1.
French Guiana
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French Guiana, officially called Guiana, is an overseas department and region of France, located on the north Atlantic coast of South America in the Guyanas. It borders Brazil to the east and south, and Suriname to the west. Its 83,534 km2 area has a low population density of only 3 inhabitants per km2, with half of its 244,118 inhabitants in 2013 living in the metropolitan area of Cayenne. By land area, it is the second largest region of France, both the region and the department have been ruled since December 2015 by a single assembly within the framework of a new territorial collectivity, the French Guiana Territorial Collectivity. This assembly, the French Guiana Assembly, has replaced the regional council and departmental council. The French Guiana Assembly is in charge of regional and departmental government, the area was originally inhabited by Native Americans. The first French establishment is recorded in 1503 but the French presence didnt really become durable until 1643, Guiana then became a slave colony and saw its population increase until the official abolition of slavery at the time of the French revolution. During World War II, the Guianan Félix Éboué was one of the first to stand behind General de Gaulle as early as June 18,1940, Guiana officially rallied Free France in 1943. It definitively abandoned its status as a colony and became again a French department in 1946, de Gaulle, who became president, decided to establish the Guiana Space Center in 1965. It is now operated by the CNES, Arianespace and the European Space Agency, several thousand Hmong refugees from Laos migrated to French Guiana in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Nowadays fully integrated in the French central state, Guiana is a part of the European Union, the region is the most prosperous territory in South America with the highest GDP per capita. A large part of Guianas economy derives from the presence of the Guiana Space Centre, as elsewhere in France, the official language is French, but each ethnic community has its own language, of which Guianan Creole is the most widely spoken. Guiana is derived from an Amerindian language and means land of many waters, French Guiana and the two larger countries to the north and west, Guyana and Suriname, are still often collectively referred to as the Guianas and constitute one large shield landmass. French Guiana was originally inhabited by people, Kalina, Arawak, Emerillon, Galibi, Palikur, Wayampi. The French attempted to create a colony there in the 18th century in conjunction with its settlement of some other Caribbean islands, in this penal colony, the convicts were sometimes used as butterfly catchers. During its existence, France transported approximately 56,000 prisoners to Devils Island, fewer than 10% survived their sentence. In addition, in the nineteenth century, France began requiring forced residencies by prisoners who survived their hard labor. A Portuguese-British naval squadron took French Guiana for the Portuguese Empire in 1809 and it was returned to France with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1814
2.
Bus
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A bus is a road vehicle designed to carry many passengers. Buses can have a capacity as high as 300 passengers, many types of buses, such as city transit buses and inter-city coaches, charge a fare. Other types, such as elementary or secondary school buses or shuttle buses within a post-secondary education campus do not charge a fare, in many jurisdictions, bus drivers require a special licence above and beyond a regular drivers licence. Horse-drawn buses were used from the 1820s, followed by steam buses in the 1830s, the first internal combustion engine buses, or motor buses, were used in 1895. Recently, interest has been growing in hybrid electric buses, fuel cell buses, as of the 2010s, bus manufacturing is increasingly globalised, with the same designs appearing around the world. Bus is a form of the Latin word omnibus. The first horse-drawn omnibus service was started by a businessman named Stanislas Baudry in the French city of Nantes in 1823, Nantes citizens soon gave the nickname omnibus to the vehicle. The omnibus in Nantes was a success and Baudry moved to Paris, a similar service was introduced in London in 1829. The first mechanically propelled omnibus appeared on the streets of London on 22 April 1833, in parallel to the development of the bus was the invention of the electric trolleybus, typically fed through trolley poles by overhead wires. The Siemens brothers, William in England and Ernst Werner in Germany, sir William first proposed the idea in an article to the Journal of the Society of Arts in 1881 as an. arrangement by which an ordinary omnibus. The first such vehicle, the Electromote, was made by his brother Dr. Ernst Werner von Siemens and presented to the public in 1882 in Halensee, Germany. Although this experimental vehicle fulfilled all the criteria of a typical trolleybus. Max Schiemann opened a trolleybus in 1901 near Dresden, in Germany. Although this system operated only until 1904, Schiemann had developed what is now the standard trolleybus current collection system, in the early days, a few other methods of current collection were used. Leeds and Bradford became the first cities to put trolleybuses into service in Great Britain on 20 June 1911, in Siegerland, Germany, two passenger bus lines ran briefly, but unprofitably, in 1895 using a six-passenger motor carriage developed from the 1893 Benz Viktoria. Another commercial bus line using the same model Benz omnibuses ran for a time in 1898 in the rural area around Llandudno. Daimler also produced one of the earliest motor-bus models in 1898, the vehicle had a maximum speed of 18 kph and accommodated up to 20 passengers, in an enclosed area below and on an open-air platform above. With the success and popularity of bus, Daimler expanded production, selling more buses to companies in London and, in 1899, to Stockholm
3.
Cayenne
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Cayenne is the capital city of French Guiana, an overseas region and department of France located in South America. The city stands on an island at the mouth of the Cayenne River on the Atlantic coast. The citys motto is fert aurum industria which means work brings wealth, at the 2012 census, there were 121,308 inhabitants in the metropolitan area of Cayenne,55,198 of whom lived in the city of Cayenne proper. Cayenne is located on the banks of the estuary of the Cayenne River on the Atlantic Ocean, the city occupies part of the Cayenne Island. It is located 268 kilometres from Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni and 64 kilometres from Kourou, distances to some cities, Paris,7,100 kilometres. Fort-de-France, capital of Martinique,1,500 kilometres, paramaribo, capital of Suriname,342 kilometres to the northwest. Macapá, capital of the state of Amapá, Brazil,554 kilometres to the southeast, ignored by Spanish explorers, who found the region too hot and poor to be claimed, the region was not colonized until 1604, when a French settlement was founded. However, it was destroyed by the Portuguese, who were determined to enforce the provisions of the Treaty of Tordesillas. French colonists returned in 1643 and founded Cayenne, but they were forced to once more following Amerindian attacks. In 1664, France finally succeeded at establishing a permanent settlement at Cayenne, over the next decade the colony changed hands between the French, Dutch, and English, before being restored to France. It was captured by an Anglo-Portuguese force at the invasion of Cayenne in 1809 and administered from Brazil until 1814 and it was used as a French penal colony from 1854 to 1938. The citys population has grown dramatically, owing to high levels of immigration as well as a high birthrate. Health conditions in Cayenne and French Guiana are generally good, the principal illnesses that cause mortality are circulatory, infectious and parasitic diseases, as well as cancer. A branch of the Pasteur Institute in Paris, located in Cayenne, conducts research on tropical, life expectancy averages about 76 years for men and 83 years for women. Cayenne is an important seaport in South America, the major port of Dégrad des Cannes, is on the estuary of the river Mahury, replacing Larivot and the Îles du Salut. Timber, rosewood essence, rum, and gold are exported in small quantities, in the mid-1960s sugarcane and pineapple were planted around the city, and a pineapple cannery and a shrimp-processing plant were later built. A seafront avenue links Cayenne with the suburbs of Chaton and Montabo, where the French Institute of Tropical America, historic landmarks include the Church of the Holy Saviour and a prefecture on the Place d’Armes. The Félix Eboué International Airport is the only International airport serving Cayenne, Cayenne is very ethnically diverse, with Creole, Haitian, Brazilian, European, and Hmong and other Asian communities
4.
Air conditioning
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Air conditioning is the process of removing heat from a confined space, thus cooling the air, and removing humidity. Air conditioning can be used in domestic and commercial environments. Air conditioners often use a fan to distribute the air to an occupied space such as a building or a car to improve thermal comfort. The cooling is achieved through a refrigeration cycle, but sometimes evaporation or free cooling is used. Air conditioning systems can also be based on desiccants and subterraneous pipes that can distribute the heated refrigerant to the ground for cooling. In the most general sense, air conditioning can refer to any form of technology that modifies the condition of air, in common usage, though, air conditioning refers to systems which cool air. In construction, a system of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning is referred to as heating, ventilation. Since prehistoric times, snow and ice were used for cooling, the business of harvesting ice during winter and storing for use in summer became popular towards the late 17th century. This practice was replaced by mechanical ice-making machines, the basic concept behind air conditioning is said to have been applied in ancient Egypt, where reeds were hung in windows and were moistened with trickling water. The evaporation of water cooled the air blowing through the window and this process also made the air more humid, which can be beneficial in a dry desert climate. In Ancient Rome, water from aqueducts was circulated through the walls of houses to cool them. Other techniques in medieval Persia involved the use of cisterns and wind towers to cool buildings during the hot season. The 2nd-century Chinese inventor Ding Huan of the Han Dynasty invented a fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3 m in diameter. During the subsequent Song Dynasty, written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used, in the 17th century, Cornelis Drebbel demonstrated Turning Summer into Winter for James I of England by adding salt to water. The introduction of air conditioning in the 1920s helped enable the great migration to the Sun Belt in the United States. In 1758, Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley, a professor at Cambridge University. Franklin and Hadley confirmed that evaporation of volatile liquids could be used to drive down the temperature of an object past the freezing point of water. They conducted their experiment with the bulb of a mercury thermometer as their object and they lowered the temperature of the thermometer bulb down to −14 °C while the ambient temperature was 18 °C
5.
Air Guyane Express
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Air Guyane SP is a French airline with its head office on the grounds of Cayenne-Rochambeau Airport in Matoury, French Guiana. Its main base is Cayenne-Rochambeau Airport, on 1 June 2002 Air Guyane Express took over the operations of the former Air Guyane. It also operates in the French Antilles with 2 ATR42 aircraft on routes between Fort-de-France, Pointe-à-Pitre, Saint Martin and Sainte Lucie under the name of Air Antilles Express, since June 2009, Air Guyane is called Compagnie Aérienne Inter Régionale Express, listed on Euronext, MLAAE
6.
Maripasoula
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Maripasoula is a commune of French Guiana, an overseas region and department of France located in South America. With a land area of 18,360 km2, Maripasoula is the largest commune of France, geographic Information of Maripasoula, Area of 18,360.00 km² or 7088.84 sq mi The town is located 100 metres above sea level. Minimum altitude 66 metres Maximum elevation 828 metres Average altitude 447 metres Time Zone, UTC -3,00 Summer time, mayor of Maripasoula is called sir Robert Balla. For all your administrative tasks, you can go to City Hall Avenue Leonard Domerger, the municipality is part of the Ouest Guyanais community of communes. Its inhabitants are known in French as Maripasouliens and Maripasouliennes, the town has 4,538 inhabitants from the last population census from 2004. With a density of 0.2 inhabitants per km², Maripasoula was a increase of 24. 3% of its population by 1999. Male 52. 5% Female 47. 5% Old name of the town was Upper Maroni, Maripasoula territory belongs to the Guiana Amazonian Park. Petroglyphs of the Maroni river, engraved rocks, including their field of plate, roche main site identified in 1948. Shelter and painted shelters with archaeological remains of the Inselberg Susky, communes of the Guyane department INSEE Pictures from panoramio. com
7.
Taxicab
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A taxicab, also known as a taxi or a cab, is a type of vehicle for hire with a driver, used by a single passenger or small group of passengers, often for a non-shared ride. A taxicab conveys passengers between locations of their choice, Taxicab is a compound word formed from contractions of taximeter and cabriolet. Taximeter is an adaptation of the German word taxameter, which was itself a variant of the earlier German word, taxe is a German word meaning tax, charge, or scale of charges. The Medieval Latin word, taxa, also means tax or charge, meter is from the Greek metron meaning measure. A cabriolet is a type of carriage, from the French word cabrioler, from Italian capriolare. Both instituted fast and reliable postal services across Europe, the taxicabs of Paris were equipped with the first meters beginning on March 9,1898. They were originally called taxamètres, then renamed taximètres on October 17,1904, horse-drawn for-hire hackney carriage services began operating in both Paris and London in the early 17th century. The first documented public hackney coach service for hire was in London in 1605, in 1625 carriages were made available for hire from innkeepers in London and the first taxi rank appeared on the Strand outside the Maypole Inn in 1636. In 1635 the Hackney Carriage Act was passed by Parliament to legalise horse-drawn carriages for hire, coaches were hired out by innkeepers to merchants and visitors. A further Ordinance for the Regulation of Hackney-Coachmen in London and the places adjacent was approved by Parliament in 1654, a similar service was started by Nicolas Sauvage in Paris in 1637. His vehicles were known as fiacres, as the vehicle depot apparently was opposite a shrine to Saint Fiacre. The hansom cab was designed and patented in 1834 by Joseph Hansom, Hansoms original design was modified by John Chapman and several others to improve its practicability, but retained Hansoms name. These soon replaced the hackney carriage as a vehicle for hire and they quickly spread to other cities in the United Kingdom, as well as continental European cities, particularly Paris, Berlin, and St Petersburg. The cab was introduced to other British Empire cities and to the United States during the late 19th century, being most commonly used in New York City. The first cab service in Toronto, The City, was established in 1837 by Thornton Blackburn, Electric battery-powered taxis became available at the end of the 19th century. Bersey designed a fleet of cabs and introduced them to the streets of London on 19 August 1897. They were soon nicknamed Hummingbirds’ due to the idiosyncratic humming noise they made, in the same year in New York City, the Samuels Electric Carriage and Wagon Company began running 12 electric hansom cabs. The company ran until 1898 with up to 62 cabs operating until it was reformed by its financiers to form the Electric Vehicle Company, the modern taximeter was invented and perfected by a trio of German inventors, Wilhelm Friedrich Nedler, Ferdinand Dencker and Friedrich Wilhelm Gustav Bruhn
8.
Minibus
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A minibus, microbus, or minicoach is a passenger carrying motor vehicle that is designed to carry more people than a multi-purpose vehicle or minivan, but fewer people than a full-size bus. In the United Kingdom, the minibus is used to describe any full-sized passenger carrying van. Minibuses have a capacity of between 8 and 30 seats. Larger minibuses may be called midibuses, minibuses are typically front-engined step-entrance vehicles, although low floor minibuses do exist. Minibuses are used for a variety of reasons, in a public transport role, they can be used as fixed route transit buses, airport buses, flexible demand responsive transport vehicles, share taxis or large taxicabs. Accessible minibuses can also be used for paratransit services, by local authorities, transit operators. Private uses of minibuses can include corporate transport, charter buses, schools, sports clubs, community groups and charities may also use minibuses for private transport. Individual owners may use reduced seating minibuses as cheap recreational vehicles, by size, microbuses are minibuses smaller than 8 metres long. Midibuses are minibuses bigger than microbuses but smaller than plenibuses, there are many different types and configurations of minibuses, due to historical and local differences, and usage. Minibus designs can be classified in three groups, with a general increase in seating capacity with each type, Van conversions. Simple, optional extras Body builds Purpose built The most basic source of minibus is the van conversion, Van conversions involve adding windows to the bodywork, and seating to the cargo area. Van conversion minibuses outwardly look the same shape as the parent van, access to the former cargo area for passengers is through the standard van side sliding door, or the rear doors. These may be fitted with equipment to make boarding easier. Optional extras to van converted minibuses can include the addition of a rollsign for transit work, for public transport use, this door may be an automatic concertina type. For other uses, this may be a simple plug style coach door, depending on the relevant legislation, conversions may also involve wheelchair lifts and tachograph equipment. A van conversion with an area in the front and a storage area in the back. These allow a higher seating capacity than a simple van conversion, often, the second stage manufacturer is a bus manufacturer. In a body-on-chassis minibus, a body is installed on a van or light truck chassis encompassing the drivers area
9.
Randomness
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Randomness is the lack of pattern or predictability in events. A random sequence of events, symbols or steps has no order, individual random events are by definition unpredictable, but in many cases the frequency of different outcomes over a large number of events is predictable. For example, when throwing two dice, the outcome of any particular roll is unpredictable, but a sum of 7 will occur twice as often as 4. In this view, randomness is a measure of uncertainty of an outcome, rather than haphazardness, and applies to concepts of chance, probability, the fields of mathematics, probability, and statistics use formal definitions of randomness. In statistics, a variable is an assignment of a numerical value to each possible outcome of an event space. This association facilitates the identification and the calculation of probabilities of the events, Random variables can appear in random sequences. A random process is a sequence of variables whose outcomes do not follow a deterministic pattern. These and other constructs are extremely useful in probability theory and the applications of randomness. Randomness is most often used in statistics to signify well-defined statistical properties, Monte Carlo methods, which rely on random input, are important techniques in science, as, for instance, in computational science. By analogy, quasi-Monte Carlo methods use quasirandom number generators, Random selection is a method of selecting items from a population where the probability of choosing a specific item is the proportion of those items in the population. For example, with a bowl containing just 10 red marbles and 90 blue marbles, note that a random selection mechanism that selected 10 marbles from this bowl would not necessarily result in 1 red and 9 blue. In situations where a population consists of items that are distinguishable and that is, if the selection process is such that each member of a population, of say research subjects, has the same probability of being chosen then we can say the selection process is random. In ancient history, the concepts of chance and randomness were intertwined with that of fate, many ancient peoples threw dice to determine fate, and this later evolved into games of chance. Most ancient cultures used various methods of divination to attempt to circumvent randomness, the Chinese of 3000 years ago were perhaps the earliest people to formalize odds and chance. The Greek philosophers discussed randomness at length, but only in non-quantitative forms and it was only in the 16th century that Italian mathematicians began to formalize the odds associated with various games of chance. The invention of the calculus had a impact on the formal study of randomness. The early part of the 20th century saw a growth in the formal analysis of randomness. In the mid- to late-20th century, ideas of information theory introduced new dimensions to the field via the concept of algorithmic randomness
10.
Saint-Laurent du Maroni
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Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni is a commune of French Guiana, an overseas region and department of France located in South America. Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni is one of the two sub-prefectures of French Guiana and the seat of the Arrondissement of Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni and it is the second most populous city of French Guiana, with 40,462 inhabitants at the Jan.2011 census. Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni is a town in north-west French Guiana. It is located on the Maroni River, opposite the town of Albina in Suriname which can be reached by ferry or pirogue, maroons will mostly be found in the neighbourhoods called la Charbonnière, les Vampires and les Sables Blancs. Amerindians are located in a few villages on the outskirts of town, Balaté, Paddock, Prospérité, Terre Rouge, Espérance, Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni can be accessed chiefly by road, the Route Nationale 1, from Cayenne. A new port was built on the Maroni, but currently lacks proper wharf infrastructure. The Saint-Maurice airfield is no longer in use by commercial flights, the Saint-Jean road links Saint-Laurent to Saint-Jean-du-Maroni and the military base there. A new road, starting from the Plateau des Mines, is currently under construction to link St Laurent to Apatou, road work is due to be completed by 2008. Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni features a tropical rainforest climate, the temperatures are uniform throughout the year. It has an amount of rain throughout the year, classifying it as a rainforest climate as all months have more than 2.4 inches of rain per month. Founded in 1858, it was formerly the arrival point for prisoners, the sugarcane fields near town produce La Belle Cabresse rum for the Saint Maurice rum company. The rum is 50 to 55% proof and of high quality, on the road to Saint-Jean-du-Maroni, one can find many small shops owned by Saramakas selling the woodwork for which they are famous - especially chairs and tables. There is also a village of Maroon artisans on the road to Javouhey, the town is also an important port of departure for those going inland via pirogue or to Albina in Suriname by ferry or pirogue. Another possibility is visiting the Voltaire Falls, situated 70 km upriver, most of these buildings are located on Avenue De Gaulle, Avenue Lieutenant-Colonel Tourtet and the Boulevard Mallouet. It soon became a major tourist attraction, with the Camp de la Transportation its star, other notable sights from the penitentiary years include Saint-Jean-du-Maroni, formerly the Camp de la Relégation and todays main military HQ for western French Guiana. There is also an island in the middle of the Maroni River which used to house the prisoners affected with leprosy. Papillon wrote about hiding there during one of his daring escapes, notable sights not related to the prisons, La Charbonnière, Maroon village founded by refugees from Surinames civil war. Larche de Noé, a small zoo not far from town, there are many hotels in St Laurent, including the Auberge Bois Diable, Chez Julienne, Hôtel la Tentiaire, Le Relais des 3 Lacs and Star Hôtel
11.
Mana
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Mana is a word found in Austronesian languages meaning power, effectiveness, prestige, where in most cases the power is understood to be supernatural. The exact semantics depends on the language, the concept is a major one in Polynesian cultures. It is part of contemporary Pacific Islander culture, the term came to the attention of western anthropologists through the reports of missionaries in the islands. Its study was included in the topic of anthropology, specifically in the anthropology of religion. Links were seen between it and a phase of western religion, animism at first, then pre-animism. In recent decades, the method, has been enhanced by the application of phylogenetic method. In it, as applied to linguistics, linguistic features take the place of molecular sequences, in linguistic phylogenetic comparisons, the desired result is percentages of similarity between languages, from which a tree structure may be reconstructed. Each branch may be termed a level and represents a proto-language, the method begins with a database of features to be compared. Software exists to make various types of comparisons, the results depend to a large degree of the type of data selected and the method of comparison. The Polynesian Lexicon Project, initiated in 1965 by Bruce Biggs, by comparison of words from the oceanic languages collected in the lexicon, it assesses levels of proto-language in the phylogenetic tree. According to the POLLEX project, a protoform for mana, noted in historical linguistic convention as *mana-, existed in a Proto-Oceanic language, the exact path through the tree from Proto-Oceanic to any specific language of the group is not always clear. The word and concept, however, about as they are today, are thousands of years old, as Oceanic-speaking peoples spread eastward, the notion of an unseen supernatural agency became detached from the physical forces of nature that had inspired it and assumed a life of its own. Robert Codrington, a missionary, travelled widely in Melanesia, publishing several studies of the language and this idea was arriving in a milieu that had already defined animism, the concept that the energy, or life, in an object comes from a spiritual component, the anima. Georg Ernst Stahls animismus of the 18th century had adopted by the founder of cultural anthropology. He had presented his ideas on the history of religion in ’Researches into the Early History of Mankind’,1865. He developed them more fully in ’Primitive Culture’, Volume I, in Tylors time, the major themes of evolution were rapidly replacing earlier views based on Biblical scholarship. Biological evolution, proposed by Darwin and Wallace, hypothesized a gradual modification of species to new species. By the methods of comparative anatomy, it concluded to a progression from simpler and generally less capable forms to more complex
12.
Iracoubo
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Iracoubo is a commune on the coast of French Guiana, an overseas region and department of France located in South America. The settlement of Iracoubo, seat of the commune, is located between the settlement of Sinnamary and the hamlet of Organabo, the village of Bellevue is 5 km west of Iracoubo. There is a church dating from 1893 in the town. Communes of the Guyane department INSEE Images of Iracoubo
13.
Sinnamary
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Sinnamary is a town and commune on the coast of French Guiana, between Kourou and Iracoubo. Sinnamary was the second French settlement to be founded in French Guiana and it lies on the Sinnamary River. The town contains an Indonesian community, as well as a Galibi Amerindian community, both communities produce artwork and jewellery that can be purchased. The main hotel in Sinnamary is the Hôtel du Fleuve, the Guianan Soyuz launch site is situated within the territory of the Sinnamary commune. Colloquially the site and/or project are thus sometimes called Soyuz at Sinnamary, communes of the Guyane department Guiana Space Center INSEE Images of Sinnamary
14.
Kourou
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Kourou is a commune in French Guiana, an overseas region and department of France located in South America. In addition to being a district in French Guiana, it is also the main town in that district. Within the Kourou district lies the Guiana Space Centre, France, some 60 km northwest of the French Guyanese capital Cayenne the Kourou River empties into the Atlantic Ocean. At the mouth of this sits the town of Kourou. There are three lakes within the city limits, Lake Bois Diable, Lake Marie-Claire, and Lake Bois Chaudat. Long white sand beaches and some rocky outcrops line the towns ocean coast, the town had a fast-growing population of 25,918 inhabitants at the 2007 census. Much of it burned down in a fire in 2006, Guiana in general has a high level of crime compared to the rest of Frances départements, Kourou has an average of two armed robberies a day. A march protesting the high level of insecurity felt by most of the population was held in Kourou on 27 October 2006, shopkeepers of Chinese descent in particular are often targeted by armed robbers, their cash registers emptied and some products stolen. Kourou is the port of departure for those going to the îles du Salut and it is also common for many to go up the river in canoes on weekends to camp in the forest. The Guiana Space Centre, where the European Space Agency starts missions, is located a little behind, part of the town and the islands are closed during rocket launches. Not much is known of the pre-colonial era, the area was mostly populated by Kalina, or Galibi before the arrival of the French in the late 17th century. There is a place not far from the town called les Roches Gravées, vicente Yáñez Pinzón sailed along most of the north coast of South America and passed by the current location of Kourou in 1500. The Society of Jesus was disbanded in 1762, however, the mission at Kourou being abandoned by the Jesuits, the engineers Mentelle and Tugny designed the layout of the future town. This resulted in the called the Bourg, around the Church of Saint Catherine. That same year,1763, as agreed in the Treaty of Paris, having lost their largest and richest colony, the French decided to send a large expedition to Guiana, commanded by Choiseul. Around 10,000 to 12,000 people, mostly Frenchmen, tempted by stories of an El Dorado on the side of the ocean. The small town, surrounded by marshes and rainforest, was unprepared for such an influx of people. Those remaining fled to the îles du Salut, free of mosquitoes due to constant winds, previously they had been known as the îles du Diable, and one of the islands retains the name to this day
15.
Macouria
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Macouria is a commune of French Guiana located midway between Cayenne and Kourou, an overseas region and department of France located in South America. The seat of the commune is the settlement of Tonate, Macouria is one of the smallest cities of French Guiana. The city is separated in the east with Matoury, by the Larivot Bridge and its southern limit is marked by the Montsinéry river, which is a serperation with the eponymous city. Westward there is Kourou and in the north the city is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean, the population is mainly located south and along the national road RN1 because of 2 km wide mangrove swamp situated in the North. From the Larivot bridge to the city center, on approximately 28 km, from the city center to Kourou, there are few inhabitants except in the farming areas of La Césarée and Matiti. The main inhabited zones are, Maillard, a neighborhood which will host 600 houses on the run organized around the blue lake. Soula, located in the East of the city not far away from Cayenne, Matiti, situated 10 km after the city center, it is based on land given back by the space center. In the middle of the 19th century, Macouria was part of the canton of Cayenne,1488 slaves stood for 93% of the population of the neighborhood led by Jean-Baptiste Tonat. They worked in a plantation called La Béarnaise. On it, there were,25 ha of sugar cane 8 ha of cofe 60 ha of roucou 1100 ha of cotton In tribute to the leader of the neighborhood Tonat, the zone was called Tonate Bourg and given to the state. In 1848, year of the abolition of some free Africans and 55 Indian migrants arrived in the city. From 1864 to 197 the population decreased, mainly because of the lake of activity on it, communes of the Guyane department INSEE
16.
Remire-Montjoly
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Remire-Montjoly is a commune of French Guiana, an overseas region and department of France located in South America. Remire-Montjoly is a suburb of Cayenne, the préfecture and largest city of French Guiana and it is located to the south-east of Cayenne. Residential districts spread along some of the best beaches in the Cayenne area, Cayenne and French Guianas main seaport, the port of Dégrad des Cannes, is located in the commune of Remire-Montjoly, on the estuary of the Mahury River. Almost all of French Guianas imports and exports pass through the port of Dégrad des Cannes, communes of the Guyane department Dégrad des Cannes INSEE
17.
Matoury
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Matoury is a commune of French Guiana, an overseas region and department of France located in South America. Matoury is a suburb of Cayenne, the préfecture and largest city of French Guiana. Cayenne – Félix Eboué Airport, the international airport of French Guiana, is located in the commune of Matoury. Air Guyane Express has its office on the grounds of the airport. Matoury is located in French Guiana situated in South America, indeed, it is home to Amerindians, to Creols, Metropolitans, Haïtians, Brazilians, Surinamese, Javanese, Chinese, Businenge and people from England Antilles such as St-Lucia. The town planning of Matoury is very uneven, outside the town-centre there are some urbanized areas along the axes leading to Cayenne, Macouria and Cayenne – Félix Eboué Airport. Besides, the PROGT, the Balata professional lyceum are surrounded by the forest. However, the city is urbanizing fast as a town near Cayenne which the main city of French Guiana. 4% are main home,7. 2% are second home and 13. 7% are unoccupied. Matoury has a Tropical rainforest climate, in 1838, during the colonial era, the District of Matoury was the third of the French Guiana colony thanks to its large and diversely cultivated areas. The main productions were sugarcane, cotton, clove, achiote, the Macaye-Duchassis habitation which used to be a cacao and sugar plantation The Lamirande manufacture in Lamirande, next to the PROGT, which used produced sugar and rum between 1927 and 1950. Gabriel Serville has been Mayor of the city since 2014 and deputy to the French National Assembly since 2012, communes of the Guyane department INSEE
18.
Roura
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Roura is a commune of French Guiana, an overseas region and department of France located in South America. The city of Roura is bordered by Matoury and Montsinéry-Tonnegrande in the North, Kourou and Saint-Elie in the North West and West, the city of Roura is home to 2 main roads. The RD6 road leads to the stage of Kaw. This 70 km long road follows a thalweg through the primal forest. The N2 road leads to Régina and Saint-Georges cities, communes of the Guyane department INSEE
19.
Canoe
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A canoe is a lightweight narrow boat, typically pointed at both ends and open on top, propelled by one or more seated or kneeling paddlers facing the direction of travel using a single-bladed paddle. In International Canoe Federation nomenclature used in some European countries such as the United Kingdom the term refers to kayaks. Canoes are used for racing, whitewater canoeing, touring and camping, freestyle, the intended use of the canoe dictates its hull shape and length and construction material. Historically, canoes were dugouts or made of bark on a wood frame, most modern canoes are made of molded plastic or composites such as fiberglass. Until the mid-1800s the canoe was an important means of transport for exploration and trade, canoeing has been part of the Olympics since 1936. In places where the played a key role in history, such as the northern United States, Canada, and New Zealand. Canoes can be adapted to many purposes, for example with the addition of sails, outboard motors, the word canoe comes from the Carib kenu, via the Spanish canoa. Constructed between 8200 and 7600 BC, and found in the Netherlands, the Pesse canoe may be the oldest known canoe, excavations in Denmark reveal the use of dugouts and paddles during the Ertebølle period. Australian Aboriginal people made canoes using a variety of materials, including bark, the indigenous people of the Amazon commonly used Hymenaea trees. Many indigenous peoples of the Americas built bark canoes and they were usually skinned with birch bark over a light wooden frame, but other types could be used if birch was scarce. At a typical length of 4.3 m and weight of 23 kg, although susceptible to damage from rocks, they are easily repaired. When you reach them you load canoe and baggage upon your shoulders and go overland until the navigation is good, and then you put your canoe back into the water, and embark again. American painter, author and traveler George Catlin wrote that the canoe was the most beautiful. Native American groups of the north Pacific coast made dugout canoes in a number of styles for different purposes, from western red-cedar or yellow-cedar, different styles were required for ocean-going vessels versus river boats, and for whale-hunting versus seal-hunting versus salmon-fishing. The Quinault of Washington State built shovel-nose canoes, with double bows, the Kootenai of British Columbia province made sturgeon-nosed canoes from pine bark, designed to be stable in windy conditions on Kootenay Lake. The first explorer to cross the North American continent, Alexander Mackenzie, used extensively, as did David Thompson. Its dimensions were, length approximately 11 m, beam 1.2 to 1.8 m and it could carry 60 packs weighing 41 kg, and 910 kg of provisions. With a crew of eight or ten, they could make three knots over calm waters, four to six men could portage it, bottom up
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Oiapoque
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Oiapoque is a municipality in the north of the state of Amapá, Brazil. Its population is 20,226 and its area is 22,625 square kilometres, Oiapoque is also a major river in the same state, forming the international border with French Guiana. The Oyapock River Bridge, connecting the village with Saint-Georges in French Guiana, was constructed, lying on the northern coast of Brazil, Oiapoque is popularly considered the northernmost point of Brazil. The phrase do Oiapoque ao Chuí means all of Brazil, however, there are more northerly points in Roraima state such as the municipality of Uiramutã. Oiapoque remains the northernmost coastal city of Brazil, and the northernmost city of Amapá and it occupies more than half of the north border of the state. The Oiapoque River is said to have been found by Vicente Yáñez Pinzón in the first years of the 16th century and it has been called Japoc, Yapoc, Iapoco, and even Vicente Pinzón River. The name Oiapoque was officially used from 1900, when a dispute between Brazil and France was resolved through Swiss diplomatic arbitration. At the beginning of the 20th century, the village of Oiapoque hosted a political and criminal concentration camp called Clevelândia, in 1922 an agricultural outpost called the Núcleo Colonial Cleveland was transformed into a camp during the presidency of Arthur Bernardes. Many Brazilian anarchist militants were sentenced to hard labour here, of the 946 prisoners interned at Clevelândia between 1924 and 1927,491 died. Many of the returned to São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro permanently sickened with malaria. Oiapoque is bordered to the west by its long frontier with French Guiana and it is bordered to the north by the Atlantic Ocean. On its eastern and southern sides it borders the municipalities of Calçoene, Serra do Navio, Pedra Branca do Amapari, the municipality contains 24. 15% of the 2,369,400 hectares Amapá State Forest, a sustainable use conservation unit established in 2006. Oiapoque City Hall official website Oiapoque, Brazil Weatherunderground
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Maroni (river)
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The Maroni or Marowijne is a river in South America that forms the border between French Guiana) and Suriname. The Maroni runs through the Guianan moist forests ecoregion and it originates in the Tumuk Humak Mountains and forms the border between France and Suriname. In its upper reaches, it is known as the Lawa River. There are two nature preserves located in the region on the Surinamese side of the river, near the village of Galibi. They provide protection for the birds and the Leatherback Sea Turtles that hatch there, in 1860, the question was posed from the French side, which of the two tributary rivers was the headwater, and thus the border. A joint French-Dutch commission was appointed to review the issue, the Dutch side of the commission consisted of J. H. Baron van Heerdt tot Eversberg, J. F. A, cateau van Rosevelt and August Kappler. Luits Vidal, Ronmy, Boudet and Dr. Rech composed the French side, thus, the Lawa River was the headwater of the Maroni River. There were no problems with this decision until 1885, however, the discovery of gold in the area between the Lawa and the Tapanahony created a new border conflict. On 29 November 1888, France and the Netherlands reached an agreement that the conflict should be subject to arbitration, czar Alexander III of Russia, acting as the arbitrator, decided that the Lawa was the headwater of the Maroni, and thus should be considered the border. However, this created another issue as to which river is the source of the Lawa. The Netherlands considered the Marowini to be the source of the Lawa and this issue has still not been resolved. The Litani originates in the Tumuk Humak Mountains at approximately 2½° N 55° W, along its path it is fed by Koele Koelebreek, the Lokereek, the Mapaonikreek and the Oelemari. The Marowini also has its source in the Tumuk Humak Mountains, at approximately 2° N, 54° W, it absorbs the Koelebreek. The Maroni basin is 68,700 km², above the island ‘’Langatabbetje’’ this area is 63,700 km², between 1952 and 1973, the average flow rate near ‘’Langatabbetje’’ was about 1,700 m³/second. The minimum was 95 m³/second, the maximum 6,550 m³/second, the estuary is approximately 90 km long, the average tidal range in the estuary is 2 m, in the dry season, the salt reaches about 40 km upstream to the town of Albina. The estimated potential hydro power for Suriname is between 1150 and 1250 megawatts, the Maroni is the most extensively studied of all the rivers in Suriname. In the 18th century more extensive excursions took place, by Mentell, Patris, Le Blond and Heneman and in the 19th century by Zegelaar, Jules Crevaux, Coudreau, Ten Kate, Joost and others
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Albina, Suriname
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Albina is a town in eastern Suriname, and is capital of the Marowijne District. Albina can be reached by bus via the East-West Link, the distance between Paramaribo and Albina is about 150 kilometres. Because of the war in the half of the 1980s a great part of the area including the road to Albina was destroyed. Much of Albina was destroyed during the Maroon rebellions in the 1980s–1990s, the town has a small airport, the Albina Airstrip, with a 650-metre asphalt runway in use since 1953. Albina has a boat connection to Galibi. The journey across the water takes about 1.5 hrs, there is a beach and a small tourist shop. The main reason tourists visit Galibi is to see the turtles, poachers also come, to collect the eggs to sell them on the market
23.
Guiana Space Centre
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The Guiana Space Centre or, more commonly, Centre Spatial Guyanais is a French and European spaceport to the northwest of Kourou in French Guiana. The European Space Agency, the French space agency CNES, and this was the spaceport used by the ESA to send supplies to the International Space Station using the Automated Transfer Vehicle. The location was selected in 1964 to become the spaceport of France, in 1975, France offered to share Kourou with ESA. Commercial launches are bought also by non-European companies, ESA pays two thirds of the spaceports annual budget and has also financed the upgrades made during the development of the Ariane launchers. Since April 4,2017, the centre has been occupied by 30 labor union leaders in the midst of the 2017 social unrest in French Guiana, Kourou is located approximately 500 kilometres north of the equator, at a latitude of 5°10. The near-equatorial launch location provides an advantage for launches to low-inclination Earth orbits compared to launches from spaceports at higher latitude, the proximity to the equator also makes maneuvering satellites for geosynchronous orbits simpler and less costly. Originally built in the 1960s under the name of CECLES, the ELV pad located at 5. 236°N52. 775°W /5.236, one Europa-II was launched from the site, before the programme was cancelled. The pad was demolished, and subsequently rebuilt as the first launch complex for Ariane rockets, renamed ELA, it was used for Ariane 1 and Ariane 2 and 3 launches until being retired in 1989. It was again refurbished for the Vega with the first launch performed on 13 February 2012, the ELA2 pad, located at 5. 232°N52. 776°W /5.232, -52.776 had been used for Ariane 4 launches until 2003. ELA3 has been active for Ariane 5 launches since 1996 and this facility is located at 5. 239°N52. 768°W /5.239, -52.768 and covers an area of 21 square kilometres. ESA has built ELS at 5. 305°N52. 834°W /5.305, the first Soyuz launch from ELS was postponed several times, but launched on October 21,2011. ELS is located on the territory of Sinnamary commune,27 km from Kourou harbor and it is 10 km north of the site used for the Ariane 5 launches. Russia will use the Guiana Space Centre in addition to Baikonur Cosmodrome, the Guiana location has the significant benefit of greatly increased payload capability, owing to the near equatorial position. A Soyuz rocket with a 1.7 tonnes to geostationary transfer orbit performance from Baikonur, the ELS project is being co-funded by Arianespace, ESA, and the European Union, with CNES being the prime contractor. The project has a projected cost of approximately €320 million, where €120 million are allocated for modernizing the Soyuz vehicle, the official opening of the launch site construction occurred on 27 February 2007. Excavation work however, had begun several months beforehand. By October 2010,18 launch contracts had been signed, Arianespace has ordered 24 launchers from Russian industry. On October 21,2011, two Galileo IOV-1 & IOV-2 satellites were launched using a Soyuz-ST rocket, in the first Russian Soyuz vehicle ever launched from Europes Spaceport in French Guiana, astrium assembles each Ariane 5 launcher in the Launcher Integration Building
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Cayenne, French Guiana
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Cayenne is the capital city of French Guiana, an overseas region and department of France located in South America. The city stands on an island at the mouth of the Cayenne River on the Atlantic coast. The citys motto is fert aurum industria which means work brings wealth, at the 2012 census, there were 121,308 inhabitants in the metropolitan area of Cayenne,55,198 of whom lived in the city of Cayenne proper. Cayenne is located on the banks of the estuary of the Cayenne River on the Atlantic Ocean, the city occupies part of the Cayenne Island. It is located 268 kilometres from Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni and 64 kilometres from Kourou, distances to some cities, Paris,7,100 kilometres. Fort-de-France, capital of Martinique,1,500 kilometres, paramaribo, capital of Suriname,342 kilometres to the northwest. Macapá, capital of the state of Amapá, Brazil,554 kilometres to the southeast, ignored by Spanish explorers, who found the region too hot and poor to be claimed, the region was not colonized until 1604, when a French settlement was founded. However, it was destroyed by the Portuguese, who were determined to enforce the provisions of the Treaty of Tordesillas. French colonists returned in 1643 and founded Cayenne, but they were forced to once more following Amerindian attacks. In 1664, France finally succeeded at establishing a permanent settlement at Cayenne, over the next decade the colony changed hands between the French, Dutch, and English, before being restored to France. It was captured by an Anglo-Portuguese force at the invasion of Cayenne in 1809 and administered from Brazil until 1814 and it was used as a French penal colony from 1854 to 1938. The citys population has grown dramatically, owing to high levels of immigration as well as a high birthrate. Health conditions in Cayenne and French Guiana are generally good, the principal illnesses that cause mortality are circulatory, infectious and parasitic diseases, as well as cancer. A branch of the Pasteur Institute in Paris, located in Cayenne, conducts research on tropical, life expectancy averages about 76 years for men and 83 years for women. Cayenne is an important seaport in South America, the major port of Dégrad des Cannes, is on the estuary of the river Mahury, replacing Larivot and the Îles du Salut. Timber, rosewood essence, rum, and gold are exported in small quantities, in the mid-1960s sugarcane and pineapple were planted around the city, and a pineapple cannery and a shrimp-processing plant were later built. A seafront avenue links Cayenne with the suburbs of Chaton and Montabo, where the French Institute of Tropical America, historic landmarks include the Church of the Holy Saviour and a prefecture on the Place d’Armes. The Félix Eboué International Airport is the only International airport serving Cayenne, Cayenne is very ethnically diverse, with Creole, Haitian, Brazilian, European, and Hmong and other Asian communities
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Transportation in North America
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There is also an extensive transcontinental freight rail network, but passenger railway ridership is lower than in Europe and Asia. The railroad network of North America is extremely extensive, connecting nearly every major, the United States, Canada, and Mexico have an interconnected system with railheads stretching from Hay River, Northwest Territories, Canada to Tapachula, Mexico, and on Vancouver Island. The state government of Alaska also operates the Alaska Railroad, which currently does not connect to the North American network, in Canada, rail lines from Labrador City, NL to Sept-Îles, Quebec also currently are not linked to the North American network. This has stalled due to the lack of a road network and a lack of rail lines in Labrador. Another issue to contend with is that Newfoundland had abandoned its Canadian National/Newfoundland Railway lines, turning it into the Newfoundland TRailway, until this happens, the only way for rail-based equipment to enter or leave Alaska is via rail ferry from Seattle, Washington and British Columbia. The only rail connection is the White Pass and Yukon Route, in the west, the railheads are at Vancouver, British Columbia, Prince Rupert, British Columbia, with ferry service to Vancouver Island for the railways linking Nanaimo, Esquimalt, and Victoria. In the east, the North American network extends to Halifax, in the south, the rail lines terminate at Port of Chiapas, and Ciudad Hidalgo, with a short dual-gauge spur line to the border city of Ciudad Tecún Umán, Guatemala. In April 2007 the Russian government announced that it was considering building a tunnel under the Bering Strait between Chukotka and Alaska. The tunnel, as projected, would be 60 miles long and would include oil and gas pipelines, fiber optic cables, the tunnel project was estimated to cost $65 billion and take 15–20 years to build. In addition to the Russian government, sponsors of the project apparently include Transneft, Mexico has a connection to Guatemala, but it is a break of gauge, since Mexico uses 1,435 mm standard gauge, while Guatemala and Central America use narrow gauge 914 mm. Aside from a spur line linking border city of Ciudad Tecún Umán, Guatemala. South of Guatemala, there are breaks of gauge, such as 1,067 mm. Nicaragua has also closed its rail network in 1996, though the majority of it was 1,067 mm gauge, Costa Ricas railroads are of 1,067 mm gauge, along with a private 600 mm gauge railroad at 3.5 km in length. The railroads of Panama are connected to Costa Rica, the country had two gauges, originally broad gauge 1,524 mm, which was converted to standard gauge in 2000, and narrow gauge. Like the situation with roads, the Darien Gap is an obstacle to railroads. The continents roads are of varying quality, with divided highway standards in some areas and it does not connect with the South American road network due to the Darién Gap. The road network does not reach all settlements, and some remote arctic and subarctic communities are accessible by seasonal road, open land, sea. Some North American islands are served only by ferries or private boat, notable disconnected islands include the West Indies, Vancouver Island, Newfoundland, Marthas Vineyard, Nantucket, and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago
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Sovereign state
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A sovereign state is, in international law, a nonphysical juridical entity that is represented by one centralized government that has sovereignty over a geographic area. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined territory, one government, and it is also normally understood that a sovereign state is neither dependent on nor subjected to any other power or state. The existence or disappearance of a state is a question of fact, States came into existence as people gradually transferred their allegiance from an individual sovereign to an intangible but territorial political entity, of the state. States are but one of political orders that emerged from feudal Europe, others being city states, leagues. Westphalian sovereignty is the concept of sovereignty based on territoriality. It is a system of states, multinational corporations. Sovereignty is a term that is frequently misused and that position was reflected and constituted in the notion that their sovereignty was either completely lacking, or at least of an inferior character when compared to that of civilised people. Lassa Oppenheim said There exists perhaps no conception the meaning of which is more controversial than that of sovereignty. It is a fact that this conception, from the moment when it was introduced into political science until the present day, has never had a meaning which was universally agreed upon. In the opinion of H. V. Evatt of the High Court of Australia, sovereignty is neither a question of fact, nor a question of law, but a question that does not arise at all. The right of nations to determine their own status and exercise permanent sovereignty within the limits of their territorial jurisdictions is widely recognized. The Westphalian model of sovereignty has increasingly come under fire from the non-west as a system imposed solely by Western Colonialism. What this model did was make religion a subordinate to politics and this system does not fit in the Islamic world because concepts such as separation of church and state and individual conscience are not recognised in the Islamic religion as social systems. Nation denotes a people who are believed to or deemed to share common customs, religion, language, origins, however, the adjectives national and international are frequently used to refer to matters pertaining to what are strictly sovereign states, as in national capital, international law. State refers to the set of governing and supportive institutions that have sovereignty over a definite territory, State recognition signifies the decision of a sovereign state to treat another entity as also being a sovereign state. Recognition can be expressed or implied and is usually retroactive in its effects. It does not necessarily signify a desire to establish or maintain diplomatic relations, There is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood. In actual practice, the criteria are mainly political, not legal, in international law, however, there are several theories of when a state should be recognised as sovereign
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Transport in Argentina
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Transport in Argentina is mainly based on a complex network of routes, crossed by relatively inexpensive long-distance buses and by cargo trucks. The country also has a number of national and international airports, fluvial transport is mostly used for cargo. Buenos Aires additionally has an underground, the one in the country. A majority of people employ public transport rather than personal cars to move around in the cities, especially in business hours. Cycling is becoming increasingly common big cities as a result of a network of cycling lanes in Cities like Buenos Aires. The Colectivo cover the cities with numerous lines, fares might be fixed for the whole city, or they might depend on the destination. Colectivos often cross municipal borders into the metropolitan areas. In some cases there are diferenciales which are faster, and notably more expensive, bus lines in a given city might be run by different private companies and/or by the municipal state, and they might be painted in different colours for easier identification. Taxis are very common and relatively accessible price-wise and they have different colours and fares in different cities, though a highly contrasted black-and-yellow design is common to the largest conurbations. Although, there are often fixed prices for common destinations, suburban trains connect Buenos Aires city with the Greater Buenos Aires area. Every weekday, more than 1.4 million people commute to the Argentine capital for work and these suburban trains work between 4 AM and 1 AM. The busiest lines are electric, several are diesel powered, while some of these are currently being electrified, until recently, Trenes de Buenos Aires, UGOFE, Ferrovías and Metrovías were some of the private companies which provided suburban passenger services in the Buenos Aires metropolitan area. Other cities in Argentina with a system of suburban trains include Resistencia, Paraná and Mendoza, a commuter rail network for Córdoba is planned to compliment the existing Tren de las Sierras which currently runs through the city and to nearby towns and villages. The Buenos Aires Underground has currently six lines, each labelled with a letter from A to H, a modern tram line line E2 works as a feeder to Underground Line E at their outer terminus as well as the Urquiza Line for Underground Line B in Chacarita. Daily ridership is 1.3 million and on the increase, most of the lines of the Buenos Aires Undergrounds connect the city centre with areas in the outskirts of the city proper, though none go outside the city limits to Greater Buenos Aires. In recent years, the Underground has seen a gradual expansion, as of 2015, the extension of lines E and H are under construction, with work commenced on the new line F and two additional lines planned. Similarly, the stock has been gradually replaced in recent years. Trams, once common, were retired as public transportation in the 1960s but are now in the stages of a slow comeback, in 1987 a modern tram line was opened as a feeder for the underground system
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Transport in the Bahamas
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Approximately 2,718 kilometres of road in the Bahamas is classified as highway. Of these, approximately 1,560 kilometres are paved, as a former British colony, drivers drive on the left. Marinas and harbours are plentiful on The Bahamas islands, making aquatic travel an easy way to navigate between the islands group, boat travel can be the only way to reach some of the smaller islands. The Lucayan Harbour Cruise Facility in Freeport and Nassau harbours Prince George Wharf are built specifically to handle multiple modern cruise ships at one time. Additionally, several major cruise line corporations have each purchased an island which they now operate as private island destinations available exclusively to their respective ships. Of these, only Castaway Cay offers ships an actual pier for docking, the others use tender boats to service ships anchored off shore. The Bahamas are one of the top three flag of convenience shipping registries. Out of 62 airports in all,23 have paved runways, a heliport is located on Paradise Island, as well as other smaller islands, such as the various cruise line private islands
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Transport in Barbados
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Barbados is an up-and-coming tourist country that provides reliable and safe transportation for natives and visitors alike. The country is small with a length of 21 miles long and 14 miles wide. Barbados has 1,600 kilometres of paved roads, two active marine ports in, remnants of a railway system, and one airport, the Sir Grantley Adams International Airport. As a former British colony, Barbados was heavily influenced by the English culture, similar to the driving habits in the United Kingdom, people in Barbados also drive on the left side of the road. Barbados has a very dependable highway system of roads that stem from the countrys capital. The highways are identified by the one to seven. H1 signifies the first highway that runs north, the numbering continues sequentially in a clockwise direction. The most popular throughout the island is the A. B. C. Throughout the Barbados roadways, the most prominent traffic junctions are the two lane roundabouts, like roundabouts seen in the United States vehicles in the inner most lane of the roundabout have the right of way, however, in Barbados the traffic moves in clockwise direction. The speed limit on all roads is 60 km/h unless otherwise posted, the speed limit on the ABC Highway and the Spring Garden Highway is 80 km/h. In 2010, an assessment released by the Economist Intelligence Unit of the United Kingdom, ranked Barbados 6th in the world, in terms of traffic and accidents, the 2010 EIU report found that Barbados had 63.1 vehicles per kilometre of road on the island. A rank that placed Barbados as 23rd globally for amount of vehicles, for accident totals, Barbados placed 12th globally for road victims per 100,000 people, and 23rd globally, for actual road fatalities per 100,000 people. The Ministry of Transport & Works of Barbados oversees the affairs of the roads, highways. Public transport services in Barbados include buses, taxis, share taxis, some services run on a direct route to their destinations however, most public transport services require a connection through Bridgetown. The ZRs, are privately owned mini-vans that run on specific predetermined routes and they are recognized by their white exterior and maroon stripe down the side. ZRs are independently owned but have a fare of two dollars per person for one way. According to travel agencies, ZRs are not only the most reliable form of public transportation, ZRs move quickly and stop frequently to pick up the maximum number of paying passengers in the shortest amount of time. Therefore, ZRs have a reputation for music and cramped spacing
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Transport in Brazil
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Transport infrastructure in Brazil is characterized by strong regional differences and lack of development of the national rail network. Brazils fast-growing economy, and especially the growth in exports, will place increasing demands on the transport networks, however, sizeable new investments that are expected to address some of the issues are either planned or in progress. A12 km section of the former 2 ft 6 in gauge Estrada de Ferro Oeste de Minas is retained as a heritage railway, international rail links exist between Brazil and Argentina, Bolivia and Uruguay. Brazil had a hundred tramway systems, currently, there are vintage tramways operating in Belém, Campinas, Campos do Jordão, Itatinga, Rio de Janeiro and Santos. A high-speed rail connecting São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro is currently under development, Brazil has 1,751,868 kilometers of roads,96,353 km of them paved and 1,655,515 km unpaved. That means that only 5. 5% of the roads are paved, the most important highway of the country is BR-116 and the second is BR-101. The country has a low rate of car ownership of 140 per 1000 population, however in comparison to the developing economies of the BRIC group Brazil exceeds India. Belo Horizonte is the international airport outside Rio de Janeiro. A few go to Brasília, Recife, Natal, and just recently Fortaleza has accepted international flights, with South American integration, more airports can be expected to open to international flights. In 2013 Brazil had the sixth largest passenger air market in the world
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Transportation in Canada
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In 2005, the transportation sector made up 4. 2% of Canadas GDP, compared to 3. 7% for Canadas mining and oil and gas extraction industries. Transport Canada oversees and regulates most aspects of transportation within federal jurisdiction and this primarily includes rail, air and maritime transportation. Transport Canada is under the direction of the federal governments Minister of Transport, the Transportation Safety Board of Canada is responsible for maintaining transportation safety in Canada by investigating accidents and making safety recommendations. There is a total of 1,042,300 km of roads in Canada, of which 415,600 km are paved, as of 2008,626,700 km were unpaved. In 2009, there were 20,706,616 road vehicles registered in Canada, of which 96% were vehicles under 4.5 tonnes,2. 4% were vehicles between 4.5 and 15 t tonnes and 1. 6% were 15 t or greater. For the 4.5 to 15 t trucks,88. 9% of vehicle-kilometres were intra-province trips,4. 9% were inter-province,2. 8% were between Canada and the US and 3. 4% made outside of Canada. For trucks over 15 t,59. 1% of vehicle-kilometres were intra-province trips, Canadas vehicles consumed a total of 31.4 million cubic metres of gasoline and 9.91 million cubic metres of diesel. Trucking generated 35% of the total GDP from transport, compared to 25% for rail, water, hence roads are the dominant means of passenger and freight transport in Canada. Roads and highways were managed by provincial and municipal authorities until construction of the Northwest Highway System, the Alaska Highway of 1942 was constructed during World War II for military purposes connecting Fort St. John, British Columbia with Fairbanks, Alaska. The transcontinental highway, a joint national and provincial expenditure, was begun in 1949 under the initiation of the Trans Canada Highway Act on December 10,1949, the 7,821 km highway was completed in 1962 at a total expenditure of $1.4 billion. Internationally, Canada has road links both the lower 48 US states and Alaska. The Department of Transportation in New Brunswick performs a task in that province as well. Air transportation made up 9% of the transport sectors GDP generation in 2005, Canadas largest air carrier and its flag carrier is Air Canada, which had 34 million customers in 2006 and, as of April 2010, operates 363 aircraft. CHC Helicopter, the largest commercial helicopter operator in the world, is second with 142 aircraft and WestJet, Canadas airline industry saw significant change following the signing of the US-Canada open skies agreement in 1995, when the marketplace became less regulated and more competitive. The Canadian Transportation Agency employs transportation enforcement officers to maintain safety standards. The Canadian Air Transport Security Authority is charged with the responsibility for the security of air traffic within Canada, however, since the introduction of the policy only one, Iqaluit Airport, has been added and no airports have been removed despite dropping below 200,000 passengers. The Government of Canada, with the exception of the three capitals, retains ownership of these airports and leases them to local authorities. The next tier consists of 64 regional/local airports formerly owned by the federal government, below is a table of Canadas ten biggest airports by passenger traffic in 2011
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Transport in Chile
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Transport in Chile is mostly by road. The south of the country is not connected to central Chile by road, except through Argentina, the railways were historically important in Chile, but now play a relatively small part in the countrys transport system. Because of the geography and long distances between major cities, aviation is also important. The bus system covers the country, from Arica to Santiago. There are also services to most other countries in South America. Longer-distance services are mostly on semi-cama or cama buses, often double deck, Santiago began its public bus system Transantiago in 2007. Concepcións Bio Bus integrates with the train, Biotren, and is based on a dedicated right of way for buses. Total,6,782 km broad gauge,3,743 km 5 ft 6 in gauge narrow gauge,116 km 3 ft 6 in gauge,2,923 km 1,000 mm meter gauge 1,435 mm standard gauge 40 km Not all lines connect. Chiles railways are operated by the state owned company Empresa de los Ferrocarriles del Estado, the rail system once served the entire country, running rail lines from Arica in the north to Puerto Montt in the south. Due partly to the nature of the terrain and evolution in transportation systems, rail travel has suffered greatly at the hands of bus, the train usually takes longer to reach a destination than a bus, and the comfort is comparable. Prices also tend to be uncompetitive, the Ferrocarril de Antofagasta a Bolivia is a metre gauge railway in the north of the country. It was originally constructed in 2 ft 6 in gauge, the northern rail line out of Santiago is now disused past the intersection with the Valparaíso line. Until there it is used exclusively for freight. Although the rest of the line is still in place. The southern line runs as far as Puerto Montt and is electrified as far as the city of Temuco, work to build/restore the South Trans-Andean Railway link between Zapala, Argentina and Lonquimay, Chile was underway in 2005. Construction was undertaken by Patagonia Ferrocanal SA, formed and funded by the province, the first 7 km was completed by January 2006. Peru - yes - a single 1,435 mm gauge connection between the northern Chilean city of Arica and Tacna in Southern Peru and it was one of the several projects that were planned to commemorate the Chiles bicentennial in 2010. If completed, it would have been the largest suspension bridge in South America. cia. gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index. html, Empresa de los Ferrocarriles del Estado
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Transport in Colombia
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Transport in Colombia is regulated by the Ministry of Transport. Road travel is the means of transport,69 percent of cargo is transported by road, as compared with 27 percent by railroad,3 percent by internal waterways. The indigenous peoples in Colombia used and some continue to use the ways as the way of transportation using rafts. With the arrival of the Europeans the Spaniards brought the horses, mules, horses contributed greatly to the transport of the Spanish conquerors and colonizers. They also introduced the wheel, and brought wooden carts and carriages to facilitate their transport, the Spaniards also developed the first roads, rudimentary and most of these in the Caribbean region. Due to the terrain of Colombia communications between regions was difficult and affected the effectiveness of the central government creating isolation in some regions. Maritime navigation developed locally after Spain lifted its restrictions on ports within the Spanish Empire inducing mercantilism, Spanish also transported African slaves and forcedly migrated many indigenous tribes throughout Colombia. This also brought a wave of immigrants from European and Middle Eastern countries. During the late 19th century European and American companies introduced railways to carry to the ports the local production of raw materials intended for exports, steam ships began carrying Colombians, immigrants and goods from Europe and the United States over the Magdalena River. In the early 20th century roads and highways maintenance and construction regulations were established, rivers were cleaned, dragged and channeled and the navigational industry was organized. The Public works districts were created, as well as the Ferrocarriles Nacionales de Colombia, among other major projects developed were the aqueduct of Bogotá, La Regadera Dam and the Vitelma Water Treatment Plant. Colombia has 3,034 kilometers of lines,150 kilometers of which are 1,435 mm gauge and 3,154 kilometers of which are 914 mm gauge. However, only 2,611 kilometers of lines are still in use, rail transport in Colombia remains underdeveloped. The national railroad system, once the main mode of transport for freight, has been neglected in favor of road development. Passenger-rail use was suspended in 1992 and resumed at the end of the 1990s, however, fewer than 165,000 passenger journeys were made in 1999, as compared with more than 5 million in 1972, and the figure was only 160,130 in 2005. Short sections of railroad, mainly the Bogotá-Atlantic rim, are used to haul goods, mostly coal, to the Caribbean, in 2005 a total of 27.5 million metric tons of cargo were transported by rail. During 2004–6, approximately 2,000 kilometers of the rail lines underwent refurbishment. The three main highways are the Caribbean, Eastern, and Central Trunk Highways
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Transport in Costa Rica
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There are many modes of transport in Costa Rica. Total,278 km narrow gauge,278 km of 3 ft 6 in gauge total,35,330 km paved,8,621 km unpaved,26,709 km The road system in Costa Rica is not as developed as it might be expected for such a country. However, there are some two-lane autopistas with restricted access under development, current ones are 1 San José - San Ramón. Two lanes on most of its extension
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Transport in Cuba
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The train is formed by 12 coaches and a Chinese-built locomotive. With the order of 12 new Chinese locomotives, built specially for Cuban Railways at China Northern Locomotives and Rolling Stock Works and those benefiting the most are long distance freight services with the French train Havana-Santiago being the only passenger train using one of the new Chinese locomotives regularly. Various orders are in place for 100 locomotives from China and various freight wagons, metro systems are not present in the island, although a suburban rail network exists in Havana. Urban tramways were in operation between 1858 and 1954, initially as horse drawn systems, in the early 20th century electric trolley or storage battery powered tramways were introduced in seven cities. Of these overhead wire systems were adopted in Havana, Guanabacoa, Matanzas, Cienfuegos, Camagüey, there are two national bus companies in Cuba. Viazul operate a fleet of modern and comfortable coaches on longer distance routes designed principally for tourists, schedules, prices and ticket booking can be done on line, at any of the major international airports or National Terminals across Cuba. AstroBus, a bus service in Cuban National Pesos, designed to bring comfortable air conditioned coaches to Cuban locals at an affordable price. The AstroBus lines operate with modern Chinese YUTONG buses, and are accessible to Cuban Residents of Cuba with their ID Card, routes that have benefited most so far are those from Havana to each of the 13 provincial capitals of the country. In Havana, urban transportation used to be provided by a selection of buses imported from the Soviet Union or Canada. Many of these vehicles were second hand and despite the United States trade embargo, on seven key lines in and out of the city, service is provided by Chinese Zhengzhou Yutong Buses. They replaced from 2008 the famous camellos, trailer buses that hauled as many as two hundred passengers in a passenger carrying trailer, after the upgrading of Sevilles public bus fleet to CNG-powered and new vehicles, many of the decommissioned ones were donated to the city of Havana. These bright orange buses still display the name of Transportes Urbanos de Sevilla and their former owner, and Sevilles coat of arms as a sign of gratitude. In recent years, urban transport in Havana comprises entirely of modern Yutong diesel buses, seville and Ikarus buses are gone. Since 2009, Cuba has imported sedans from Chinese automaker Geely to serve as police cars, taxis, previously, the Soviet Union supplied Volgas, Moskvichs, and Ladas, as well as heavy trucks like the ZIL and the KrAZ. It is estimated there are some 173,000 cars in Cuba. Most new vehicles came to Cuba from the United States until the 1960 United States embargo against Cuba ended both importation of cars and their parts, as many as 60,000 American vehicles are in use, nearly all in private hands. Of Cubas vintage American cars, many have been modified with newer engines, disc brakes and other parts, often scavenged from Soviet cars, and most bear the marks of decades of use. Pre-1960 vehicles remain the property of their owners and descendants
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Transport in the Dominican Republic
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There are nearly 19,705 km of highways and roads,9,872 being paved and 9,833 km unpaved. The Santo Domingo Metro is the first mass transit system in the country, on February 27,2008 the incumbent president Leonel Fernández test rode the system for the first time and free service was offered thereafter several times. Commercial service started on January 30,2009, several additional lines are currently being planned. The Dominican Republic has a bus system that is rather reliable, the fare is generally inexpensive, and there are bus terminals and stops in most of the islands major cities. The Public Cars are privately owned cars that transit a specific route daily. This comprises one of the ways of transportation inside the capital city of Santo Domingo. This system though, is not very reliable and lacks discipline, the high number of public cars that travel the roads, and the fact that they do not lend themselves to regulation or central control, causes frequent transit problems among city roads. They may also be uncomfortable, since they try to fit as many people as possible inside them. As a standard, a 4-person sedan usually carries 6 passengers, Rail operations are provided by one state owned operator and several private operators, Central Romana Railroad was established in 1911 in the sugarcane fields. The total length of the line is 757 km,375 km being the 1,435 mm standard gauge, the Dominican Republic Government Railway is a 142 km 1,067 mm narrow gauge railway. There are 240 km operated by other companies in various gauges,557 mm,762 mm,1,067 mm gauges. There are no connections with Haiti, a rapid transit system, Santo Domingo Metro, opened in 2008 in the capital. The Santiago Light Rail has been planned to serve the city of Santiago de los Caballeros, the port is suitable for both turnaround and transit calls. Haina Occidental Port, located just 20 km west of Santo Domingo, is one of the most important ports in the Dominican Republic, about 70% of all cargo, excluding Caucedo and free zone exports/imports, is moved through this port. DP Worlds terminal Multimodal Caucedo Port maritime terminal and logistic center operates under the Free Zone Regime, actually 85% of Free Zone exports to United States is shipped from Caucedo terminal. Multimodal Caucedo port is able to act as a trans-shipment hub to the Caribbean. Port of Puerto Plata is the commercial port on the north coast of the Dominican Republic. Port of Boca Chica is located about 20 miles east of the city and 5 miles of the International airport Las Americas
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Transport in Ecuador
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Transportation in Ecuador uses six transportation methods to transport passengers and freight. The Pan-American Highway crosses it from North to South, Ecuador has managed to update some roads into 4-lane freeways, Quito - Alpichacas. On 5 July 2008 a meeting place between Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador regarding a railway for freight and passengers to link the three countries, and linking the Pacific with the Atlantic also. There is no service to Peru. 1,500 kilometres This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook website https, useful tips and articles about transportation in Ecuador
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Transport in El Salvador
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El Salvador has transport links by road, rail, sea and air. El Salvador has over 10,000 km of roads, there are several seaports on the Pacific Ocean, and two international airports. A weekday passenger service links San Salvador and Apopa, a journey of 40 minutes, of a total of 602 km narrow gauge rail, much is abandoned. Guatemala -3 ft gauge both countries, currently closed, honduras - none A new railway to be known as FERISTSA was proposed in 2005 to connect Mexico with Panama, passing through El Salvador. Total,10,029 km paved,1,986 km unpaved,8,043 km The RN-21 is the very first freeway to be built in El Salvador, the freeway passes the northern area of the city of Santa Tecla, La Libertad. It has a small portion serving Antiguo Cuscatlan, La Libertad, the total length of the RN-21 is 9.95 kilometres and is currently working as a traffic reliever in the metropolitan area. The RN-21 was named in honor of Monseñor Romero, the first phase of the highway was completed in 2009, and the second phase in November 2012
