1.
Muscat and Oman
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The Sultanate of Muscat and Oman was a thalassocratic nation that encompassed the present day Sultanate of Oman and parts of present-day United Arab Emirates and Gwadar, Pakistan. The country is not to be confused with Trucial Oman, which were sheikhdoms under British protection since 1820, historical differences always existed between the more secular, rich, seafaring coastal Sultanate of Muscat and the tribes of the interior. The Sultanate of Muscat also engaged in a very lucrative slave trade across east Africa, recently, a claim was made by an Omani minister, suggesting that the Sultanate controlled the distant Mascarene Islands as early as the 15th century. In the early 1820s, the Sultanate lost most of its territories in the Persian Gulf, the fifth Sultan of the Al Said dynasty, Said bin Sultan, consolidated the Sultanates territorial holdings and economic interests and Oman prospered. However, the Omani fleet was unable to compete with the technically advanced European fleets. Pressure by the British to abandon the slave trade led to the loss of political. On June 4,1856, Said bin Sultan died without appointing an heir to the throne, through British mediation, two rulers were appointed from the Al Said clan, the third son of the Sultan, Thuwaini bin Said became ruler of the mainland. His sixth son, Majid bin Said, became ruler of an independent Sultanate of Zanzibar on October 19,1856, the Sultans of Zanzibar were thereafter obliged to pay an annual tribute to Muscat. The Sultanate of Muscat was regularly under attack from the devout Ibadi tribes who resented the influence of the more secular coastal people, the Sultanate was however able to defend itself with British help. The last overseas possession, the port of Gwadar across the Gulf of Oman, was sold to Pakistan in 1958, the discovery of oil in the Persian Gulf exacerbated the dispute between the Sultan in Muscat and the Imams of Oman. Oil exploration had begun in the early 1920s by the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, the course of the second world war severely disrupted such activities. The last Imam of Oman, Ghalib Bin Ali, started an uprising in 1954 when the Sultan granted licenses to the Iraq Petroleum Company despite the fact that the largest oil fields lay inside the Imamate. The hostilities were put down in 1955, but the conflict would evolve into the Jebel Akhdar rebellion. The insurgency erupted again in 1957, when Saudi Arabia began supporting the Ibadi rebels, the same year, the British forces bombarded the town of Nizwa, the capital of the Imamate, and toppled the Ibadi theocracy. Ghalib Bin Ali went into exile in Saudi Arabia and the last rebel forces were defeated two years later, in 1959, the Treaty of Seeb was terminated and the autonomous Imamate of Oman abolished. The frequency of such as the Dhofar Rebellion, supported by the communist government of South Yemen. The British chose the Western-educated son of the Sultan, Qaboos bin Said who was locked up in the palace, because his paranoid father feared a coup. On his release, Qaboos bin Said, with the help of British military forces, staged a palace coup and was proclaimed Sultan of Muscat
2.
Persian Gulf Residency
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British interest in the Persian Gulf originated in the sixteenth century and steadily increased as British Indias importance rose in the imperial system of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In the beginning, the agenda was primarily of a commercial character, realizing the regions significance, the British fleet supported the Persian emperor Shāh Abbās in expelling the Portuguese from Hormuz Island in 1622. In return, the British East India Company was permitted to establish a trading post in the city of Bandar Abbās. In 1763, the British East India Company established a residency at Bušehr, on the Persian side of the Persian Gulf, the arrival in Persia in 1807 of a large French mission under General Gardane galvanised the British, both in London and Calcutta. They responded by sending a mission under Sir Harford Jones, which resulted in establishing the Preliminary Treaty of Friendship, despite being modified during subsequent negotiations, this treaty provided the framework within which Anglo–Persian foreign relations operated for the next half century. Britain appointed Harford Jones as their first resident envoy to the Persian court in 1808, until the appointment of Charles Alison as Minister in Tehran in 1860, the envoy and his staff were, with rare exceptions, almost exclusively recruited from the East India Company. In 1822, the Bušehr and Basar residencies were combined, with Bušehr serving as headquarters for the new position of British Resident for the Persian Gulf, British activity in the Persian Gulf was primarily a commercial pursuit. Thus, the British Raj was slow to action in protecting British. By 1817, the Qawasim were spreading terror along the Indian coast to within 70 miles of Bombay and this threat generated a British military expedition in 1819, which crushed the Qawasim confederation and resulted in ratification of the General Treaty of Peace on 5 January 1820. Through extension and modification, this treaty formed the basis of British policy in the Persian Gulf for a century, the treaty further stipulated that the ships of maritime tribes would be freely admitted at British ports. While the treaty obviously served British interests, because it was sensibly magnanimous and aimed at securing all parties interests, articles 6 and 10 authorised the British Residency in the Persian Gulf to act as maritime police to administer the treatys conditions and resolve tribal disputes. Article 7 condemned piracy among Arab tribes and implied a British obligation to maintain peace, the trucial system took explicit form in 1835, when raids by Bani Yas tribesmen, rivals of the Qawasim, led to a British-imposed truce during the summer pearling season. The truce was made year-long in 1838 and renewed annually until 1843 when it was extended for ten years, the trucial system received formal permanency with the 1853 Treaty of Maritime Peace in Perpetuity. The British policy of non-involvement in the affairs of the Trucial sheikhs was abandoned with passage of the Exclusive Agreement in March 1892. This agreement prohibited the Trucial rulers from yielding territorial sovereignty without British consent, Britain, moreover, assumed responsibility for foreign relations and thus, by implication, their protection. This treaty marked Britains shift from commercial to strategic priorities and formed the pillar of British authority in the Trucial states. In the years following World War I, the Trucial sheikhs found their capacity to act independently being continuously curtailed by the British and this was partially a result of Britain shifting attention away from Iran, where Reza Shahs nationalist assertion of power undercut their hegemony. It also reflected growing commercial and imperial interests, such as air route facilities
3.
British Raj
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The British Raj was the rule by the British Crown in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947. The rule is also called Crown rule in India, or direct rule in India, the resulting political union was also called the Indian Empire and after 1876 issued passports under that name. It lasted until 1947, when the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two sovereign states, the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The British Raj extended over almost all present-day India, Pakistan and this area is very diverse, containing the Himalayan mountains, fertile floodplains, the Indo-Gangetic Plain, a long coastline, tropical dry forests, arid uplands, and the Thar desert. In addition, at times, it included Aden, Lower Burma, Upper Burma, British Somaliland. Burma was separated from India and directly administered by the British Crown from 1937 until its independence in 1948, among other countries in the region, Ceylon was ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens. Ceylon was part of Madras Presidency between 1793 and 1798, the kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan, having fought wars with the British, subsequently signed treaties with them and were recognised by the British as independent states. The Kingdom of Sikkim was established as a state after the Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty of 1861, however. The Maldive Islands were a British protectorate from 1887 to 1965, India during the British Raj was made up of two types of territory, British India and the Native States. In general, the term British India had been used to also to the regions under the rule of the British East India Company in India from 1600 to 1858. The term has also used to refer to the British in India. The terms Indian Empire and Empire of India were not used in legislation, the monarch was known as Empress or Emperor of India and the term was often used in Queen Victorias Queens Speeches and Prorogation Speeches. The passports issued by the British Indian government had the words Indian Empire on the cover, in addition, an order of knighthood, the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire, was set up in 1878. At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a Governor or a Lieutenant-Governor, during the partition of Bengal the new provinces of Assam and East Bengal were created as a Lieutenant-Governorship. In 1911, East Bengal was reunited with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became, Assam, Bengal, Bihar, there were 565 princely states when India and Pakistan became independent from Britain in August 1947. The princely states did not form a part of British India, the larger ones had treaties with Britain that specified which rights the princes had, in the smaller ones the princes had few rights. Within the princely states external affairs, defence and most communications were under British control, the British also exercised a general influence over the states internal politics, in part through the granting or withholding of recognition of individual rulers. Although there were nearly 600 princely states, the majority were very small
4.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
5.
Demonym
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A demonym is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism, previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e. g. the Oxford English Dictionary, thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand, of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a member of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms, for example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Brit, or a Briton. In some languages, when a parallel demonym does not exist, in English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e. g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek. Significant exceptions exist, for instance the adjectival form of Spain is Spanish, English widely includes country-level demonyms such as Ethiopian or Guatemalan and more local demonyms such as Seoulite, Wisconsinite, Chicagoan, Michigander, Fluminense, and Paulista. Some places lack a commonly used and accepted demonym and this poses a particular challenge to those toponymists who research demonyms. The word gentilic comes from the Latin gentilis and the English suffix -ic, the word demonym was derived from the Greek word meaning populace with the suffix for name. National Geographic attributes the term demonym to Merriam-Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990 and it was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals. However, in What Do You Call a Person From, a Dictionary of Resident Names attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names Names, A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon, which is apparently where the term first appears. Several linguistic elements are used to create demonyms in the English language, the most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location name, slightly modified in some instances. Cairo → Cairene Cyrenaica → Cyrene Damascus → Damascene Greece → Greek Nazareth → Nazarene Slovenia → Slovene Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. Kingston-upon-Hull → Hullensian Leeds → Leodensian Spain → Spaniard Savoy → Savoyard -ese is usually considered proper only as an adjective, thus, a Chinese person is used rather than a Chinese. Monaco → Monégasque Menton → Mentonasque Basque Country → Basque Often used for French locations, mostly they are from Africa and the Pacific, and are not generally known or used outside the country concerned. In much of East Africa, a person of an ethnic group will be denoted by a prefix. For example, a person of the Luba people would be a Muluba, the plural form Baluba, similar patterns with minor variations in the prefixes exist throughout on a tribal level. And Fijians who are indigenous Fijians are known as Kaiviti and these demonyms are usually more informal and colloquial. In the United States such informal demonyms frequently become associated with mascots of the sports teams of the state university system. In other countries the origins are often disputed and these will typically be formed using the standard models above
6.
New Imperialism
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New Imperialism or Neo-imperialism was a period of colonial expansion by European powers, the United States, and the Empire of Japan during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The period is distinguished by a pursuit of overseas territorial acquisitions. At the time, states focused on building their empires with new advances and developments, making their territory bigger through conquest. During the era of New Imperialism, the Western powers conquered almost all of Africa, the new wave of imperialism reflected ongoing rivalries among the great powers, the economic desire for new resources and markets, and a civilizing mission ethos. Many of the colonies established during this era gained independence during the era of decolonization that followed World War II, the qualifier new is used to differentiate between imperialism which generally refers to the first wave of European colonization between the 15th and early 19th centuries. In the first wave of colonization, European powers conquered and colonized the Americas and later established outposts in Africa, the American Revolution and the collapse of the Spanish Empire in Latin America around 1820 ended the first era of European imperialism. Especially in Great Britain these revolutions helped show the deficiencies of mercantilism, in 1846, the Corn Laws were repealed and manufacturers gained, as the regulations enforced by the Corn Laws had slowed their businesses. With the repeal in place, the manufacturers were able to trade more freely. Thus, Britain began to adopt the concept of free trade, the establishment of nation-states in Germany and Italy resolved territorial issues that had kept potential rivals embroiled in internal affairs at the heart of Europe, to Britains advantage. The years from 1871 to 1914 would be marked by an unstable peace. The imposition of rule in terms of effective occupation necessitated routine recourse to armed force against indigenous states and peoples. One of the goals of the conference was to reach agreements over trade, navigation, however, of all of the 15 nations in attendance of the Berlin Conference, none of the countries represented were African. The main dominating powers of the conference were France, Germany, Great Britain and they remapped Africa without considering the cultural and linguistic borders that were already established. At the end of the conference, Africa was divided into 50 different colonies, the attendants established who was in control of each of these newly divided colonies. They also planned, noncommittally, to end the trade in Africa. In Britain, the age of new imperialism marked a time for significant economic changes, because the country was the first to industrialize, Britain was technologically ahead of many other countries throughout the majority of the nineteenth century. However, by the end of the century, other countries such as Germany, the United States, Russia. After several decades of monopoly, the country was battling to maintain a dominant economic position while other became more involved in international markets
7.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
8.
Indian rupee
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The Indian rupee, is the official currency of the Republic of India. The rupee is subdivided into 100 paise, though as of 2011,25 paise is no more a legal tender, the issuance of the currency is controlled by the Reserve Bank of India. The Reserve Bank manages currency in India and derives its role in management on the basis of the Reserve Bank of India Act,1934. The rupee is named after the coin, rupiya, first issued by Sultan Sher Shah Suri in the 16th century. In 2010, a new symbol ₹, was officially adopted and it was derived from the combination of the Devanagari consonant र and the Latin capital letter R without its vertical bar. The parallel lines at the top are said to make an allusion to the tricolour Indian flag, the first series of coins with the new rupee symbol started in circulation on 8 July 2011. On 8 November 2016 the Government of India announced the demonetisation of ₹500 and ₹1000 banknotes with effect from midnight of the same day, a newly redesigned series of ₹500 banknote, in addition to a new denomination of ₹2000 banknote is in circulation since 10 November 2016. The new redesigned series is expected to be enlarged with banknotes in the denominations of ₹1000, ₹100. The word rupee was derived from the Sanskrit word रूप्यकम् or rupaya, the modern Indian rupee has a direct lineage from the rupiya, the silver coin, issued by Sher Shah Suri, continued by the Mughal rulers. Rūpa means to form or shape, example, Rūpyarūpa, rūpya — wrought silver, however, in the region of Bengal, the term taka has always been used to refer to currency. In the 14th century, Ibn Battuta noticed that people in the Bengal Sultanate referred to gold, today, the currency of Bangladesh is officially known as taka. The word taka in Bengali is also used generically to mean any money, currency. Thus, colloquially, a person speaking in Bengali may use taka to refer to money regardless of what currency it is denominated in, thus, in the states of West Bengal and Tripura the Indian rupee is officially known টাকা. Whereas, in the states of Assam and Odisha, the Indian rupee is known by names derived from the Sanskrit word ṭaṅka, টকা in Assamese. During his five-year rule from 1540 to 1545, Sultan Sher Shah Suri issued a coin of silver, weighing 178 grains, the silver coin remained in use during the Mughal period, Maratha era as well as in British India. Among the earliest issues of paper rupees include, the Bank of Hindustan, the General Bank of Bengal and Bihar, historically, the rupee was a silver coin. This had severe consequences in the century when the strongest economies in the world were on the gold standard. The discovery of large quantities of silver in the United States and several European colonies resulted in a decline in the value of relative to gold
9.
Emirate of Abu Dhabi
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The Emirate of Abu Dhabi, is one of seven emirates that constitute the United Arab Emirates. It is the largest emirate by area, accounting for approximately 87 percent of the land area of the federation. Abu Dhabi also has the largest population of the seven emirates, in June 2011, it was estimated to be 2,120,700 people, of which,439,100 people were Emirati citizens, which has risen to 2.3 million in 2012. Abu Dhabi is the city of the emirate, after which it is named. Abu Dhabi’s Gross Domestic Product estimates, in 2014, amounted to AED960 billion at current prices, mining and quarrying accounts for the largest contribution to GDP. Construction related industries are the next largest contributor, GDP grew to AED911.6 billion in 2012, or over 100,000 USD per capita. In the early 1970s, two important developments helped the emirate achieve leaps on the path of development, the first was the establishment of the United Arab Emirates in December 1971 with Abu Dhabi as its political and administrative capital. Dhabi is the Arabic name of a species of native gazelle that was once common in the Arabian region. Abu Dhabi means father of the Dhabi and it is thought that this name came about because of the abundance of Gazelles in the area and a folk tale involving Shakhbut bin Dhiyab al Nahyan. Parts of Abu Dhabi were settled as far back as the 3rd millennium BC, modern Abu Dhabi traces its origins to the rise of an important tribal confederation, the Bani Yas, in the late 18th century, which also assumed control of Dubai. In the 19th century the Dubai and Abu Dhabi branches parted ways, most dwellings in Abu Dhabi city were, at this time, constructed of palm fronds, with the wealthier families occupying mud huts. In 1939, Sheikh Shakhbut Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan granted petroleum concessions, at first, oil money had a marginal impact. His brother, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, saw that oil wealth had the potential to transform Abu Dhabi, the ruling Al Nahyan family decided that Sheikh Zayed should replace his brother as ruler and carry out his vision of developing the country. On August 6,1966, with the assistance of the British, with the announcement by the UK in 1968 that it would withdraw from the Persian Gulf area by 1971, Sheikh Zayed became the main driving force behind the formation of the United Arab Emirates. After the Emirates gained independence in 1971, oil continued to flow to the area and traditional mud-brick huts were rapidly replaced with banks, boutiques. At present, Abu Dhabi boasts what is estimated to be the worlds highest absolute and per-capita level of sovereign wealth funds, the United Arab Emirates is located in the oil-rich and strategic Persian Gulf region. It adjoins the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Sultanate of Oman and it borders the emirate of Dubai and emirate of Sharjah to its north. The total area of the Emirate is 67,340 square kilometres, occupying about 87% of the area of the UAE
10.
Emirate of Ajman
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The Emirate of Ajman is one of the seven Emirates of the United Arab Emirates. It has an area of a mere 260 square kilometres, which makes it the smallest of the emirates in terms of area and it is named after the city of Ajman, which is its seat of government. It is bordered on the north, east, and south by the Emirate of Sharjah and it has a population of some 240,000. Located on the coast of the Persian Gulf, Ajman also controls two small exclaves, Manama and Masfut, both of which are primarily agricultural. Approximately 95% of the population of the emirate resides in the city of Ajman, Ajman is ruled by Sheikh Humaid bin Rashid Al Nuaimi of the Al Nuaimi tribe. The Crown Prince of the Emirate is Sheikh Ammar bin Humaid Al Nuaimi, on 8 January 1820, following the sack of Ras al-Khaimah by a British force led by Sir W. G. At first refusing the primacy of Sultan bin Saqr, Ajman eventually capitulated in 1823, an 1822 British maritime survey noted that Ajman had one of the best backwaters on the coast and was a small town with a single fortified building, the rulers house. The survey notes that Ajmans ruler Rashid bin Ahmed considered his dominion independent of Emirate of Sharjah, in 1831, the Sheikh of Ajman accepted a subsidy from the Imam of Muscat to join with Sultan bin Saqr of Sharjah against Sohar, but following Sultans defeat declared for Sohar. In his absence, a part of Bani Yas from Abu Dhabi sacked Ajman town, in retaliation, the forces of Ajman committed daring depredations upon the cities of Sohar and Muscat. Ending a conflict between Sharjah, Ajman and Dubai on the one hand and Abu Dhabi on the other, in 1840, Humaid bin Obeid bin Subt of Al Heera invaded Ajman supported by a body of the Bani Naeem. Although initially reluctant to assist Humeid bin Rashid, Sultan bin Suggur of Sharjah sent his son Suggur who, together with Maktoum of Dubai, ejected the invaders and sacked Al Heera in reprisal. In 1843 a further Maritime Treaty was signed between the Trucial Sheikhs and the British and then, on 4 May 1853, A Perpetual Treaty of Peace was entered into by the coastal Sheikhs, a copy of this treaty is on display in Ajman Museum. A further treaty of 1892 bound the Trucial States to Britain, by the 20th Century, Lorimers survey of the coast of the Trucial States showed Ajman to be a small town of some 750 inhabitants. On 2 December 1971, Ajman, under Sheikh Rashid bin Humayd Al Nuaimi, the city lies on the coast of the Persian Gulf and is home to some 95% of the emirates population. In 2010, the population was 262,000, of which 16% was Emirati according to official statistics, as well as the city of Ajman, the emirate also encompasses two landlocked exclaves, Manama and Masfut. Manama is in the plains at the foothills of the Hajjar Mountains some 60 km east of Ajman city, while Masfut is in the mountains proper, some 110 km south of Ajman City. The city and main territory of Ajman is bordered to the side by Sharjah. Masfut borders Oman, Dubai and Ras Al Khaimah, both Manama and Masfout are fertile regions and support widespread agricultural development
11.
Emirate of Dubai
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The Emirate of Dubai, is one of the seven emirates of the United Arab Emirates. Dubai is the capital of the emirate and was named after it, in December 1971, the emirate united with Abu Dhabi and the other emirates to form the United Arab Emirates. Until then, the emirates were British protectorates, ruler of the emirate is HRH Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, and the emirate is governed by the Government of Dubai. The emirate is made up of other municipalities and villages. The inland exclave of Hatta is located about 134 km east of Dubai City and it is bordering Oman to the east and south, the village of Sayh Mudayrah in Ajman to the west, and Ras al-Khaimah to the north. Dubai travel guide from Wikivoyage www. Dubai. ae – Dubai Government official website
12.
Ras al-Khaimah
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Ras al-Khaimah is one of the seven emirates that make up the United Arab Emirates. The current statehood is the result of the 1909 appanage from Sharjah and its name could be taken to mean headland of the small huts, which can be attributed to the indigenous buildings that existed along the coast. The emirate is in the part of the UAE, bordering Omans exclave of Musandam. It covers an area of 1,684 square km, the capital city and home of most residents is also called Ras Al Khaimah. The emirate had a population of 210,063 at the 2005 Census, latest estimates put the total population at between 250,000 and 300,000. Locals accounted for 97,529 in the estimate for 2010. The city has two sections, Old Ras Al Khaimah and Nakheel, on either side of a creek. It is served by the Ras Al Khaimah International Airport and it consists of a northern part, and a large inland exclave in the south, and a few small islands in the Persian Gulf. Ras al-Khaimah has the most fertile soil in the country, due to a share in rainfall. Ancient graves were found in the Emirate in October 2012, the city was historically known as Julfar. Further, archaeological evidence has demonstrated that the settlement known as Julfar shifted location over time as harbour channels silted up, sources say that Julfar was inhabited by the Azd during the eighth and ninth centuries AD, and that the houses of the Azd were built of wood. In the Battle of Ras Al Khaimah of 1809, the Al Qasimi fleet was largely destroyed, the British operation continued to Linga on the Persian coast which was, like the Greater and Lesser Tunbs islands, administered by the Al Qasimi. The attack on Ras Al Khaimah resulted in the destruction of the tower of the 16th century Dhayah Fort whose remains can be seen at Rams in northern Ras Al Khaimah. The treaty stipulated the end of piracy and slavery, and laid the foundation for the British protectorate over the Trucial States that lasted until 1971, in 1869, Ras Al Khaimah became fully independent from neighbouring Sharjah. However, from September 1900 to 7 July 1921, it was re-incorporated into Sharjah, on 10 February 1972, Ras al-Khaimah, under the leadership of Sheikh Saqr bin Mohammad al-Qasimi, joined the United Arab Emirates. In 1919 shifted capital to Khatt due to British burning, signed General Maritime Treaty of 1820. 1820–1866, Sheikh Sultan Bin Saqr Al Qasimi, in 1820 shifted capital to Sharjah. 1866 – May 1867, Sheikh Ibrahim bin Sultan Al Qasimi, may 1867 –14 April 1868, Sheikh Khalid bin Sultan Al Qasimi
13.
Emirate of Sharjah
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The Emirate of Sharjah is one of the emirates of the United Arab Emirates. The emirate covers 2,590 square kilometres and has a population of over 800,000, the emirate of Sharjah comprises the capital city of Sharjah, after which it is named, and other minor towns and exclaves such as Kalba, Dibba Al-Hisn and Khor Fakkan. The emirate is a constitutional monarchy and it has been ruled by Sultan bin Muhammad Al-Qasimi since 1972. Historically the emirate was one of the wealthiest towns in the region, around 1727, the Al Qasimi clan took control of Sharjah and declared the polity independent. The first in a series of maritime skirmishes between the Al Qasimi and British vessels took place in 1797, when the British-flagged Bassein Snow was seized and released two days later. The cruiser Viper was subsequently attacked off Bushire, on 8 January 1820, Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr Al Qasimi signed the General Maritime Treaty with Britain, accepting protectorate status in order to resist Ottoman domination. Like four of its neighbours, Ajman, Dubai, Ras al-Khaimah, throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, Sharjah was an important pearl fishing port. A British marine survey of 1830 found three to four hundred boats fishing in the season, earning the ruler 100,000 Maria Theresa Dollars, in 1932, Imperial Airways established a regular air service through Sharjah, which was an overnight stop on the Eastern British Empire route. Al Mahatta Fort was built to house the airlines guests, on 2 December 1971, Sheikh Khalid bin Muhammad Al Qasimi joined Sharjah to the United Arab Emirates. On 24 January 1972 the former ruler Sheikh Saqr staged a leftist coup, having previously deposed Saqr, Sheikh Khalid had ordered the demolition of Sharjah Fort to expiate Saqrs memory. Saqr took over Khalids palace, holding him inside and in the ensuing confusion Sheikh Khalid was killed, Saqr was arrested and Khalids brother, Sultan bin Muhammad Al-Qasimi, an author and historian, came to power. In 1987 Sultans brother Abdulaziz staged a coup while Sultan was abroad, huge state debt was stated as the reason. UAE President Zayed vehemently denounced the coup, and a deal was reached for Sultan to be restored, Sultan, however, dismissed Abdulaziz quite quickly. In 1999, the Crown Prince died while on vacation in their palace in England, Sultan made the decision to testify in front of a UK court. The new Crown Prince was appointed from a branch of the family. Sharjah is the third largest emirate in the United Arab Emirates, the emirate covers 2,590 square kilometres which is equivalent to 3.3 per cent of the UAEs total area, excluding the islands. It has a population of over 800,000, the emirate of Sharjah comprises the city of Sharjah, and other minor towns and enclaves. The city of Sharjah, which overlooks the Persian Gulf, has a population of 519,000, Sharjah City borders Dubai to the south and Ajmân to the north, and the three form a conurbation
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Umm al-Quwain
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Umm al-Quwain is the least populous of the seven sovereign emirates in the United Arab Emirates, located in the north of the country. The emirate is ruled by Saud bin Rashid Al Mualla, the emirate had 72,000 inhabitants in 2007 and has an area of 750 km2. Umm al-Quwain holds significant archaeological interest, with finds at both Tell Abraq and Al Dour. Arrowheads and other polished flint tools have been unearthed in various sites across the UAE while pieces of Ubaid pottery have been unearthed along the shores of the emirate. All evidence obtained so far indicate that contact with Mesopotamia existed as early as the 5th millennium BC as a ceramic industry did not emerge until the 3rd century BC. During the Bronze Age, semi-nomadic tribes inhabited the region, they moved in groups from place to place foraging for timber from the indigenous acacia for smelting copper, the metal was sent to all the prominent ports on the Persian Gulf, Umm Al Nar being one of them. Ties with Mesopotamia were jealously maintained and consequently the trade in copper ushered in prosperity in the region, during the Bronze Age, agriculture flourished, with dates being the prominent crop. Wheat, millet and other grains were also cultivated wherever there was water for irrigation. It is now believed that the climate during the period was more temperate than now. During the Umm al-Nar period, buildings and fortress towers came up in Umm Al Quwain, the most common buildings associated with this era are the circular burial tombs. In 1775, Sheikh Majid Al Mualla, founder of the ruling Al Mu’alla lineage of the Al Ali tribe, established an independent Sheikhdom in Umm al-Quwain. On 8 January 1820, Sheikh Abdullah I signed the General Maritime Treaty with the United Kingdom, like Ajman, Dubai, Ras al-Khaimah and Sharjah, its position on the route to India made it important enough to be recognized as a salute state with a three gun salute. On 2 December 1971, Sheikh Ahmad II joined its neighbors Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman and Fujairah in forming the United Arab Emirates, the rainfall is minimal and averages 42 mm a year. The coastline experiences cooling sea breezes during the day, the UAE culture mainly revolves around the religion of Islam and traditional Arab culture. The influence of Islamic and Arab culture on its architecture, music, attire, cuisine, five times every day, Muslims are called to prayer from the minarets of mosques which are scattered around the country. Since 2006, the weekend has been Friday-Saturday, as a compromise between Fridays holiness to Muslims and the Western weekend of Saturday-Sunday. Al-Sinniyah island, close to the town of Umm al-Qaiwain is home to the UAEs largest Socotra cormorant colony, arabian gazelle have been introduced to Sinniyah and appear to be prospering. Marine life is remarkable for its abundance and diversity, blacktip reef sharks patrol the outer shoreline, while green turtles are ubiquitous in the inner leads in particular
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Fujairah
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Fujairah is one of the seven emirates that make up the United Arab Emirates, and the only one of the seven that has a coastline solely on the Gulf of Oman and none on the Persian Gulf. Fujairah, dominated by the Sharqiyin tribe, sits at the mouth of the important trade route, the Wadi Ham, through the mountains to the interior and the Persian Gulf Coast. Known as the Shamaliyah, the east coast of what is now the UAE was subject to Muscat until 1850, when it was annexed by the Al Qasimi of Sharjah. The Shamaliyah was governed by the Al Qasimi Wali at Kalba although frequently seceded and in 1901 Hamad bin Abdulla Al Sharqi, chief of the Sharqiyin, declared independence from Sharjah. This was recognised by a number of the Trucial Sheikhs and also by Muscat, but not the British, in 1952, Fujairah entered into treaty relations with Britain, becoming the last of the emirates to join the Trucial States. On 2 December 1971, Fujairah joined the United Arab Emirates, Fujairah is home to the oldest mosque in the United Arab Emirates which was built in 1446 of mud and bricks. It is similar to other mosques found in Yemen, eastern Oman, Al Bidyah Mosque has four domes and lacks a minaret. The emirate of Fujairah covers approximately 1,166 km2, or about 1. 5% of the area of the UAE and its population is around 152,000 inhabitants, only the Emirate of Umm al-Quwain has fewer occupants. Fujairah is the emirate of the UAE that is almost completely mountainous. All the other emirates, such as Dubai and Abu Dhabi are located on the west coast, consequently, Fujairah boasts a higher than average yearly rainfall of the UAE, allowing farmers in the region to produce one crop every year. The emirate has a cove, Ad Dayt, the weather is seasonal, although it is warm most of the year. The winter period also coincides with the season and although by no means guaranteed. The variability of the east coast climate is due to the presence of the Hajjar mountain range. As with other areas, precipitation is higher, and this allows for a more varied micro-environment in the area. Tourist visitor numbers peak just before the summer months. Fujairah had a population of 125,698 at the last census, the latest estimate of population is 152,000. Power is ultimately held by the ruler of Fujairah, His Highness Sheikh Hamad bin Mohammed Al Sharqi, the ruler can make any decisions regarding any aspect of law, although federal laws take precedence. The Sheikh and his immediate family heads the cabinet of Fujairah, the Sheikh must ratify any decisions by the cabinet
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United Arab Emirates
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In 2013, the UAEs population was 9.2 million, of which 1.4 million are Emirati citizens and 7.8 million are expatriates. The country is a federation of seven emirates, and was established on 2 December 1971, the constituent emirates are Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah and Umm al-Quwain. Each emirate is governed by a monarch, together, they jointly form the Federal Supreme Council. One of the monarchs is selected as the President of the United Arab Emirates, Islam is the official religion of the UAE and Arabic is the official language. The UAEs oil reserves are the seventh-largest in the world while its natural gas reserves are the worlds seventeenth-largest, Sheikh Zayed, ruler of Abu Dhabi and the first President of the UAE, oversaw the development of the Emirates and steered oil revenues into healthcare, education and infrastructure. The UAEs economy is the most diversified in the Gulf Cooperation Council, while its most populous city of Dubai is an important global city, nevertheless, the country remains principally reliant on its export of petroleum and natural gas. The UAE is criticised for its rights record, including the specific interpretations of Sharia used in its legal system. The UAEs rising international profile has led analysts to identify it as a regional. It appears the land of the Emirates has been occupied for thousands of years, there is no proof of contact with the outside world at that stage, although in time it developed with civilisations in Mesopotamia and Iran. This contact persisted and became wide-ranging, probably motivated by trade in copper from the Hajar Mountains, in ancient times, Al Hasa was part of Al Bahreyn and adjoined Greater Oman. Sassanid groups were present on the Batinah coast, in 637, Julfar was an important port that was used as a staging post for the Islamic invasion of the Sassanian Empire. The area of the Al Ain/Buraimi Oasis was known as Tuam and was an important trading post for camel routes between the coast and the Arabian interior. The earliest Christian site in the UAE was first discovered in the 1990s, a monastic complex on what is now known as Sir Bani Yas Island. Thought to be Nestorian and built in 600 AD, the church appears to have been abandoned peacefully in 750 AD and it forms a rare physical link to a legacy of Christianity which is thought to have spread across the peninsula from 50 to 350 AD following trade routes. Certainly, by the 5th century, Oman had a bishop named John – the last bishop of Oman being Etienne, in 676 AD. This led to a group of travelling to Medina, converting to Islam and subsequently driving a successful uprising against the unpopular Sassanids. Following the death of Prophet Muhammad, the new Islamic communities south of the Persian Gulf threatened to disintegrate, with insurrections against the Muslim leaders. The Caliph Abu Bakr sent an army from the capital Medina which completed its reconquest of the territory with the battle of Dibba in which 10,000 lives are thought to have been lost
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Persian Gulf
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The Persian Gulf is a mediterranean sea in Western Asia. The body of water is an extension of the Indian Ocean through the Strait of Hormuz, the Shatt al-Arab river delta forms the northwest shoreline. The Persian Gulf was a battlefield of the 1980–1988 Iran–Iraq War and it is the namesake of the 1991 Gulf War, the largely air- and land-based conflict that followed Iraqs invasion of Kuwait. The gulf has many fishing grounds, extensive coral reefs, and abundant pearl oysters, the body of water is historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf. Some Arab governments refer to it as the Arabian Gulf or The Gulf, the name Gulf of Iran is used by the International Hydrographic Organization. The Persian Gulf is geologically young, having been formed around 15,000 years ago. Its length is 989 kilometres, with Iran covering most of the northern coast, the Persian Gulf is about 56 km wide at its narrowest, in the Strait of Hormuz. The waters are very shallow, with a maximum depth of 90 metres. Various small islands lie within the Persian Gulf, some of which are the subject of territorial disputes between the states of the region. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the Persian Gulfs southern limit as The Northwestern limit of Gulf of Oman and this limit is defined as A line joining Ràs Limah on the coast of Arabia and Ràs al Kuh on the coast of Iran. The Persian Gulf and its areas are the worlds largest single source of crude oil. Safaniya Oil Field, the worlds largest offshore oilfield, is located in the Persian Gulf, large gas finds have also been made, with Qatar and Iran sharing a giant field across the territorial median line. Using this gas, Qatar has built up a substantial liquefied natural gas, the oil-rich countries that have a coastline on the Persian Gulf are referred to as the Persian Gulf States. In 550 BC, the Achaemenid Empire established the first ancient empire in Persis, consequently, in the Greek sources, the body of water that bordered this province came to be known as the Persian Gulf. In the travel account of Pythagoras, several chapters are related to description of his travels accompanied by the Achaemenid king Darius the Great, to Susa and Persepolis, and the area is described. This water channel separates the Iran Plateau from the Arabia Plate, has enjoyed an Iranian Identity since at least 2200 years ago. Before being given its present name, the Persian Gulf was called many different names, the classical Greek writers, like Herodotus, called it the Red Sea. In Babylonian texts, it was known as the sea above Akkad, the name of the gulf, historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf after the land of Persia, has been disputed by some Arab countries since the 1960s
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Piracy in the Persian Gulf
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Piracy in the Persian Gulf was prevalent prior to the 20th century. It was perceived as one of the threats to global maritime trade routes, particularly those with significance to British India. Many of the most notable instances of piracy, referred to as resistance by modern Emirati historians, were perpetrated by the Al Qasimi tribe. This led to the British mounting the Persian Gulf campaign of 1809, Piracy flourished in the Persian Gulf during the commercial decline of the Dilmun Civilization around 1800 BC. As early as 694 BC, Assyrian pirates attacked traders traversing to, king Sennacherib attempted to wipe out the piracy but his efforts were unsuccessful. It is suggested in the literature of the Chronicle of Seert that piracy interfered with the trade network of the Sasanians around the 5th century. The works mention ships en route from India being targeted for attacks along the coast of Fars during the reign of Yazdegerd II, ibn Hawqal, a 10th-century history chronicler, alludes to piracy in the Persian Gulf in his book The Renaissance Of Islam. He believes the pirates were attacking ships travelling from Siraf to Basra, marco Polo made observations of piracy in the Persian Gulf. Towards the end of the 13th century, Socotra was still frequented by pirates who encamped there, european piracy in the Persian Gulf was frequent in the 16th and 17th century, targeting mainly Indian vessels en route to Mecca. One of the earliest mentions of piracy by the British comes from a written by William Bowyear dated in 1767. It describes a Persian pirate named Mīr Muhannā, rahmah ibn Jabir al-Jalahimah was the most notorious pirate to have exploited the Persian Gulf during this era. In 1810, the Wahhabis attempted to strengthen their position in the Persian Gulf region by aligning themselves with him as he was the most influential parsonage in Qatar at the time. He ruled Qatar for a period and the British considered him to be the leading pirate of the Pirate Coast. In his book Blood-Red Arab Flag, Charles E. Davies alleges that the issue of piracy in the Persian Gulf appeared to have escalated in 1797. This date corresponds with some of the most prominent acts of piracy committed against the British by the Al Qasimi tribe, around 1805, the Wahhabis maintained an unsteady suzerainty over parts of the southern Persian coast. They implemented of a system of organized raids on foreign shipping, the vice-gerent of the Pirate Coast, Husain bin Ali, compelled the Al Qasimi chiefs to send their vessels to plunder all the trade ships of the Persian Gulf without exception. He kept one-fifth of the loot for himself, arnold Wilson suggests that the Al Qasimi tribe members acted against their will so as not to incur the vengeance of the Wahhabis. However, upon remarking on the rampant increase in piracy starting in 1805, J. G. Lorimer, a British chronicler, perceives this view as extreme, and believes the Al Qasimi acted within their volition
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Dubai
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Dubai is the largest and most populous city in the United Arab Emirates. It is located on the southeast coast of the Persian Gulf and is the capital of the Emirate of Dubai, Abu Dhabi and Dubai are the only two emirates to have veto power over critical matters of national importance in the countrys legislature. The city of Dubai is located on the northern coastline. Dubai will host World Expo 2020, Dubai has emerged as a global city and business hub of the Middle East. It is also a transport hub for passengers and cargo. By the 1960s, Dubais economy was based on revenues from trade and, to an extent, oil exploration concessions. Oil revenue first started to flow in 1969, Dubais oil revenue helped accelerate the early development of the city, but its reserves are limited and production levels are low, today, less than 5% of the emirates revenue comes from oil. The emirates Western-style model of business drives its economy with the main revenues now coming from tourism, aviation, real estate, Dubai was recently named the best destination for Muslim travellers by Salam Standard. Dubai has recently attracted attention through many innovative large construction projects and sports events. The city has become iconic for its skyscrapers and high-rise buildings, in particular the worlds tallest building, Dubai has been criticised for human rights violations concerning the citys largely South Asian and Filipino workforce. As of 2012, Dubai was the 22nd most expensive city in the world, in 2014, Dubais hotel rooms were rated as the second most expensive in the world, after Geneva. Dubai was rated as one of the best places to live in the Middle East by U. S. global consulting firm Mercer, Many theories have been proposed as to the origin of the word Dubai. One theory suggests the word was used to describe the souq, another theory states that the name came from a word meaning money, as people from Dubai were commonly believed to be rich due to the thriving trading centre of the location. An Arabic proverb says Daba Dubai, meaning They came with a lot of money, according to Fedel Handhal, a scholar on the UAEs history and culture, the word Dubai may have come from the word daba, referring to the slow flow of Dubai Creek inland. The poet and scholar Ahmad Mohammad Obaid traces it to the same word, an inhabitant or native of the city is a Dubaian. Although stone tools have been found at archaeological sites, little is known about the UAEs early inhabitants as only a few settlements have been found. Many ancient towns in the area were trading centres between the Eastern and Western worlds, the remnants of an ancient mangrove swamp, dated at 7000 BC, were discovered during the construction of sewer lines near Dubai Internet City. The area was covered with sand about 5,000 years ago as the coast retreated inland, pre-Islamic ceramics have been found from the 3rd and 4th centuries
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Kalba
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Kalba is a town in the United Arab Emirates. It is an exclave of the emirate of Sharjah lying on the Gulf of Oman coast north of Oman, Khor Kalba, an important nature reserve and mangrove swamp, is located south of the town by the Omani border. The town was captured by the Portuguese Empire in the 16th century and was referred to as Ghallah. It was attacked, sacked and put to the torch by the Sultan of Muscats forces in March 1811 as part of the ongoing British/Omani campaigns against the forces of the Al Qassimi. It was a Trucial State from 1936 to 1951 before being reincorporated into Sharjah, Khor Kalba is currently closed to the public and is being developed as an eco-tourism resort by the Sharjah Investment and Development Authority. A number of conservationists and ecologists have expressed concern regarding the project, Majid bin Sultan bin Saqr Al Qasimi was granted the Shamaliyah region, including Kalba, as a fiefdom by his brother, Salim bin Sultan Al Qasimi, Ruler of Sharjah. Kalba was subsequently ruled jointly by his two sons Hamad bin Majid and Ahmad bin Majid, hamads son Said Bin Hamad succeeded him in 1902 at the time when the ruler of neighbouring Fujairah, Hamad bin Abdallah Al Sharqi, managed to establish independence. Said bin Hamad lived in Ajman, leaving the administration of Kalba in the hands of a slave named Barut, shortly afterwards, in April 1937, Said bin Hamad died while his eldest son, Hamad, was still a minor. His daughter Aisha rushed from his deathbed in Khor Fakkan directly to Kalba, organised the towns defences and she then sent a message requesting aid to her husband, the former Ruler of Sharjah, Sheikh Khalid bin Ahmed Al Qassimi. The subsequent debates and political jockeying over the succession involved many of the rulers of the Trucial States as well as the British Residency Agent and he ruled over Dhaid and Kalba until 1950, when he was too old and infirm to take a role in affairs. In 1951, the last male descendent in the Qassimis of Kalba, Hamad bin Said, the rule of Kalba reverted to direct administration to Sharjah, although there are British records of an insurgency in 1952 this appears to have been settled. The dispute was settled after mediation between Sheikh Rashid of Dubai and other Rulers and a statement announcing the settlement sent out on 17 July 1972. Khor Kalba is accessible by three roads, Majid bin Sultan al-Qasimi Hamad bin Majid al-Qasimi De facto independence of Kalba from Sharjah in 1903. Britain recognized Kalba on 8 December 1936, Said ibn Hamad al-Qasimi Hamad ibn Said al-Qasimi Saqr ibn Sultan al-Qasimi Re-incorporated into Sharjah in 1952. Khor Kalba & Kalba Corniche | Following The Bikers’ Trail
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United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
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Al Heera
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Al Heera is a suburb in Northern Sharjah in the United Arab Emirates, traditionally home to the Darawishah, part of the Al Bu Shamis section of the Naim tribe. At one stage declaring its independence from Sharjah, with its own Sheikh, a coastal enclave with a small harbour used by a number of fishermen and pleasure boat owners, its main distinguishing feature today is its police station. Little remains today to mark where the settlement existed. Rather charmingly, Al Heera is first mentioned in British records of 1830, The people of Heera, Sheikh Sultan bin Suggur of his own accord compels full restitution of the property and punishes the perpetrators. Almost a century later, they were still a lively bunch, the head of the Al Bu Shamis, Sheikh Abdul Rahman bin Muhammad, briefly deposed Humaid bin Abdulaziz Al Nuami, the ruler of neighbouring emirate Ajman, on 15 June 1920. He was convinced to leave by the British Residency Agent in Sharjah, at the time Al Heera was quite a large coastal pearling village of about 250 houses. He ruled Al Heera until his death in 1942
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Imperial Airways
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There were local partnership companies, Qantas in Australia. Imperial Airways was merged into the British Overseas Airways Corporation in 1939, the launch of the airline followed a burst of air route surveying in the British Empire after the First World War, and after some experimental long-distance flying to the margins of Empire. With this in view, a £1m subsidy over ten years was offered to encourage the merger, Sir Eric Geddes was appointed the chairman of the board with one director from each of the merged companies. The government had appointed two directors Hambling and Major J. W. Hills a former Treasury Financial Secretary, the land operations were based at Croydon Airport to the south of London. IAL immediately discontinued its predecessors service to north of London. Thereafter the only IAL aircraft operating North of Watford were charter flights, industrial troubles with the pilots delayed the start of services until 26 April 1924, when a daily London–Paris route was opened with a de Havilland DH.34. The first new airliner ordered by Imperial Airways, was the Handley Page W8f City of Washington, in the first year of operation the company carried 11,395 passengers and 212,380 letters. In April 1925, the film The Lost World became the first film to be screened for passengers on an airliner flight when it was shown on the London-Paris route. On his return Cobham was awarded the Air Force Cross for his services to aviation, on 30 June 1926, Alan Cobham took off from the River Medway at Rochester in G-EBFO to make an Imperial Airways route survey for a service to Melbourne, arriving on 15 August 1926. He left Melbourne on 29 August 1926, and, after completing 28,000 nautical miles in 320 hours flying time over 78 days, Cobham was met by the Secretary of State for Air, Sir Samuel Hoare, and was subsequently knighted by HM King George V. On 27 December 1926, Imperial Airways de Havilland DH.66 Hercules G-EBMX City of Delhi left Croydon for a flight to India. The flight reached Karachi on 6 January 1927 and Delhi on 8 January 1927, the aircraft was named by Lady Irwin, wife of the Viceroy, on 10 January 1927. The return flight left on 1 February 1927 and arrived at Heliopolis, the flying time from Croydon to Delhi was 62 hours 27 minutes and Delhi to Heliopolis 32 hours 50 minutes. The route was extended as far as Delhi on 29 December 1929, the route across Europe and the Mediterranean changed many times over the next few years but almost always involved a rail journey. In April 1931 an experimental London-Australia air mail took place, the mail was transferred at the Dutch East Indies. The move saw the establishment of an airport and rest house, Al Mahatta Fort, on 29 May 1933 an England to Australia survey flight took off, operated by Imperial Airways Armstrong Whitworth Atalanta G-ABTL Astraea. Major H G Brackley, Imperial Airways’ Air Superintendent, was in charge of the flight, Sydney was visited on 26 June, Canberra on 28 June and Melbourne on 29 June. There followed a rapid eastern extension, the first London to Hong Kong passengers departed London on 14 March 1936 following the establishment of a branch from Penang to Hong Kong
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Qatar
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Qatar, officially the State of Qatar, is a sovereign country located in Western Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. Its sole land border is with Saudi Arabia to the south, with the rest of its surrounded by the Persian Gulf. A strait in the Persian Gulf separates Qatar from the island country of Bahrain, as well as sharing maritime borders with the United Arab Emirates. Following Ottoman rule, Qatar became a British protectorate in the early 20th century until gaining independence in 1971, Qatar has been ruled by the House of Thani since the early 19th century. Sheikh Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani was the founder of the State of Qatar, Qatar is a hereditary monarchy and its head of state is Emir Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani. Whether it should be regarded as a constitutional or a monarchy is a matter of opinion. In 2003, the constitution was approved in a referendum. In early 2017, Qatars total population was 2.3 million,313,000 Qatari citizens and 2.6 million expatriates, Qatar is a high income economy and is a developed country, backed by the worlds third largest natural gas reserves and oil reserves. The country has the highest per capita income in the world, Qatar is classified by the UN as a country of very high human development and is the most advanced Arab state for human development. Qatar is a significant power in the Arab world, supporting several rebel groups during the Arab Spring both financially and through its globally expanding media group, Al Jazeera Media Network. For its size, Qatar wields disproportionate influence in the world, Qatar will host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, becoming the first Arab country to do so. A century later, Ptolemy produced the first known map to depict the peninsula, the map also referenced a town named Cadara to the east of the peninsula. The term Catara was exclusively used until the 18th century, after which Katara emerged as the most commonly recognised spelling, eventually, the modern derivative Qatar was adopted as the countrys name. In Standard Arabic, the name is pronounced, while in the local dialect it is, Human habitation of Qatar dates back to 50,000 years ago. Settlements and tools dating back to the Stone Age have been unearthed in the peninsula, Mesopotamian artefacts originating from the Ubaid period have been discovered in abandoned coastal settlements. Al Daasa, a settlement located on the western coast of Qatar, is the most important Ubaid site in the country and is believed to have accommodated a small seasonal encampment. Kassite Babylonian material dating back to the second millennium BC found in Al Khor Islands attests to trade relations between the inhabitants of Qatar and the Kassites in modern-day Bahrain, among the findings were 3,000,000 crushed snail shells and Kassite potsherds. It has been suggested that Qatar is the earliest known site of shellfish dye production, in 224 AD, the Sasanian Empire gained control over the territories surrounding the Persian Gulf
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Bahrain
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Bahrain, officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, is a small Arab monarchy in the Persian Gulf. Bahrains population is 1,234,567, including 666,172 non-nationals and it is 780 km2 in size, making it the third smallest nation in Asia after the Maldives and Singapore. Bahrain is the site of the ancient Dilmun civilisation and it has been famed since antiquity for its pearl fisheries, which were considered the best in the world into the 19th century. Bahrain was one of the earliest areas to convert to Islam, following a period of Arab rule, Bahrain was occupied by the Portuguese in 1521, who in turn were expelled in 1602 by Shah Abbas I of the Safavid dynasty under the Persian Empire. In 1783, the Bani Utbah clan captured Bahrain from Nasr Al-Madhkur and it has since been ruled by the Al Khalifa royal family, in the late 1800s, following successive treaties with the British, Bahrain became a protectorate of the United Kingdom. Formerly a state, Bahrain was declared a Kingdom in 2002, in 2011, the country experienced protests inspired by the regional Arab Spring. Bahrain had the first post-oil economy in the Persian Gulf, since the late 20th century, Bahrain has invested in the banking and tourism sectors. Many large financial institutions have a presence in Manama, the countrys capital, Bahrain has a high Human Development Index and was recognised by the World Bank as a high income economy. In Arabic, Bahrayn is the form of bahr, so al-Bahrayn means the two seas, although which two seas were originally intended remains in dispute. The term appears five times in the Quran, but does not refer to the modern island—originally known to the Arabs as Awal— but rather to all of Eastern Arabia. Today, Bahrains two seas are generally taken to be the bay east and west of the island. In addition to wells, there are areas of the sea north of Bahrain where fresh water bubbles up in the middle of the water as noted by visitors since antiquity. An alternate theory with regard to Bahrains toponymy is offered by the al-Ahsa region, another supposition by al-Jawahari suggests that the more formal name Bahri would have been misunderstood and so was opted against. Until the late Middle Ages, Bahrain referred to the region of Eastern Arabia that included Southern Iraq, Kuwait, Al-Hasa, Qatif, the region stretched from Basra in Iraq to the Strait of Hormuz in Oman. This was Iqlīm al-Bahrayns Bahrayn Province, the exact date at which the term Bahrain began to refer solely to the Awal archipelago is unknown. The entire coastal strip of Eastern Arabia was known as Bahrain for a millennium, the island and kingdom were also commonly spelled Bahrein into the 1950s. Bahrain was home to the Dilmun civilization, an important Bronze Age trade centre linking Mesopotamia, Bahrain was later ruled by the Assyrians and Babylonians. From the 6th to 3rd century BC, Bahrain was part of the Persian Empire ruled by the Achaemenian dynasty, by about 250 BC, Parthia brought the Persian Gulf under its control and extended its influence as far as Oman
26.
Oman
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Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman, is an Arab country on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea on the southeast, the Madha and Musandam exclaves are surrounded by the UAE on their land borders, with the Strait of Hormuz and Gulf of Oman forming Musandams coastal boundaries. From the late 17th century, the Omani Sultanate was an empire, vying with Portugal and Britain for influence in the Persian Gulf. At its peak in the 19th century, Omani influence or control extended across the Strait of Hormuz to modern-day Iran and Pakistan, as its power declined in the 20th century, the sultanate came under the influence of the United Kingdom. Historically, Muscat was the trading port of the Persian Gulf region. Muscat was also among the most important trading ports of the Indian Ocean, the Sultan Qaboos bin Said al Said has been the hereditary leader of the country since 1970. Sultan Qaboos is the current ruler in the Middle East. Oman has modest oil reserves, ranking 25th globally, nevertheless, in 2010 the UNDP ranked Oman as the most improved nation in the world in terms of development during the preceding 40 years. A significant portion of its economy is tourism and trade of fish, dates and this sets it apart from its neighbors solely oil-dependent economies. Oman is categorized as an economy and ranks as the 74th most peaceful country in the world according to the Global Peace Index. Two optically stimulated luminescence age estimates place the Arabian Nubian Complex at 106,000 years old and this supports the proposition that early human populations moved from Africa into Arabia during the Late Pleistocene. Dereaze, located in the city of Ibri, is the oldest known settlement in the area. Archaeological remains have been discovered here from the Stone Age and the Bronze Age, findings have included stone implements, animal bones, shells and fire hearths, with the latter dating back to 7615 BC as the oldest signs of human settlement in the area. Other discoveries include hand-molded pottery bearing distinguishing pre-Bronze Age marks, heavy flint implements, pointed tools, sumerian tablets refer to a country called Magan or Makan, a name believed to refer to Omans ancient copper mines. Mazoon, another used for the region, is derived from the word muzn. The present-day name of the country, Oman, is believed to originate from the Arab tribes who migrated to its territory from the Uman region of Yemen. Many such tribes settled in Oman, making a living by fishing, herding or stock breeding, from the 6th century BC to the arrival of Islam in the 7th century AD, Oman was controlled and/or influenced by three Persian dynasties, the Achaemenids, Parthians and Sassanids. A few scholars believe that in the 6th century BC, the Achaemenids exerted a strong degree of control over the Omani peninsula, Central Oman has its own indigenous so-called Late Iron Age cultural assemblage, the Samad al-Shan
27.
Sultan bin Muhammad Al-Qasimi
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Sultan bin Muhammad Al-Qasimi, commonly known as Sheikh Sultan III, is the sovereign ruler of the Emirate of Sharjah and a member of the Federal Supreme Council of the United Arab Emirates. He has ruled Sharjah continuously since January 1972, apart from a period in June 1987. He is also an historian and has published several theatrical. He completed a PhD with distinction in History at Exeter University in 1985, the Emir is an Indophile, has made numerous visits to India in his private capacity, and even speaks Malayalam language, albeit haltingly. His abiding interest and affinity for India has been attributed to the fact that as a child, he was raised by a Malayali nanny from Kerala, Sheikh Sultan succeeded his brother Sheikh Khalid bin Mohammed Al Qasimi as Emir after his assassination on 25 January 1972. He was previously Minister of Education for the Emirates, in addition to those offices, he holds several educational posts. He became president of both the American University of Sharjah and University of Sharjah in 1997, and was named Visiting Professor at Exeter University, his alma mater and he became a Professor of Modern History of the Gulf at the University of Sharjah in 1999. In 2008 he also became a Visiting Professor at Cairo University, Sheikha Jawaher Bint Mohammed Al Qasimi Sheikha Bodour Bint Sultan Al Qasimi m
28.
Strait of Hormuz
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The Strait of Hormuz /hɔːrˈmuːz/ Persian, تنگه هرمز Tangehyyeh Hormoz listen, Arabic, مَضيق هُرمُز Maḍīq Hurmuz) is a strait between the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. It provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the ocean and is one of the worlds most strategically important choke points. On the north coast lies Iran, and on the south coast the United Arab Emirates and Musandam, at its narrowest, the strait has a width of 29 nautical miles. About 20% of the worlds petroleum passes through the strait, making it an important strategic location for international trade. At the upper end of this there is a market-town designated by law called Apologus, situated near Charaex Spasini. In the 10th–17th centuries AD, the Kingdom of Ormus, which seems to have given the strait its name, was located here, scholars, historians and linguists derive the name Ormuz from the local Persian word هورمغ Hur-mogh meaning date palm. In the local dialects of Hurmoz and Minab this strait is still called Hurmogh and has the aforementioned meaning, the resemblance of this word with the name of the Persian god هرمز Hormoz has resulted in the popular belief that these words are related. To reduce the risk of collision, ships moving through the Strait follow a Traffic Separation Scheme, inbound ships use one lane, outbound ships another, the lanes are separated by a two-mile-wide median. To traverse the Strait, ships pass through the waters of Iran and Oman under the transit passage provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Although not all countries have ratified the convention, most countries, Oman has a radar site Link Quality Indicator to monitor the TSS in the Strait of Hormuz. This site is on an island on the peak of Musandam Peninsula. According to the U. S. Energy Information Administration, in 2011 and this was said to represent 35% of the worlds seaborne oil shipments and 20% of oil traded worldwide. The report stated that more than 85% of these crude oil exports went to Asian markets, with Japan, India, South Korea, unlike other straits, there is no bridge or tunnel at the Strait. On 18 April 1988, the U. S. Navy waged a battle against Iranian forces in. The battle, dubbed Operation Praying Mantis by the U. S. was launched in retaliation for the USS Samuel B. Roberts striking a mine laid in the channel by Iran on 14 April. U. S. forces sank one frigate, one gunboat, on 8 January 2007, the nuclear submarine USS Newport News, traveling submerged, struck MV Mogamigawa, a 300, 000-ton Japanese-flagged very large crude tanker, south of the strait. There were no injuries, and no oil leaked from the tanker, a series of naval stand-offs between Iranian speedboats and U. S. warships in the Strait of Hormuz occurred in December 2007 and January 2008. U. S. officials accused Iran of harassing and provoking their naval vessels and this followed more ambiguous threats from Irans oil minister and other government officials that an attack on Iran would result in turmoil in the worlds oil supply
29.
Sheikh
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Sheikh —also transliterated Sheik, Shaik, Shayk, Shaykh, Shaikh, Cheikh, Shekh and Shaikh— is an honorific title in the Arabic language. It commonly designates the ruler of a tribe, who inherited the title from his father, Sheikh is given to a royal male at birth, whereas the related title Sheikha is given to a royal female at birth. The word in Arabic stems from a triliteral root connected with age and aging, ش-ي-خ, the term literally means a man of vast power, and nobility, and it is used strictly for the royal families of the Middle East. While the title can be used religiously by Muslims to designate a learned person and it is notably used by Druze for their religious men, but also by Arab Christians for elder men of stature. Its usage and meaning is similar to the Latin senex meaning old, accordingly, the Arabic term for most legislative bodies termed Senate is majlis al-shuyūkh, literally meaning Council of Senators. One prominent example is Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani who initiated the Qadiriyya order which relies strongly upon adherence to the fundamentals of Islam, in the Arabian Peninsula, the title is used for royalty, such as kings, princes, and princesses. For example, it was the used in the West to refer to the leaders of Kuwaits ruling Al-Sabah dynasty. The same applies to all the Gulf countries, the term is used by almost every male and female member of all the Gulf royal houses. The term sheikh is known to have bestowed upon the families who battled with the Emir Fakhr al-Din in the historical Battle of Anjar. Note that the term is not used for the seven traditional Beiruti families, the other families that have this term did not rule any territory in previous ages. Instead, they were high-ranking employees or secretaries in the Ottoman Empire, or political allies of the rulers at that time, in the Maghreb, during the Almohad dynasty, the caliph was also counseled by a body of shaykhs. They represented all the different tribes under their rules, including Arabs, Andalusians, in the Muslim parts of the Horn of Africa, Sheikh is often used as a noble title. In Somali society, it is reserved as an honorific for senior Muslim leaders and clerics, in West Africa, sheikh is a common title for Muslim scholars and leaders. Among Islamic communities in Senegal, Niger and Gambia, among other areas, after the advent of Islam in South Asia, some high caste tribes also converted to Islam and adopted the title. The Muslims of the Middle East and Central Asia have historically traveled to South Asia as Sufis during the Islamic Sultanates and Mughal Empire, in Indonesia and other parts of Southeast Asia, Sheikhs are respected by local Muslims. Religious preachers or teachers in Indonesia are usually referred to as Ustad or Kyiayi Historically, notable shaykha include the 10th-century Shaykhah Fakhr-un-Nisa Shuhdah and 18th-century scholar Al-Shaykha Fatima al-Fudayliyya. A daughter or wife or mother of a sheikh is also called a shaykhah, currently, the term shaykhah is commonly used for women of ruling families, in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf with the exception of Oman. Kashmiri Shaikh Khawaja Shaikh Punjabi Shaikh Qallu Qanungoh Shaikh Quraishi Shaikhs in South Asia Sindhi Shaikh Allamah The dictionary definition of sheik at Wiktionary
30.
Al Jazirah Al Hamra
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Al Jazirah Al Hamra is a town to the south of the city of Ras al-Khaimah in the United Arab Emirates. It is known for its collection of abandoned houses and other buildings, including a mosque, the town was originally home to three tribes and ruled by the Al-Zaab tribe, which was rehoused in Abu Dhabi following a dispute with the Ruler of Ras Al Khaimah. The town was originally an island and, by 1830, was home to some 200 people mostly occupied in pearl fishing. At the time, it was a dependency of Sharjah, the old village of Jazeerah Al Hamra was traditionally home to three tribes the main being Al-Zaab. Its last Al-Zaab Sharif was Hussein Bin Rahma Al-Zaabi, who is now the Sharif of Al-Zaab area in Abu Dhabi and his eldest son Rahma is the United Arab Emirates ambassador to Kuwait
31.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
32.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
33.
Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan
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The exact date of his birth is unknown, but officially on some documents, Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan was born on 6 May 1918 in Abu Dhabi. He was the youngest son of Sheikh Sultan bin Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan and his birth date is also reported to be 1916. His father was the ruler of Abu Dhabi from 1922 until his assassination in 1926, Zayed was the youngest of his four brothers. His mother was Sheikha Salama bint Butti Al Hamed and she extracted a promise from her sons not to use violence against each other, a promise which they kept. Zayed was named after his grandfather, Sheikh Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan, at the time of Zayeds birth, the sheikhdom of Abu Dhabi was one of seven Trucial States along the lower coast of the Persian Gulf He also showed interest in Falconry. He moved to Al Ain in 1927, as Zayed was growing up, there were no modern schools anywhere along the coast. His eldest brother, Sheikh Shakhbut bin Sultan Al Nahyan, became ruler of Abu Dhabi in 1928 after their uncle, Zayed was appointed the governor of the Eastern Region of Abu Dhabi in 1946 and was based in the Muwaiji fort in Al Ain. At this time, the area was poor and prone to outbreaks of disease, when survey parties from Petroleum Development began exploring for oil in the area, Zayed assisted them. In 1952, a small Saudi Arabian force led by Turki bin Abdullah al-Otaishan occupied the village of Hamasa in the Buraimi Oasis. Zayed was prominent in his opposition to Saudi territorial claims and reportedly rejected a bribe of about £30 million to allow Aramco to explore for oil in the disputed territory. As part of dispute, Zayed and his brother Hazza attended the Buraimi arbitration tribunal in Geneva in September 1955. When the tribunal was abandoned amid allegations of Saudi bribery, the British initiated the reoccupation of the Buraimi Oasis through a military force. The discovery of oil in 1958, and the start of oil exports in 1962, on 6 August 1966, Shakhbut was deposed in a bloodless palace coup. In the late 1960s, Zayed hired Dr. Katsuhiko Takahashi, in 1971, after occasionally difficult negotiations with the other six rulers of the Trucial States, the United Arab Emirates was formed. Zayed was appointed to the presidency of the UAE in 1971 and was reappointed on four occasions,1976,1981,1986. Zayed was determined to unite the Emirates into federation and his calls for cooperation extended across the Persian Gulf to Iran. He advocated dialogue as the means to settle the row with Tehran over three strategic Persian Gulf islands which Iran seized from the UAE Emirate of Sharjah in 1971, the islands remain in Iranian hands, despite over three decades of UAE diplomatic initiatives. He was considered a liberal ruler, and permitted private media
34.
Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs conflict
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The Seizure of Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs occurred on 30 November 1971 when British forces withdrew from the islands of Abu Musa, Greater Tunb and Lesser Tunb. Immediately following British withdrawal from these islands, Iranian marines laid siege to, the Tunbs were in the dominions of the kings of Hormuz from 1330 until 1507 when they were invaded by Portugal. The Portuguese occupied the island until 1622, when they were expelled by Shah Abbas, the islands were occupied by the British Empire on 7 June 1921, and they were put under administration of the Emirate of Sharjah. A day later on 30 November 1971, Iran seized the Islands, on 30 November 1971 the Imperial Iranian Navy seized the islands under small resistance of the tiny Arab police force stationed in there. Despite the agreement between Sharjah and Iran, Ras Khaima ruler resisted the Iranian troops that were sent to the Tunbs, the Iranians planes kept shooting the police station which made the Arab forces to return fire on ground troops. According to some sources, the Arab civilian population of Greater Tunb was then deported, in the following decades, the issue remained a source of friction between the Arab states and Iran. Negotiations between the UAE and Iran in 1992 failed, the UAE have attempted to bring the dispute before the International Court of Justice, but Iran refused. Tehran says the islands belonged to it as it had never renounced possession of the islands. The United Arab Emirates argue that the islands were under the control of Qasimi sheikhs throughout the nineteenth century, whose rights were then inherited by the UAE after 1971. Iran counters by stating that the local Qasimi rulers during a part of the nineteenth century were actually based on the Iranian, not the Arab, coast. In 1980, the UAE took its claim to the United Nations, but it was rejected by the UN Security Council, and the case was closed. Iran–United Arab Emirates relations Picture of announcement made to the residents of Tunb Island about the return of islands to Iranian territory in Arabic
35.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
United Arab Emirates
