamides and it has served as a substitute mainly for hemp, cotton and silk, in products such as parachutes, cords, sails, flak vests and womens clothing. Nylon fibers are useful in making fabrics, rope, carpets and musical strings, whereas in bulk form, Nylon is used for mechanical parts including machine screws, gears, in addition, it is used in the manufacture of heat-resistant composite materials. Polylactic acid is a biodegradable thermoplastic aliphatic polyester derived from renewable resources, such as starch, tapioca roots, chips or starch
13.
Rubber
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Natural rubber, also called India rubber or caoutchouc, as initially produced, consists of polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with minor impurities of other organic compounds, plus water. Malaysia and Indonesia are two of the leading rubber producers, forms of polyisoprene that are used as natural rubbers are classified as elastomers. Currently, rubber is harvested mainly in the form of the latex from the tree or others. The latex is a sticky, milky colloid drawn off by making incisions in the bark, the latex then is refined into rubber ready for commercial processing. In major areas, latex is allowed to coagulate in the collection cup, the coagulated lumps are collected and processed into dry forms for marketing. Natural rubber is used extensively in many applications and products, either alone or in combination with other materials, in most of its useful forms, it has a large stretch ratio and high resilience, and is extremely waterproof. The major commercial source of rubber latex is the Pará rubber tree. This species is preferred because it grows well under cultivation, a properly managed tree responds to wounding by producing more latex for several years. Congo rubber, formerly a source of rubber, came from vines in the genus Landolphia. These cannot be cultivated, and the drive to collect latex from wild plants was responsible for many of the atrocities committed under the Congo Free State. The latex exhibits the quality as the natural rubber from rubber trees. In the wild types of dandelion, latex content is low, in Nazi Germany, research projects tried to use dandelions as a base for rubber production, but failed. In collaboration with Continental Tires, IME began a pilot facility, many other plants produce forms of latex rich in isoprene polymers, though not all produce usable forms of polymer as easily as the Pará. Some of them require more processing to produce anything like usable rubber. Some produce other desirable materials, for example gutta-percha and chicle from Manilkara species, the term gum rubber is sometimes applied to the tree-obtained version of natural rubber in order to distinguish it from the synthetic version. The first use of rubber was by the cultures of Mesoamerica. The earliest archeological evidence of the use of latex from the Hevea tree comes the Olmec culture. The Pará rubber tree is indigenous to South America, charles Marie de La Condamine is credited with introducing samples of rubber to the Académie Royale des Sciences of France in 1736
14.
Recycling
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Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new materials and objects. It is an alternative to conventional waste disposal that can save material, Recycling can prevent the waste of potentially useful materials and reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, thereby reducing, energy usage, air pollution, and water pollution. Recycling is a key component of waste reduction and is the third component of the Reduce, Reuse. There are some ISO standards related to recycling such as ISO15270,2008 for plastics waste, recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, and cardboard, metal, plastic, tires, textiles, and electronics. The composting or other reuse of biodegradable waste—such as food or garden waste—is also considered recycling, materials to be recycled are either brought to a collection centre or picked up from the curbside, then sorted, cleaned, and reprocessed into new materials destined for manufacturing. However, this is difficult or too expensive, so recycling of many products or materials involves their reuse in producing different materials instead. Another form of recycling is the salvage of materials from complex products, either due to their intrinsic value. Recycling has been a practice for most of human history. In pre-industrial times, there is evidence of bronze and other metals being collected in Europe. Paper recycling was first recorded in 1031 when Japanese shops sold repulped paper, in Britain dust and ash from wood and coal fires was collected by dustmen and downcycled as a base material used in brick making. In 1813, Benjamin Law developed the process of turning rags into shoddy and mungo wool in Batley and this material combined recycled fibers with virgin wool. The West Yorkshire shoddy industry in such as Batley and Dewsbury lasted from the early 19th century to at least 1914. Industrialization spurred demand for materials, aside from rags, ferrous scrap metals were coveted as they were cheaper to acquire than virgin ore. Railroads both purchased and sold scrap metal in the 19th century, and the steel and automobile industries purchased scrap in the early 20th century. Many secondary goods were collected, processed and sold by peddlers who scoured dumps and city streets for discarded machinery, pots, pans, and other sources of metal. By World War I, thousands of such peddlers roamed the streets of American cities, beverage bottles were recycled with a refundable deposit at some drink manufacturers in Great Britain and Ireland around 1800, notably Schweppes. New chemical industries created in the late 19th century both invented new materials (e. g. Bakelite and promised to transform valueless into valuable materials, new and better paths are opened to reach the goals desired. Recycling was a highlight throughout World War II, during the war, financial constraints and significant material shortages due to war efforts made it necessary for countries to reuse goods and recycle materials
15.
Bollard
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A bollard is a sturdy, short, vertical post. The term is related to bole, meaning a tree trunk. The earliest citation given by the Oxford English Dictionary dates from 1844, previously, simpler terms such as post appear to have been used. The Norman-French name Boulard may be related, from the 17th and 18th centuries, old cannon were often used as bollards on quaysides to help moor ships alongside. The cannon would be buried in the ground muzzle-first to approximately half or two-thirds of their length, such cannon can still occasionally be found. Bollards from the 19th century were purpose-made, but often inherited a similar cannon shape. Wooden posts were used for traffic management from at least the beginning of the 18th century. Similar posts can be seen in historic paintings and engravings. In the Netherlands, the Amsterdammertjes of Amsterdam were first erected in the 19th century and they became popular symbols of the city, but they are now gradually being removed and replaced with elevated sidewalks. Mooring bollards are seldom exactly cylindrical, but typically have a diameter near the top to discourage mooring warps from coming loose. Single bollards sometimes include a cross rod to allow the lines to be bent into a figure eight. Small mushroom-bollards are found on lock approaches for advancing boats waiting for lock access, according to Trafficcalming. org, bollards can be used, either to control traffic intake size by limiting movements, or to control traffic speed by narrowing the available space. Israels Transportation Research Institute found that putting bollards at highway exits to control traffic also reduced accidents, bollards may also be used to enclose car-free zones. Bollards and other furniture are used to control overspill parking onto sidewalks. Also referred to as delineators, the bases are made from recycled rubber. The term T-top bollards refers to the T-bar moulded into the top for tying tape, bollards are regarded as an economical and safe delineation system for motorways and busy arterial roads, and, in conjunction with plastic tape, for pedestrian control. Traffic bollards used in the US are very similar to devices throughout the UK, with the following exceptions. In addition, the traffic bollard also has a yellow diamond below the Keep Right symbol instead of a yellow shield, unlike many existing traffic bollards found in the UK, most new modern traffic bollards installed along roadways today are made of materials that make them completely collapsible
16.
Fort Lee lane closure scandal
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The Fort Lee lane closure scandal, also known as the George Washington Bridge lane closure scandal or Bridgegate, is a U. S. The problems began on Monday, September 9,2013, when two of three lanes for a local street entrance were closed during morning rush hour. Local officials, emergency services, and the public were not notified of the lane closures, the resulting back-ups and gridlock on local streets ended only when the two lanes were reopened on Friday, September 13,2013, by an order from Port Authority Executive Director Patrick Foye. He said that the hasty and ill-informed decision could have endangered lives and violated federal, Wildstein entered a guilty plea, and testified against Baroni and Kelly, who were found guilty on all counts in November 2016. David Samson pleaded guilty to one count of conspiracy in July 2016, for acts unrelated to the lane closures. Governor Chris Christies political standing was damaged by the scandal. Once considered a contender for the 2016 Republican nomination for President. The scandal was widely cited as a factor in the early demise of Christies 2016 presidential ambitions. Christie called Bridgegate a factor in why he was bypassed by Donald Trump as the presidential nominee. This was the first time Christie had been accused of contemporaneous knowledge of the plot. The George Washington Bridge, a toll bridge, is the busiest motor-vehicle bridge in the world. At the time, there were 29 operating toll lanes, spread among three toll plazas, at the main toll plaza for the upper level, there were twelve toll lanes and a Fort Lee entrance at Martha Washington Way. This local traffic was segregated by movable traffic cones from the traffic of the major highways. There were other Fort Lee street entrances, which did not have dedicated toll lanes, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was overseen by a Board of Commissioners. Chris Christie, a Republican, was first elected Governor of New Jersey in November 2009, during his first term, he appointed Bill Baroni as deputy executive director of the PA. David Wildstein, a politician and political blogger who had known Christie during high school, was hired by Baroni based on Christies referral. As director of capital projects, Wildstein was New Jerseys second highest executive at the Port Authority. During the week of August 4,2013, Christie met with David Samson, on August 13, Bridget Anne Kelly, deputy chief of staff in Christies office, sent an eight-word e-mail to David Wildstein that read, Time for some traffic problems in Fort Lee
17.
George Washington Bridge
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As of 2015, it carried over 106 million vehicles per year, making it the worlds busiest motor vehicle bridge. The speed limit on the bridge is 45 mph, though congestion frequently slows traffic on weekdays and weekends. The bridges upper level also carries pedestrian and bicycle traffic, Interstate 95 and U. S. Route 1/9 cross the river via the bridge. US46, which lies entirely within New Jersey, terminates halfway across the bridge at the border with New York. At its eastern terminus in New York City, the bridge connects with the Trans-Manhattan Expressway, unsuccessful, Washington evacuated Manhattan by crossing between the two forts. Construction on the began in October 1927 as a project of the Port of New York Authority. The bridges chief engineer was Othmar Ammann, with Cass Gilbert as architect, geologists made 300-foot test bores on the New Jersey side to determine if the geological strata would support the bridge. When construction started, the estimated cost of the bridge was $75,000,000 and it was expected to carry 8 million vehicles and 1.5 million pedestrians in its first year of operation. Prior to and while construction, the bridge was unofficially known as the Hudson River Bridge. However, the Port Authority named the bridge after George Washington that year, the bridge was dedicated on October 24,1931, and opened to traffic the following day. It held this title until the opening of the Golden Gate Bridge in 1937, in 1946, two more lanes were created on the current upper level, widening it from the original six lanes. A second, lower deck, which had anticipated in Ammanns original plans, was approved by Lt. Col. Joseph R. McCammon, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. The original design for the towers of the called for them to be encased in concrete and granite. However, because of cost considerations during the Great Depression and favorable aesthetic critiques of the steel towers. The exposed steel towers, with their distinctive criss-crossed bracing, have one of the bridges most identifiable characteristics. Le Corbusier said of the steel structure, The George Washington Bridge over the Hudson is the most beautiful bridge in the world. Made of cables and steel beams, it gleams in the sky like a reversed arch and it is the only seat of grace in the disordered city. It is painted a color and, between water and sky, you see nothing but the bent cord supported by two steel towers
18.
Fort Lee, New Jersey
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Fort Lee is a borough at the eastern border of Bergen County, New Jersey, United States, in the New York City Metropolitan Area, situated atop the Hudson Palisades. The borough is the terminus of the George Washington Bridge and is located across the Hudson River from the Manhattan borough of New York City. Named for the site of an early American Revolutionary War military encampment, according to the United States Census Bureau, the borough had a total area of 2.888 square miles, including 2.541 square miles of land and 0.347 square miles of water. The borough is situated atop the escarpment of the Hudson Palisades on the peninsula between the Hackensack and Hudson rivers, the borough is bisected by the confluence of roads at GWB Plaza leading to the George Washington Bridge. Unincorporated communities, localities and place names located partially or completely within the borough include Coytesville, Palisade, the borough borders Cliffside Park, Edgewater, Englewood, Englewood Cliffs, Leonia, Palisades Park, Ridgefield. and the Washington Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan. It was during Washingtons retreat in November 1776 that Thomas Paine composed his pamphlet, The American Crisis and these events are recalled at Monument Park and Fort Lee Historic Park. Fort Lee was formed by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on March 29,1904, with the creation of Fort Lee, Ridgefield Township became defunct and was dissolved as of March 29,1904. The Fort Lee Police Department was formed under borough ordinance on August 9,1904, the history of cinema in the United States can trace its roots to the East Coast where, at one time, Fort Lee was the motion picture capital of America. The industry got its start at the end of the 19th century with the construction of Thomas Edisons Black Maria, in 1909, a forerunner of Universal Studios, the Champion Film Company, built the first studio. They were quickly followed by others who either built new studios or who leased facilities in Fort Lee, such notables as Mary Pickford got their start at Biograph Studios. With the offshoot businesses that sprang up to service, the film studios, however, just as the development of Fort Lee production facilities were gaining strength, Nestor Studios of Bayonne, New Jersey, built the first studio in Hollywood in 1911. Californias more hospitable and cost-effective climate led to the shift of virtually all filmmaking to the West Coast by the 1930s. At the time, Thomas Edison owned almost all the relevant to motion picture production. Television and film in New Jersey remains an important industry, since 2000, the Fort Lee Film Commission has been charged with celebrating the history of film in Fort Lee, as well as attracting film and television production companies to the borough. In 1957, market researcher James Vicary claimed that quickly flashing messages on a screen, in Fort Lee, had influenced people to purchase more food. Vicary coined the term subliminal advertising and formed the Subliminal Projection Company based on a six-week test, Vicary claimed that during the presentation of the movie Picnic he used a tachistoscope to project the words Drink Coca-Cola and Hungry. Eat popcorn for 1/3000 of a second at five-second intervals, Vicary asserted that during the test, sales of popcorn and Coke in that New Jersey theater increased 57. 8% and 18. 1% respectively. In 1962, Vicary admitted to lying about the experiment and falsifying the results, an identical experiment conducted by Henry Link showed no increase in cola or popcorn sales
19.
Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
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These specifications include the shapes, colors, and fonts used in road markings and signs. In the United States, all control devices must legally conform to these standards. The manual is used by state and local agencies as well as construction firms to ensure that the traffic control devices they use conform to the national standard. While some state agencies have developed their own sets of standards, including their own MUTCDs, the National Committee on Uniform Traffic Control Devices advises the FHWA on additions, revisions, and changes to the MUTCD. However, each highway had its own set of signage, usually designed to promote the highway rather than to assist in the direction, in fact, conflicts between these automobile clubs frequently led to multiple sets of signs—sometimes as many as eleven—being erected on the same highway. They reported their findings to the Mississippi Valley Association of Highway Departments and these suggestions included the familiar circular railroad crossing sign and octagonal stop sign. In 1927, the American Association of State Highway Officials, or AASHO, published the Manual and Specifications for the Manufacture, Display, standard Road Markers and Signs to set standards for traffic control devices used on rural roads. This was followed by the Manual on Street Traffic Signs, Signals, and Markings, the MUTCD was first released in 1935, and set standards for both road signs and pavement markings. In 1966, Congress passed the Highway Safety Act, P. L. 89-564,72 Stat,885, which is now codified at 23 U. S. C. §401 et seq. The penalty for noncompliance was a 10% reduction in funding, in turn, taking advantage of broad rulemaking powers granted in 23 U. S. C. §402, the Department simply adopted the entire MUTCD by reference at 23 C. F. R, thus, what was formerly a quasi-official project became an official one. States are allowed to supplement the MUTCD but must remain in substantial conformance with the national MUTCD, most of the repainting to the 1971 standard was done between 1971 and 1974, with a deadline of 1978 for the changeover of both the markings and signage. Comments were accepted until July 31,2008, the new edition was published in 2009. Proposed additions and revisions to the MUTCD are recommended to FHWA by the National Committee on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, the NCUTCD also recommends interpretations of the MUTCD to other agencies that use the MUTCD, such as state departments of transportation. NCUTCD develops public and professional awareness of the principles of safe traffic control devices and practices, the NCUTCD is supported by twenty-one sponsoring organizations, including transportation and engineering industry groups, safety organizations, and the American Automobile Association. Each sponsoring organization promotes members to serve as voting delegates within the NCUTCD, compared to the Vienna Convention, the MUTCD stresses a consistent color scheme and relatively large, verbose warning signs. MUTCD guide signs tend to be less verbose than their equivalents in Vienna Convention countries, the MUTCD has become widely influential outside the United States, for example, the use of yellow stripes to divide opposing traffic has been widely adopted throughout the Western Hemisphere. Many U. S. states produce their own standards, which take the form of either a manual or supplement to the federal MUTCD
20.
Brightness
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Brightness is an attribute of visual perception in which a source appears to be radiating or reflecting light. In other words, brightness is the perception elicited by the luminance of a visual target and it is not necessarily proportional to luminance. This is a subjective attribute/property of an object being observed and one of the color appearance parameters of color appearance models, brightness refers to an absolute term and should not be confused with Lightness. The adjective bright derives from an Old English beorht with the same meaning via metathesis giving Middle English briht, the word is from a Common Germanic *berhtaz, ultimately from a PIE root with a closely related meaning, *bhereg- white, bright. Brightness was formerly used as a synonym for the term luminance. As defined by the US Federal Glossary of Telecommunication Terms, brightness should now be used only for non-quantitative references to physiological sensations and perceptions of light, a given target luminance can elicit different perceptions of brightness in different contexts, see, for example, Whites illusion. With regard to stars, brightness is quantified as apparent magnitude, brightness is, at least in some respects, the antonym of darkness. The United States Federal Trade Commission has assigned a meaning to brightness when applied to lamps. When appearing on light bulb packages, brightness means Luminous flux, Luminous flux is the total amount of light coming from a source, such as a lighting device. Luminance, the meaning of brightness, is the amount of light per solid angle coming from an area. The table below shows the ways of indicating the amount of light. The term brightness is used in discussions of sound timbres. Luma Luminance Luminosity Media related to brightness at Wikimedia Commons Poyntons Color FAQ
21.
Construction barrel
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Construction barrels are traffic control devices used to channel motor vehicle traffic through construction sites or to warn motorists of construction activity near the roadway. They are used primarily in the United States, but are used in Canada. They are an alternative to traffic cones which are smaller and easily hit by vehicles, drums tend to command more respect from drivers than cones as they are larger, more visible, and give the appearance of being formidable obstacles. Until the late 1980s, construction crews typically used 55-gallon steel drums to guide traffic through construction areas and they were painted orange and white and filled with sand or water to keep them in place. Because the drums were steel and weighed down with sand or water, construction barrels are typically bright orange and have four alternating white and orange reflective bands. Most have a base that prevents the barrel from tipping over during high winds or when struck by a vehicle. Construction barrels have a handle at the top so they can be picked up. The handle also allows crews to install barricade lights to increase visibility, bollard Road traffic control Traffic cone Stabilized barrel-like traffic control element by Jack H. Kulp et al. A1993 improved version of the barrel, on Google Patents
22.
US gallon
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The gallon is a unit of measurement for liquid capacity in both the US customary units and the British imperial systems of measurement. Three significantly different sizes are in current use, the imperial gallon defined as 4, while there is no official symbol for the gallon, gal is in common use. The gallon currently has one definition in the system. Historically, there were many definitions and redefinitions, there were more than a few systems of liquid measurements in the pre-1884 United Kingdom. The imperial fluid ounce is defined as 1⁄160 of a gallon, there are four quarts in a gallon. The US gallon is legally defined as 231 cubic inches, which is exactly 3.785411784 liters, a US liquid gallon of water weighs about 8.34 pounds or 3.78 kilograms at 62 °F, making it about 16. 6% lighter than the imperial gallon. There are four quarts in a gallon, two pints in a quart and 16 US fluid ounces in a US pint, which makes the US fluid ounce equal to 1⁄128 of a US gallon. For example, the volume of products and alcoholic beverages are both referenced to 60 °F in government regulations. This dry measure is one-eighth of a US Winchester bushel of 2150.42 cubic inches, the US dry gallon is not used in commerce, and is not listed in the relevant statute, which jumps from the dry quart to the peck. The Imperial gallon is used in life in the United Kingdom. Gallons used in fuel economy expression in Canada are Imperial gallons, the gallon was removed from the list of legally defined primary units of measure catalogued in the EU directive 80/181/EEC, for trading and official purposes, with effect from 31 December 1994. Under the directive the gallon could still be used – but only as a supplementary or secondary unit, Ireland also passed legislation in response to the EU directive with the effective date being 31 December 1993. Though the gallon has ceased to be the legally defined primary unit, it can still be used in both the UK and Ireland as a supplementary unit. The Imperial gallon continues to be used as a unit of measure in Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Is. Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, Myanmar, St. Kitts & Nevis, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent & the Grenadines. Other than the United States, the US gallon is used in Liberia, Belize, Colombia, The Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Peru. The United Arab Emirates started selling gasoline by the litre in 2010, along with Guyana, the two former had used the Imperial gallon, and the latter the US gallon until they switched. Antigua and Barbuda plan to switch over to using litres by 2015
