1.
Edward F. Cox
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Edward Ridley Finch Cox is an American politician who is currently the chairman of the New York Republican State Committee. He is the son-in-law of President Richard M. Nixon and First Lady Pat Nixon, Cox is a lawyer in the Manhattan law firm of Patterson Belknap Webb & Tyler LLP. He was born to Howard Ellis Cox and Anne Crane Delafield Cox in Southampton Hospital in Southampton, New York and he is the scion of six old American families, the Winthrops, the Finches, the Coxes, the Livingstons, the Schuylers, and the Delafields. His father, Howard Ellis Cox, was a decorated World War II aviator, New York lawyer, Cox graduated from the Princeton University Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs and Harvard Law School. After graduating from Princeton, Cox worked with the consumer advocate Ralph Nader as a member of Naders Raiders. Upon graduating from law school, Cox campaigned extensively for the reelection of his father-in-law, after the election, he and his wife Tricia Nixon Cox traveled to Europe and the Soviet Union, meeting privately with leaders and their families. Cox next became a lawyer with Cravath, Swaine & Moore in New York, from 1981 to 1983 Cox served in the Reagan Administration as the Senior Vice President and General Counsel of a government corporation, The United States Synthetic Fuels Corporation. After the 2006 election, Cox chaired Attorney-Elect Andrew Cuomos environmental transition team, in 2007 and 2008, Cox chaired John McCains New York campaign. In 2008, Cox was named in Super Lawyers in the area of Securities & Corporate Finance, while practicing law, Cox has also served three presidents, and particularly President Nixon, in the international arena. After attending Harvard Law School, Cox was admitted to the New York State bar in 1973. In 1974 he was admitted to practice before the U. S. District Court, Southern District of New York, Eastern District of New York, Cox has held a number of positions in government and professional organizations. He was previously a partner at the now-defunct, old-line New York law firm of Donovan, Leisure, Newton & Irvine. In 1997, Cox and his law firm were sued, along with their client. Cox was battalion commander of his Army ROTC unit at Princeton, Cox was initially rumored to be considering a run for New York Governor George Patakis seat in 2006 should Pataki not seek re-election. Pataki did not run again, but Cox later chose instead to seek the seat held by incumbent U. S, senator Hillary Clinton in the 2006 New York U. S. Senate election. Initial reports indicated Cox would run as a conservative and an environmentalist. However, after Governor Pataki endorsed rival Republican, Westchester County District Attorney Jeanine Pirro, Cox was mentioned in mid-2009 as a potential candidate for governor in 2010. He was elected chairman of the New York State Republican Committee at the Committees meeting on September 30,2009. to win elections in 2010
2.
Whittier, California
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Whittier is a city in Southern California located within Los Angeles County, California. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city had a population of 85,331, reflecting an increase of 1,631 from the 83,680 counted in the 2000 Census, like nearby Montebello, the city constitutes part of the Gateway Cities. Whittier was incorporated in February 1898 and became a city in 1955. The city is named for the poet John Greenleaf Whittier and is home to Whittier College, Whittiers roots can be traced to Spanish soldier Manuel Nieto. In 1784, Nieto received a Spanish land grant of 300,000 acres, Rancho Los Nietos, as a reward for his military service, the area of Nietos land grant was reduced in 1790 as the result of a dispute with Mission San Gabriel. Nieto built a rancho for his family near Whittier, and purchased cattle and horses for his ranch, when Nieto died in 1804, his children inherited their fathers property. At the time of the Mexican-American War, much of the land that would become Whittier was owned by Pio Pico, a rancher, Pio Pico built a hacienda here on the San Gabriel River, known today as Pio Pico State Historic Park. Gerkens would later become the first chief of police of the Los Angeles Police Department, gerkens land was owned by several others before a group of Quakers purchased it and expanded it to 1,259 acres, with the intent of founding a Quaker community. The area soon became known as a thriving citrus ranching region, later, walnut trees were also planted, and Whittier became the largest walnut grower in the United States. In addition to walnuts and citrus, Whittier was also a producer of pampas grass. For many years, the means of transport from this area to Los Angeles was on foot, or via horse and wagon over rough dirt roads, impeding settlement, development. Thus in 1887 enterprising and aggressive businessmen contracted with the Southern Pacific Railroad to build the first railroad spur to Whittier, by 1906,650 carloads of oranges and 250 carloads of lemons were shipped annually by rail. In 1904, the Pacific Electric opened the line known as Big Red Cars from Los Angeles to Whittier. In the first two decades, over a million passengers a year rode to and from Los Angeles on the Whittier line, groves of walnuts were planted in 1887 and eventually Whittier was known as the primary walnut growing town in the United States. After World War II Whittier grew rapidly and the sub-dividing of orange groves began, in 1955 the new Civic Center complex was completed and the City Council met in new chambers for the first time on March 8,1955. The city continued to grow as the City annexed portions of Whittier Boulevard, the 1961 annexation added over 28,000 people to the population, bringing the total to about 67,000. In the founding days of Whittier, when it was an isolated town, Jonathan Bailey and his wife. They followed the Quaker religious faith and practice, and held meetings on their porch
3.
Long Island
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Long Island is an island located just off the northeast coast of the United States and a region within the U. S. state of New York. Stretching east-northeast from New York Harbor into the Atlantic Ocean, the island comprises four counties, Kings and Queens to the west, then Nassau, more generally, Long Island may also refer collectively both to the main Island as well as its nearby, surrounding outer barrier islands. North of the island is the Long Island Sound, across from which lie the states of Connecticut, across the Sound, to the northwest, lies Westchester County on mainland New York. To the west, Long Island is separated from the Bronx and the island of Manhattan by the East River. To the extreme southwest, it is separated from the New York City borough of Staten Island and the U. S. state of New Jersey by Upper New York Bay, the Narrows, to the east lie Block Island and numerous smaller islands. Its population density is 5,595.1 inhabitants per square mile, Long Island is culturally and ethnically diverse. Some of the wealthiest and most expensive neighborhoods in the Western Hemisphere are located on Long Island, nine bridges and 13 tunnels connect Brooklyn and Queens to the three other boroughs of New York City. Ferries connect Suffolk County northward across Long Island Sound to the state of Connecticut, the Long Island Rail Road is the busiest commuter railroad in North America and operates 24/7. At the time of European contact, the Lenape people inhabited the western end of Long Island, giovanni da Verrazzano was the first European to record an encounter with the Lenapes, after entering what is now New York Bay in 1524. In 1609, the English navigator Henry Hudson explored the harbor, adriaen Block followed in 1615 and is credited as the first European to determine that both Manhattan and Long Island are islands. Native American land deeds recorded by the Dutch from 1636 state that the Indians referred to Long Island as Sewanhaka, sewan was one of the terms for wampum, and is also translated as loose or scattered, which may refer either to the wampum or to Long Island. The name t Lange Eylandt alias Matouwacs appears in Dutch maps from the 1650s, later, the English referred to the land as Nassau Island, after the Dutch Prince William of Nassau, Prince of Orange. It is unclear when the name Nassau Island was discontinued, the very first settlements on Long Island were by settlers from England and its colonies in present-day New England. Lion Gardiner settled nearby Gardiners Island, the first settlement on the geographic Long Island itself was on October 21,1640, when Southold was established by the Rev. John Youngs and settlers from New Haven, Connecticut. Peter Hallock, one of the settlers, drew the long straw and was granted the honor to step ashore first and he is considered the first New World settler on Long Island. Southampton was settled in the same year, Hempstead followed in 1644, East Hampton in 1648, Huntington in 1653, and Brookhaven in 1655. While the eastern region of Long Island was first settled by the English, until 1664, the jurisdiction of Long Island was split, roughly at the present border between Nassau County and Suffolk County. The Dutch founded six towns in present-day Brooklyn beginning in 1645 and these included, Brooklyn, Gravesend, Flatlands, Flatbush, New Utrecht, and Bushwick
4.
Boston College
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Boston College is a private Jesuit Catholic research university located in the village of Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, United States,6 miles west of downtown Boston. It has 9,100 full-time undergraduates and almost 5,000 graduate students, the universitys name reflects its early history as a liberal arts college and preparatory school in Bostons South End. It is a member of the 568 Group and the Association of Jesuit Colleges and Universities and its main campus is a historic district and features some of the earliest examples of collegiate gothic architecture in North America. Boston Colleges undergraduate program is currently ranked 31st in the National Universities ranking by U. S. News & World Report, Boston College is categorized as an R1, Highest Research Activity institution by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Students at the university earned 21 Fulbright Awards in 2012, ranking the school eighth among American research institutions, Boston College sports teams are called the Eagles, and their colors are maroon and gold, the school mascot is Baldwin the Eagle. The Eagles compete in NCAA Division I as members of the Atlantic Coast Conference in all sports offered by the ACC, the mens and womens ice hockey teams compete in Hockey East. Boston Colleges mens ice hockey team is one of the most decorated programs in the nation, in 1825, Benedict Joseph Fenwick, S. J. A Jesuit from Maryland, became the second Bishop of Boston and he was the first to articulate a vision for a College in the City of Boston that would raise a new generation of leaders to serve both the civic and spiritual needs of his fledgling diocese. In 1827, Bishop Fenwick opened a school in the basement of his cathedral and his efforts to attract other Jesuits to the faculty were hampered both by Bostons distance from the center of Jesuit activity in Maryland and by suspicion on the part of the citys Protestant elite. Meanwhile, the vision for a college in Boston was sustained by John McElroy, with little fanfare, the colleges two buildings—a schoolhouse and a church—welcomed their first class of scholastics in 1859. Two years later, with as little fanfare, BC closed again and its short-lived second incarnation was plagued by the outbreak of Civil War and disagreement within the Society over the colleges governance and finances. BCs inability to obtain a charter from the anti-Catholic Massachusetts legislature only compounded its troubles, on March 31,1863, more than three decades after its initial inception, Boston Colleges charter was formally approved by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. BC became the second Jesuit institution of learning in Massachusetts. A Swiss Jesuit from French-speaking Fribourg, was selected as BCs first president, for most of the 19th century, BC offered a singular 7-year program corresponding to both high school and college. Its entering class in the fall of 1864 included 22 students, the curriculum was based on the Jesuit Ratio Studiorum, emphasizing Latin, Greek, philosophy, and theology. Boston Colleges enrollment reached nearly 500 by the turn of the 20th century, in 1907, newly installed President Thomas I. Gasson, S. J. determined that BCs cramped, urban quarters in Bostons South End were inadequate, inspired by John Winthrops early vision of Boston as a city upon a hill, he re-imagined Boston College as world-renowned university and a beacon of Jesuit scholarship. Less than a year after taking office, he purchased Amos Adams Lawrences farm on Chestnut Hill and he organized an international competition for the design of a campus master plan and set about raising funds for the construction of the new university
5.
Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
6.
Richard Nixon
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Richard Milhous Nixon was an American politician who served as the 37th President of the United States from 1969 until 1974, when he became the only U. S. president to resign from office. He had previously served as a U. S, Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 under the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California, after completing his undergraduate studies at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife Pat moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government and he subsequently served on active duty in the U. S. Navy Reserve during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950 and his pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president and he waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962. In 1968, he ran for the presidency again and was elected by defeating incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey, Nixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam in 1973 and brought the American POWs home, and ended the military draft. His administration generally transferred power from Washington D. C. to the states and he imposed wage and price controls for a period of ninety days, enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency. Nixon also presided over the Apollo 11 moon landing, which signaled the end of the moon race and he was reelected in one of the largest electoral landslides in U. S. history in 1972, when he defeated George McGovern. The year 1973 saw an Arab oil embargo, gasoline rationing, the scandal escalated, costing Nixon much of his political support, and on August 9,1974, he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office. After his resignation, he was issued a pardon by his successor, in retirement, Nixons work writing several books and undertaking of many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his image. He suffered a stroke on April 18,1994. Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9,1913 in Yorba Linda, California and his parents were Hannah Nixon and Francis A. Nixon. His mother was a Quaker and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith, Nixons upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. Nixon had four brothers, Harold, Donald, Arthur, four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England, Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart. Nixons early life was marked by hardship, and he quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood, We were poor. The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the moved to Whittier
7.
Pat Nixon
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Thelma Catherine Pat Nixon was the wife of Richard Nixon, 37th President of the United States, and First Lady of the United States from 1969 to 1974. Born in Ely, Nevada, she grew up with her two brothers in what is now Cerritos, California, graduating high school in 1929. She attended Fullerton Junior College and later the University of Southern California and she paid for her schooling by working multiple jobs, including pharmacy manager, typist, radiographer, and retail clerk. In 1940, she married lawyer Richard Nixon and they had two daughters, Nixon campaigned for her husband in his successful congressional campaigns of 1946 and 1948. Richard Nixon was elected Vice President in the Eisenhower administration, whereupon Pat undertook many missions of goodwill with her husband and she assisted her husband in both his unsuccessful 1960 presidential campaign and later in his successful 1968 presidential campaign. As First Lady, Pat Nixon promoted a number of charitable causes and she oversaw the collection of more than 600 pieces of historic art and furnishings for the White House, an acquisition larger than that of any other administration. She was the most traveled First Lady in U. S. history and these trips gained her favorable reception in the media and the host countries. Her tenure ended when, after being re-elected in a victory in 1972. Her public appearances became increasingly rare later in life and she and her husband returned to California, and later moved to New Jersey. She suffered two strokes, one in 1976 and another in 1983, then was diagnosed with cancer in 1992. She died in 1993, aged 81, thelma Catherine Ryan was born in the small mining town of Ely, Nevada, the day before Saint Patricks Day. Her father, William M. Ryan Sr. was a sailor, gold miner, Pat was a nickname given to her by her father, referring to her birthdate and Irish ancestry. After her birth, the Ryan family moved to California, thelma Ryans high-school yearbook page gives her nickname as Buddy and her ambition to run a boarding house. During this time she worked on the farm, and also at a local bank as a janitor. Her mother died of cancer in 1924, Pat, who was 12 at the time, assumed all the household duties for her father, who died in 1929 of silicosis, and two older brothers, William Jr. and Thomas. She also had a half-sister, Neva Bender, and a half-brother, Matthew Bender, from her mothers first marriage and it has been said that few, if any, First Ladies worked as consistently before their marriage as did Pat Nixon. As she told the writer Gloria Steinem during the 1968 presidential campaign, I never had time to think things like that—who I wanted to be, or who I admired. I never had time to dream about being anyone else, after graduating from Excelsior High School in 1929, she attended Fullerton Junior College
8.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
9.
Julie Nixon Eisenhower
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Julie Nixon Eisenhower is the daughter of Richard M. Nixon, 37th President of the United States, and Pat Nixon, First Lady of the United States. She is the sister to Patricia Nixon Cox. While her father served as President of the United States, she wrote several books, since her father left the White House in 1974, she has written additional books and works to support her parents legacy. In 1968, she married David Eisenhower, grandson of President Dwight D. Eisenhower and she is the mother of two daughters, Jennie Eisenhower and Melanie Catherine Eisenhower, and a son, Alexander Richard Eisenhower. Julie Nixon was born while her father, Richard Nixon, was a Congressman and she recalled her father as being romantic, while her mother was practical and down to earth. Her mother tried to seal her and her sister from much of her fathers political career, after expressing these feelings to Mamie Eisenhower, the First Lady invited the two Nixon daughters to play with her grandchildren. Also at the inauguration, President Eisenhower suggested to her as their photograph was being taken to hide a black eye by turning her head. Julie had acquired it in an accident and turned her head towards David. Her grandmother Hannah Nixon would come to watch her and her sister whenever her parents traveled, as a teenager, she attended the private Sidwell Friends School in Washington along with her sister, Tricia. After her father lost the Presidential Election of 1960 to John F. Kennedy, Julie felt battered by the results and felt that the votes had been stolen. Julie left school in 1961, after her father lost his bid in 1960. At the time of what her father called to reporters his last press conference and that afternoon, Julie joined the two in crying at the foot of her parents bed over her fathers loss. The Nixons moved to New York after the race. She received a degree from New York University in 1972. David Eisenhower, the grandson of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Julie and David were both invited to address the Republican Womens Club. The club learned that the two were only seven miles apart, and invited the two to be featured speakers. They discussed the invitations and both chose to decline, but would come in again when David visited Julie with his roommate from Amherst and took her. David reflected, I was broke, my roommate forgot his wallet and she began dating David Eisenhower in the fall of 1966 when both were freshmen at Smith College and Amherst College, respectively
10.
Chapin School
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The Chapin School is an all-girls independent day school located in Manhattan in New York City. Maria Bowen Chapin opened Miss Chapins School for Girls and Kindergarten for Boys, the school originally enrolled 78 students, who were taught by seven teachers. Chapin ran the educational side of “Primary Classes for Girls, ” while Wetmore ran the business end, the two ended their partnership in 1901, and “Miss Chapin’s School” was born. Chapins first high school diplomas were granted in 1908, and the last boys attended in 1917, at her request, the name of the school changed to the Chapin School after she died, in 1934. Chapin is located at 100 East End Avenue, at East 84th Street, Chapins school was originally located at 12 West 47th Street. In 1905, the moved to East 58th Street. In 1910, it moved to East 57th Street, the school has maintained its current location on the Upper East Side since 1928. Sixty girls start in kindergarten, where they are divided into three classes, each K class has two teachers, with regular use of teaching specialists There are about 265 girls in the Upper School, where they are taught by 53 faculty members. Traditionally, Chapin did not make an effort to replace girls who left the school, in recent years, girls are more readily accepted into Chapins middle and upper schools, leading to graduating classes of around 55. While the lower school program combines progressive and traditional characteristics, the school curriculum is considered to be a traditionally rigorous liberal arts program. There are multiple requirements, including at least one modern language, while a small school, Chapin offers 15 Advanced Placement courses and a total of 36 elective courses in grades 10-12. Elective courses may cover topics such as neuroscience, pharmacology, directing lab or Greek, Upper school students may take up to 2 electives per trimester. Many girls do independent studies or study abroad programs, particularly through Chapins exchange programs with the St. Hilda’s Anglican School for Girls, since 2011, Chapin has worked with the Kibera School for Girls in Nairobi, Kenya, developing curriculum ideas and visiting each others campuses. Chapin is also an affiliate member of the Online School for Girls. New York Interschool courses are offered in advanced math, leadership, mentorship derives from multiple sources, including faculty advisors and peer leaders. While some Chapin girls live on the Upper East Side near the school, others hail from other parts of Manhattan, as well as Brooklyn, Queens, the Bronx, New Jersey, Westchester, the student-to-teacher ratio is 6.8 to 1. Twenty-one percent of the girls receive tuition assistance, amounting to over $5 million per year, the Chapin robotics team is a collaborative effort with neighboring girls school, Brearley. Girls are also welcome to start up new clubs during the school year, There are 18 athletic teams at Chapin, including 15 varsity sports
11.
Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough and it is historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 for 60 guilders which equals US$1062 today. New York County is the United States second-smallest county by land area, on business days, the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3.9 million, or more than 170,000 people per square mile. Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York Citys five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, the City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan, and the borough houses New York City Hall, the seat of the citys government. The name Manhattan derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, a 1610 map depicts the name as Manna-hata, twice, on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River. The word Manhattan has been translated as island of hills from the Lenape language. The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use New York, NY rather than Manhattan, the area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City. It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company, a permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam, the 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony, New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it New York after the English Duke of York and Albany, the Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of battles in the early American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776. The city, greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the campaign, became the British political, British occupation lasted until November 25,1783, when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city
12.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
13.
International Debutante Ball
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The International Debutante Ball is an invitation-only, formal debutante ball to officially present young ladies, often from upper-class families, to high society. Founded in 1954, it occurs every two years at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel in New York City, the International Debutante Ball presents young ladies, often from upper-class families, to high society. It was founded in 1954 by Beatrice Joyce, with the first ball being held at the Plaza Hotel in New York City, the second ball saw it move to the Hotel Astor. With the Astor scheduled for demolition, the 1966 ball was held for the first time in the Waldorf Astoria Hotel, previously held annually, it is now held every two years. The ball donates money to charity, principally the Soldiers, Sailors, Marines, Coast Guard and Airmens Club of New York, each ball is preceded by a number of events, dinners and parties for the debutantes, including the Bachelors Brunch. At the ball, each debutante is usually escorted by two men, one military cadet and one civilian, the ball is considered one of the most prestigious debutante balls in the world. Metropolitan, an Oscar nominated film directed by Whit Stillman depicting the lives of the young, the International Debutante Ball is one of the balls in the movie. International Debutante Ball - Official Website
14.
Waldorf Astoria New York
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The Waldorf Astoria New York is a luxury hotel in Manhattan, New York City. The hotel has housed in two historic landmark buildings in New York. The first, bearing the name, was built in two stages, as the Waldorf Hotel and the Astor Hotel, which accounts for its dual name. That original site was situated on Astor family properties along Fifth Avenue, opened in 1893 and it was demolished in 1929 to make way for the construction of the Empire State Building. The current hotel was the worlds tallest hotel from 1931 until 1963, an icon of glamour and luxury, the current Waldorf Astoria is one of the worlds most prestigious and best known hotels. Waldorf Astoria Hotels and Resorts is a division of Hilton Hotels, on July 1,2016, Anbang announced that it would convert some of the Waldorfs hotel rooms into condominiums, closing the hotel for a three-year renovation on March 1,2017. The Waldorf Astoria and Towers has a total of 1,413 hotel rooms as of 2014, the most expensive room, the Presidential Suite, is designed with Georgian-style furniture to emulate that of the White House. It was the residence of Herbert Hoover from his retirement for over 30 years, the hotel has three main restaurants, Peacock Alley, The Bull and Bear Steak House, and La Chine, a new Chinese restaurant that replaced Oscars Brasserie in late 2015. Sir Harrys Bar, named after British explorer Sir Harry Johnston, is the home of the Rob Roy, the name of the hotel is ultimately derived from the town of Walldorf in Germany, the ancestral home of the prominent German-American Astor family that originated there. The hotel was known as The Waldorf-Astoria with a single hyphen, as recalled by a popular expression and song. The sign was changed to a hyphen, looking similar to an equals sign. The double hyphen visually represents Peacock Alley, the hallway between the two hotels that once stood where the Empire State building now stands today. The use of the hyphen was discontinued by parent company Hilton in 2009. The hotel has since known as the Waldorf Astoria New York, without any hyphen. The original hotel started as two hotels on Fifth Avenue built by feuding relatives, the original hotel stood 225 feet high, with a frontage of about 100 feet on Fifth Avenue, with an area of 69,475 square feet. William Astor, motivated in part by a dispute with his aunt Caroline Webster Schermerhorn Astor, had built the Waldorf Hotel next door to her house, on the site of his fathers mansion. Boldt was described as Mild mannered, undignified, unassuming, resembling a typical German professor with his close-cropped beard which he kept fastidiously trimmed, and his pince-nez glasses on a black silk cord. Boldt continued to own the Bellevue even after his relationship with the Astors blossomed, at first, the Waldorf appeared destined for failure
15.
Harvard Law School
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Harvard Law School is one of the professional graduate schools of Harvard University, located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1817, it is the oldest continually-operating law school in the United States and is considered to be one of the most prestigious in the world. The school is ranked third by the U. S. News & World and its acceptance rate was 15. 4% in the 2013–14 admissions cycle, and its yield rate of 66. 2% was the second-highest of any law school in the United States. It is ranked first in the 2016 QS World University Rankings, Harvard Law admitted 16. 5% of applicants in its most recent class, compared to 9. 2% at Yale and 11. 2% at Stanford. With a current enrollment of 1,990, HLS has about as many students as its three closest-ranked peer institutions, first-ranked Yale, second-ranked Stanford, and fourth-ranked Chicago, combined. The first-year class is broken into seven sections of approximately 80 students, Harvards uniquely large class size and its prestige have led the law school to graduate a great many distinguished alumni in the judiciary, government, and the business world. According to Harvard Laws 2015 ABA-required disclosures,95. 33% of the Class of 2014 passed the Bar exam. Harvard Law Schools founding is linked to the funding of Harvards first professorship in law, paid for from a bequest from the estate of Isaac Royall. Today, it is home to the largest academic law library in the world, the current dean of Harvard Law School is Martha Minow, who assumed the role on July 1,2009. The law school has 328 faculty members, Harvard Law Schools founding is traced to the establishment of a law department at Harvard in 1817. Dating the founding to the year of the creation of the law department makes Harvard Law the oldest continuously-operating law school in the nation, William & Mary Law School opened first in 1779, but closed due to the American Civil War, reopening in 1920. The University of Maryland School of Law was chartered in 1816, but did not begin classes until 1824, and also closed during the Civil War. Or a Professor of Physick and Anatomy, whichever the said overseers and Corporation shall judge to be best. ”The value of the land, when fully liquidated in 1809, was $2,938, the Harvard Corporation allocated $400 from the income generated by those funds to create the Royall Professorship of Law in 1815. The dean of the law school traditionally held the Royall chair, deans Elena Kagan, royalls Medford estate, the Isaac Royall House, is now a museum which features the only remaining slave quarters in the northeast United States. The Royall family coat-of-arms, which shows three stacked wheat sheaves, was adopted as the school crest in 1936, topped with the university motto, in March 2016, following requests by students, the school decided to remove the emblem because of its association with slavery. By 1827, the school, with one faculty member, was struggling, nathan Dane, a prominent alumnus of the college, then endowed the Dane Professorship of Law, insisting that it be given to then Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story. For a while, the school was called Dane Law School, in 1829, John H. Ashmun, son of Eli Porter Ashmun and brother of George Ashmun, accepted a professorship and closed his Northampton Law School, with many of his students following him to Harvard. Enrollment remained low through the 19th century as university legal education was considered to be of little added benefit to apprenticeships in legal practice, at Harvard, Langdell also developed the case method of teaching law, now the dominant pedagogical model at U. S. law schools
16.
White House Rose Garden
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The White House Rose Garden is a garden bordering the Oval Office and the West Wing of the White House in Washington, D. C. The garden is approximately 125 feet long and 60 feet wide and it balances the Jacqueline Kennedy Garden on the east side of the White House Complex. The White House Rose Garden was established in 1913 by Ellen Loise Axson Wilson, prior to 1902, the area contained extensive stables, housing various horses and coaches, on the grounds of the present-day Oval Office, Cabinet Room, and Rose Garden. During the 1902 Roosevelt renovation, First Lady Edith Roosevelt insisted on having a proper colonial garden in order to replace the conservatory rose house that had formerly stood there. In 1961, during the John F. Kennedy administration, the garden was redesigned by Rachel Lambert Mellon concurrently with extensive repair work to the East Garden. Mellon created a space with a more defined central lawn, bordered by flower beds that were planted in a French style whilst largely using American botanical specimens, a shrub rose, Nevada Rose, also serves to add a cool note of white coloration to the landscaping. Seasonal flowers are interspersed to add nearly year-round color and variety to the garden. Some of the Spring blooming bulbs planted in the present-day Rose Garden include jonquil, daffodil, fritillaria, grape hyacinth, tulips, chionodoxa, summer blooming annuals are changed on a near yearly basis. In the fall, chrysanthemum and flowering kale bring color leading all the way up until the winter days. Beginning with the establishment of the garden in the twentieth century the Rose Garden has been used for events. President Wilson met there with the press for informal questions, President Hoover began a tradition of welcoming and being photographed with prominent citizens there. Calvin Coolidge used the garden for making public announcements about policy, President John F. Kennedy welcomed Project Mercury astronauts in the garden. Many presidential news conferences take place in the garden, as well as occasional White House dinners, the marriage of President Richard Nixons daughter Tricia to Edward F. Cox took place in the Rose Garden in 1971. In recent years, joint news conferences with the president and a head of state have been held in the Rose Garden. Presidents frequently host American Olympic and major league athletes in the Rose Garden after winning in their respective sport, george W. Bush welcomed the Stanley Cup champion Carolina Hurricanes to the Rose Garden after their victory in 2006. The phrase Rose Garden strategy refers to staying inside or on the grounds of the White House as opposed to traveling throughout the country. For example, Jimmy Carters initial efforts to end the Iran hostage crisis were a Rose Garden strategy because he held discussions with his close advisers in the White House. On July 25,1994 a declaration of peace between Israel and Jordan was signed in the Rose Garden, in 1935, President Franklin D. Roosevelt commissioned Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. to redesign the gardens, and he installed cast iron furniture pieces
17.
Lawyer
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A lawyer is a person who practices law, as an advocate, barrister, attorney, counselor or solicitor or chartered legal executive. The role of the lawyer varies greatly across legal jurisdictions, in practice, legal jurisdictions exercise their right to determine who is recognized as being a lawyer. As a result, the meaning of the lawyer may vary from place to place. In Australia, the lawyer is used to refer to both barristers and solicitors. In Canada, the word lawyer refers to individuals who have been called to the bar or. Common law lawyers in Canada are formally and properly called barristers and solicitors, however, in Quebec, civil law advocates often call themselves attorney and sometimes barrister and solicitor in English. The Legal Services Act 2007 defines the activities that may only be performed by a person who is entitled to do so pursuant to the Act. Lawyer is not a protected title, in India, the term lawyer is often colloquially used, but the official term is advocate as prescribed under the Advocates Act,1961. In Scotland, the word refers to a more specific group of legally trained people. It specifically includes advocates and solicitors, in a generic sense, it may also include judges and law-trained support staff. In the United States, the term refers to attorneys who may practice law. It is never used to refer to patent agents or paralegals, in fact, there are regulatory restrictions on non-lawyers like paralegals practicing law. Other nations tend to have terms for the analogous concept. In most countries, particularly civil law countries, there has been a tradition of giving many legal tasks to a variety of civil law notaries, clerks, and scriveners. Several countries that originally had two or more legal professions have since fused or united their professions into a type of lawyer. Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, in countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below. Arguing a clients case before a judge or jury in a court of law is the province of the barrister in England. However, the boundary between barristers and solicitors has evolved, in England today, the barrister monopoly covers only appellate courts, and barristers must compete directly with solicitors in many trial courts
18.
Richard Nixon Foundation
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The Richard Nixon Foundation is a not-for-profit organization based at the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum in Yorba Linda, California. It was founded in the late 1980s by Richard Nixon, 37th President of the United States and this move allowed President Nixons White House documents to be moved to his library in Yorba Linda. The Nixon Foundation is governed by a Board of Directors, led by former Nixon White House Director of Presidential Advance Ronald H. Walker, the Foundations President and CEO is William Baribault. The Foundation has hosted United States presidents, first ladies and several vice presidents, also hosted have been public affairs commentators such as Bill OReilly, academics such as Doris Kearns Goodwin, and Supreme Court Justice Stephen Breyer. The library includes Meet the Presidents, in which presidential impersonators speak to several hundred school-aged children, before the National Archives took over its management, the Nixon Library had been accused by several media outlets of glossing over Nixons 1974 resignation with whitewashed exhibits. In 2007, the National Archives removed the 17 year old Watergate exhibit and, the Nixon Foundation objected to the proposed exhibit, because the Nixon Foundation was not consulted in the way that other presidential foundations had been consulted with similar situations. The exhibit opened on March 31,2011, the Richard Nixon Foundation The Richard Nixon Foundation Youtube Channel
19.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
20.
Doug Wead
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Roy Douglas Doug Wead is a conservative commentator and writer. He has authored books, some of which have made the New York Times bestsellers. In 1992, Wead was the Republican candidate for Arizonas 6th congressional district and he served as special assistant to U. S. president George H. W. Bush, and has been credited with coining the phrase compassionate conservative. Between 1997 and 2000, Wead secretly recorded several hours of conversations between himself and George W. Bush, without Bushs knowledge. Wead was born in Muncie, Indiana and he attended Riley High School, in South Bend, Indiana, then graduated from Canyonville Christian Academy, a private boarding school in Canyonville, Oregon, in 1964. He also attended, but did not graduate from Central Bible College, in Springfield, beyond high school, Wead has no other formal education or college degree. In 1979, Wead joined entertainer Pat Boone and Dan ONeill in co-founding Save the Refugees Fund, in 1991, Wead provided initial funding to help launch a Mercy Corps economic recovery program in the newly formed Republic of Kazakhstan. In the 1980s, Wead organized the Annual Charity Awards, now under the name International Charity Association, in 1992, Wead was the Republican candidate for U. S. Congress in Arizonas 6th congressional district, despite having lived in Arizona for only a few years. Wead won the Republican nomination proposing a tax limitation initiative and airing a commercial featuring praise by former President Ronald Reagan for his humanitarian efforts. Wead countered that Goldwaters support of abortion rights spurred the unexpected crossing of party lines and he ended up losing in the general election to English. Wead was a participant in the 2000 United States presidential election. Time magazine called Wead an insider in the Bush family orbit, George W. Bush first picked up the term compassionate conservative in 1987 from Wead. In 1979, Wead gave a speech titled The Compassionate Conservative at the annual Charity Awards Dinner, in March 2008, Wead helped create the website Religious Freedom in America, which focused on separation of church and state. Wead served as an adviser to the Ron Paul 2012 Campaign. Wead has contributed to a column for Newsmax titled Presidency in Focus. Wead began his career as an author by serving as a Protestant apologist for the Catholic Charismatic Movement, as an apologist he wrote Catholic Charismatics, Are They for Real. Regarding the emergence of a movement in Ireland he wrote Tonight Theyll Kill a Catholic. In subsequent years he worked with a Catholic priest to tour areas of famine around the world led to the book The Compassionate Touch
21.
Atria Books
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Atria Publishing Group is a general interest publisher and a division of Simon & Schuster. The publishing group launched as Atria Books in 2002, as of 2017, Judith Curr is the President and Publisher of the Atria Publishing Group. The Atria Books imprint was launched in 2002 by Judith Curr, according to a Publishers Weekly interview with Curr marking the imprints 10th anniversary, the name Atria is plural for a place where things grow and flourish. Curr wanted a name that embodied their intentions to build a bridge between the reader and the writer. Because she was starting a new business inside an old established one, Curr also gave it an A name so it would be at the top of everyones memo and everything is in alphabetical order at a publisher. In 2005, Simon & Schuster acquired Strebor Books International and publisher of fiction by African-American writers including Black Erotica by Zane. Zane would remain the publisher of the imprint with an office in Maryland, the publisher had been founded independently in 1999. In 2013 it was announced that publisher Kristina Laferne Roberts had declared bankruptcy, in 2009, Atria was the first publisher to partner with Vook. Curr took on publishing the first four of them as she wanted to integrate digital practices into Atria, Curr recognized that digital and traditional printing practices would go hand in glove. The work with Vook lead to the creation of the Atria Smartbook—a physical piece of paper with QR codes throughout the text for enhanced content. Curr told the Digital Book World, every week I get a report that tells me how many people have interacted with those pieces of content, and now Ive got this whole idea of how to turn the book itself into a store. Atria Books publishes a variety of both fiction and non-fiction and strives to publish a diverse set of books and authors. This includes programs for diverse voices, Internet personalities and self-published authors with proven track records, in some cases, an editor is given their own imprint with their name on it as with Emily Bestler in 2011. In 2011, Atria signed a deal with Cash Money Records founders Bryan Birdman Williams. Birdmans intention was to cross-promote books at music events, the imprint is headquartered in Miami. As of 2012, 25% of Atria Books list of 98 titles was part of an African-American publishing program overseen by Malaika Adero, Vice President, notable authors include Walter Mosely, Faria Chideya, Blair Underwood and Vickie Stringer. Strebor Books an imprint founded in 1999 by author Zane is also under the Atria Publishing Group, in an interview on NPR, Adero described the African-American market for books as quite varied. Atria Books Espanol, publishes titles aimed at Hispanic readers in both English and Spanish, in 2012, Simon & Schuster reorganized their adult publishing imprints into four main groups with Atria Publishing as one main group
22.
Vice President of the United States
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The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. The vice president is elected, together with the president. The Office of the Vice President of the United States assists, as the president of the United States Senate, the vice president votes only when it is necessary to break a tie. Additionally, pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College. Currently, the president is usually seen as an integral part of a presidents administration. The Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing a dispute among scholars whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both. The modern view of the president as a member of the executive branch is due in part to the assignment of executive duties to the vice president by either the president or Congress. Mike Pence of Indiana is the 48th and current vice president and he assumed office on January 20,2017. The formation of the office of vice president resulted directly from the compromise reached at the Philadelphia Convention which created the Electoral College, the delegates at Philadelphia agreed that each state would receive a number of presidential electors equal to the sum of that states allocation of Representatives and Senators. The delegates assumed that electors would typically choose to favor any candidate from their state over candidates from other states, under a plurality election process, this would tend to result in electing candidates solely from the largest states. Consequently, the delegates agreed that presidents must be elected by a majority of the number of electors. To guard against such stratagems, the Philadelphia delegates specified that the first runner-up presidential candidate would become vice president, the process for selecting the vice president was later modified in the Twelfth Amendment. Each elector still receives two votes, but now one of those votes is for president, while the other is for vice president. The requirement that one of those votes be cast for a candidate not from the electors own state remains in effect. S, other statutorily granted roles include membership of both the National Security Council and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. As President of the Senate, the president has two primary duties, to cast a vote in the event of a Senate deadlock and to preside over. For example, in the first half of 2001, the Senators were divided 50-50 between Republicans and Democrats and Dick Cheneys tie-breaking vote gave the Republicans the Senate majority, as President of the Senate, the vice president oversees procedural matters and may cast a tie-breaking vote. As President of the Senate, John Adams cast 29 tie-breaking votes that was surpassed by John C. Calhoun with 31. Adamss votes protected the presidents sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, on at least one occasion Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently addressed the Senate on procedural and policy matters
23.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
24.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
25.
California's 12th congressional district
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Californias 12th congressional district is a congressional district in the U. S. state of California. House Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi, a Democrat, has represented the district since January 2013, currently, the 12th district is entirely within the city of San Francisco. Prior to redistricting by the California Citizens Redistricting Commission of 2011, when the 12th Congressional District was created after the 1930 Census, it was located in Los Angeles County. As Californias population grew, however, the district generally shrank in area and progressed northward, richard Nixon, the 37th President of the United States, represented this district from 1947-1951. Nancy Pelosi, the 60th Speaker of the House, is the current representative of this district, as of April 2015, there are five living former members of the House of Representatives from this district. The most recent representative to die was Tom Lantos, who died in office on February 11,2008, list of United States congressional districts GovTrack. us, Californias 12th congressional district RAND California Election Returns, District Definitions California Voter Foundation map - CD12
26.
Presidency of Richard Nixon
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He was succeeded by Vice President Gerald Ford, who had become vice president nine months earlier, following Spiro Agnews resignation from office. A Republican, Nixon took office after the 1968 presidential election, in which he defeated Hubert Humphrey, four years later, in 1972, Nixon won reelection in a landslide victory over George McGovern. Overall, he won 60. 7% of the popular vote, Nixon, the 37th United States president, succeeded Lyndon B. Johnson, who had launched the Great Society, a set of domestic programs financed, in contrast, Nixon advocated a New Federalism domestic program model, one in which certain powers would devolve back to the states. Nixons primary focus while in office was on foreign affairs, Nixon pursued a detente with the Peoples Republic of China, taking advantage of the Sino-Soviet split and significantly altering the nature of the Cold War. Nixons many accomplishments as president were however, largely overshadowed by the scandals that enveloped his administration, regarding his lasting legacy, historian Stephen Ambrose wrote, Nixon wanted to be judged by what he accomplished. What he will be remembered for is the nightmare he put the country through in his second term, Nixon was inaugurated as president on January 20,1969, sworn in by his onetime political rival, Chief Justice Earl Warren. Pat Nixon held the family Bibles open at Isaiah 2,4, which reads, They shall beat their swords into plowshares, in his inaugural address, which received almost uniformly positive reviews, Nixon remarked that the greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker. Nixon made fifteen international trips during his presidency and his first was an eight-day European visit starting in Brussels on February 23,1969. He met with Britain’s Prime Minister Harold Wilson in London and Frances President Charles de Gaulle in Paris and he also stopped in Bonn, Berlin and Rome and met with Pope Paul VI in Vatican City. He also made groundbreaking trips to several Eastern European Communist nations, including, Romania, Yugoslavia, even those who hated Nixons presidency occasionally praise his work in China. The extent to which his visit had any consequences of note, however. Assisting him in this venture was his National Security Advisor and future Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, with whom the President worked closely, bypassing Cabinet officials. A breakthrough came in early 1971, when Chairman Mao invited a team of American table tennis players to visit China, Nixon followed up by sending Kissinger to China for clandestine meetings with Chinese officials. On July 15,1971, it was announced by Beijing. The secrecy allowed both sets of time to prepare the political climate in their countries for the contact. In February 1972, Nixon and his wife traveled to China, Kissinger briefed Nixon for over 40 hours in preparation. Upon touching down, the President and First Lady emerged from Air Force One, Nixon made a point of shaking Zhous hand, something which then-Secretary of State John Foster Dulles had refused to do in 1954 when the two met in Geneva
27.
First inauguration of Richard Nixon
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The first inauguration of Richard Nixon as the 37th President of the United States was held on January 20,1969, at the east portico of the United States Capitol in Washington, D. C. The inauguration marked the commencement of the first term of Richard Nixon as President, chief Justice Earl Warren administered the presidential oath of office to Nixon, and Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen administered the vice presidential oath to Agnew. In the orderly transfer of power, we celebrate the unity that keeps us free, each moment in history is a fleeting time, precious and unique. But some stand out as moments of beginning, in which courses are set that shape decades or centuries and this can be such a moment. Forces now are converging that make possible, for the first time, the spiraling pace of change allows us to contemplate, within our own lifetime, advances that once would have taken centuries. In throwing wide the horizons of space, we have discovered new horizons on earth, for the first time, because the people of the world want peace, and the leaders of the world are afraid of war, the times are on the side of peace. Eight years from now America will celebrate its 200th anniversary as a nation, within the lifetime of most people now living, mankind will celebrate that great new year which comes only once in a thousand years--the beginning of the third millennium. What kind of nation we will be, what kind of world we live in, whether we shape the future in the image of our hopes, is ours to determine by our actions. The greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker and this honor now beckons America--the chance to help lead the world at last out of the valley of turmoil, and onto that high ground of peace that man has dreamed of since the dawn of civilization. If we succeed, generations to come will say of us now living that we mastered our moment and this is our summons to greatness. I believe the American people are ready to answer this call, the second third of this century has been a time of proud achievement. We have made strides in science and industry and agriculture. We have shared our wealth more broadly than ever and we have learned at last to manage a modern economy to assure its continued growth. We have given freedom new reach, and we have begun to make its promise real for black as well as for white and we see the hope of tomorrow in the youth of today. We can be proud that they are educated, more committed. No people has ever been so close to the achievement of a just and abundant society, because our strengths are so great, we can afford to appraise our weaknesses with candor and to approach them with hope. Standing in this place a third of a century ago, Franklin Delano Roosevelt addressed a Nation ravaged by depression. He could say in surveying the Nations troubles, They concern, thank God and our crisis today is the reverse
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Second inauguration of Richard Nixon
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The second inauguration of Richard Nixon as President of the United States was held on January 20,1973 at the eastern portico of the United States Capitol in Washington, D. C. The inauguration marked the commencement of the term of Richard Nixon as President. Burger administered the Oath of office to the President and the oath of office to the Vice President, Agnew resigned from office 263 days into this term, and was succeeded by Gerald Ford. Nixon resigned 1 year,201 days into the term, and was succeeded by Ford, johnson, whom Nixon replaced in the White House in 1969, died two days after the inauguration. Many of the ceremonies that the Armed Forces Inauguration Committee had planned during the ten days had to be canceled to allow for a state funeral. Many of the men who participated in the inauguration took part in the funeral. During the ceremony, Look With Pride On Our Flag, a dedicated to President Nixon. United States presidential election,1972 Video of Nixons Second Inaugural Address from hulu. com
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Nixon Doctrine
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The Nixon Doctrine was put forth during a press conference in Guam on July 25,1969 by US President Richard Nixon and later formalized in his speech on Vietnamization on November 3,1969. This doctrine meant that each nation was in charge of its own security in general. The Doctrine argued for the pursuit of peace through a partnership with American allies, the Nixon Doctrine implied the intentions of Nixon shifting the direction on international policies in Asia, especially aiming for Vietnamization of the Vietnam War. When Richard Nixon became President in 1969, the US had been engaged in combat in Vietnam for almost four years and it had so far resulted in the loss of more than 30,000 American and countless Vietnamese lives. By 1969, US public opinion had moved decisively in favour of an end to the Vietnam War, because Nixon campaigned for Peace with Honor in relation to Vietnam during the 1968 presidential campaign, ending the Vietnam War became an important policy goal for Nixon. During a stopover at Guam in middle of an international tour, in Nixons own words, First, the United States will keep all of its treaty commitments. Second, we provide a shield if a nuclear power threatens the freedom of a nation allied with us or of a nation whose survival we consider vital to our security. Third, in cases involving other types of aggression, we shall furnish military, but we shall look to the nation directly threatened to assume the primary responsibility of providing the manpower for its defense. As a consequence of this shift, direct sales of weaponry to nations no longer under the umbrella of previous US security guarantees dramatically increased as US guarantees were withdrawn. In South Korea,20,000 of the 61,000 US troops stationed there were withdrawn by June 1971, the US turned to Saudi Arabia and Iran as twin pillars of regional stability. Oil price increases in 1970 and 1971 would allow funding both states with military expansion. The United States would maintain its small naval force of three ships in the Gulf, stationed since World War II in Bahrain, but would take on no other formal security commitments. A key shortcoming of the original Nixon Doctrine, Ladwig argues, was its reliance on pro-Western autocrats who proved to be a foundation for an enduring regional security structure. In contrast, his neo-Nixon Doctrine would focus on cultivating the major Indian Ocean nations that are democratic, the Nixon Doctrine, A Saga of Misunderstanding. H. Meiertöns, The Doctrines of US Security Policy — An Evaluation under International Law, Cambridge University Press, Richard Nixon, Special Message to the Congress Proposing Reform of the Foreign Assistance Program, September 15,1970. University of California - Santa Barbara, Richard Nixon, Special Message to the Congress Proposing Reform of the Foreign Assistance Program, April 21,1971. University of California - Santa Barbara
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Bring Us Together
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Bring Us Together was a political slogan popularized after the election of Republican candidate Richard Nixon as United States President in 1968. The text was derived from a sign which 13-year-old Vicki Lynne Cole stated that she carried at Nixons rally in her town of Deshler. Richard Moore, a friend of Nixon, told the candidates speechwriters he had seen a child carrying a sign reading Bring Us Together at the Deshler rally, the speechwriters, including William Safire, began inserting the phrase into the candidates speeches. Nixon mentioned the Deshler rally and the sign in his speech on November 6,1968. Cole came forward as the person who carried the sign, and was the subject of media attention. Nixon invited Cole and her family to the inauguration, and she appeared on a float in the inaugural parade, the phrase Bring Us Together was used ironically by Democrats when Nixon proposed policies they disagreed with or refused to support. Cole declined to comment on Nixons 1974 resignation, but subsequently expressed her sympathy for him, in newspaper columns written in his final years before his 2009 death, Safire expressed doubts that Coles sign ever existed. The 1968 presidential campaign was one of the most bitterly fought in the nations history, the incumbent President, Democrat Lyndon Baines Johnson could give Humphrey little support because of his own unpopularity. By 1968, candidates were appealing to the electorate through television, Nixon had included them in his past national campaigns—he had broken off one such tour in 1952 to make the Checkers speech, and in 1960, had stopped at Deshler. Deshler voters would respond in 1968 by giving Nixon an overwhelming majority of their votes, Cole was an eighth grader in Deshler, her father was the local Methodist minister while her mother taught third grade. On October 22,1968, the day of Nixons stop in Deshler, during the morning session, one of her teachers announced that any girls interested in being Nixonettes should report to the fire station after school. Cole did so, along with her friend, Rita Bowman, and the girls were provided with red, white. That afternoon, Cole attended the rally, wearing her dress, the Nixon train pulled in, and the police lowered the rope which kept the crowd clear of the tracks. In interviews, Cole related that as the crowd surged forward, Cole stated, I wanted a sign to wave. I had lost my own placard and as the crowd moved forward as the train approached I saw this sign lying in the street and I just picked it up and held it high, Nixon gave a speech from the rear platform of the train. He praised the size of the crowd, stating, There are four times as people here than live in the town. The candidate asserted that though his opponent, Vice President Humphrey, claimed that Americans had never had it so good, Nixon pledged that he would give special attention to agricultural issues and would make the Secretary of Agriculture a farmers advocate to the White House. He promised to order, The most important civil right is the right to be free from violence
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Nixonomics
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Nixonomics, a portmanteau of the words “Nixon” and “economics”, refers to U. S. President Richard Nixons economic performance. Nixon is first president to have his surname combined with the word economics, Nixon inherited a weak economy from President Lyndon B. Johnson, who follow the advice of his economists. In 1969, a tax bill passed that held several Nixon ideas, including a repeal of the investment tax credit, after a year it was becoming obvious that the plan wasn’t working. Nixon gave his budget plan to congress in 1971 in which he was to use a $11.6 billion deficit, arthur Burns, Nixons appointee to chair the Federal Reserve, shifted away from a tight-money policy because the nation’s unemployment was sharply rising as was inflation. In the early months of 1971, Nixon started criticizing the growing wages in the steel industry, treasury Secretary John Connally announced that the government would need to start taking new measures. Despite this, unemployment had reached 6 percent, in August the government had made a new plan for the economy with rather extreme measures, measures which would later be dubbed “Nixon Shocks”. The plan was announced on August 15,1971 in a televised address. Nixon declared that the window would be closed and that gold would no longer be transferable to US dollars. This created an 8 percent devaluation to the dollar, as compared to other of the major currencies, stimulating American exports. A 90-day freeze on wages and prices and the establishment of the council was also announced. Unfortunately he neglected to inform any allies beforehand, causing more than minor problems between the countries. When 1972 came around, unemployment had continued to rise, with 2 million more Americans out of jobs than in 1969, the administration decided it was time to stimulate the economy with a $25.2 billion budget. In the election year, the supply was expanded by 9 percent. This caused many to accuse Nixon and Burns of making a deal so that Nixon could win the upcoming election, soon in the fall, the economy began to improve. Unemployment was finally dropping and inflation was staying relatively in control, america had temporarily gotten out of the recession. Unfortunately inflation soon increased after the election, when the failed wage and price controls were lifted, other problems took their toll on the American economy. An expanded money supply, the effects of increased deficits and the price of oil all left their mark on the American economy
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Nixon shock
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While Nixon publicly stated his intention to resume direct convertibility of the dollar after reforms to the Bretton Woods system had been implemented, all attempts at reform proved unsuccessful. By 1973, the Bretton Woods system was replaced de facto by a regime based on freely floating fiat currencies that remains in place to the present day. In 1944 in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, representatives from 44 nations met to develop a new monetary system that came to be known as the Bretton Woods system. Conference members had hoped that new system would “ensure exchange rate stability, prevent competitive devaluations. It was not until 1958 that the Bretton Woods system became fully operational, countries now settled their international accounts in dollars that could be converted to gold at a fixed exchange rate of $35 per ounce, which was redeemable by the U. S. government. Thus, the United States was committed to backing every dollar overseas with gold, other currencies were fixed to the dollar, and the dollar was pegged to gold. For the first years after World War II the Bretton Woods system worked well, with the Marshall Plan, Japan and Europe were rebuilding from the war, and countries outside the US wanted dollars to spend on American goods—cars, steel, machinery, etc. Because the U. S. owned over half the official gold reserves—574 million ounces at the end of World War II—the system appeared secure. However, from 1950 to 1969, as Germany and Japan recovered, in February 1965 President Charles de Gaulle announced his intention to exchange its U. S. dollar reserves for gold at the official exchange rate. By 1966, non-US central banks held $14 billion, while the United States had only $13.2 billion in gold reserve, of those reserves, only $3.2 billion was able to cover foreign holdings as the rest was covering domestic holdings. By 1971, the supply had increased by 10%. In May 1971, West Germany left the Bretton Woods system, in the following three months, this move strengthened its economy. Simultaneously, the dollar dropped 7. 5% against the Deutsche Mark, other nations began to demand redemption of their dollars for gold. Switzerland redeemed $50 million in July, france acquired $191 million in gold. On August 5,1971, the United States Congress released a report recommending devaluation of the dollar, on August 9,1971, as the dollar dropped in value against European currencies, Switzerland left the Bretton Woods system. The pressure began to intensify on the United States to leave Bretton Woods, at the time, the U. S. also had an unemployment rate of 6. 1% and an inflation rate of 5. 84%. On the afternoon of Friday, August 13,1971, these officials along with twelve other high-ranking White House, Nixon issued Executive Order 11615, imposing a 90-day freeze on wages and prices in order to counter inflation. This was the first time the U. S. government had enacted wage, an import surcharge of 10 percent was set to ensure that American products would not be at a disadvantage because of the expected fluctuation in exchange rates
33.
United States Environmental Protection Agency
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The EPA was proposed by President Richard Nixon and began operation on December 2,1970, after Nixon signed an executive order. The order establishing the EPA was ratified by committee hearings in the House, the agency is led by its Administrator, who is appointed by the president and approved by Congress. The current administrator is Scott Pruitt, the EPA is not a Cabinet department, but the administrator is normally given cabinet rank. The EPA has its headquarters in Washington, D. C. regional offices for each of the ten regions. The agency conducts environmental assessment, research, and education and it has the responsibility of maintaining and enforcing national standards under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation with state, tribal, and local governments. It delegates some permitting, monitoring, and enforcement responsibility to U. S. states, EPA enforcement powers include fines, sanctions, and other measures. The agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs. In 2016, the agency had 15,376 full-time employees, more than half of EPAs employees are engineers, scientists, and environmental protection specialists, other employees include legal, public affairs, financial, and information technologists. Beginning in the late 1950s and through the 1960s, Congress reacted to increasing concern about the impact that human activity could have on the environment. Senator James E. Murray introduced a bill, the Resources and Conservation Act of 1959, the 1962 publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson alerted the public about the detrimental effects on the environment of the indiscriminate use of pesticides. In the years following, similar bills were introduced and hearings were held to discuss the state of the environment, in the colloquium, some members of Congress expressed a continuing concern over federal agency actions affecting the environment. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 was modeled on RCA, President Nixon signed NEPA into law on January 1,1970. The law created the Council on Environmental Quality in the Executive Office of the President, NEPA required that a detailed statement of environmental impacts be prepared for all major federal actions significantly affecting the environment. The detailed statement would ultimately be referred to as an impact statement. On July 9,1970, Nixon proposed a reorganization that consolidated many environmental responsibilities of the federal government under one agency. After conducting hearings during that summer, the House and Senate approved the proposal, the agency’s first administrator, William Ruckelshaus, took the oath of office on December 4,1970. In May 2013, Congress renamed the EPA headquarters as the William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building, the EPA is led by an Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. As of 2017 Scott Pruitt is the 14th administrator, each EPA regional office is responsible within its states for implementing the Agencys programs, except those programs that have been specifically delegated to states
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Reorganization Plan No. 3
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The order consolidated components from different Federal agencies to form the EPA, a strong, independent agency that would establish and enforce federal environmental protection laws. Unlike other agencies such as OSHA, the EPA was not established by an enabling act of Congress. According to author Jack Lewis, the decade of the 1960s fostered a general consensus of the American public to increase protection, rachel Carson published Silent Spring in 1962, which is widely credited with helping to launch the environmental movement. The oil spill polluted a 60-mile stretch of coastline, harming marine wildlife, the event led to widespread criticism of both Union Oil and the offshore oil drilling industry. On April 22,1970, the first Earth Day brought millions of Americans together to demonstrate in support of environmental reform. The NEPA required any federal agency planning a project that would affect the environment to submit a report on the consequences of its plan. 378, enacted September 6,1966, created Title 5 of the United States Code, Congress responded by enacting the Reorganization Acts Amendment in Public Law 98-614, which was signed on November 8,1984. The Amendment expanded the power of the President to communicate with Congress plans of reorganization of agencies within the executive branch, in his message to Congress explaining his reasons for proposing Reorganization Plan No. Under the terms of Reorganization Plan No,3, the Environmental Protection Agency would be created to absorb these departments and agencies. From the Department of the Interior, functions carried out by the Federal Water Quality Administration as well as pesticide studies would be moved to the EPA, from the Department of Agriculture, the responsibilities of the Agricultural Research Service to register pesticides would be transferred. Text of Reorganization Plan No.3 & Presidents Message to Congress from U. S. EPA website
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National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
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The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is an American scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere. NOAA warns of dangerous weather, charts seas, guides the use and protection of ocean and coastal resources, and conducts research to improve understanding and stewardship of the environment. In addition to its employees, over 11,000 as of 2015, NOAA research. NOAA plays several roles in society, the benefits of which extend beyond the U. S. economy and into the larger global community. NOAA supplies information to its customers and partners pertaining to the state of the oceans and this is clearly manifest in the production of weather warnings and forecasts through the National Weather Service, but NOAAs information products extend to climate, ecosystems, and commerce as well. A Provider of Environmental Stewardship Services, NOAA is also the steward of U. S. coastal and marine environments. A Leader in Applied Scientific Research, the five fundamental activities are, Monitoring and observing Earth systems with instruments and data collection networks. Understanding and describing Earth systems through research and analysis of that data, assessing and predicting the changes of these systems over time. Engaging, advising, and informing the public and partner organizations with important information, managing resources for the betterment of society, economy and environment. NOAA formed a conglomeration of several existing agencies that were among the oldest in the federal government, NOAA was established within the Department of Commerce via the Reorganization Plan No.4 of 1970. In 2007 NOAA celebrated 200 years of service with its ties to the United States Coast, the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps is a uniformed service of men and women who operate NOAA ships and aircraft, and serve in scientific and administrative posts. And in addition more than a dozen staff offices, including the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology, the NOAA Central Library and this is done through a collection of national and regional centers,13 river forecast centers, and more than 120 local weather forecast offices. They are charged with issuing weather and river forecasts, advisories, watches and they issue more than 734,000 weather and 850,000 river forecasts, and more than 45,000 severe weather warnings annually. NOAA data is relevant to the issues of global warming. The NWS operates NEXRAD, a network of Doppler weather radars which can detect precipitation. Many of their products are broadcast on NOAA Weather Radio, a network of transmitters that broadcasts weather forecasts, severe weather statements, watches. The National Ocean Service focuses on ensuring that ocean and coastal areas are safe, healthy, in 1960 TIROS-1, NOAAs first owned and operated geostationary satellite was launched. Since 1966 NESDIS has managed polar orbiting satellites and since 1974 it has operated geosynchronous satellites, in 1979 NOAAs first polar-orbiting environmental satellite was launched
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Space policy of the United States
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The early history of United States space policy is linked to the US–Soviet Space Race of the 1960s, which gave way to the Space Shuttle program. There is a current debate on the post-Space Shuttle future of the space program. Space advocacy organizations may provide advice to the government and lobby for space goals, the President is legally responsible for deciding which space activities fall under the civilian and military areas. The President also consults with the National Security Council, the Office of Science and Technology Policy, and the Office of Management and Budget. Before taking office as President, John F. Kennedy persuaded Congress to amend the Act to allow him to set the precedent of delegating chairmanship of this council to his Vice President, the Council was discontinued in 1973 during the presidency of Richard M. Nixon. In 1989, President George H. W. Bush re-established a differently constituted National Space Council by executive order, International aspects of US space policy may involve diplomatic negotiation with other countries, such as the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. In these cases, the President negotiates and signs the treaty on behalf of the United States according to his constitutional authority, once a request is submitted, the Congress exercises due diligence to approve the policy and authorize a budgetary expenditure for its implementation. In support of this, civilian policies are reviewed by the House Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee conducts hearings on proposed space treaties, and the various appropriations committees have power over the budgets for space-related agencies. In addition, the Department of Commerces National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration operates various services with space components, military space activities are implemented by the Air Force Space Command, Naval Space Command, and Army Space and Missile Defense Command. Funding for space programs occurs through the budget process, where it is mainly considered to be part of the nations science policy. In the Obama administrations budget request for fiscal year 2011, NASA would receive $11.0 billion, out of a total research and development budget of $148.1 billion. Other space activities are funded out of the research and development budget of the Department of Defense, the United States is a party to four of the five space law treaties ratified by the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. The United States has ratified the Outer Space Treaty, Rescue Agreement, Space Liability Convention, and the Registration Convention, the United Nations General Assembly adopted five declarations and legal principles which encourage exercising the international laws, as well as unified communication between countries. No one nation may claim ownership of space or any celestial body. Objects launched into space are subject to their nation of belonging, including people, objects, parts, and components discovered outside the jurisdiction of a nation will be returned upon identification. If a nation launches an object into space, they are responsible for any damages that occur internationally, prior to the Soviet Unions launch of Sputnik 1, Eisenhower had already authorized Project Vanguard, a scientific satellite program associated with the International Geophysical Year. At the suggestion of Eisenhowers science advisor James R. Killian, the result was the National Aeronautics and Space Act passed in July 1958, which created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Eisenhower appointed T. Keith Glennan as NASAs first Administrator, with the last NACA Director Hugh Dryden serving as his Deputy, NASA as created in the act passed by Congress was substantially stronger than the Eisenhower administrations original proposal
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Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
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Operation Menu
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Operation Menu was the codename of a covert United States Strategic Air Command bombing campaign conducted in eastern Cambodia from 18 March 1969 until 26 May 1970, during the Vietnam War. The impact of the campaign on the Khmer Rouge guerrillas, the PAVN. An official United States Air Force record of U. S. bombing activity over Indochina from 1964 to 1973 was declassified by U. S. President Bill Clinton in 2000. The report gives details of the extent of the bombing of Cambodia, as well as of Laos, the Menu bombings were an escalation of what had previously been tactical air attacks. Newly inaugurated President Richard Nixon authorized for the first time use of long range B-52 heavy bombers to carpet bomb Cambodia, Operation Freedom Deal immediately followed Operation Menu. Under Freedom Deal, B-52 bombing was expanded to a larger area of Cambodia. From the onset of hostilities in South Vietnam and the Kingdom of Laos in the early 1960s, Cambodias Prince Norodom Sihanouk had maintained a delicate domestic and foreign policy balancing act. Convinced of the victory of the communists in Southeast Asia and concerned for the future existence of his government. The US, heavily involved in South Vietnam, was not eager to openly violate the asserted neutrality of Cambodia, beginning in 1967, President Lyndon B. Johnson authorized covert reconnaissance operations by the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam Studies and Observations Group. The mission of the highly classified unit was to military intelligence on the Base Areas that would be presented to Sihanouk in hopes of changing his position. By late 1968, Sihanouk, under pressure from the right at home and from the US. In July 1968, he had agreed to diplomatic relations and, in August. Before the diplomatic amenities with Sihanouk were even concluded, Nixon had decided to deal with the situation of PAVN troops, on 30 January 1969, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs Earle Wheeler had suggested to the president that he authorize the bombing of the Cambodian sanctuaries. He was seconded on 9 February by the U. S. commander in Vietnam, on 22 February, during the period just following the Tết holidays, PAVN/NLF forces launched an offensive. He then cabled Colonel Alexander Haig, a National Security Council staff aide, Sitton, a former Strategic Air Command officer on the JCS staff, to formulate a plan of action. By seeking advice from high officials, Nixon had delayed any quick response that could be explicitly linked to the provocation. He decided to respond to the provocation and didnt have to wait long. On 14 March, communist forces once again attacked South Vietnams urban areas, in his diary on 17 March 1969, Haldeman wrote, Historic day
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Paris Peace Accords
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It ended direct U. S. military combat, and temporarily stopped the fighting between North and South Vietnam. However, the agreement was not ratified by the United States Senate, the negotiations that led to the accord began in 1968, after various lengthy delays. As a result of the accord, the International Control Commission was replaced by the International Commission of Control, the inclusion of this provision was a victory for the communist side of the negotiations by allowing that the war was not a foreign aggression against South Vietnam. North and South Vietnamese forces were to hold their locations and they were permitted to resupply military materials to the extent necessary to replace items consumed in the course of the truce. Once the ceasefire is in effect, U. S. troops would begin to withdraw, simultaneously, U. S. prisoners of war would be released and allowed to return home. The parties to the agreement agreed to assist in repatriating the remains of the dead, reunification of Vietnam was to be carried out step by step through peaceful means. Shortly thereafter, Hanoi agreed to discuss a complete halt of the bombing, a similar debate concerned the shape of the table to be used at the conference. The North favored a circular table, in all parties, including NLF representatives. The South Vietnamese argued that only a table was acceptable. Bryce Harlow, a former White House staff member in the Eisenhower administration, Harlow and Henry Kissinger separately predicted Johnsons bombing halt. Democratic senator George Smathers informed President Johnson that the word is out that we are making an effort to throw the election to Humphrey, Nixon has been told of it. According to presidential historian Robert Dallek, Kissingers advice rested not on knowledge of decision making at the White House. On November 2, Chennault informed the South Vietnamese ambassador, I have just heard from my boss in Albuquerque who says his boss is going to win, and you tell your boss to hold on a while longer. In response, President Johnson ordered the wire-tapping of members of the Nixon campaign, after winning the 1968 presidential election, Richard Nixon became president of the U. S. in January 1969. He then replaced U. S. ambassador Harriman with Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. who was replaced by David Bruce. Also that year, the NLF set up a Provisional Revolutionary Government to gain government status at the talks. Nixon and Kissinger were unwilling to sign an agreement to overthrow a government the NLF had failed to overthrow by force of arms, though the extent of North Vietnamese demands is contested. On May 8,1972, President Nixon made a concession to North Vietnam by announcing that the U. S. would accept a cease-fire in place as a precondition for its military withdrawal
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Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China
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U. S. President Richard Nixons 1972 visit to the Peoples Republic of China was an important step in formally normalizing relations between the United States and China. It marked the first time a U. S. president had visited the PRC, which at that time considered the U. S. one of its foes, and the visit ended 25 years of separation between the two sides. Early in his first term, Nixon and National Security Adviser Henry Kissinger began sending subtle overtures hinting at warmer relations to the PRC government. After a series of overtures by both countries, Kissinger flew on secret diplomatic missions to Beijing, where he met with Premier Zhou Enlai. On July 15,1971, the President announced that he would visit the PRC the following year, occurring from February 21 to 28,1972, the visit allowed the American public to view images of China for the first time in over two decades. Nixon dubbed the visit the week that changed the world, the repercussions of the Nixon visit were vast, and included a significant shift in the Cold War balance, putting the PRC with the U. S. against the Soviet Union. Nixon going to China has since become a metaphor for an unexpected or uncharacteristic action by a politician, improved relations with the Soviet Union and the PRC are often cited as the most successful diplomatic achievements of Nixon’s presidency. Many Americans felt concern that communists might dominate schools or labor unions, the reason for opening up China was for the U. S. to gain more leverage over relations with the Soviet Union. Resolving the Vietnam War was an important factor. National Security Council staffer Winston Lord noted, First, an opening to China would give us more flexibility on the world scene generally and we wouldn’t just be dealing with Moscow. We could deal with Eastern Europe, of course, and we could deal with China, secondly, by opening relations with China we would catch Russia’s attention and get more leverage on them through playing this obvious, China card. This effort, in fact, worked dramatically after Kissinger’s secret trip to China, thirdly, Kissinger and Nixon wanted to get help in resolving the Vietnam War. By dealing with Russia and with China we hoped to put pressure on Hanoi to negotiate seriously, at a maximum, we tried to get Russia and China to slow down the provision of aid to North Vietnam somewhat. One of the main reasons Richard Nixon became the 1952 vice-presidential candidate on the Eisenhower ticket was his strong anti-communist stance, despite this, in 1972 Nixon became the first U. S. president to visit mainland China while in office. Ulysses S. Grant visited China on a tour after leaving office. Herbert Hoover lived in China briefly in 1899 before becoming President, dwight Eisenhower made a state visit to Taiwan in 1960, during the period when the United States recognized the Republic of China government in Taipei as the sole government of China. In July 1971, President Nixons National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger secretly visited Beijing during a trip to Pakistan, Transcripts of White House meetings and once confidential documents show Nixon began working to open a channel of communication with Beijing from his first day in the White House. From February 21 to 28,1972, U. S. President Richard Nixon traveled to Beijing, Hangzhou, almost as soon as the American president arrived in the Chinese capital, Chairman Mao summoned him for a quick meeting
