1.
United States Department of Agriculture
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Approximately 80% of USDAs $140 billion budget goes to the Food and Nutrition Service program. The largest component of the FNS budget is the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, after the resignation of Thomas Vilsack on January 13,2017 and the departure of President Barack Obama from office on January 20,2017, the acting Secretary of Agriculture is Michael Young. Activities in this include the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, which provides healthy food to over 40 million low-income. The USDA also is concerned with assisting farmers and food producers with the sale of crops and it plays a role in overseas aid programs by providing surplus foods to developing countries. This aid can go through USAID, foreign governments, international bodies such as World Food Program, the Agricultural Act of 1949, section 416 and Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, also known as Food for Peace, provides the legal basis of such actions. The USDA is a partner of the World Cocoa Foundation, early in its history, the economy of the United States was largely agrarian. Officials in the government had long sought new and improved varieties of seeds, plants. In 1837 Henry Leavitt Ellsworth, a Yale-educated attorney interested in improving agriculture, became Commissioner of Patents and he began collecting and distributing new varieties of seeds and plants through members of the Congress and agricultural societies. In 1839, Congress established the Agricultural Division within the Patent Office and allotted $1,000 for the collection of agricultural statistics, Ellsworth was called the Father of the Department of Agriculture. In 1849, the Patent Office was transferred to the newly created Department of the Interior, in the ensuing years, agitation for a separate bureau of agriculture within the department or a separate department devoted to agriculture kept recurring. Lincoln called it the peoples department, in the 1880s, varied advocacy groups were lobbying for Cabinet representation. Business interests sought a Department of Commerce and Industry, and farmers tried to raise the Department of Agriculture to Cabinet rank, finally, on February 9,1889, President Grover Cleveland signed a bill into law elevating the Department of Agriculture to Cabinet level. In 1887, the Hatch Act provided for the funding of agricultural experiment stations in each state. The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 then funded cooperative extension services in each state to teach agriculture, home economics, with these and similar provisions, the USDA reached out to every county of every state. During the Great Depression, farming remained a way of life for millions of Americans. The Department of Agricultures Bureau of Home Economics, established in 1923, published shopping advice and recipes to stretch family budgets and make food go farther. USDA helped ensure that continued to be produced and distributed to those who needed it, assisted with loans for small landowners. The Department of Agriculture was authorized a budget for Fiscal Year 2015 of $139.7 billion, the Washington Post reports that he said There are days when I have literally nothing to do, he recalled thinking as he weighed his decision to quit
2.
Immigration and Naturalization Service
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The United States Immigration and Naturalization Service was an agency of the U. S. Department of Justice from 1933 to 2003. Referred to by some as former INS and by others as legacy INS, the agency ceased to exist under that name on March 1,2003, prior to 1933, there were separate offices administering immigration and naturalization matters. The INS was established on June 10,1933, merging these previously separate areas of administration, reflecting changing governmental concerns, immigration was transferred to the purview of the United States Department of Commerce and Labor after 1903 and the Department of Labor after 1913. In 1940, with increasing concern about security, immigration and naturalization was organized under the authority of the Department of Justice. S. The investigative and enforcement functions of the INS were combined with the U. S. Customs investigators to create U. S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. The border functions of the INS, which included the Border Patrol and INS Inspectors, were combined with U. S. Customs Inspectors to create U. S. Customs, the INS also adjudicated applications for permanent residency, change of status, naturalization, and similar matters. At the head of the INS was an appointed by the President who reported to the Attorney General in the Department of Justice. The INS worked closely with the United Nations, the Department of State, the INS was a very large and complex organization that had four main divisions—Programs, Field Operations, Policy and Planning, and Management—that were responsible for operations and management. The operational functions of the INS included the Programs and Field Operations divisions, the Field Operations division was responsible for overseeing INS many offices operating throughout the country and the world. The Field Operations division implemented policies and handled tasks for its three offices, which in turn oversaw 33 districts and 21 border areas throughout the country. Internationally, the Field Operations division oversaw the Headquarters Office of International Affairs which in turn oversaw 16 offices outside the country, managerial functions of the INS included the Policy and Planning and Management divisions. The Office of Policy and Planning coordinated all information for the INS and communicated with other cooperating government agencies, the office was divided into three areas, the Policy Division, the Planning Division, and the Evaluation and Research Center. These duties were handled by the offices of Information Resources Management, Finance, Human Resources and Administration, and Equal Employment Opportunity. Shortly after the U. S. Civil War, some started to pass their own immigration laws. The Immigration Act of 1891 established an Office of the Superintendent of Immigration within the Treasury Department and this office was responsible for admitting, rejecting, and processing all immigrants seeking admission to the United States and for implementing national immigration policy. Immigrant Inspectors, as they were called then, were stationed at major U. S. ports of entry collecting manifests of arriving passengers and its largest station was located on Ellis Island in New York harbor. Among other things, a tax of fifty cents was collected on each immigrant. This made immigration more a matter of commerce than revenue. S, each year, the U. S. State Department issued a limited number of visas, only those immigrants who could present valid visas were permitted entry
3.
United States Border Patrol
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The United States Border Patrol is an American federal law enforcement agency. Its mission is to detect and prevent illegal aliens, terrorists and terrorist weapons from entering the United States and it is the mobile, uniformed law enforcement arm of U. S. Customs and Border Protection, a component of the U. S. Department of Homeland Security. With over 21,000 agents, the U. S, Border Patrol is one of the largest law enforcement agencies in the United States. The inspectors, usually called mounted guards, operated out of El Paso, though they never totaled more than 75, they patrolled as far west as California trying to restrict the flow of illegal Chinese immigration. In March 1915, Congress authorized a group of mounted guards. Most rode on horseback, but a few operated automobiles, motorcycles, although these inspectors had broader arrest authority, they still largely pursued Chinese aliens trying to avoid the National Origins Act and Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. These patrolmen were Immigration Inspectors, assigned to stations. U. S. Army soldiers along the southwest border performed intermittent border patrolling, aliens encountered illegally in the U. S. by the Army were directed to the immigration inspection stations. Texas Rangers were also assigned to patrol duties by the state. Border Patrol was founded on May 28,1924 as an agency of the United States Department of Labor to prevent illegal entries along the Mexico–United States border, the first Border Patrol station began operations in Detroit, Michigan in June 1924. A second station in El Paso, Texas began operations in July 1924, additional operations were established along the Gulf Coast in 1927 to perform crewman control to ensure that foreign crewmen departed on the same ship on which they arrived. In 1932, the Border Patrol was divided into two offices, Mexican border operations were directed from El Paso, Texas and Canadian border operations were directed from Detroit, Michigan. The Canadian border operations from Detroit employed more men than the El Paso operations along the Mexican border because of a focus on the prevention of smuggling during prohibition. Franklin Delano Roosevelts Executive Order 6166 formed the Immigration and Naturalization Service in 1933 by consolidation of the Bureau of Immigration and the Bureau of Naturalization. Following the outbreak of World War II in Europe, Border Patrol staffing doubled to 1,500 in 1940, and the INS was moved from the Department of Labor to the U. S. Department of Justice. INS was decommissioned in March 2003 when its operations were divided between CBP, United States Citizenship and Immigration Services, and U. S. Immigration, the Border Patrol also erected 33 permanent interior checkpoints near the southern border of the United States. Agents are assigned primarily to the Mexico–United States border, where they control drug trafficking, the Border Patrols priorities have changed over the years. In 1986, the Immigration Reform and Control Act placed renewed emphasis on controlling illegal immigration by going after the employers that hire illegal aliens, the belief was that jobs were the magnet that attracted most illegal aliens to come to the United States
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United States Customs Service
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The United States Customs Service was an agency of the U. S. federal government that collected import tariffs and performed other selected border security duties. Border Patrol and former INS inspectors, together with border agriculture inspectors, to form U. S. Customs and Border Protection, a single, unified border agency for the U. S. The United States Customs Service had three missions, collecting tariff revenue, protecting the U. S. economy from smuggling and illegal goods. Four weeks later, on July 31, the act of Congress established the United States Customs Service. As part of new government agency, a new role was created for government officials which was known as Customs Collector. In this role, one person would have responsibility to supervise the collection of duties in a particular city or region. For over 100 years after its birth, the U. S. Customs Service was the source of funds for the entire government. Purchases include the Louisiana and Oregon territories, Florida and Alaska, funding the National Road and the Transcontinental Railroad, building many of the nations lighthouses, military and Naval academies, and Washington, D. C. The original design had the Customs Service seal that was an eagle with three arrows in his left talon, a branch in his right and surrounded by an arc of 13 stars. In 1951, this was changed to the eagle depicted on the Great Seal of the United States and its actual name is the Revenue Ensign, as it was flown by ships of the Revenue Cutter Service, later the Coast Guard, and at customs houses. In 1910, President William Howard Taft issued an order to add an emblem to the flag flown by ships from the one flown on land at customs houses, the version with the badge continues to be flown by Coast Guard vessels. Until 2003, the version was flown at all United States ports of entry. The U. S. Customs Service employed a number of law enforcement officers throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Customs Special Agents investigated smuggling and other violations of customs, narcotics, Customs Inspectors were uniformed officers at airports, seaports and land border ports of entry who inspected people and vehicles entering the U. S. for contraband and dutiable merchandise. Customs Patrol Officers conducted uniformed and plainclothes patrol of the borders on land, sea and air to deter smuggling, in the 20th century, as international trade and travel increased dramatically, the Customs Service transitioned from an administrative bureau to a federal law enforcement agency. S. Postal Inspection Service, U. S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Border Patrol—to investigate cases often far from international airports, bridges and land crossings. With the passage of the Homeland Security Act, the U. S. Customs Service passed from under jurisdiction of the Treasury Department to the Department of Homeland Security, on March 1,2003, parts of the U. S. S. The Federal Protective Service, along with the arms of the U. S. Customs Service
5.
Law enforcement agency
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A law enforcement agency, in North American English, is a government agency responsible for the enforcement of the laws. Outside North America, such organizations are usually called police services, LEAs which have their ability to apply their powers restricted in some way are said to operate within a jurisdiction. LEAs will have some form of restriction on their ability to apply their powers. Sometimes a LEA’s jurisdiction is determined by the complexity or seriousness of the non compliance with a law, differentiation of jurisdiction based on the seriousness and complexity of the non compliance either by law or by policy and consensus can coexist in countries. Other LEAs have a jurisdiction defined by the type of laws they enforce or assist in enforcing, for example, Interpol does not work with political, military, religious, or racial matters. A LEA’s jurisdiction usually also includes the bodies they support. Jurisdictionally, there can be an important difference between international LEAs and multinational LEAs, even though both are referred to as international, even in official documents. An international law enforcement agency has jurisdiction and or operates in countries and across State borders. International LEAs are typically also multinational, for example Interpol, within a country, the jurisdiction of law enforcement agencies can be organized and structured in a number of ways to provide law enforcement throughout the country. A law enforcement agency’s jurisdiction can be for the country or for a division or sub-division within the country. In Australia for example, each state has its own LEAs, in the United States for example, typically each state and county or city has its own LEAs. Often a LEA’s jurisdiction will be divided into operations areas for administrative. An operations area is called a command or an office. Sometimes the one jurisdiction is covered by more than one LEA, again for administrative and logistical efficiency reasons, or arising from policy. The primary difference between separate agencies and operational areas within the one jurisdiction is the degree of flexibility to move resources between versus within agencies. When multiple LEAs cover the one legal jurisdicition, each agency still typically organises itself into operations areas, when a LEA’s jurisdiction is for the whole country, it is usually one of two broad types, either federal or national. When the country has a constitution a whole of country LEA is referred to as a federal law enforcement agency. The responsibilities of a federal LEA vary from country to country. S, a federal police agency is a federal LEA which also has the typical police responsibilities of social order and public safety as well as federal law enforcement responsibilities
6.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
7.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
8.
United States Department of Homeland Security
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Its stated missions involve anti-terrorism, border security, immigration and customs, cyber security, and disaster prevention and management. It was created in response to the September 11 attacks, in fiscal year 2017, it was allocated a net discretionary budget of $40.6 billion. With more than 240,000 employees, DHS is the third largest Cabinet department, after the Departments of Defense, Homeland security policy is coordinated at the White House by the Homeland Security Council. Other agencies with significant homeland security responsibilities include the Departments of Health and Human Services, Justice and its stated goal is to prepare for, prevent, and respond to domestic emergencies, particularly terrorism. On March 1,2003, DHS absorbed the Immigration and Naturalization Service, in doing so, it divided the enforcement and services functions into two separate and new agencies, Immigration and Customs Enforcement and Citizenship and Immigration Services. The investigative divisions and intelligence gathering units of the INS and Customs Service were merged forming Homeland Security Investigations, additionally, the border enforcement functions of the INS, including the U. S. Border Patrol, the U. S. Customs Service, the Federal Protective Service falls under the National Protection and Programs Directorate. The Department of Homeland Security is headed by the Secretary of Homeland Security with the assistance of the Deputy Secretary, the Department contains the components listed below. Agencies, United States Citizenship and Immigration Services, Processes and examines citizenship, residency, U. S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, Law enforcement agency divided into two bureaus, An agency that enforces U. S. It also investigates crimes against the U. S. monetary system including the crime of counterfeiting U. S. currency, Federal Emergency Management Agency, agency that oversees the federal governments response to natural disasters like earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, forest fires, etc. National Protection and Programs Directorate, risk-reduction, encompassing both physical and virtual threats and their associated human elements, Federal Protective Service, Federal law enforcement and security agency that protects and investigates crimes against U. S. federal buildings, properties, assets, and federal government interests. National Cybersecurity Center In an August 5,2002 speech, President Bush said, to secure freedom in the homeland. Prior to the creation of DHS, American presidents had referred to the U. S. as the nation or the republic, also unprecedented was the use, from 2002, of the phrase the homeland by White House spokespeople. In 2011 the Department of Homeland Security phased out the old Homeland Security Advisory System with a two-level National Terrorism Advisory System, the system has two types of advisories, Alerts and Bulletins. Alerts are issued when there is specific and credible information of a terrorist threat against the United States, Alerts themselves have two levels, Elevated and Imminent. An Elevated Alert is issued when there is information about an attack. An Imminent Alert is issued when the threat is very specific, many procedures at government facilities are tied in to the alert level, for example a facility may search all entering vehicles when the alert is above a certain level. After resigning, Tom Ridge stated that he did not always agree with the threat level adjustments pushed by other government agencies
9.
Federal law enforcement in the United States
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The federal government of the United States empowers a wide range of law enforcement agencies to maintain law and public order related to matters affecting the country as a whole. Federal law enforcement authorities have authority given to them under various parts of the United States Code, Federal law enforcement officers enforce various laws, generally at only the federal level. There are exceptions, with agencies and officials enforcing state. Most are limited by the U. S. Code to investigating matters that are explicitly within the power of the federal government, some federal investigative powers have become broader in practice, since the passage of the USA PATRIOT Act in October 2001. The Department of Justice was formerly the largest, and is still the most prominent and it has handled most law enforcement duties at the federal level. This included large agencies such as the U. S. Coast Guard, transportation Security Administration, and the U. S. Federal law enforcement in the United States is well over two hundred years old. For example, the Postal Inspection Service can trace its origins back to 1772, agencies in bold text are law enforcement agencies. Office of Inspector General United States Forest Service, U. S. S. S, compared with 2002, employment of such personnel increased by 13%. Nationwide, there were 36 federal officers per 100,000 residents, outside the District of Columbia, which had 1,662 per 100,000, State ratios ranged from 90 per 100,000 in Arizona to 7 per 100,000 in Iowa. As of 2004, about 3 in 4 federal law enforcement officers working outside the Armed Forces were employed within the Department of Homeland Security or the Department of Justice. Federal officers duties included criminal investigation, police response and patrol, corrections and detention, inspections, court operations, women accounted for 16% of federal officers in 2004, an increase from 14. 8% in 2002. A third of federal officers were members of a racial or ethnic minority in 2004 and this included 17. 7% who were Hispanic or Latino, and 11. 4% who were black or African American. In 2002, racial or ethnic minorities officers comprised 32. 4% of federal officers, twenty-seven federal offices of inspector general employed criminal investigators with arrest and firearm authority in 2004. Overall, these agencies employed 2,867 such officers in the 50 states, law enforcement in the United States This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Government
10.
Working dog
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A working dog is a canine working animal, i. e. a type of dog that is not merely a pet but learns and performs tasks to assist and/or entertain its human companions, or a breed of such origin. In Australia and New Zealand, a dog is one which has been trained to work livestock. Within this general description, however, there are ways in which the phrase is used. To identify any dog that performs actions on a basis to assist people. In this context, a dog that helps a rancher manage cattle or that performs stunts for a trainer who receives pay for its acts is a working dog and this might be in comparison to a companion dog, whose purpose is primarily as a pet. To distinguish between dogs that are bred for appearance primarily to win conformation shows and working dogs that are bred primarily for their ability to perform a task and it is also possible that a specimen may excel in both appearance and performance. In many FCI countries it is impossible for some working breeds dogs to become conformation champions without having passed adequate breed specific tests measuring their working abilities, for some breeds, there are separate registries for tracking the ancestry of working and show dogs. As a catch-all for dog breeds whose original purpose was to perform tasks that do not fit into a specific category of work. For example, until 1983 herding dogs were part of the Working Group, the Herding Group was created when the Working Group became too large. Today, the American Kennel Club uses Working Dogs to describe breeds who were bred for jobs other than herding or hunting. Such jobs might include pulling carts, guarding and so on, however, in practice these show dogs under the AKC are not proper working dogs, and would indeed not be suitable for use as such. Many true working breeds are very valuable as working dogs. An example of such a breed is the Anatolian Shepherd, without which many sheep would be destroyed for example by wolves, feral dogs, and in Namibia. Although most modern dogs are kept as pets, there are still a number of ways in which dogs can and do assist humans. The following list provides an idea of the versatility of dogs, Turnspit dogs were used as a source of power, similar arrangements were used for household duties such as churning butter. Dogs were used as draught animals to pull small carts for farms, peddlers, or travellers, to deliver mail and they were used in World War I to pull small field guns. Dogs in harness sometimes had guard dogs to protect them from stray dogs, Service or assistance dogs help people with various disabilities in every day tasks. Some examples include mobility assistance dogs for the handicapped, guide dogs for the visually impaired
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Police dog
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A police dog, known in some English-speaking countries as a K-9 or K9, is a dog that is specifically trained to assist police and other law-enforcement personnel in their work. Their duties include searching for drugs and explosives, searching for lost people, looking for crime scene evidence, Police dogs must remember several hand and verbal commands. The most commonly used breed is the German Shepherd, in many common law jurisdictions, the intentional injuring or killing of a police dog is a felony. Dogs have been used for law enforcement since at least the Middle Ages, money was then set aside in the villages for the upkeep of the parish constables bloodhounds that were used for hunting down outlaws. In France, dogs were used in the 14th century in St. Malo, bloodhounds used in Scotland were known as Slough dogs - the word Sleuth, was derived from this. As a result, private associations were formed to combat crime. Night watchmen were employed to guard premises with many of these individuals provided with firearms and he soon had two bloodhounds trained for the performance of a simple tracking test from the scene of another of the killers crimes. The results were far from satisfactory, with one of the hounds biting the Commissioner and it was in Continental Europe that dogs were first used on a large scale. Police in Paris began using dogs against roaming criminal gangs at night and these methods soon spread to Austria-Hungary and Germany, in the latter the first scientific developments in the field took place with experiments in dog breeding and training. The German police selected the German Shepherd Dog as the breed for police work. The dogs were trained in obedience to their officers and tracking and attacking criminals. In Britain, the North Eastern Railway Police were the first to use dogs in 1908 to put a stop to theft from the docks in Hull. By 1910, railway police forces were experimenting with other such as Labrador Retrievers, Doberman Pinschers. Sentry dog and attack dog - This dog is used to locate and subdue suspects or enemy, Search and rescue dog - This dog is used to locate suspects or find missing people or objects. Bloodhounds are often used for this task, detection dog or explosive-sniffing dog - Some dogs are used to detect illicit substances such as drugs or explosives which may be carried on a person in their effects. In many countries, Beagles are used in airports to sniff the baggage for items that are not permitted, due to their nature and appearance. Arson dogs - Some dogs are trained to pick up on traces of accelerants at sites of suspected arson, cadaver dogs - Some dogs are trained in detecting cadaverine and other odors of decomposing bodies. The result was the development of training techniques that resulted in near 100% accuracy rates and her research has been published in the Journal of Forensic Anthropology
12.
Republic of Ireland
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Ireland, also known as the Republic of Ireland, is a sovereign state in north-western Europe occupying about five-sixths of the island of Ireland. The capital and largest city is Dublin, which is located on the part of the island. The state shares its land border with Northern Ireland, a part of the United Kingdom. It is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the Celtic Sea to the south, Saint Georges Channel to the south-east, and it is a unitary, parliamentary republic. The head of government is the Taoiseach, who is elected by the Dáil and appointed by the President, the state was created as the Irish Free State in 1922 as a result of the Anglo-Irish Treaty. It was officially declared a republic in 1949, following the Republic of Ireland Act 1948, Ireland became a member of the United Nations in December 1955. It joined the European Economic Community, the predecessor of the European Union, after joining the EEC, Ireland enacted a series of liberal economic policies that resulted in rapid economic growth. The country achieved considerable prosperity between the years of 1995 and 2007, which known as the Celtic Tiger period. This was halted by a financial crisis that began in 2008. However, as the Irish economy was the fastest growing in the EU in 2015, Ireland is again quickly ascending league tables comparing wealth and prosperity internationally. For example, in 2015, Ireland was ranked as the joint sixth most developed country in the world by the United Nations Human Development Index and it also performs well in several national performance metrics, including freedom of the press, economic freedom and civil liberties. Ireland is a member of the European Union and is a member of the Council of Europe. The 1922 state, comprising 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland, was styled, the Constitution of Ireland, adopted in 1937, provides that the name of the State is Éire, or, in the English language, Ireland. Section 2 of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 states, It is hereby declared that the description of the State shall be the Republic of Ireland. The 1948 Act does not name the state as Republic of Ireland, because to have done so would have put it in conflict with the Constitution. The government of the United Kingdom used the name Eire, and, from 1949, Republic of Ireland, for the state, as well as Ireland, Éire or the Republic of Ireland, the state is also referred to as the Republic, Southern Ireland or the South. In an Irish republican context it is referred to as the Free State or the 26 Counties. From the Act of Union on 1 January 1801, until 6 December 1922, during the Great Famine, from 1845 to 1849, the islands population of over 8 million fell by 30%
13.
Middle East
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The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
14.
Bermuda
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Bermuda is a British Overseas Territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. It is approximately 1,070 km east-southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina,1,236 km south of Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Bermuda is an associate member of Caribbean Community. The first person known to have reached Bermuda was the Spanish sea captain Juan de Bermúdez in 1503 and he claimed the islands for the Spanish Empire. Bermúdez never landed on the islands, but made two visits to the archipelago, of which he created a recognisable map, shipwrecked Portuguese mariners are now thought to have been responsible for the 1543 inscription on Portuguese Rock. Subsequent Spanish or other European parties are believed to have released pigs there, the island was administered as an extension of Virginia by the Company until 1614. Its spin-off, the Somers Isles Company, took over in 1615, at that time, the companys charter was revoked, and the English Crown took over administration. The islands became a British colony following the 1707 unification of the parliaments of Scotland and England, after 1949, when Newfoundland became part of Canada, Bermuda became the oldest remaining British Overseas Territory. Since the return of Hong Kong to China in 1997, it is the most populous Territory and its first capital, St. Georges, was established in 1612 and is the oldest continuously inhabited English town in the New World. Bermudas economy is based on insurance and reinsurance, and tourism. Bermuda had one of the worlds highest GDP per capita for most of the 20th century, recently, its economic status has been affected by the global recession. The island is in the belt and prone to severe weather. However, it is protected from the full force of a hurricane by the coral reef that surrounds the island. It is 898 nautical miles northeast of Miami, Florida, and 667 nautical miles from Cape Sable Island, in Nova Scotia, Canada. The islands lie due east of Fripp Island, South Carolina, west-northwest of Cape Verde, southeast of New York City, New York, north-northwest of Brazil and north of San Juan, Puerto Rico. The archipelago is formed by points on the rim of the caldera of a submarine volcano that forms a seamount. The volcano is one part of a range that was formed as part of the process that formed the floor of the Atlantic. It has 103 km of coastline, the two incorporated municipalities in Bermuda are the City of Hamilton and the Town of St George. Bermuda is divided into nine parishes, which have some localities called villages, such as Flatts Village, although usually referred to in the singular, the territory consists of 181 islands, with a total area of 53.3 square kilometres
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Caribbean
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The Caribbean is a region that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands and the surrounding coasts. The region is southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and the North American mainland, east of Central America, situated largely on the Caribbean Plate, the region comprises more than 700 islands, islets, reefs and cays. These islands generally form island arcs that delineate the eastern and northern edges of the Caribbean Sea, in a wider sense, the mainland countries of Belize, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana are often included due to their political and cultural ties with the region. Geopolitically, the Caribbean islands are usually regarded as a subregion of North America and are organized into 30 territories including sovereign states, overseas departments, and dependencies. From December 15,1954, to October 10,2010, there was a known as the Netherlands Antilles composed of five states. The West Indies cricket team continues to represent many of those nations, the region takes its name from that of the Caribs, an ethnic group present in the Lesser Antilles and parts of adjacent South America at the time of the Spanish conquest. The two most prevalent pronunciations of Caribbean are KARR-ə-BEE-ən, with the accent on the third syllable. The former pronunciation is the older of the two, although the variant has been established for over 75 years. It has been suggested that speakers of British English prefer KARR-ə-BEE-ən while North American speakers more typically use kə-RIB-ee-ən, usage is split within Caribbean English itself. The word Caribbean has multiple uses and its principal ones are geographical and political. The Caribbean can also be expanded to include territories with strong cultural and historical connections to slavery, European colonisation, the United Nations geoscheme for the Americas accords the Caribbean as a distinct region within the Americas. Physiographically, the Caribbean region is mainly a chain of islands surrounding the Caribbean Sea, to the north, the region is bordered by the Gulf of Mexico, the Straits of Florida and the Northern Atlantic Ocean, which lies to the east and northeast. To the south lies the coastline of the continent of South America, politically, the Caribbean may be centred on socio-economic groupings found in the region. For example, the known as the Caribbean Community contains the Co-operative Republic of Guyana. Bermuda and the Turks and Caicos Islands, which are in the Atlantic Ocean, are members of the Caribbean Community. The Commonwealth of the Bahamas is also in the Atlantic and is a member of the Caribbean Community. According to the ACS, the population of its member states is 227 million people. The geography and climate in the Caribbean region varies, Some islands in the region have relatively flat terrain of non-volcanic origin and these islands include Aruba, Barbados, Bonaire, the Cayman Islands, Saint Croix, the Bahamas, and Antigua
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Container Security Initiative
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The Container Security Initiative was launched in 2002 by the U. S. Bureau of Customs and Border Protection, an agency of the Department of Homeland Security. Its purpose was to increase security for container cargo shipped to the United States, as the CBP puts it, the intent is to extend zone of security outward so that American borders are the last line of defense, not the first. Containerized shipping is a component of international trade. According to the CBP, About 90% of the trade is transported in cargo containers. Almost half of incoming U. S. trade arrives by containers onboard ships, nearly seven million cargo containers arrive on ships and are offloaded at U. S. seaports each year. As terrorist organizations have turned to destroying economic infrastructure to make an impact on nations. Under the CSI program, the screening of containers that pose a risk for terrorism is accomplished by teams of CBP officials deployed to work in concert with their host nation counterparts. CSI consists of four elements, Using intelligence and automated information to identify. Pre-screening those containers that pose a risk at the port of departure before they arrive at U. S. ports, Using detection technology to quickly pre-screen containers that pose a risk. The initial CSI program has focused on implementation at the top 20 ports shipping approximately two-thirds of the volume to the United States. Smaller ports, however, have added to the program at their instigation, and participation is open to any port meeting certain volume, equipment, procedural. Future plans include expansion to additional ports based on volume, location, much of the original idea behind the CSI program stemmed from the work of James Giermanski, who was an early proponent of Supply Chain Security. The CSI program offers its participant countries the opportunity to enhance their own incoming shipment security. CSI partners can send their customs officers to major U. S. ports to target ocean-going, likewise, CBP shares information on a bilateral basis with its CSI partners. Japan and Canada are currently taking advantage of this reciprocity, CSI has also inspired and informed global measures to improve shipping security. In June 2002, the World Customs Organization unanimously passed a resolution that will enable ports in all 161 of the nations to begin to develop programs along the CSI model. On 22 April 2004, the European Union and the U. S. Department of Homeland Security signed an agreement that calls for the expansion of CSI throughout the European Community. NOTE, Information is needed here on ports participating in reciprocal agreements,47 foreign CSI ports are operational as of 2006-09-29
17.
Joint Terrorism Task Force
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JTTFs engage in surveillance, electronic monitoring, source development and interviews in their pursuits. FBI task forces obtain written memoranda of understanding between participating law enforcement agencies, the FBI provides funds to pay for participating agencies expenses, such as officer overtime, vehicles, fuel, cell phones, and related office costs. The many regional JTTFs coordinate their efforts through the interagency National Joint Terrorism Task Force, NJTTF is headquartered in Washington, D. C. and is composed of representatives from 35 federal agencies. The FBIs involvement with the JTTF falls under the Operational Support Branch of the FBI Counterterrorism Division, the first JTTF was established in 1980 in New York City, with ten FBI special agents and ten New York City Police Department detectives. Prior to the attacks of September 11,2001, the United States had 35 JTTFs, shortly after the attacks, FBI Director Robert Mueller instructed all FBI field offices to establish formal terrorism task forces. There are now 100 Joint Terrorism Task Forces nationwide, including at least one at each of the FBI Field Offices, except in Portland, the JTTF assisted in the investigation of the plot on Fort Dix. However critics such as David Cole, a law professor at Georgetown University questioned the use of paid informants enabling aspiring terrorists, then in December 2008, the National Security Agency intercepted communications from an Army officer with a suspected terrorist, Anwar al-Awlaki. They disclosed that they had reviewed evidence which included the 2008 e-mail conversations, on the morning of September 24,2010, several homes of people active in campaigns against U. S. military intervention and Palestine and Columbia Solidarity were raided by FBI agents part of JTTFs. Four houses in Minneapolis were raided, along with houses in Michigan, North Carolina, no arrests were made, but agents subpoenaed activists to testify before a grand jury in Chicago in October, with reference to material aid to terrorist organizations. A detective with the Fresno County Sheriffs Department and member of the JTTF, on April 28,2005, Portland became the only city in the nation to withdraw from a JTTF. As of February 19,2015, the Portland city council approved permanently staffing the JTTF with two of its citys police officers, isnt it time we stripped them of a task they regularly perform so poorly. The New York Post headline stated FBI blew off killer e-mail to al Qaeda Officials admit shrugging off gunmans e-mails to Qaeda, red-faced agency vowed to get to the bottom of things itself. Pp. 423–426 in Counterterrorism, From the Cold War to the War on Terror, Vol.1, edited by Frank G. Shanty
18.
Office of Biometric Identity Management
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United States Visitor and Immigrant Status Indicator Technology is a U. S. Customs and Border Protection management system. US-VISIT is accessed by 30,000 users from federal, state, Immigration and Customs Enforcement and biometric Entry and Exit operations which became a part of U. S. Customs and Border Protection. U. S. Department of State consular officers and U. S. Customs, citizens between the ages of 14 and 79, with some exceptions, when they apply for visas or arrive at major U. S. ports of entry. CBP officials have the ability to check the person seeking entry against several lookout databases using the Interagency Border Inspection System. In 2009, DHS announced that it had completed an upgrade from two-fingerprint to ten-fingerprint scanners at major U. S. ports of entry, the upgrade, which began in 2007, is intended to make the entry process faster and more accurate. Initially, only visitors who required a visa inserted in their passport were included in the US-VISIT program, however, since September 30,2004, visitors eligible for the Visa Waiver Program have also been required to use the US-VISIT program. Beginning January 18,2009, most non-U. S, citizens are subject to US-VISIT requirements. The United States and Canada have special agreements for visa-free travel, U. S. citizens are not required to be digitally fingerscanned or photographed when they enter United States territory. The Department of State began issuing passports to its citizens in 2006. The program has been funded by Congressional appropriations of $330 million in fiscal year 2004, $340 million in 2005, $340 million in 2006, for fiscal year 2010, Congress appropriated $373.7 million and directed that $50 million be used to implement a biometric air exit capability. In fiscal year 2007, A total of 46,298,869 entries recorded at air, of these,236,857 were identified as possible overstays. The manual vetting system led to 273 U. S. Immigration, the databases resulted in 25,552 hits for consular officers overseas adjudicating visa applications. There were 11,685 biometric watch-list hits at the ports of entry, United States Citizenship and Immigration Services used the system to screen those who apply for immigration benefits, creating 31,324 hits. Critics contend that the system is too inaccurate to be an effective solution, barry Steinhardt, director of the American Civil Liberties Unions Program on Technology and Liberty, states that the watch list is bloated and full of inaccuracy, calling the policy a total failure. He stated, Whether or not the loss of liberty is worth the security gained is not a question — because no security is gained, the consulting company Accenture is the lead contractor for US-VISIT. The selection of Accenture in 2004 was controversial due to the location of the companys headquarters, in 2000, Accenture was created and incorporated in Bermuda, as a separation of global business consulting services from the financial consulting services of Andersen Consulting. Because Accenture was created in 2000, and because Andersen was not previously incorporated, Brazil has requested to be exempted from this measure, and failing this, has implemented a similar program of fingerprinting and photographing American citizens entering Brazil. The Brazilian program commenced in Guarulhos International Airport in São Paulo in January 2004, on November 20,2007, Japan implemented J-VIS, an immigration and border management system similar to the US-VISIT system
19.
Food and Drug Administration
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The Food and Drug Administration is a federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments. As of 2017, 3/4th of the FDA budget is funded by the pharmaceutical companies due to the Prescription drug user fee act and these include regulating lasers, cellular phones, condoms and control of disease on products ranging from certain household pets to sperm donation for assisted reproduction. The FDA is led by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, appointed by the President with the advice, the Commissioner reports to the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Dr. Robert M. Califf, MD is the current commissioner, who took over in February 2016 for Dr. Stephen Ostroff, the FDA has its headquarters in unincorporated White Oak, Maryland. The agency also has 223 field offices and 13 laboratories located throughout the 50 states, the United States Virgin Islands, in 2008, the FDA began to post employees to foreign countries, including China, India, Costa Rica, Chile, Belgium, and the United Kingdom. The site was renamed from the White Oak Naval Surface Warfare Center to the Federal Research Center at White Oak, the first building, the Life Sciences Laboratory, was dedicated and opened with 104 employees on the campus in December 2003. Only one original building from the facility was kept. All other buildings are new construction, the project is slated to be completed by 2017, assuming future Congressional funding While most of the Centers are located in the Washington, D. C. The Office of Regulatory Affairs is considered the eyes and ears of the agency, the Office of Regulatory Affairs is divided into five regions, which are further divided into 20 districts. Districts are based roughly on the divisions of the federal court system. Each district comprises a main office and a number of Resident Posts. ORA also includes the Agencys network of laboratories, which analyze any physical samples taken. Though samples are usually food-related, some laboratories are equipped to analyze drugs, cosmetics, the Office of Criminal Investigations was established in 1991 to investigate criminal cases. Unlike ORA Investigators, OCI Special Agents are armed, and dont focus on aspects of the regulated industries. In many cases, OCI pursues cases involving Title 18 violations, OCI Special Agents often come from other criminal investigations backgrounds, and work closely with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Assistant Attorney General, and even Interpol. OCI receives cases from a variety of sources—including ORA, local agencies, OCI is a smaller branch, comprising about 200 agents nationwide. The FDA frequently works with federal agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, Drug Enforcement Administration, Customs and Border Protection. Often local and state government agencies also work with the FDA to provide regulatory inspections, the FDA regulates more than US$1 trillion worth of consumer goods, about 25% of consumer expenditures in the United States
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Bioterrorism
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Bioterrorism is terrorism involving the intentional release or dissemination of biological agents. These agents are bacteria, viruses, or toxins, and may be in a naturally occurring or a human-modified form, for the use of this method in warfare, see biological warfare. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention bioterrorism is the release of viruses, bacteria, toxins or other harmful agents to cause illness or death in people, animals. Biological agents can be spread through the air, water, or in food, terrorists tend to use biological agents because they are extremely difficult to detect and do not cause illness for several hours to several days. Some bioterrorism agents, like the smallpox virus, can be spread person to person and some, like anthrax. A biological weapon is useful to terrorists mainly as a method of creating mass panic, however, technologists such as Bill Joy have warned of the potential power which genetic engineering might place in the hands of future bio-terrorists. The use of agents that do not cause harm to humans, by the time World War I began, attempts to use anthrax were directed at animal populations. This generally proved to be ineffective, shortly after the start of World War I, Germany launched a biological sabotage campaign in the United States, Russia, Romania, and France. At that time, Anton Dilger lived in Germany, but in 1915 he was sent to the United States carrying cultures of glanders, Dilger set up a laboratory in his home in Chevy Chase, Maryland. He used stevedores working the docks in Baltimore to infect horses with glanders while they were waiting to be shipped to Britain, Dilger was under suspicion as being a German agent, but was never arrested. Dilger eventually fled to Madrid, Spain, where he died during the Influenza Pandemic of 1918, in 1916, the Russians arrested a German agent with similar intentions. Germany and its allies infected French cavalry horses and many of Russia’s mules and horses on the Eastern Front and these actions hindered artillery and troop movements, as well as supply convoys. In 1972 police in Chicago arrested two students, Allen Schwander and Stephen Pera, who had planned to poison the citys water supply with typhoid. Schwander had founded a terrorist group, R. I. S. E, while Pera collected and grew cultures from the hospital where he worked. The two men fled to Cuba after being released on bail, Schwander died of natural causes in 1974, while Pera returned to the U. S. in 1975 and was put on probation. In 1980 the World Health Organization announced the eradication of smallpox, although the disease has been eliminated in the wild, frozen stocks of smallpox virus are still maintained by the governments of the United States and Russia. Disastrous consequences are feared if rogue politicians or terrorists were to get hold of the smallpox strains, since vaccination programs are now terminated, the world population is more susceptible to smallpox than ever before. In Oregon in 1984, followers of the Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh attempted to control a local election by incapacitating the local population
21.
NEXUS (frequent traveler program)
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NEXUS is a joint Canada–United States program designed to let pre-approved, low-risk travelers cross the Canada–U. S. Members of the program can avoid long waits at border entry points by using self-serve kiosks at airports, reserved lanes at land crossings, the program is operated by the Canada Border Services Agency and U. S. Customs and Border Protection. A NEXUS membership card is a document under the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative. To qualify for the program, an applicant must be a citizen of Canada or the United States, Permanent residents of the United States or Canada must reside in their respective country for three years before applying for NEXUS membership. Applicants must also be legally admissible to both nations, must have complied with immigration and customs regulations during previous travel, and must also have a criminal history check, additionally, if the applicant is under 18, both parents must provide their written consent. NEXUS applications can be submitted online via the U. S. Customs and Border Protection website or a paper application, the application fee is $50 USD or CAD, which is waived for applicants under the age of 18. Applicants are screened for citizenship and immigration status, checked for criminal history, applicants who pass the initial screening are interviewed in person by agents of both U. S. Customs and Border Protection and the Canada Border Services Agency. After approval members are mailed a RFID-enabled NEXUS card, valid for five years from the applicants birthday following card issuance, renewal typically takes place six months prior to expiration, and members may be required to attend another interview to verify that they still qualify for the program. The arrangement will also allow Mexican nationals who are members of the Viajero Confiable Program to apply for the NEXUS Program. NEXUS cardholders are generally screened more quickly at the border, however they are subject to standard immigration and customs checks. Participating border crossing points typically have one lane reserved for NEXUS use. A vehicle can use the NEXUS lane if all passengers hold a valid NEXUS card. It is important to note that nearly every lane crossing in either direction, and at all ports of entry, Permanent Residents are still required to carry their passport, Permanent Resident Card and any relevant immigration documents for either country, such as US I94 or I94W landing cards. NEXUS members may utilize SENTRI lanes when entering the US from Mexico by land, but must be traveling in an approved, registered vehicle. Regardless of whether in a vehicle or not, the NEXUS card is a WHTI compliant document. Pedestrians can use dedicated SENTRI lines for expedited entry into the U. S. from Tijuana at the San Ysidro border crossing, the Global Entry kiosks are located at the 20 busiest U. S. international airports by international passenger traffic. To use the Global Entry kiosks, a valid, machine readable passport is necessary, travelers are not required to use the NEXUS card in the kiosk, but are advised it is prudent to carry it on person. There is no additional cost to use Global Entry, and it can be used for the duration of the NEXUS membership
22.
Transponder
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In telecommunication, a transponder is one of two types of devices. The term is a portmanteau for transmitter-responder and it is variously abbreviated as XPDR, XPNDR, TPDR or TP. A communications satellite’s channels are called transponders, because each is a separate transceiver or repeater, with digital video data compression and multiplexing, several video and audio channels may travel through a single transponder on a single wideband carrier. Original analog video only has one channel per transponder, with subcarriers for audio, non-multiplexed radio stations can also travel in single channel per carrier mode, with multiple carriers per transponder. This allows each station to transmit directly to the satellite, rather than paying for a whole transponder, in optical fiber communications, a transponder is the element that sends and receives the optical signal from a fiber. A transponder is typically characterized by its rate and the maximum distance the signal can travel. The difference between the two is that transceivers interface electrically with the host system using an interface, whereas transponders use a parallel interface to do so. In this view, transponders provide easier-to-handle lower-rate parallel signals, but are bulkier, as such, transponders can be considered as two transceivers placed back-to-back. This view also seems to be held by e. g. Fujitsu, as a result, difference in transponder functionality also might influence the functional description of related optical modules like transceivers and muxponders. Primary radar works best with large aircraft, but not so well on small. Its range is limited by terrain and rain or snow and also detects unwanted objects such as automobiles, hills. Furthermore, it cannot always estimate the altitude of an aircraft, secondary radar overcomes these limitations but it depends on a transponder in the aircraft to respond to interrogations from the ground station to make the plane more visible. Another mode called Mode S is designed to help avoiding over-interrogation of the transponder, Mode S transponders are backward compatible with Modes A and C. Mode S is mandatory in controlled airspace in many countries. Some countries have required, or are moving towards requiring. In addition, navigational aids often have transponders called RACON designed to make them out on a ships radar screen. Many modern automobiles have keys with transponders hidden inside the head of the key. The user of the car may not even be aware that the transponder is there, when a key is inserted into the ignition lock cylinder and turned, the cars computer sends a radio signal to the transponder. Unless the transponder replies with a code, the computer will not allow the engine to be started
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CBP Air and Marine Operations
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Air and Marine Operations is a federal law enforcement agency within U. S. Customs and Border Protection, a component of the Department of Homeland Security. AMO is the worlds largest civilian aviation and maritime law enforcement organization, to accomplish its mission, AMO employs over 1,200 Federal Agents and Officers at 70 locations, operating more than 260 aircraft of 26 different types, and approximately 300 maritime vessels. It is one of the major operational components within U. S. Customs and Border Protection, along with the Office of Field Operations and the Office of Border Patrol. 1789 - The U. S. Customs Service is established to aid in the protection of the revenue of the United States, a fleet of vessels begin to patrol the coastal waters of the United States. Congress authorized the Collector of Customs to acquire boats and hire boatsmen and these vessels and boatsmen were the forerunners of today’s Midnight Express Interceptor vessels and Marine Interdiction Agents. 1808 - Boatsmen Asa March and Elis Drake became the first Customs officers to die in the line of duty and they gave their lives during a marine interdiction and subsequent gunfight on Lake Champlain in New York. 1922 - U. S. Customs Service Patrol began to utilize seized aircraft to aerial surveillance. 1932 - A record-high 35 aircraft were seized for smuggling and this led to the establishment of an unofficial Customs Patrol Air Group. The new aerial surveillance effort focused on the southern U. S. border,1969 - The U. S. Customs Service officially established its aviation program, which became operational in 1971. 1973 - The U. S. Customs Services marine program was established in its modern form within the USCS Office of Investigations,1999 - The USCS Air and Marine Interdiction Division was formed by merging the aviation and marine programs. The USCS Air and Marine Interdiction Division was transferred to Immigration and Customs Enforcement, becoming the Office of Air and Marine Operations. Border Patrol with its aviation and marine assets was transferred from the Immigration and Naturalization Service to U. S. Customs and Border Protection, becoming the Office of Border Patrol. October 23,2004 - ICE Air and Marine Operations was transferred to U. S. Customs and Border Protection due to political and budgetary disputes between ICE and CBP. The purpose of these consolidations was to air and marine law enforcement personnel and assets into one agency. October 1,2015 - U. S. Customs and Border Protections Office of Air and Marine changed its name to Air, among AMOs many missions are anti-terrorism, countering smuggling, and stopping illegal immigration. The agency uses its aviation and marine assets to detect, interdict, AMO also leverages its unique detection and interdiction capabilities to support individual components of the Department of Homeland Security and Department of Justice. Air and Marine Operations Agents and Officers work with both U. S. and foreign agencies and military forces to support their law enforcement efforts, personnel and assets are deployed abroad to support Department of Homeland Security priorities, most notably for foreign training and counter narcotics missions. Beechcraft King Air C-12 The Beechcraft King Air, C-12B, C-12C and their secondary mission is the logistical relocation of personnel, equipment, or evidence that is time critical to investigation and enforcement actions
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CBP Office of Field Operations
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The Office of Field Operations is a federal law enforcement agency within the U. S. Headed by an CBP Assistant Commissioner, OFO directs the activities of more than 27,000 employees, including more than 22,000 CBP Officers, CBP Office of Field Operations is the largest component in CBP. It is headed by Assistant Commissioner Todd Owen, Ports of entry are responsible for daily port specific operations. Port personnel are the face at the border for most cargo, here, CBP enforces the import and export laws and regulations of the U. S. federal government and conducts immigration policy and programs. The office, with an operating budget of c. $3.2 billion, is responsible for policy and programs related to the admission and exclusion of aliens. CBP has the largest working Law Enforcement Canine Program in the world, currently there are over 1200 OFO canine teams fulfilling the CBP mission throughout the United States. The vast majority of our resources are located along the Southwest border, from Brownsville, Texas to San Diego, Canine teams are also strategically assigned to other ports of entry around the country, and located at pre-clearance stations abroad. The Canine Enforcement Program is also involved in specialized detection programs aimed at combating terrorist threats at our nations borders, the CBP. gov website states the following, FY09 outbound currency seizures amounted to more than $57.9 million and outbound weapons seizures totaled 433. FY09 was the Office of Field Operations’ most successful drug enforcement year in the past five years as measured by kilo weight seized. Specifically, FY09 seizures were up 53 percent for cocaine,19 percent for marijuana and 11 percent for ephedrine, outbound currency seizures went up 74 percent in a year-to-year comparison. During FY09, CBP officers seized more nearly 1.5 million pounds of narcotics, CBP agriculture specialists seized more than 1.5 million prohibited meat, plant materials or animal products, including 166,727 agricultural pests at ports of entry. As part of CBP’s efforts to secure our nation’s ports of entry, CBP’s Container Security Initiative, remains operational in 58 seaports, in FY09, over 56,000 examinations were performed overseas as part of the CSI program. CBP enhanced the Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism program by adding Mexican Long Haul Carriers, in June, a Mutual Recognition Arrangement was signed with Japan, increasing the number of mutual recognition arrangements to four. In FY09, C-TPAT’s 187 Supply Chain Security Specialists completed more than 2,500 validations in 90 foreign countries, CBP installed Radio Frequency Identification technology at 39 major entry points along the U. S borders with Canada and Mexico. The RFID technology, which was installed at 354 vehicle lanes, will help speed travel. Use of RFID enables swifter processing at border crossings for travelers using new state-of-the-art travel documents and these documents are the result of the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative. CBP also launched a television, print and online advertising campaign to educate the public about new travel document requirements on June 1 under the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative
25.
2016 Democratic National Convention
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The 2016 Democratic National Convention was a presidential nominating convention, held at the Wells Fargo Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from July 25 through to July 28,2016. Her running mate, Senator Tim Kaine from Virginia, was chosen by delegates as the nominee for vice president by acclamation. Delegates at the convention adopted a party platform, through a voice vote, to take to the 2016 elections. The progressive shift was often credited to Sanders and the influence of members appointed by him. The platform featured a focus on issues, such as Wall Street reform, stronger financial regulation. Senator Elizabeth Warren delivered the address of the convention, with First Lady Michelle Obama. Former President Bill Clinton served as headlining speaker on the second day, while Vice President Joe Biden. Clintons speech was generally well-received, and she would go on to have a 7% convention bounce in national polling, various performers also appeared during the convention, including Demi Lovato, Alicia Keys, Lenny Kravitz and Katy Perry. The live announcer for the four day event was Sylvia Villagran, the convention was not without controversy, as it was subject to various conflicts between supporters of the presidential campaign of Bernie Sanders and the Democratic Party. Schultz subsequently resigned as chair of the Committee, and thus as chair of the Democratic National Convention, in 2016, the Republican and Democratic conventions were held in late July before the Rio de Janeiro Summer Olympics, instead of after the Olympics as in 2008 and 2012. One reason why the Republican Party scheduled its convention in July was to avoid a longer. The Democrats then followed suit, scheduling their convention the week after the Republicans convention, Philadelphia was selected as the host city on February 12,2015. The primary venue was the Wells Fargo Center, the Pennsylvania Convention Center was also used, the last convention held in Philadelphia was the 2000 Republican National Convention, the last time the city hosted the Democratic Convention was in 1948. Philadelphia was selected over finalists Columbus, New York City, Birmingham, Cleveland, edward G. Rendell, the former mayor of Philadelphia and governor of Pennsylvania, played a crucial role in securing Philadelphia as the host city. The Host Committee is composed of 10 prominent Philadelphia business executives, civic, the Reverend Leah Daughtry is the CEO. A cache of more than 19,000 e-mails was leaked on July 22,2016 and this caused Democratic National Committee chair Debbie Wasserman Schultz to resign. Julian Assange, the founder of Wikileaks, timed the release of the e-mails to occur shortly before the Democratic convention in hopes of maximizing its impact, by May 19,2016, five organized groups of Sanders supporters had applied for demonstration permits from the Philadelphia police department. However, on July 22, the union and American Airlines reached an agreement, the city of Philadelphia expected 35,000 to 50,000 protesters throughout the convention
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United States Department of State
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The Department was created in 1789 and was the first executive department established. The Department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building located at 2201 C Street, NW, the Department operates the diplomatic missions of the United States abroad and is responsible for implementing the foreign policy of the United States and U. S. diplomacy efforts. The Department is also the depositary for more than 200 multilateral treaties, the Department is led by the Secretary of State, who is nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate and is a member of the Cabinet. The current Secretary of State is Rex Tillerson, beginning 1 February 2017, the Secretary of State is the second Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession, after the Vice President of the United States. This legislation remains the law of the Department of State. In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and these responsibilities grew to include management of the United States Mint, keeper of the Great Seal of the United States, and the taking of the census. President George Washington signed the new legislation on September 15, most of these domestic duties of the Department of State were eventually turned over to various new Federal departments and agencies that were established during the 19th century. On September 29,1789, President Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, from 1790 to 1800, the State Department had its headquarters in Philadelphia, the capital of the United States at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Streets, in 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D. C. where it first occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue. It moved into the Six Buildings in September 1800, where it remained until May 1801 and it moved into the War Office Building due west of the White House in May 1801. It occupied the Treasury Building from September 1819 to November 1866 and it then occupied the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875. It moved to the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875, since May 1947, it has occupied the Harry S. Truman Building in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, the State Department is therefore sometimes metonymically referred to as Foggy Bottom. Madeleine Albright became the first woman to become the United States Secretary of State, condoleezza Rice became the second female secretary of state in 2005. Hillary Rodham Clinton became the female secretary of state when she was appointed in 2009. In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building, the Executive Branch and the U. S. Congress have constitutional responsibilities for U. S. foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead U. S, the Department advances U. S. objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the Presidents foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to U. S. citizens, the total Department of State budget, together with Other International Programs, costs about 45 cents a day for each resident of the United States. Keeping the public informed about U. S. foreign policy and relations with other countries, providing automobile registration for non-diplomatic staff vehicles and the vehicles of diplomats of foreign countries having diplomatic immunity in the United States
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United States Census Bureau
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The United States Census Bureau is a principal agency of the U. S. Federal Statistical System, responsible for producing data about the American people and economy. The Census Bureaus primary mission is conducting the U. S. Census every ten years, in addition to the decennial census, the Census Bureau continually conducts dozens of other censuses and surveys, including the American Community Survey, the U. S. Economic Census, and the Current Population Survey, furthermore, economic and foreign trade indicators released by the federal government typically contain data produced by the Census Bureau. The Bureaus various censuses and surveys help allocate over $400 billion in federal funds every year and help states, local communities, the Census Bureau is part of the U. S. Department of Commerce and its director is appointed by the President of the United States. The Census Bureau now conducts a population count every 10 years in years ending with a 0. Between censuses, the Census Bureau makes population estimates and projections, the Census Bureau is mandated with fulfilling these obligations, the collecting of statistics about the nation, its people, and economy. The Census Bureaus legal authority is codified in Title 13 of the United States Code, the Census Bureau also conducts surveys on behalf of various federal government and local government agencies on topics such as employment, crime, health, consumer expenditures, and housing. Within the bureau, these are known as surveys and are conducted perpetually between and during decennial population counts. The Census Bureau also conducts surveys of manufacturing, retail, service. Between 1790 and 1840, the census was taken by marshals of the judicial districts, the Census Act of 1840 established a central office which became known as the Census Office. Several acts followed that revised and authorized new censuses, typically at the 10-year intervals, in 1902, the temporary Census Office was moved under the Department of Interior, and in 1903 it was renamed the Census Bureau under the new Department of Commerce and Labor. The department was intended to consolidate overlapping statistical agencies, but Census Bureau officials were hindered by their role in the department. An act in 1920 changed the date and authorized manufacturing censuses every 2 years, in 1929, a bill was passed mandating the House of Representatives be reapportioned based on the results of the 1930 Census. In 1954, various acts were codified into Title 13 of the US Code, by law, the Census Bureau must count everyone and submit state population totals to the U. S. President by December 31 of any year ending in a zero. States within the Union receive the results in the spring of the following year, the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions, with nine divisions. The Census Bureau regions are widely used. for data collection, the Census Bureau definition is pervasive. Title 13 of the U. S. Code establishes penalties for the disclosure of this information, all Census employees must sign an affidavit of non-disclosure prior to employment. The Bureau cannot share responses, addresses or personal information with anyone including United States or foreign government, only after 72 years does the information collected become available to other agencies or the general public
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Country of origin
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Country of origin, is the country of manufacture, production, or growth where an article or product comes from. There are differing rules of origin under various laws and international treaties. The effects of country of origin labeling on consumer purchasing have been extensively studied The country of origin effect is known as the made-in image. Its effect is strongest on consumers who dont know much about the product or product type, sensitivity to country of origin varies by product category. It is strongest for durable goods and luxury goods and weakest for low involvement product categories such as shampoo, in various studies it has also been proven that the Country-of-Origin Effect also applies to services. The requirements for Country of Origin markings are complicated by the various designations which may be required such as Made in X, Product of X and they also vary by country of import and export. For example, For imports to the United Kingdom, there is a code for Food. Other products are not subject to labelling requirements, but misleading labelling can result in prosecution under the Trade Descriptions Act 1968, meats, produce, and several other raw agricultural products generally were exempt. Textile products that are imported must be labeled as required by the Customs Service, a textile or wool product partially manufactured in the U. S. and partially manufactured in another country must be labeled to show both foreign and domestic processing. On a garment without a neck and on other kinds of textile products, catalogs and other mail order promotional materials for textile and wool products, including those disseminated on the Internet, must disclose whether a product is made in the U. S. imported, or both. The Fur Products Labeling Act requires the country of origin of imported furs to be disclosed on all labels, any representation that a car marketer makes that is required by the AALA is exempt from the Commission’s policy. When a company makes claims in advertising or promotional materials that go beyond the AALA requirements, it will be held to the Commission’s standard. The Buy American Act requires that a product be manufactured in the U. S. of more than 50 percent U. S. parts to be considered Made in USA for government procurement purposes. For more information, review the Buy American Act at 41 U. S. C. §§ 10a-10c, part 25, and the Trade Agreements Act at 19 U. S. C. The Lanham Act gives any person who is damaged by a designation of origin the right to sue the party making the false claim. Companies may indicate with a number of different strategies, though not all of these legal requirements in all jurisdictions. Use of the phrase Made in, Country of origin will affect its admissibility, the rate of duty, its entitlement to special duty or trade preference programs, antidumping, and government procurement. Today, many products are an outcome of a number of parts and pieces that come from many different countries
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American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
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United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
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George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
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Duty (economics)
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In economics, a duty is a kind of tax levied by a state. It is often associated with customs, in context they are also known as tariffs or dues. The term is used to describe a tax on certain items purchased abroad. Properly, a duty differs from a tax in being levied on specific commodities, financial transactions, estates, duties may be import duties, excise duties, stamp duties, death or succession duties, etc. but not such direct impositions as personal income taxes. An estate duty is a tax levied on the estate of a person in many jurisdictions or on the inheritance of a person. The tax is sometimes referred to, formally or informally, as a death duty, often, the rate of the duty is similar to a gift duty. Tariff Free economic zone Free port Duty-free shop Smuggling Tax Evasion Likin, tax collected on transportation of goods in Qing China
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Port of entry
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In general, a port of entry is a place where one may lawfully enter a country. It typically has a staff of people who check passports and visas, International airports are usually ports of entry, as are road and rail crossings on a land border. Seaports can be used as ports of entry only if a dedicated customs presence is posted there, the choice of whether to become a port of entry is up to the civil authority controlling the port. An airport of entry is an airport that provides customs and immigration services for incoming flights and these services allow the airport to serve as an initial port of entry for foreign visitors arriving in a country. The word international in a name usually means that it is an airport of entry. Airports of entry can range from large urban airports with scheduled passenger service, like John F. Kennedy International Airport. Often, smaller airports of entry are located near a port of entry such as a bridge or seaport. On the other hand, however, some former airports of entry chose to leave their name with the word international in it, one example is Osaka International Airport. Many airports in the region have the same situation, like Taipei Songshan Airport. Songshan retained its official Chinese name, Taipei International Airport, after Chiang Kai-shek International Airport opened, similar cases of transitions of international airports such as Seoul, Tokyo, Nagoya, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Bangkok, Tehran, etc. For the European Union, flights between countries in the Schengen Area are considered domestic regarding passport and immigration check, several international airports have only intra Schengen-flights. Several of these have occasional charter flights to foreign countries, some cases of statelessness have occurred in airports of entry, forcing people to stay there for an extended period. A famous case was of Mehran Karimi Nasseri, an expelled Iranian who lived in the Charles de Gaulle Airport in France for approximately eighteen years after being denied entry to the country, there are two films about his story, Tombés du ciel and The Terminal. Another case is Zahra Kamalfar who lived in the Sheremetyevo International Airport for many months before getting refugee status in Canada, the formal definition of a port of entry in the United States is something entirely different. According to the Code of Federal Regulations, the port and port of entry incorporate the geographical area under the jurisdiction of a port director. In other words, a port of entry may encompass an area that includes several border crossings, as well as some air and this also means that not every border crossing is a port of entry. There are two reasons for this, Every port of entry must have a Port Director, which is a pay grade than a typical border inspector. The U. S. government has determined that some small border crossings do not need their own Port Directors, as a result, border stations like Churubusco, Chateaugay and Fort Covington, New York are considered stations within the Trout River Port of Entry
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Louisiana
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Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Louisiana is the 31st most extensive and the 25th most populous of the 50 United States and its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the state in the U. S. with political subdivisions termed parishes. The largest parish by population is East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana is bordered by Arkansas to the north, Mississippi to the east, Texas to the west, and the Gulf of Mexico to the south. Much of the lands were formed from sediment washed down the Mississippi River, leaving enormous deltas and vast areas of coastal marsh. These contain a rich southern biota, typical examples include birds such as ibis, there are also many species of tree frogs, and fish such as sturgeon and paddlefish. In more elevated areas, fire is a process in the landscape. These support a large number of plant species, including many species of orchids. Louisiana has more Native American tribes than any other state, including four that are federally recognized, ten that are state recognized. Before the American purchase of the territory in 1803, the current Louisiana State had been both a French colony and for a period, a Spanish one. In addition, colonists imported numerous African people as slaves in the 18th century, many came from peoples of the same region of West Africa, thus concentrating their culture. Louisiana was named after Louis XIV, King of France from 1643 to 1715, when René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle claimed the territory drained by the Mississippi River for France, he named it La Louisiane. The suffix -ana is a Latin suffix that can refer to information relating to an individual, subject. Thus, roughly, Louis + ana carries the idea of related to Louis, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist 250 million years ago when there was but one supercontinent, Pangea. As Pangea split apart, the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico opened, Louisiana slowly developed, over millions of years, from water into land, and from north to south. The oldest rocks are exposed in the north, in such as the Kisatchie National Forest. The oldest rocks date back to the early Tertiary Era, some 60 million years ago, the history of the formation of these rocks can be found in D. Spearings Roadside Geology of Louisiana. The sediments were carried north to south by the Mississippi River
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Oregon
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Oregon is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Oregon is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the north by Washington, on the south by California, on the east by Idaho, the Columbia River delineates much of Oregons northern boundary, and the Snake River delineates much of the eastern boundary. The parallel 42° north delineates the boundary with California and Nevada. Oregon was inhabited by indigenous tribes before Western traders, explorers. An autonomous government was formed in the Oregon Country in 1843 before the Oregon Territory was created in 1848, Oregon became the 33rd state on February 14,1859. Today, at 98,000 square miles, Oregon is the ninth largest and, with a population of 4 million, the capital of Oregon is Salem, the second most populous of its cities, with 164,549 residents. Portland is Oregons most populous city, with 632,309 residents, Portlands metro population of 2,389,228 ranks the 23rd largest metro in the nation. The Willamette Valley in western Oregon is the states most densely populated area, the tall conifers, mainly Douglas fir, along Oregons rainy west coast contrast with the lighter-timbered and fire-prone pine and juniper forests covering portions to the east. Abundant alders in the west fix nitrogen for the conifers, stretching east from central Oregon are semi-arid shrublands, prairies, deserts, steppes, and meadows. At 11,249 feet, Mount Hood is the states highest point, Oregons only national park, Crater Lake National Park, comprises the caldera surrounding Crater Lake, the deepest lake in the United States. The state is home to the single largest organism in the world, Armillaria ostoyae. Because of its landscapes and waterways, Oregons economy is largely powered by various forms of agriculture, fishing. It is also the top timber-producer of the lower 48 states, Technology is another one of the states major economic forces, which began in the 1970s with the establishment of the Silicon Forest and the expansion of Tektronix and Intel. Sportswear company Nike, Inc. headquartered in Beaverton, is the states largest public corporation with a revenue of $30.6 billion. The earliest evidence of the name Oregon has Spanish origins and this chronicle is the first topographical and linguistic source with respect to the place name Oregon. There are also two other sources with Spanish origins such as the name Oregano which grows in the part of the region. Another early use of the name, spelled Ouragon, was in a 1765 petition by Major Robert Rogers to the Kingdom of Great Britain, the term referred to the then-mythical River of the West. By 1778 the spelling had shifted to Oregon, in his 1765 petition, Rogers wrote, The rout. is from the Great Lakes towards the Head of the Mississippi, and from thence to the River called by the Indians Ouragon
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Florida
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Florida /ˈflɒrᵻdə/ is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, Florida is the 22nd-most extensive, the 3rd-most populous, and the 8th-most densely populated of the U. S. states. Jacksonville is the most populous municipality in the state and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States, the Miami metropolitan area is Floridas most populous urban area. The city of Tallahassee is the state capital, much of the state is at or near sea level and is characterized by sedimentary soil. The climate varies from subtropical in the north to tropical in the south, the American alligator, American crocodile, Florida panther, and manatee can be found in the Everglades National Park. It was a location of the Seminole Wars against the Native Americans. Today, Florida is distinctive for its large Cuban expatriate community and high population growth, the states economy relies mainly on tourism, agriculture, and transportation, which developed in the late 19th century. Florida is also renowned for amusement parks, orange crops, the Kennedy Space Center, Florida has attracted many writers such as Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, Ernest Hemingway and Tennessee Williams, and continues to attract celebrities and athletes. It is internationally known for golf, tennis, auto racing, by the 16th century, the earliest time for which there is a historical record, major Native American groups included the Apalachee, the Timucua, the Ais, the Tocobaga, the Calusa and the Tequesta. Florida was the first part of the continental United States to be visited and settled by Europeans, the earliest known European explorers came with the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León. Ponce de León spotted and landed on the peninsula on April 2,1513 and he named the region La Florida. The story that he was searching for the Fountain of Youth is a myth, in May 1539, Conquistador Hernando de Soto skirted the coast of Florida, searching for a deep harbor to land. He described seeing a wall of red mangroves spread mile after mile, some reaching as high as 70 feet. Very soon, many smokes appeared along the whole coast, billowing against the sky, the Spanish introduced Christianity, cattle, horses, sheep, the Spanish language, and more to Florida. Both the Spanish and French established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success, in 1559, Don Tristán de Luna y Arellano established a settlement at present-day Pensacola, making it the first attempted settlement in Florida, but it was abandoned by 1561. Spain maintained tenuous control over the region by converting the tribes to Christianity. The area of Spanish Florida diminished with the establishment of English settlements to the north, the English attacked St. Augustine, burning the city and its cathedral to the ground several times. Florida attracted numerous Africans and African-Americans from adjacent British colonies who sought freedom from slavery, in 1738, Governor Manuel de Montiano established Fort Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose near St
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