1.
South China Sea
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The South China Sea is a marginal sea that is part of the Pacific Ocean, encompassing an area from the Karimata and Malacca Straits to the Strait of Taiwan of around 3,500,000 square kilometres. The areas importance largely results from one-third of the worlds shipping sailing through its waters, the sea and its mostly uninhabited islands are subject to competing claims of sovereignty by several countries. These claims are reflected in the variety of names used for the islands. South China Sea is the dominant term used in English for the sea, and this name is a result of early European interest in the sea as a route from Europe and South Asia to the trading opportunities of China. In the sixteenth century Portuguese sailors called it the China Sea, the International Hydrographic Organization refers to the sea as South China Sea. The Classic of Poetry, Zuo Zhuan, and Guoyu classics of the Spring and Autumn period also referred to the sea, Nan Hai, the South Sea, was one of the Four Seas of Chinese literature. There are three other seas, one for each of the four cardinal directions, during the Eastern Han dynasty, Chinas rulers called the Sea Zhang Hai. Fei Hai became popular during the Southern and Northern Dynasties period, usage of the current Chinese name, Nan Hai, became gradually widespread during the Qing Dynasty. In Southeast Asia it was called the Champa Sea or Sea of Cham. The majority of the sea came under Japanese naval control during World War II following the acquisition of many surrounding South East Asian territories in 1941. Japan calls the sea Minami Shina Kai South China Sea and this was written 南支那海 until 2004, when the Japanese Foreign Ministry and other departments switched the spelling 南シナ海, which has become the standard usage in Japan. In China, it is called the South Sea, 南海 Nánhǎi, in Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines, it was long called the South China Sea, with the part within Philippine territorial waters often called the Luzon Sea, Dagat Luzon, by the Philippines. However, following an escalation of the Spratly Islands dispute in 2011, a PAGASA spokesperson said that the sea to the east of the Philippines will continue to be called the Philippine Sea. In September 2012, Philippine President Benigno Aquino III signed Administrative Order No, states and territories with borders on the sea include, the Peoples Republic of China, the Republic of China, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, Singapore, and Vietnam. Major rivers that flow into the South China Sea include the Pearl, Min, Jiulong, Red, Mekong, Rajang, Pahang, Pampanga, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the South China Sea as follows, On the South. From Fuki Kaku the North point of Formosa to Kiushan Tao on to the South point of Haitan Tao, the Mainland, the Southern limit of the Gulf of Thailand and the East coast of the Malay Peninsula. The sea lies above a drowned continental shelf, during recent ice ages global sea level was hundreds of metres lower, the South China Sea opened around 45 million years ago when the Dangerous Ground rifted away from southern China. Extension culminated in seafloor spreading around 30 million years ago, a process that propagated to the SW resulting in the V-shaped basin we see today, extension ceased around 17 million years ago
2.
Abraham Lincoln
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Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
3.
Newport News Shipbuilding
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Founded as the Chesapeake Dry Dock and Construction Co. in 1886, Newport News Shipbuilding has built more than 800 ships, including both naval and commercial ships. Located in the city of Newport News, their facilities more than 550 acres. The shipyard is building the aircraft carriers USS Gerald R. Ford, also under construction are the Virginia-class submarines USS Indiana and USS Washington. In 2013, Newport News Shipbuilding began the deactivation of the first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, USS Enterprise, Newport News Shipbuilding also performs refueling and complex overhaul work on Nimitz-class aircraft carriers. This is a four-year vessel renewal program that not only involves refueling of the nuclear reactors. The yard has completed RCOH for four Nimitz-class carriers, as of May 2016 this work was underway for the fifth Nimitz-class vessel, USS Abraham Lincoln. Industrialist Collis P. Huntington provided crucial funding to complete the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad from Richmond, however, building the railroad and coal pier was only the first part of Huntingtons dreams for Newport News. In 1886 he built a shipyard to repair ships servicing this transportation hub, in 1891 Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company delivered its first ship, the tugboat Dorothy. By 1897 NNS had built three warships for the US Navy, USS Nashville, Wilmington and Helena, when Collis died in 1900, his nephew Henry E. Huntington inherited much of his uncles fortune. He also married Collis widow Arabella Huntington, and assumed Colliss leadership role with Newport News Shipbuilding, under Henry Huntingtons leadership, growth continued. In 1906 the revolutionary HMS Dreadnought launched a naval race worldwide. Between 1907 and 1923, Newport News built six of the US Navys total of 22 dreadnoughts – USS Delaware, Texas, Pennsylvania, Mississippi, Maryland, all but the first were in active service in World War II. In 1907 President Theodore Roosevelt sent the Great White Fleet on its round-the-world voyage, NNS had built seven of its 16 battleships. In 1914 NNS built SS Medina for the Mallory Steamship Company, in the early years, leaders of the Newport News community and those of the shipyard were virtually interchangeable. Post served from March 9,1911 to Feb.12,1912, earlier, he had come to the area as one of the builders of the C&O Railways terminals, and had served as the first mayor of Newport News after it became an independent city in 1896. It was on March 14,1914 that Albert Lloyd Hopkins and his assistant, Frederic Gauntlett, was also on board, but was able to swim to safety. Homer Lenoir Ferguson was company vice president when Hopkins died, and he saw the company through both world wars, became a noted community leader, and was a co-founder of the Mariners Museum with Archer Huntington. He served until July 31,1946, after the second World War had ended on both the European and Pacific fronts
4.
Nimitz-class aircraft carrier
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The Nimitz-class supercarriers are a class of ten nuclear-powered aircraft carriers in service with the United States Navy. The lead ship of the class is named for World War II United States Pacific Fleet commander Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, the U. S. Navys last fleet admiral. As a result of the use of power, the ships are capable of operating for over 20 years without refueling and are predicted to have a service life of over 50 years. They are categorized as nuclear-powered aircraft carriers and are numbered with consecutive hull numbers between CVN-68 and CVN-77, all ten carriers were constructed by Newport News Shipbuilding Company in Virginia. USS Nimitz, the ship of the class, was commissioned on 3 May 1975, and USS George H. W. Bush. The angled flight decks of the use a CATOBAR arrangement to operate aircraft, with steam catapults and arrestor wires for launch. As well as speeding up flight deck operations, this allows for a wider variety of aircraft than with the STOVL arrangement used on smaller carriers. An embarked carrier air wing consisting of up to around 90 aircraft is normally deployed on board, after the retirement of the F-14 Tomcat, the air wings strike fighters are primarily F/A-18E and F/A-18F Super Hornets and F/A-18A+ and F/A-18C Hornets. In addition to their aircraft, the vessels carry short-range defensive weaponry for anti-aircraft warfare, the unit cost is about $8.5 billion in FY12 dollars US$8.86 billion inflation adjusted. The Nimitz-class carriers have a length of 1,092 ft. They have a beam at the waterline of 135 ft, the ships companies can number up to 3,200, not including an air wing of 2,480. Among other design improvements, the two reactors on Nimitz-class carriers take up less space than the eight reactors used on Enterprise. Along with a generally improved design, this means that Nimitz-class carriers can carry 90% more aviation fuel. The U. S. Navy has stated that the carriers could withstand three times the damage sustained by the Essex class inflicted by Japanese air attacks during World War II. The hangars on the ships are divided into three bays by thick steel doors that are designed to restrict the spread of fire. This addition has been present on U. S. aircraft carriers since World War II, the first ships were designed around the time of the Vietnam War, and certain aspects of the design were influenced by operations there. A major purpose of the ships was initially to support the U. S and they were initially categorized only as attack carriers, but ships have been constructed with anti-submarine capabilities since USS Carl Vinson. As a result, the ships and their aircraft are now able to participate in a range of operations, which can include sea and air blockades, mine laying
5.
Aircraft carrier
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An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering aircraft. Typically, it is the ship of a fleet, as it allows a naval force to project air power worldwide without depending on local bases for staging aircraft operations. Aircraft carriers are expensive to build and are critical assets, there is no single definition of an aircraft carrier, and modern navies use several variants of the type. These variants are sometimes categorized as sub-types of aircraft carriers, Aircraft carriers may be classified according to the type of aircraft they carry and their operational assignments. Admiral Sir Mark Stanhope, former head of the Royal Navy, has said, To put it simply, as of April 2017, there are 37 active aircraft carriers in the world within twelve navies. The United States Navy has 10 large nuclear-powered fleet carriers, the largest carriers in the world, the Royal Navy of Great Britain is building two 280-m / 920-ft carriers, the Queen Elizabeth, and the Prince of Wales scheduled to go into service in 2020-2023. These are the largest carriers capable of fast speeds, by comparison, escort carriers were developed to provide defense for convoys of ships. They were smaller and slower with lower numbers of aircraft carried, most were built from mercantile hulls or, in the case of merchant aircraft carriers, were bulk cargo ships with a flight deck added on top. Light aircraft carriers were fast enough to operate with the main fleet, three nations currently operate carriers of this type, ten by the United States, and one each by France and Brazil for a total of twelve in service. Short take-off but arrested-recovery, these carriers are generally limited to carrying lighter fixed-wing aircraft with more limited payloads, currently, Russia, China, and India possess commissioned carriers of this type. Short take-off vertical-landing, limited to carrying STOVL aircraft and this type of aircraft carrier is currently in service with Italy. Some also count the nine US amphibious assault ships in their secondary light carrier role boosting the total to thirteen. Helicopter carrier, Helicopter carriers have an appearance to other aircraft carriers. Some are designed for addition of, or may include, a ski jump ramp allowing for STOVL operations or may have a ski jump installed before retirement of STOVL aircraft. In the past, some conventional carriers were converted and called commando carriers by the Royal Navy, some helicopter carriers with a resistant flight surface can operate STOVL jets. Currently the majority of carriers, but not all, are classified as amphibious assault ships. The US has nine of this type, France and Japan three, Australia two, the UK one, the Republic of Korea one and Spain one, the US and Spains amphibious assault ships operate STOVL jets in normal deployment. Supercarrier Fleet carrier Light aircraft carrier Escort carrier Several systems of identification symbol for aircraft carriers, two months later, on 18 January 1911, Ely landed his Curtiss pusher airplane on a platform on the armored cruiser USS Pennsylvania anchored in San Francisco Bay
6.
Westinghouse Electric Company
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Westinghouse Electric Company LLC is a US based nuclear power company formed in 1998 from the nuclear power division of the original Westinghouse Electric Corporation. It offers nuclear products and services to utilities internationally, including fuel, service and maintenance, instrumentation, control. As of 2014 Westinghouse builds and operates approximately one-half of the operating nuclear plants. Westinghouses world headquarters are located in the Pittsburgh suburb of Cranberry Township, Toshiba Group is the majority owner of Westinghouse. The projects responsible for loss are mostly the construction of four AP1000 reactors at Vogtle in Georgia. Westinghouse filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection on March 29,2017. That same year, in 1999 CBS Corporation sold its nuclear business to British Nuclear Fuels Limited. And a year later CBS Corporation was merged into Viacom, thus putting an end to the original Westinghouse, in July 2005 BNFL confirmed it planned to sell Westinghouse, then estimated to be worth $2 billion. This attracted interest from companies, including Toshiba, General Electric. When the Financial Times reported on January 23,2006 that Toshiba had won the bid, on February 6,2006 Toshiba confirmed it was buying Westinghouse Electric Company for $5. 4bn and announced it would sell a minority stake to investors. Finally, the record of UK governments building nuclear plants had been a commercial disaster, on 13 August 2007 Toshiba sold 10% to Kazatomprom, the national uranium company for the Republic of Kazakhstan, for US$540 million, leaving Toshiba with 67%. Kazatomproms ownership is entirely passive, with no voting or veto rights or presence on the board of directors, in September,2011, Toshiba was reported to be in talks to acquire the Shaw stake and both companies confirmed the story soon thereafter. Toshiba said it was open to, and considering, having other partners invest in the business, the purchase closed in January 2013, and brought Toshibas share in the company to 87%. In 2015 concerns were expressed that the value of assets and goodwill in Westinghouse were overstated. S, in February 2017 Toshiba revealed unaudited details of a 390 billion yen loss, mainly in its US nuclear business which was written down by 712 billion yen. On 14 February 2017 Toshiba delayed filing financial results, and Toshiba chairman Shigenori Shiga, formerly chairman of Westinghouse, Toshiba is considering selling the Westinghouse nuclear business. On March 29,2017 Toshibas Westinghouse filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, citing a loss for Toshiba that could exceed $9 billion. The Wall Street Journal reported that four nuclear reactors being built in the south-eastern U. S. would be left to an unknown fate. The U. S. government had given $8.3 billion of loan guarantees on the financing of the four nuclear reactors being built in the U. S, construction began in July 2007, the move lasted from June 2009 to December 2010. As part of this move, Westinghouse piloted the first commuter shuttle running a loop between Monroeville and Cranberry Township
7.
A4W reactor
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The A4W reactor is a naval reactor used by the United States Navy to propel warships and generate onboard electricity. Their reactor cores are expected to operate for about 20 years, the only ships to use these nuclear reactors are the Nimitz class supercarriers, which have two reactors rated at 550 MWt each. These each generate enough steam to produce approximately 100 MW electricity supply plus 140,000 shaft horsepower per shaft
8.
Steam turbine
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A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884, in 1551, Taqi al-Din in Ottoman Egypt described a steam turbine with the practical application of rotating a spit. Steam turbines were described by the Italian Giovanni Branca and John Wilkins in England. The devices described by Taqi al-Din and Wilkins are today known as steam jacks, in 1672 an impulse steam turbine driven car was designed by Ferdinand Verbiest. A more modern version of car was produced some time in the late 18th century by an unknown German mechanic. The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by Sir Charles Parsons, the invention of Parsons steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionized marine transport and naval warfare. Parsons design was a reaction type and his patent was licensed and the turbine scaled-up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. The Parsons turbine also turned out to be easy to scale up. Parsons had the satisfaction of seeing his invention adopted for all major world power stations, a number of other variations of turbines have been developed that work effectively with steam. The de Laval turbine accelerated the steam to full speed before running it against a turbine blade, De Lavals impulse turbine is simpler, less expensive and does not need to be pressure-proof. It can operate with any pressure of steam, but is less efficient. He taught at the École des mines de Saint-Étienne for a decade until 1897, one of the founders of the modern theory of steam and gas turbines was Aurel Stodola, a Slovak physicist and engineer and professor at the Swiss Polytechnical Institute in Zurich. His work Die Dampfturbinen und ihre Aussichten als Wärmekraftmaschinen was published in Berlin in 1903, a further book Dampf und Gas-Turbinen was published in 1922. It was used in John Brown-engined merchant ships and warships, including liners, the present-day manufacturing industry for steam turbines is dominated by Chinese power equipment makers. Other manufacturers with minor market share include Bhel, Siemens, Alstom, GE, Doosan Škoda Power, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, the consulting firm Frost & Sullivan projects that manufacturing of steam turbines will become more consolidated by 2020 as Chinese power manufacturers win increasing business outside of China. There are several classifications for modern steam turbines, Turbine blades are of two basic types, blades and nozzles. Blades move entirely due to the impact of steam on them and this results in a steam velocity drop and essentially no pressure drop as steam moves through the blades. A turbine composed of alternating with fixed nozzles is called an impulse turbine, Curtis turbine, Rateau turbine
9.
AN/SPS-48
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Existing sets are being modernized under the ROAR program to AN/SPS-48G standard for better reliability and usability. A three-dimensional radar is mounted on a base that allows for 360 degrees of rotation, the target can be located at a given azimuth. The range of the target is also identified due to the time it takes the beam to go out, what makes this radar system different is its ability to detect the height of the target above the surface of the water. With these three pieces of data the radars central processor has the ability to place the target in an X, Y, Z,3 dimensional space. For the SPS-48 in particular, the antenna is rotated to scan azimuth. The 4,500 lb antenna is capable of rotating at 7.5 or 15 rpm, according to ITT Exelis, the system has a range exceeding 200 nmi and can track targets up to 69 degrees in elevation. SPS-48 radars stack multiple beams in a train of pulses at different frequencies, the beams scan different elevation areas, allowing the stack to cover up to 69 degrees of elevation. The first specification for what became AN/SPS-48 was written in 1956, the AN/SPS-48 replaced AN/SPS-39 on the Belknap, Coontz and Leahy classes between 1967 and 1975 under the Guided Missile Frigate Anti-Air Warfare Modernization Program. The AN/SPS-48E included a digital receiver and signal processor that could detect and track very small targets. It was included in the New Threat Upgrade of the 1980s and it only affects the layout of the below-deck units. The plan is to back-fit the existing AN/SPS-48E population from 2011 through 2020 and they will support fleet 3D air search requirements through 2050 and beyond for the ship classes that have SPS-48G. The number of Lowest Replaceable Units is reduced by 87%, the new commercial off-the-shelf radar processors computing capabilities will be sustained through a planned tech-refresh program. With the air targets exact 3D location it is available for interception/removal via either the weapon system or through linked weapons platforms located elsewhere. It is the predecessor of the AEGIS system currently in use on Arleigh Burke-class destroyers, the AEGIS AN/SPY-1B/D radars are electronically scanned phased arrays, while the SPS-48E is frequency scanned in elevation, and mounted on a rotating joint that spins the radar in azimuth. AN/SPS-48A - AN/SPS-48B - Unknown, possible non-existent or prototype for -48C AN/SPS-48C - -48A with Automatic detection, aN/SPS-48D - Prototype version of -48E, tested on USS Mahan. Originally developed as part of the New Threat Upgrade Program to support the SM-2 Launch On Search capability, AN/SPS-48E LBR Land based radar version. AN/SPS-48G - some new-build, others upgraded AN/SPS-48E under the Radar Obsolescence,29 radars are being modernized at a cost of $169.3 million under contract N00024-09-C-5395. Replacing below-decks units with modern electronics based on open architecture will reduce training demands, list of radars Diffraction grating Selex RAN-40L Radar of similar function used in some aircraft carriers
10.
AN/SPS-49
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The AN/SPS-49 is a United States Navy two-dimensional, long range air search radar built by Raytheon that can provide contact bearing and range. It is a primary air-search radar for ships in the U. S. It also serves in a complementary role aboard Aegis cruisers with the AN/SPY-1, first tested in 1965 aboard USS Gyatt and introduced in 1975, the AN/SPS-49 operates in the 851–942 MHz, or L-, band and has a range of 256 nautical miles. The orange-peel parabolic shape of the antenna creates a narrow 3. 3°-beam to reduce the probability of detection or jamming and it can rotate at 6 rpm in long range mode or 12 rpm in short-range mode. Default is at 12 rpm for the AN/SPS-49A1, to more frequent scans against incoming missiles. The SPS-49A1 can detect out to its range at either 6 or 12 rpm. The antenna is stabilised to compensate for pitch and roll. The output stage of the transmitter in all variants uses a two-cavity klystron amplifier, as of 2014, there are eleven configurations of the AN/SPS-49. Added radial speed determination on each target, each scan, improved clutter rejection List of radars Electronics Technician Volume 4-Radar Systems - via Tpub
11.
AN/SPQ-9
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AN/SPQ-9A, is a United States Navy multi-purpose surface search & fire control radar used with the Mk-86 gun fire-control system. It is a two dimensional surface-search radar, meaning it provides only range and bearing but not elevation and it is intended primarily to detect & track targets at sea level, on the surface of the water for either gun fire engagement or navigation. It can however, also detect and track low altitude air targets, the SPQ-9A is being replaced on all Ticonderoga Class cruisers by the SPQ-9B, which provides twice the range and improved range resolution. This replacement is being done as a part of the United States Navys Cruiser Modernization program to extend the life of the existing ships, the new SPQ-9B will be a part of the Mk-160 Mod 11 gun fire-control system. The first operational evaluation of the SPQ-9B was on USS Oldendorf in October 2002 and it is to be installed on CVN-68, LPD-17, CG-47, WMSL-750, LHD-1, and LHA-6 ship classes. The system is X-band and the antenna consists of dual planar arrays mounted back-to-back under a radome, flight III DDG-51 destroyers are also planned to have the SPQ-9B. NAVAIR warfighters encyclopedia, AN/SPQ-9A Fire Controlman Volume 02-Fire Control Radar Fundamentals, via tpub GlobalSecurity. org AN/SPQ-9 Radar
12.
RIM-7 Sea Sparrow
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RIM-7 Sea Sparrow is a US ship-borne short-range anti-aircraft and anti-missile weapon system, primarily intended for defense against anti-ship missiles. In this incarnation it was a simple system, guided by a manually aimed radar illuminator. After its introduction, the system underwent significant development into a system similar to other US Navy missiles like the RIM-2 Terrier. Improvements made to the Sparrow for the role led to similar improvements in the Sea Sparrow through the 1970s and 80s. After that point the role passed to the AIM-120 AMRAAM. It now resembles the AIM-7 only in form, it is larger, faster and includes a new seeker. Fifty years after its development, the Sea Sparrow remains an important part of an air defense system. High-speed jet aircraft flying at low altitudes presented a threat to naval forces in the late 1950s. This gave the aircraft an enormous advantage over earlier weapons such as bombers or torpedo bombers. Further improving the capabilities of aircraft against ships were a variety of precision-guided weapons and these systems allowed the aircraft to launch their attacks from outside the range of shipboard anti-aircraft weapons, in relative safety. Only the presence of defensive fighters operating at long ranges from the ships could provide cover against these attacks, US Navy doctrine stressed long-range air cover to counter both high-speed aircraft and missiles, and development of newer short range defenses had been largely ignored. While the Navy was developing expensive long-range fighters like the Douglas F6D Missileer, most ships were left with older weapons, the introduction of sea-skimming missiles dramatically increased the threat against these ships. Unlike the earlier generation of missiles, sea-skimmers approached at low level, like an attack aircraft. The missiles were relatively small and much harder to hit than an attacking aircraft, while the older defenses might be considered a credible threat to a large aircraft at low altitude or a missile approaching at higher altitudes, against a sea-skimming missile they were useless. The US Army faced a similar problem defending against attacks by high-speed jet-powered attack aircraft, in this case the local horizon was generally even more limited, blocked by trees and hills, and engagement times could be measured in seconds. Missiles, on the hand, could progressively tune their approach while they were flying toward the target. These same basic engagement parameters - high-speed and the associated fleeting sighting times - applied to sea-skimming aircraft, the Navy intended to adapt the Mauler to shipboard use by removing its search radar and wiring it into the existing ship-borne radar systems instead. The 9-box launcher and illuminator radar would be retained in a compact mount
13.
RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile
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It was intended originally and used primarily as a point-defense weapon against anti-ship cruise missiles. The missile is so-named because it rolls around its axis to stabilize its flight path. It is as of 2005 the only U. S. Navy missile to operate in this manner, the Rolling Airframe Missiles, together with the Mk 49 Guided Missile Launching System and support equipment, make up the RAM Mk 31 Guided Missile Weapon System. The Mk-144 Guided Missile Launcher unit weighs 5,777 kilograms, the original weapon cannot employ its own sensors prior to firing so it must be integrated with a ships combat system, which directs the launcher at targets. On American ships it is integrated with the AN/SWY-2 Ship Defense Surface Missile System, SeaRAM, a RAM launcher variant equipped with independent sensors derived from the Vulcan Phalanx CIWS, is being installed on Littoral Combat Ships and Arleigh Burke-class destroyers. The RIM-116 was developed by General Dynamics Pomona and Valley Systems divisions under a July 1976 agreement with Denmark, Denmark dropped out of the program, but the USN joined in as the major partner. The Mk 49 launcher was evaluated on board the destroyer USS David R. Ray in the late 1980s, the first 30 missiles were built in FY85 and they became operational on 14 November 1992, on board USS Peleliu. The RIM-116 is in service on several American and 30 German warships, all new German Navy warships will be equipped with the RAM, such as the new Braunschweig-class corvettes, which will mount two RAM launchers per ship. The Greek Navy has equipped the new Super Vita–class fast attack craft with the RAM, south Korea has signed license-production contracts for their navys KDX-II, KDX-III, and Dokdo-class amphibious assault ship. The U. S. Navy plans to purchase a total of about 1,600 RAMs and 115 launchers to equip 74 ships, the missile is currently active aboard Gerald R. The original version of the missile, called Block 0, was based on the AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missile, whose rocket motor, fuze, and warhead were used. Block 0 missiles were designed to home in on radiation emitted from a target. In test firings, the Block 0 missiles achieved hit rates of over 95%, the Block 1 is an improved version of the RAM missile that adds an overall infrared-only guidance system that enables it to intercept missiles that are not emitting any radar signals. The Block 0s radar homing capabilities have been retained, the RAM Block 2 is an upgraded version of the RAM missile aimed at more effectively countering more maneuverable anti-ship missiles. On 8 May 2007, the US Navy awarded Raytheon Missile Systems a $105 million development contract, Raytheon was scheduled to deliver 25 Block 2 missiles during the programs integrated testing phase. The Block 2 RAM was delivered to the U. S. Navy in August 2014, initial Operational Capability for the Block 2 RAM was achieved on 15 May 2015. As developed, the HAS upgrade just required software modifications that can be applied to all Block 1 RAM missiles, like the Phalanx, SeaRAM can be fitted to any class of ship. In 2008 a SeaRAM system was delivered to be installed on USS Independence, as of December 2013, one SeaRAM is fitted to each Independence-class vessel
14.
Phalanx CIWS
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The Phalanx CIWS is a close-in weapon system for defense against anti-ship missiles. It was designed and manufactured by the General Dynamics Corporation, Pomona Division, a land based variant, known as C-RAM, has recently been deployed in a short range missile defense role, to counter incoming rockets and artillery fire. Because of their distinctive barrel-shaped radome and their nature of operation. The Phalanx Close-In Weapons System was developed as the last line of automated weapons defense against anti-ship missiles and attacking aircraft, including high-g, subsequently, the Phalanx Operational Suitability Model successfully completed its Operational Test and Evaluation on board the destroyer USS Bigelow in 1977. The model exceeded operational maintenance, reliability, and availability specifications, another evaluation successfully followed, and the weapon system was approved for production in 1978. Phalanx production started with orders for 23 USN and 14 foreign military systems, the first ship fully fitted out was the aircraft carrier USS Coral Sea in 1980. The Navy began placing CIWS systems on non-combatant vessels in 1984 and this proven system was combined with a purpose-made mounting, capable of fast elevation and traverse speeds, to track incoming targets. Due to this nature, Phalanx is ideal for support ships. The entire unit has a mass between 12,400 to 13,500 lb, due to the continuing evolution of both threats and computer technology, the Phalanx system has, like most military systems, been developed through a number of different configurations. The basic style is the Block 0, equipped with first-generation, solid-state electronics, the Block 1 upgrade offered various improvements in radar, ammunition, computing power, rate of fire, and an increase in maximum engagement elevation to +70 degrees. These improvements were intended to increase the systems capability against emerging Russian supersonic anti-ship missiles, Block 1A introduced a new computer system to counter more maneuverable targets. The Block 1B PSuM adds a forward-looking infrared sensor to make the weapon effective against surface targets and this addition was developed to provide ship defense against small vessel threats and other floaters in littoral waters and to improve the weapons performance against slower low-flying aircraft. The FLIRs capability is also of use against low-observability missiles and can be linked with the RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile system to increase RAM engagement range, the Block 1B also allows for an operator to visually identify and target threats. As the system manager, the U. S. Navy is in the process of upgrading all their Phalanx systems to the Block 1B configuration. All U. S Navy Phalanx systems are scheduled for upgrade to Block 1B by the end of FY2015, another system upgrade is the Phalanx 1B Baseline 2 radar to improve detection performance, increase reliability, and reduce maintenance. S. Navy Phalanx system-equipped vessels by FY2019, the Block 1B is also used by other navies, such as Canada, Portugal, Japan, Egypt, Bahrain, and the UK. In May 2009, the US Navy awarded a million contract to Raytheon Missile Systems to perform upgrades. The CIWS is designed to be the last line of defense against anti-ship missiles, due to its design criteria, its effective range is very short relative to the range of modern ASMs, from 1 to 5 nautical miles
15.
Classified information
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Classified information is material that a government body claims is sensitive information that requires protection of confidentiality, integrity, or availability. Access is restricted by law or regulation to particular groups of people, a formal security clearance is often required to handle classified documents or access classified data. The clearance process requires a satisfactory background investigation. Documents and other assets are typically marked with one of several levels of sensitivity—e. g. Restricted, confidential, secret and top secret and this often includes security clearances for personnel handling the information. Although classified information refers to the formal categorization and marking of material by level of sensitivity, a distinction is often made between formal security classification and privacy markings such as commercial in confidence. Classifications can be used with additional keywords that give more detailed instructions on how data should be used or protected, with the passage of time much classified information becomes much less sensitive, and may be declassified and made public. Sometimes documents are released with information still considered confidential obscured, as in the example at right, the purpose of classification is to protect information. Higher classifications protect information that might endanger national security, Classification formalises what constitutes a state secret and accords different levels of protection based on the expected damage the information might cause in the wrong hands. However, classified information is leaked to reporters by officials for political purposes. Several U. S. presidents have leaked information to get their point across to the public. Although the classification systems vary from country to country, most have levels corresponding to the following British definitions Top Secret is the highest level of classified information. Information is further compartmented so that specific access using a word after top secret is a legal way to hide collective. Such material would cause exceptionally grave damage to security if made publicly available. The Washington Post reports in an investigation entitled Top Secret America, hold top-secret security clearances in the United States. Secret material would cause damage to national security if it were publicly available. In the United States, operational Secret information can be marked with an additional LIMDIS, Confidential material would cause damage or be prejudicial to national security if publicly available. Restricted material would cause undesirable effects if publicly available, some countries do not have such a classification, in public sectors, such as commercial industries, such a level is also called and known as Private Information
16.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
17.
Naval Station Norfolk
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Naval Station Norfolk, is a United States Navy base in Norfolk, Virginia. It supports naval forces in the United States Fleet Forces Command, those operating in the Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, the installation occupies about 4 miles of waterfront space and 11 miles of pier and wharf space of the Hampton Roads peninsula known as Sewells Point. Over 150,000 passengers and 264,000 tons of mail and cargo depart annually on Air Mobility Command aircraft, the area where the base is located was the site of the original 1907 Jamestown Exposition. In April 1917, not long after the United States entered World War I, a bill was passed for the purchase of the land, and money was set aside in the amount of $1.6 million for the development of the base. The Fifth Naval Headquarters was established along with the Naval Operating Base, by 1918, there were 34,000 enlisted men at the base. However, by the end, the base was reduced in personnel. New facilities were built including new runways for aircraft, part of NAS Norfolk and it also had ramps built to be used by seaplanes to be operated by the navy during the war. About 400 acres was acquired and by 1943, the air station had become an airfield for operations. Due to the expansion, it contributed to ending the war due to the training it provided to air units. On 1 January 1953, the name of the base was changed to Naval Station Norfolk after being known as the NOB. In 1968, the Naval Air Station was given a role in John F. Kennedys vision of putting a man on the moon. The air station became Recovery Control Center Atlantic, which provided command, control, due to the end of the Cold War. A drawdown began in the 1990s, and the navy began reducing shore installations to help with operating cost. Due to this, the navy merged the separate Naval Station and Naval Air Station into an installation to be called Naval Station Norfolk. Following the attack on the USS Cole and September 11,2001 terrorist attacks, the base had some major upgrades to its security gates costing more than $12.5 million. On 26 January 2017, NS Norfolk celebrated its centennial at the Pennsylvania House, Naval Station Norfolk is homeport for the USS Cole, which was the victim of an Al-Qaeda terrorist attack in October 2000 while it was harbored and being refueled in the port of Aden, Yemen. 17 American sailors were killed, and 39 were injured in the attack, the USS Cole remains in active service and remains homeported at Norfolk. On March 24,2014, a shooting at NS Norfolk resulted in the death of a sailor, the shooting occurred around 11,20 p. m. EST aboard the USS Mahan
18.
United States Fleet Forces Command
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The United States Fleet Forces Command is a service component command of the United States Navy that provides naval forces to a wide variety of U. S. forces. The naval resources may be allocated to Combatant Commanders such as United States Northern Command under the authority of the Secretary of Defense. Originally formed as United States Atlantic Fleet in 1906, it has been a part of the defense of the United States of America for most of the 20th century. The command is based at Naval Support Activity Hampton Roads in Norfolk, Northern Command and is a supporting command under the U. S. Strategic Command. The Fleet was a combination of the North Atlantic Fleet and the South Atlantic Squadron, the first commander of the fleet was Rear Admiral Robley D. Evans, who hoisted his flag in the battleship USS Maine on 1 January 1906. In January 1913 the fleet consisted of six divisions, a torpedo flotilla, submarines. The fleet was under the command of Rear Admiral Hugo Osterhaus, the First Division, under Rear Admiral Bradley A. Fiske, consisted of USS Florida, USS Delaware, and USS North Dakota. The Second Division, under Rear Admiral Nathaniel R. Usher with his flag aboard the USS Vermont, consisted of USS Louisiana, USS Michigan, USS New Hampshire, the Third Division, under Rear Admiral Cameron McR. Winslow, comprised USS Virginia, USS Georgia, USS New Jersey, USS Rhode Island, the Fourth Division, under Rear Admiral Frank F. Fletcher, consisted of the USS Minnesota, USS Connecticut, USS Ohio, USS Idaho, and USS Kansas. Fifth and Sixth Divisions were made up of protected cruisers, USS St. Louis, USS Tennessee, USS Washington, and USS Cleveland, USS Denver, USS Des Moines, and USS Tacoma. The Cruiser and Transport Force, under Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves served in Atlantic waters during World War I moving the American Expeditionary Forces to Europe, United States Battleship Division Nine joined the Grand Fleet in the UK. The Atlantic Fleet was reorganized into the Scouting Force in 1923, in January 1939 the Atlantic Squadron, United States Fleet, was formed. The aircraft carrier USS Ranger was transferred to the Atlantic Ocean, Vice Admiral Alfred Wilkinson Johnson commanded the squadron. On 1 November 1940 the Atlantic Squadron was renamed the Patrol Force, the Patrol Force was organized into type commands, Battleships, Patrol Force, Cruisers, Patrol Force, Destroyers, Patrol Force, and, Train, Patrol Force. On 1 February 1941, the Atlantic Fleet was resurrected and organized from the Patrol Force. Along with the Pacific Fleet and Asiatic Fleet, the fleet was to be under the command of a full Admiral, which jumped the fleets commander Ernest J. King from a two-star to a four-star. Subsequently, the headquarters was in an odd assortment of ships, the USS Augusta, then the old wooden ship USS Constellation, USS Vixen. In 1948, the HQ moved into the naval hospital at Norfolk, Virginia
19.
Carrier Strike Group 9
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Carrier Strike Group 9 is a U. S. Navy carrier strike group. Carrier strike groups gain and maintain sea control as well as project naval airpower ashore and it is currently assigned to the U. S. The aircraft carrier USS Theodore Roosevelt is the current flagship. Other group units include Carrier Air Wing Seventeen, the Ticonderoga-class cruisers USS Bunker Hill and USS Cape St. George, the strike group traces its history to Cruiser-Destroyer Group 3, created on 30 June 1973 by the re-designation of Cruiser Destroyer Flotilla 11. From 2004 the strike group has made multiple Middle East deployments providing air forces over Afghanistan and Iraq, the strike group received the Humanitarian Service Medal in recognition of its disaster relief efforts in Indonesia during Operation Unified Assistance in 2004–05. USS Coontz flew the flag of the Commander, Cruiser-Destroyer Flotilla 11 from 1 August to 11 November 1962, effective 30 June 1973, Commander Cruiser Destroyer Flotilla 11 was re-designated as Commander Cruiser-Destroyer Group Three. USS Gridley was part of Cruiser-Destroyer Group Three in 1975, in 1978, the Group directed Destroyer Squadron 7, Destroyer Squadron 17, and Destroyer Squadron 27, all at San Diego. On 10 December 1981, the group embarked on board the aircraft carrier USS Ranger to prepare for its first Carrier Battle Group deployment. Since that date, deployments have been made on the USS Kitty Hawk, USS Enterprise, USS Nimitz, Rear Admiral Jonathan Howe commanded the group in 1984–86. During 1986, Enterprises battle group deployment was directed by Commander Cruiser-Destroyer Group Three, in early 1991, Rear Admiral P. M. Quast, Commander, Cruiser-Destroyer Group Three, led Battle Group Bravo on deployment to the Middle East. In April 1992, the Navy implemented the core battle group concept, from this point each carrier battle group was planned to consist of an aircraft carrier, an embarked carrier air wing, cruisers, destroyers, and frigates, and two nuclear-powered attack submarines. This reorganization set off a round of ship arrivals and reassignments for the group, from April 1992 the group was assigned as permanent Immediate Superior in Command for USS Antietam, USS Arkansas, and USS Vincennes. USS England was assigned to CCDG-3, but was decommissioned in January 1994, in August 1992, USS Carl Vinson and Carrier Air Wing Fourteen were added, and CCDG-3 took on the additional title of Commander, Carl Vinson Battle Group. In October 1992, Surface Squadron 5 was redesignated Destroyer Squadron 5, the addition of USS Cushing, USS Harry W. Hill, USS Fletcher, and USS Reuben James rounded out the Vinson Battle Groups forces. In December 1992, two submarines, USS San Francisco and USS Asheville were added, USS Lake Erie joined the group in March 1993 and USS Russell joined in September 1994. In January 1996, the Carl Vinson Battle Group was redesignated the Carl Vision Task Group, in June 1998 CCDG-3 deployed to the Persian Gulf. The deployment was the first on board the USS Abraham Lincoln, on 20 August 1998, the group took part in Operation Infinite Reach, launching Tomahawk cruise missiles against the Sudanese Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory. This factory was suspected of assisting Osama Bin Laden in making chemical weapons, the Battle Group also launched a second wave of Tomahawk cruise missiles against Bin Ladens terrorist training camps in Afghanistan
20.
Carrier Air Wing Two
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Carrier Air Wing Two is a United States Navy aircraft carrier air wing based at Naval Air Station Lemoore. The air wing is attached to the aircraft carrier USS Carl Vinson, all-weather offensive air-to-surface attacks, Detection, localization, and destruction of enemy ships and submarines to establish and maintain local sea control. Aerial photographic, sighting, and electronic intelligence for naval and joint operations, airborne early warning service to fleet forces and shore warning nets. In-flight refueling operations to extend the range and the endurance of air wing aircraft and Search, CVW-2 consists of 9 Squadrons CVW-2 was established on 1 May 1945 as Carrier Air Group 74, and originally comprised 96 F4U-4/FG-1D Corsairs and 46 SBW-4E Helldivers. CVBG-74 was assigned to the newly commissioned aircraft carrier USS Midway, in March 1946, the air group took part in Operation Frostbite, which tested carrier air operations in Arctic waters. Redesignated CVBG-1 on 15 November 1946, the first true deployment took the Air Group to the Mediterranean Sea from October 1947 to March 1948 aboard Midway, renamed CVG-2 in 1948, the air group made another Mediterranean delployment aboard USS Coral Sea, in 1949. Between 1953 and 1958, CVG-2 made three deployments to the Western Pacific aboard the carriers USS Yorktown, USS Essex, and USS Shangri-La, for the next seven years, CVG-2 was then again assigned the Midway. In 1961, the first A4D-2 Skyhawks came aboard while patrolling the Formosa Straits during tensions between Taiwan and China, in late 1963, the Air Groups first deployment with F-4 Phantoms began, and on 20 December the Air Wing was redesignated Attack Carrier Air Wing Two. The first of seven combat deployments to Southeast Asia began in 1965, CVW-2 was credited with the first three confirmed Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 kills over North Vietnam. In July 1966, the Air Wing marked its first all-Phantom deployment and E-2A Hawkeyes joined the air wing, coordinated carrier operations in the Gulf of Tonkin earned the air wing the Navy Unit Commendation in February 1967. The air wing began an affiliation with USS Ranger during the 1967-68 deployment which lasted until 1993. New A-7A Corsairs and A-6A Intruders made CVW-2 the first all jet Attack Carrier Air Wing, during its last Vietnam deployment, which began in December 1972, CVW-2 introduced laser-guided bombs to Navy combat operations with great success. Strikes by VA-145 destroyed fourteen of fifteen targeted bridges within three hours, CVW-2 made its first peacetime deployment in over twelve years in 1974. CVW-2 was then redesignated Carrier Air Wing Two as part of the CV concept, the Air Wing made its tenth straight deployment aboard Ranger in 1982 before bing reassiged to USS Kitty Hawk for a single deployment in 1984. CVW-2 returned to Ranger in 1987, largely composed of Grumman aircraft, the Grumman Air Wing deployed to the Western Pacific/Indian Ocean in July 1987 flying many Earnest Will escort missions into the Persian Gulf. CVW-2 also flew in support of U. S. military assaults on oil platforms used as staging bases for Iranian militia attacking tankers in the Persian Gulf, from February to August 1989, Ranger/CVW-2 conducted normal patrol operations in the Western Pacific/Indian Ocean. Following that deployment, VMA-121 left CVW-2 and was replaced by VA-155, following Ranger´s decommissioning, CVW-2 was reassigned to USS Constellation in 1993 for the next ten years. 1 April 1997,18 June 1999 and 16 March 2001 marked the beginnings of Western Pacific and Persian Gulf deployments for CVW-2, CVW-2 and the Constellation flew 26 continuous days of combat over Iraq, clearing the way for our ground force advance on Baghdad
21.
Newport News, Virginia
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Newport News is an independent city located in the Commonwealth of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 180,719, in 2013, the population was estimated to be 183,412, making it the fifth-most populous city in Virginia. Newport News is included in the Hampton Roads metropolitan area, the area now known as Newport News was once a part of Warwick County. Warwick County was one of the eight original shires of Virginia, formed by the House of Burgesses in the British Colony of Virginia by order of King Charles I, the county was largely composed of farms and undeveloped land until almost 250 years later. In 1881,15 years of development began under the leadership of Collis P. With the new railroad came a terminal and coal piers where the colliers were loaded, within a few years, Huntington and his associates also built a large shipyard. In 1896, the new incorporated town of Newport News, which had briefly replaced Denbigh as the county seat of Warwick County, had a population of 9,000. In 1958, by mutual consent by referendum, Newport News was consolidated with the former Warwick County, the more widely known name of Newport News was selected as they formed what was then Virginias third largest independent city in population. The location on the harbor and along the James River facilitates a large boating industry which can take advantage of its miles of waterfront. Newport News also serves as a junction between the rails and the sea with the Newport News Marine Terminals located at the East End of the city. Served by major east-west Interstate Highway 64, it is linked to others of the cities of Hampton Roads by the circumferential Hampton Roads Beltway, part of the Newport News/Williamsburg International Airport is in the city limits. The original area near the mouth of the James River was first referred to as Newportes Newes as early as 1621, the source of the name Newport News is not known with certainty. Several versions are recorded, and it is the subject of popular speculation locally, the new governor ordered them to turn around, and return to Jamestown. Under this theory, the community was named for Newports good news, another possibility is that the community may have derived its name from an old English word news meaning new town. At least one source claims that the New arose from the settlements being rebuilt after a fire. Another source gave the name as New Port Newce, named for a person with the name Newce. The namesake, Sir William Newce, was an English soldier, there he had established Newcestown near Bandon, County Cork. He sailed to Virginia with Sir Francis Wyatt in October 1621 and was granted 2,500 acres of land and his brother, Capt. Thomas Newce, was given 600 acres at Kequatan, now called Elizabeth Cittie
22.
Ceremonial ship launching
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Ceremonial ship launching is the process of transferring a vessel to the water. It is a tradition in many cultures, dating back thousands of years. It has been observed as a celebration and a solemn blessing. The process also involves many traditions intended to invite good luck, such as christening by breaking a bottle of champagne over the bow as the ship is named aloud. There are three methods of conveying a new ship from building site to water, only two of which are called launching. The oldest, most familiar, and most widely used is the launch, in which the vessel slides down an inclined slipway. With the side launch, the ship enters the water broadside and this method came into use in the 19th-century on inland waters, rivers, and lakes, and was more widely adopted during World War II. The third method is float-out, used for ships that are built in basins or dry docks and then floated by admitting water into the dock. In all cases, heavy chains are attached to the ship, normally, ways are arranged perpendicular to the shore line and the ship is built with its stern facing the water. The barricades support the two launch ways, the vessel is built upon temporary cribbing that is arranged to give access to the hulls outer bottom and to allow the launchways to be erected under the complete hull. When it is time to prepare for launching, a pair of standing ways is erected under the hull, the surface of the ways is greased. A pair of sliding ways is placed on top, under the hull, the weight of the hull is then transferred from the build cribbing onto the launch cradle. On launching, the vessel slides backwards down the slipway on the ways until it floats by itself, some slipways are built so that the vessel is side-on to the water and is launched sideways. This is done where the limitations of the channel would not allow lengthwise launching. The Great Eastern designed by Brunel was built this way as were many landing craft during World War II and this method requires many more sets of ways to support the weight of the ship. Sometimes ships are launched using a series of inflated tubes underneath the hull and this procedure has the advantages of requiring less permanent infrastructure, risk, and cost. The airbags provide support to the hull of the ship and aid its launching motion into the water and these airbags are usually cylindrical in shape with hemispherical heads at both ends. The Xiao Qinghe shipyard launched a tank barge with marine airbags on January 20,1981, egyptians, Greeks, and Romans called on their gods to protect seamen
23.
Ship commissioning
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Ship commissioning is the act or ceremony of placing a ship in active service, and may be regarded as a particular application of the general concepts and practices of project commissioning. The term is most commonly applied to the placing of a warship in active duty with its countrys military forces, the ceremonies involved are often rooted in centuries old naval tradition. Ship naming and launching endow a ship hull with her identity, the engineering plant, weapon and electronic systems, galley, and multitudinous other equipment required to transform the new hull into an operating and habitable warship are installed and tested. The prospective commanding officer, ships officers, the petty officers, prior to commissioning, the new ship undergoes sea trials to identify any deficiencies needing correction. USS Monitor, of American Civil War fame, was commissioned less than three weeks after launch, regardless of the type of ship in question, a vessels journey towards commissioning in its nations navy begins with process known as sea trials. Sea trials begin when the ship in question is floated out of its dry dock, after a ship has successfully cleared its sea trial period, it will officially be accepted into service with its nations navy. At this point, the ship in question will undergo a process of degaussing and/or deperming, once a ships sea trials are successfully completed plans for the actual commissioning ceremony will take shape. If the ships ceremony is an affair the Captain may make a speech to the audience. Religious ceremonies, such as blessing the ship or the singing of hymns or songs. Once a ship has been commissioned its final step toward becoming a unit of the navy it now serves is to report to its home port. To decommission a ship is to terminate its career in service in the forces of a nation. Decommissioning of the vessel may also occur due to treaty agreements or for safety reasons, vessels preserved in this manner typically do not relinquish their names to other, more modern ships that may be in the design, planning, or construction phase of the parent nations navy. Prior to its decommissioning, the ship in question will begin the process of decommissioning by going through a preliminary step called inactivation or deactivation. The removed material from a ship usually ends up either rotating to another ship in the class with similar weapons and/or capabilities, or in storage pending a decision on equipments fate. During this time a crew may be thinned out via transfers. When a ship finishes its inactivation, it is then formally decommissioned, often, but not always, ships that are decommissioned end up spending the next few years in a reserve fleet before their ultimate fate is decided. Commissioning in the early United States Navy under sail was attended by no ceremony, thus, the ship was placed in commission. Commissionings were not public affairs, and unlike christening-and-launching ceremonies, were not recorded by newspapers, the first specific reference to commissioning located in naval records is a letter of November 6,1863, from Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles to all navy yards and stations
24.
Gringo-Gaucho
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Gringo-Gaucho are a set of maneuvers performed between the Argentine Naval Aviation and United States Navys aircraft carriers. The US Navy refers to them as Southern Seas in their last edition, the Argentine Navy continuously operated an aircraft carrier from 1959 to 1990. When ARA Veinticinco de Mayo was retired, it was decided to keep an embarked air group with the hope of operating a carrier again in the future, the only other choice available was with the United States. The opportunities occur when the ships perform a transit around South America to move between the East and West coasts of the United States since they are too large for the Panama Canal. The exercise is coordinated by US Naval Forces Southern Command and unlike with the Sao Paulo the Argentine aircraft perform touch-and-go landings only and do not fully embark on the carriers. Cancelled due budget restrictions per Argentine economic crisis 2004, USS Ronald Reaganvideo 2008, USS George Washington 2010, USS Carl Vinsonvideo South America air forces maneuvers
25.
Argentine Naval Aviation
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The Argentine Naval Aviation is the naval aviation branch of the Argentine Navy and one of its four operational commands. COANs origin trace back to 22 October 1912 when an officer, Lt Melchor Escola. On 11 February 1916 the naval air station school Fuerte Barragan was created near La Plata, in September 1917 three naval lieutenants were sent to the US Naval Air Station Pensacola from where were deployed to Europe to participate in World War I. COAN was officially established on 17 October 1919 as the Naval Air Service, sikorsky S-51 helicopters joined the service shortly after the war in 1949. The COAN received a baptism by fire on 16 June 1955 when naval airplanes, painted with crosses and blessed by priests. One of the aircraft was shot down by an air force Gloster Meteor. A great change came into effect when the Navy received its first aircraft carrier the ARA Independencia in 1959, at the time, her aircraft inventory included the F4U Corsair, SNJ-5Cs Texan and Grumman S2F-1 Trackers. The Navy also had F9F Panther and F9F Cougar jets but the carrier was not suitable for operating them although they were embarked during their voyage from the United States to Argentina. The Cougar was the first jet to break the barrier in Argentina. These jets would be involved in the general mobilization during the 1965 border dispute between Argentina and Chile but no combat occurred, the naval training force received T-28 Trojans, T-34 Mentors and Aermacchi MB-326 jets which would be later reinforced with the most powerful variant MB-339. In 1969 the Navy received her second carrier, the ARA25 de Mayo from the Netherlands, on her voyage home, the British company Hawker Siddeley demonstrated its Harrier GR1 but the Argentines finally opted for the A-4Q Skyhawk instead. More helicopters were incorporated into the new carrier, the Alouette III, cargo planes Fokker F-28 and L-188 Electra modified for maritime patrol were also added. The 1970s surface fleet modernization plan included the purchase of British destroyers with their complement of Westland Sea Lynx helicopters, in 1976, a Military Junta took power in Argentina and initiated a state-sponsored campaign of violence known as the Dirty War. Naval aviators were used to political prisoners into the River Plate. In 1978, tension with Chile reached the highest point when the Argentine junta initiated Operation Soberanía, the war was avoided at the last minute by the intervention of pope John Paul II. The older A-4Qs also had a role destroying HMS Ardent, on the eve of war the Argentine carrier ARA Veinticinco de Mayo attempted to launch a wave of A-4Q Skyhawk jets against the Royal Navy Task Force after her S-2 Trackers detected the British fleet. During the war the last two SP-2H Neptunes were retired due to attrition and replaced with two leased Brazilian EMB111 Bandeirantes. Four naval aviators died in the war, fourteen aircraft were lost, to various causes
26.
USS Doyle (FFG-39)
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USS Doyle was the 30th ship to be constructed in the Oliver Hazard Perry class of guided missile frigates of the United States Navy. Doyle was named after Vice Admiral James Henry Doyle, Vice Admiral Doyle was most known for his contributions during the Korean War as Commander Amphibious Group One. The ship was in service from 21 May 1983 to 29 July 2011, during her 28 years of service, Doyle went on at least six deployments to the Mediterranean Sea and two deployments to the Persian Gulf, including participation in Operation Earnest Will. The ship also operated in the Black Sea, Baltic Sea, Doyle took part in UNITAS 39-98. Deployed to the Standing Naval Forces Atlantic, and conducted three Southern Command Deployments and her keel was laid down by Bath Iron Works Corporation of Bath, Maine, on 23 October 1981. She was launched on 22 May 1982, sponsored by Mrs. Kathleen Doyle Watson and Ms. Anne Doyle, Doyle was commissioned on 21 May 1983. Doyle deployed with the Nimitz Battle Group for Med 1-87 to the Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean from 30 December 1986 –30 June 1987. From 24 February to 3 March 1987, Doyle sailed in company with guided missile cruiser Josephus Daniels through the Turkish Straits, on 1 March 1987, a Bulgarian (Druzki-class frigate trailed the U. S. ships, and the Soviets closely monitored their operations in the Black Sea. Doyle conducted surveillance of Soviet ships and submarines at an anchorage at Astypalaia, there were more significant incidents in adjacent years,1986 Black Sea incident and 1988 Black Sea bumping incident. The smugglers set their boat ablaze and jumped overboard, Doyle launched Cutlass 463 and made for the scene at flank speed. She lowered a rigid inflatable boat that rescued four of the smugglers. The ship’s damage control sailors, reinforced by Coast Guard law enforcement agents, boarded Dos Continentes and recovered several packages containing 150 pounds of cocaine from the hulk. Doyle prevented an estimated 13 tons of cocaine entering the United States during this interception. The frigate made a total of five interdictions during her deployment that led to the apprehension of 28 narco-terrorists, on 6 October 2005, Doyle returned from a six month deployment.4 million, in the Eastern Pacific about 180 miles from Panama. On 5 April 2011, Doyle returned from her final deployment, Doyle was decommissioned at Naval Station Mayport on 29 July 2011 after completing 27 years of service. On 15 December 2014 DLA Disposition Services awarded a contract to ESCO Marine of Brownsville. As of August 2015, the ship remained in Philadelphia, the shield contained an Azure lion rampant with fishtail and grasping a trident point up argent. Dark blue and gold are traditionally used by the Navy and represent the sea
27.
USS Pawcatuck (AO-108)
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She was the only United States Navy ship to bear the name Pawcatuck. USS Pawcatuck was laid down under Maritime Commission contract on 22 March 1945 as Maritime Commission hull 2704 by Sun Shipbuilding and Drydock Company, Chester, Pennsylvania. She was launched on 19 February 1946, sponsored by Miss Nancy Gatch, in the summer of 1947, she joined the United States Sixth Fleet, operating in the Mediterranean Sea for her first overseas tour. From 1948 to 1961, Pawcatuck operated on a schedule between the United States Atlantic Fleet and the Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean, participating in U. S. She supported American forces during the Lebanon Crisis of 1958, in November 1961, she sailed for her first North Atlantic deployment and operated with Antisubmarine Warfare Carrier Task Group 83.3 until February 1962. In November 1962 she deployed to the Caribbean for support to U. S. Navy units involved in the Cuban Missile Crisis blockade effort. She spent early 1963 in Boston, Massachusetts, for overhaul, during 1964 Pawcatuck operated with the Atlantic Fleet performing logistic services and conducting training exercises. In January 1965 she sailed to the Caribbean, where she made port calls and provided support and she returned to Norfolk, Virginia, for most of March and April 1965. On 12 June 1965 she sailed for Northern European waters and, with other units, upon returning to the United States on 23 July 1965, she prepared to enter the yards for an extensive jumboization conversion, with preliminary work conducted at Boston, Massachusetts. She then steamed up the St. Lawrence River and put into the yards of the American Shipbuilding Company at Lorain, Ohio, on 14 September 1965. Pawcatuck spent the rest of 1965 and all of 1966 undergoing conversion, during which her overall length was increased to 644 feet, her draft to 35 feet 9 inches, and her displacement to 35,000 tons. This operation took five days and she sailed to her home port at Mayport, Florida. On 29 January 1968, Pawcatuck deployed to the Mediterranean and serviced over 300 ships of the U. S, Sixth Fleet and NATO allies while participating in exercises Fairgame IV, Dawn Patrol, and Flapex and in many smaller fleet exercises. She returned to Mayport on 6 August 1968 and spent the part of the year servicing units of the recovery force for the Apollo 7 space mission. During January and February 1969, Pawcatuck made preparations for another Mediterranean deployment, Pawcatuck remained in active, commissioned U. S. Navy service until 1975, but the details of her career between 1969 and 1975 await further research. As of May 1972, Pawcatuck was still home ported in Mayport, toward the end of 1972 She went on a North Atlantic Cruise going to Holy Loch Scotland, Copenhagen, Rotterdam, Kristiansund Norway, Hamburg Germany and Back to Scotland. Pawcatuck was decommissioned on 15 July 1975 and transferred to the Military Sealift Command and she was sold for scrapping to Bay Bridge Enterprises on 21 September 2005. On 19 October 2005, she was removed from the National Defense Reserve Fleet and towed to Chesapeake, Virginia and this article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships
28.
Pacific Ocean
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The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
29.
Gulf War
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The Iraqi Armys occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. US President George H. W. Bush deployed US forces into Saudi Arabia, an array of nations joined the coalition, the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the military forces were from the US, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost, the war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the US network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board US bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991 and this was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a victory for the coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait. The coalition ceased its advance, and declared a ceasefire 100 hours after the campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel. The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself, Gulf War, a problem with these terms is that the usage is ambiguous, having now been applied to at least three conflicts, see Gulf War. The use of the term Persian Gulf is also disputed, see Persian Gulf naming dispute, with no consensus of naming, various publications have attempted to refine the name. Other language terms include French, la Guerre du Golfe and German, Golfkrieg, German, Zweiter Golfkrieg, French, most of the coalition states used various names for their operations and the wars operational phases. Operation Desert Storm was the US name of the conflict from 17 January 1991. Operation Desert Sabre was the US name for the offensive against the Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations from 24–28 February 1991, in itself. Operation Desert Farewell was the given to the return of US units and equipment to the US in 1991 after Kuwaits liberation. Operation Granby was the British name for British military activities during the operations, Opération Daguet was the French name for French military activities in the conflict. Operation Friction was the name of the Canadian operations Operazione Locusta was the Italian name for the operations, in addition, various phases of each operation may have a unique operational name. The US divided the conflict into three campaigns, Defense of Saudi Arabian country for the period 2 August 1990, through 16 January 1991
30.
Carrier Strike Group 3
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Carrier Strike Group 3 is a U. S. Navy carrier strike group. Carrier strike groups gain and maintain sea control as well as project naval airpower ashore, the aircraft carrier USS John C. Stennis is the groups current flagship. Other units assigned include Carrier Air Wing Nine, the Ticonderoga-class cruisers USS Mobile Bay and USS Antietam, between 2005 and 2013, the group made five deployments to the U. S. Fifth Fleet supporting U. S. ground forces in Iraq, on 18 December 2011, strike group aircraft flew the final carrier-based air mission over Iraq, effectively ending U. S. naval support for Operation New Dawn. The aircraft carrier Wasp was assigned to Carrier Division Three from November 1940, in April 1941 a Central Atlantic Neutrality Patrol was established under Admiral A. B. Cook, based at Bermuda. It comprised Carrier Division Three, the cruisers Quincy and Vincennes, on 7 December 1941, in the Atlantic Fleet, Carrier Division Three comprises Wasp and Ranger under Rear Admiral A. B. Cook. Commander Carrier Division Three served as Commander Task Force 77 during the Korean War, in 1966, Carrier Division Three was embarked aboard USS Enterprise flying missions in the Gulf of Tonkin off Vietnam. On 30 June 1973, Carrier Division 3 was redesignated Carrier Group 3, on returning home, the cycle begins once more. From 1989 to 1991, USS Carl Vinson served as the flagship for Carrier Group 3, during this period, Carrier Group 3 was one of three battle groups that took part in PACEX89. Seventh Fleet was deployed to Bahrain in order to serve as Commander, since ComUSNAVCENT operated from onboard ship, he established NAVCENT-Riyadh as a staff organization to provide continuous Navy representation at United States Central Command headquarters. This mission was assigned initially to Commander, Carrier Group Three, during succeeding months, the NAVCENT-Riyadh staff was augmented substantially but remained small, relative to the United States Army Central and CENTAF staffs. In November, the NAVCENT-Riyadh command was transferred from COMCARGRU3 to Commander, Cruiser-Destroyer Group 5 and this change resulted in the Navy flag officer at NAVCENT Riyadhs remaining relatively junior to other Service representatives, particularly the Air Force. In the middle of 1992, the U. S. Navy made some organizational changes, the chart below shows the ships and aircraft of the group after the reorganization. Carrier Group Three, late 1992 From June 1993, Commander Carrier Group 3 had his flag aboard Abraham Lincoln, on 13 May 1997 Carrier Air Wing Eleven was reassigned to Commander, Carrier Group 3 and the USS Carl Vinson. Carrier Group 3 formed the core of the power during the initial phase of Operation Enduring Freedom in 2001. At the time the group comprised USS Carl Vinson, Destroyer Squadron 9, the Task Force conducted strikes against Al Quida and Taliban forces in Afghanistan. Task Force 50 comprised over 59 ships from six nations including six aircraft carriers, Rear Admiral Evan M. Chanik was the last commander of Carrier Group 3. During his tenure, Admiral Chanik led the group through a reorganized Inter-Deployment Training Cycle which greatly compressed the training required for overseas deployment, on 1 October 2004, Carrier Group Three was redesignated as Carrier Strike Group Three
31.
Carrier Air Wing Eleven
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Carrier Air Wing Eleven is a United States Navy aircraft carrier air wing based at Naval Air Station Lemoore, California. The air wing is attached to the aircraft carrier USS Nimitz, all-weather offensive air-to-surface attacks, Detection, localization, and destruction of enemy ships and submarines to establish and maintain local sea control. Aerial photographic, sighting, and electronic intelligence for naval and joint operations, airborne early warning service to fleet forces and shore warning nets. In-flight refueling operations to extend the range and the endurance of air wing aircraft and Search, CVW-11 consists of 9 Squadrons Carrier Air Wing Eleven was previously known as Carrier Air Group Eleven. On 10 October 1942 at Naval Air Station San Diego, four squadrons joined together to form Carrier Air Group Eleven, Bombing Squadron Eleven, Fighting Squadron Eleven, Scouting Squadron Eleven and Torpedo Squadron Eleven. In late October the entire air group was sent to Hawaii, VB-11, VS-11 and VT-11 were stationed at NAS Barbers Point on Oahu and VF-11 was sent to NAS Maui. While at Maui, the pilots of VF-11 trained and enjoyed the hospitality of the von Tempsky ranch, boyd, Maria and Alexa von Tempsky made sure VF-11 had a place to relax when they were not flying. In February 1943 the Air Group embarked on the USS Altamaha, CVG-11 continued to train and fly simulated combat missions. By the time CVG-11 arrived in the Pacific combat zone only one carrier was operational. This meant the entire air group would be based at Guadalcanal. On 25 April 1943 CVG-11 arrived at Guadalcanal, VF-11 would fly from Lunga Point, known as Fighter One. The pilots of VF-11 would set out on escort missions providing cover for the Bombing, in addition, the Sundowners as VF-11 is known, searched for and destroyed Japanese aircraft operating in the region. It was during this time that VS-11 was re-designated to VB-21, the remainder of the air group would fly from Henderson Field. The bomber and torpedo planes conducted patrol, search, spotting, strike, on 8 June 1943 the Air Group suffered a great loss. The men of VT-11 were granted a leave to Australia, while leaving New Caledonia, one of the three transport planes crashed killing all 24 men on board. Included in the casualties were Air Group Commander Weldon L. Hamilton and 16 pilots, on 16 June 1943 twenty eight pilots of VF-11 engaged an estimated 120 Japanese planes and shot down 31. On 1 August 1943 CVG-11 left Guadalcanal and boarded the USS Chenango, USS St. Louis and they arrived back at NAS Alameda two weeks later. Upon return to the US, CVG-11 trained for their next assignment, three air groups flew into combat on board the USS Hornet during WWII
32.
Mount Pinatubo
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Its eruptive history was unknown to most before the pre-eruption volcanic activities of 1991, just before June. Pinatubo was heavily eroded, inconspicuous and obscured from view and it was covered with dense forests which supported a population of several thousand indigenous Aetas. The volcanos Ultra Plinian eruption on June 15,1991 produced the second-largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century after the 1912 eruption of Novarupta in the Alaska Peninsula. Complicating the eruption was the arrival of Typhoon Yunya, bringing a lethal mix of ash and rain to towns. Predictions at the onset of the eruption led to the evacuation of tens of thousands of people from the surrounding areas. Surrounding areas were damaged by pyroclastic surges, ash falls. This caused extensive destruction to infrastructure and changed river systems for years after the eruption, the effects of the eruption were felt worldwide. It ejected roughly 10,000,000,000 tonnes or 10 km3 of magma and it injected more particulate into the stratosphere than any eruption since Krakatoa in 1883. Over the following months, the aerosols formed a layer of sulfuric acid haze. Global temperatures dropped by about 0.5 °C in the years 1991–93, the volcano is 87 km northwest of Manila, the capital of the Philippines. Near Mount Pinatubo, the United States maintained two military bases in the region. The U. S. Naval Base Subic Bay was 37 km south of Pinatubo, the volcano is near to about 6 million people. It is part of a chain of volcanoes lie along the western side of the edge of the island of Luzon called the Zambales Mountains. Pinatubo belongs to the Cabusilan sub-range of the Zambales Mountains, which consists of Mt. Cuadrado, Mt. Negron, Mt. Mataba and they are subduction volcanoes, formed by the Eurasian Plate sliding under the Philippine Mobile Belt along the Manila Trench to the west. Mount Pinatubo and the volcanoes on this volcanic belt arise due to magmatic occlusion from this subduction plate boundary. Pinatubo is flanked on the west by the Zambales Ophiolite Complex, the Tarlac Formation north, east and southeast of Pinatubo consists of marine, nonmarine and volcanoclastic sediments formed in the late Miocene and Pliocene. He recognized two life histories of the mountain, which he classified as ancestral and modern Pinatubo, activity of Ancestral Pinatubo seems to have begun about 1.1 million years ago and probably ended tens of thousands of years or more before the birth of Modern Pinatubo. Much of the land around the present volcano consists of remnants of ancestral Pinatubo
33.
Luzon
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Luzon (/luːˈzɒn/, Tagalog pronunciation, is the largest and most populous island in the Philippines. It is ranked 15th largest in the world, with a population of 52.99 million as of 2015, it is the fourth most populous island in the world, containing about 53% of the countrys total population. Luzon may also refer to one of the three island groups in the country. The name Luzon is thought to derive from the Tagalog word lusong, from just before the first millennium, the Tagalog and Kapampangan peoples of south and central Luzon had established several Indianized kingdoms, notably among them those of Tundok and Namayan. The Laguna Copperplate Inscription, the first Philippine document written in 900AD, names places in and these kingdoms were based on leases between village rulers and landlords or Rajahs, to whom tributes and taxes were levied. These kingdoms were coastal thalassocracies based on trade with neighboring Asian political entities at that time, some parts of Luzon were Islamized when the Sultanate of Brunei expanded its realms from Borneo to the Philippines and set up the Kingdom of Maynila as its puppet-state. In addition, other kingdoms like the Wangdom of Pangasinan had become tributary states to China and were largely Sinified kingdoms, certain kilns were renowned over others and prices depended on the reputation of the kiln. Of this flourishing trade, the Burnay jars of Ilocos are the large clay jar manufactured in Luzon today with origins from this time. The Yongle Emperor instituted a Chinese Governor on Luzon during Zheng Hes voyages, China also had vassals among the leaders in the archipelago. China attained ascendancy in trade with the area in Yongles reign, in the 1500s, people from Luzon were called Lucoes and were actively employed in trading, seafaring and military campaigns across Southeast Asia. The Portuguese were the first European explorers who recorded it in their charts as Luçonia or Luçon, edmund Roberts, who visited Luzon in the early 19th century, wrote that Luzon was discovered in 1521. Many people from Luzon had active-employment in Portuguese Malacca and his father and wife carried on his maritime trading business after his death. Another important Malacca trader was Curia de Raja who also hailed from Luzon, the surname of de Raja or diraja could indicate that Regimo and Curia, and their families, were of noble or royal descent as the term is an abbreviation of Sanskrit adiraja. Pinto noted that there were a number of Lucoes in the Islamic fleets that went to battle with the Portuguese in the Philippines during the 16th century, the Sultan of Aceh gave one of them the task of holding Aru in 1540. Pinto also says one was named leader of the Malays remaining in the Moluccas Islands after the Portuguese conquest in 1511, pigafetta notes that one of them was in command of the Brunei fleet in 1521. However, the Luções did not only fight on the side of the Muslims, pinto says they were also apparently among the natives of the Philippines who fought the Muslims in 1538. On Mainland Southeast Asia, Lusung/Lucoes warriors aided the Burmese king in his invasion of Siam in 1547 AD, at the same time, Lusung warriors fought alongside the Siamese king and faced the same elephant army of the Burmese king in the defence of the Siamese capital at Ayuthaya. Scholars have thus suggested that they could be valued by all sides
34.
Operation Fiery Vigil
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This noncombatant evacuation operation resulted in the transfer of roughly 20,000 people from Clark Air Base and U. S. Naval Base Subic Bay back to CONUS, by way of Cebu, Philippines. The Commanding General, 13th USAF, was in command of the Joint Task Force,16 July 1990, a magnitude 7.8 earthquake struck the island of Luzon, Philippines. The epicenter was near the town of Rizal, Nueva Ecija and this earthquake caused a landslide, some local tremors, and a brief increase in steam emissions from a preexisting geothermal area at Mount Pinatubo. Thousands of small earthquakes occurred beneath Pinatubo, and many thousands of tons of sulfur dioxide gas were emitted by the volcano,7 June 1991, the first magmatic eruptions took place, resulting in the formation of a 660 feet high lava dome at the summit of the volcano. This land evacuation brought an estimated 15,000 personnel and several vehicles onto U. S. Naval Base Subic Bay. 12–14 June 1991, several waves of eruptions generated eruption columns up to 80,000 feet in altitude and these eruptions were accompanied by nearly continuous seismic activity and expulsion of huge quantities of ash, tephra, and volcanic bombs. 15 June 1991, the eruption of Mount Pinatubo occurred, sending ash. Clark Air Base and Subic Bay Naval Station, the two largest U. S. military bases in the Philippines, were damaged by ash from this volcanic eruption. Nearly one foot of ash accumulated on both Clark Air Base and U. S. Naval Base Subic Bay, many buildings collapsed under the weight of the accumulated ash, and all flight operations were suspended at both bases for many days or even weeks afterwards. The 1991 Plinian/Ultra-Plinian eruption of Mount Pinatubo was the second largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century, the eruption produced high-speed pyroclastic flows, giant lahars, and a cloud of volcanic ash hundreds of miles across. 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide and roughly 11 cubic kilometers of tephra are estimated to have been ejected in total, by contrast, roughly 4 km3 of material was ejected in the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, this corresponds to a VEI of 5. Very few of the estimated 20,000 who left the base ever returned, the vast majority were evacuated to Andersen Air Force Base, Guam and processed for return to the continental United States. 12 July 1991, the United States Secretary of the Air Force announced that the U. S. Air Force would leave the Philippines no later than 16 September 1992. 4 September 1991, a lahar,20 feet to 40 feet high and almost 200 feet wide, smashed along the boundary of Clark Air Base. 5 November 1991, the Secretary of the Air Force visited Clark Air Base and paid tribute to the Ash Warriors, the personnel who had remained throughout the volcanic activity and cleanup
35.
U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay
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Naval Base Subic Bay was a major ship-repair, supply, and rest and recreation facility of the Spanish Navy and subsequently the United States Navy located in Olongapo, Zambales, Philippines. The base was 262 square miles, about the size of Singapore, the Navy Exchange had the largest volume of sales of any exchange in the world, and the Naval Supply Depot handled the largest volume of fuel oil of any navy facility in the world. The naval base was the largest overseas military installation of the United States Armed Forces after Clark Air Base in Angeles City was closed in 1991, following its closure in 1992, it was transformed into the Subic Bay Freeport Zone by the Philippine government. Therefore, an expedition was sent to Subic Bay in 1868 with orders to survey the bay to find out if it would be a suitable site for a naval yard. The Spanish explored the bay and concluded that it had much promise. This report was not well-accepted in Manila, as the Spanish command was reluctant to move to the isolation of Subic. Finally, in 1884, a Royal Decree declared Subic Bay as a naval port, on March 8,1885, the Spanish Navy authorized construction of the Arsenal de Olongapo and by the following September, work started at Olongapo. Both the harbor and its basin were dredged and a drainage canal was built, as the Spanish military authorities were planning to make Olongapo. This canal also served as a line of defense and over which the bridge at the bases Main Gate passes, when the Arsenal was finished, the gunboats Caviteño, Santa Ana, and San Quintín were assigned for its defense. To complement these gunboats, coastal artilleries were planned for the east and west ends of the station, seawalls, causeways and a short railway were built across the swampy tidal flats. To finish these projects, thousands of tons of earth and rock from Kalalake in Olongapo had to be brought in to be used as fill. The magnitude of this quarrying was so huge that a hill eventually disappeared, the main entrance to the Arsenal was the West Gate, which still stands. This gate was equipped with gunports and also served as a jail and this gate was connected to the South Gate, which was near the water front, by a high wall of locally quarried stone. Inside the Arsenal, the Spanish constructed a foundry, as well as other shops, which were necessary for the construction and repair of ships. The buildings were laid out in two rows on Rivera Point, a patch of land jutting into the bay, and named after the incumbent Captain-General of the Philippines. The Arsenals showpiece was the station headquarters, which was a one-storey building of molave and narra woods. The Spanish navy yard was constructed in the area that was last occupied by the U. S. Naval Ship Repair Facility and his other units would then use Subic Bay as a sally port, with which he could attack the American fleets rear and cut off its supplies. On April 26, Montojo arrived at Subic Bay aboard Reina Cristina with seven other ships, on the morning of the April 27, Castilla was towed northeast of Grande Island to help control the western entrance to Subic Bay
36.
Cebu City
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Cebu City, officially the City of Cebu, is the capital city of the province of Cebu in Central Visayas and is the second city of the Philippines after Manila. In the 2016 electoral roll, it had 630,003 registered voters, Cebu City is a significant center of commerce, trade and education in the Visayas. The city is located on the side of Cebu island. It is the first Spanish settlement, the countrys oldest city, and it is considered as the Fount of Christianity in the Far East. Cebu is the Philippines main domestic shipping port and is home to about 80% of the countrys shipping companies. Across Mactan Strait to the east is Mactan Island, Metro Cebu has a total population of 2,849,213 as of 2015, making it the second most-populous metropolitan area of the nation after Metro Manila in Luzon. The name Cebu came from the old Cebuano word sibu or sibo and it was originally applied to the harbors of the town of Sugbu, the ancient name for Cebu City. Sugbu, in turn, was derived from the Old Cebuano term for scorched earth or great fire, before the arrival of the Spaniards, Cebu city was part of the island-rajahnate and trade center of Pulua Kang Dayang or Kangdaya, now better known as the Rajahnate of Cebu. It was founded by a prince of the Hindu Chola dynasty of Sumatra, the name Sugbu refers to Sri Lumays scorched earth tactics against Muslim Moro raiders. On 7 April 1521, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan landed in Cebu and he was welcomed by Rajah Humabon, the grandson of Sri Lumay, together with his wife and about 700 native islanders. Magellan, however, was killed in the Battle of Mactan, the last ruler of Sugbu, prior to Spanish colonization, was Rajah Humabons nephew, Rajah Tupas. They Christianized some natives and Spanish remnants in Cebu, the Spanish arrived in Cebu on 15 April 1565. They then attempted to parley with the ruler, Rajah Tupas, but found that he. Rajah Tupas presented himself at their camp on 8 May, feast of the Apparition of Saint Michael the Archangel, the Treaty of Cebu was formalized on 3 July 1565. López de Legazpis party named the new city Villa de San Miguel de Cebú, in 1567 the Cebu garrison was reinforced with the arrival of 2,100 soldiers from New Spain. The growing colony was then fortified by Fort San Pedro, by 1569 the Spanish settlement in Cebu had become important as a safe port for ships from Mexico and as a jumping-off point for further exploration of the archipelago. Small expeditions led by Juan de Salcedo went to Mindoro and Luzon, one year later, López de Legazpi departed Cebu to discuss a peace pact with the defeated Rajahs. On 14 August 1595, Pope Clement VIII created the diocese of Cebu as a suffragan to the Archdiocese of Manila
37.
Visayas
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The Visayas /vᵻˈsaɪəz/ və-SY-əz or the Visayan Islands, is one of the three principal geographical divisions of the Philippines, along with Luzon and Mindanao. It consists of islands, primarily surrounding the Visayan Sea. Its inhabitants are predominantly the Visayan people, the major islands of the Visayas are Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol, Leyte and Samar. There are four regions in the Visayas, Western Visayas, Negros Island Region, Central Visayas. The term Visayas was derived from the name of the 7th-century thalassocratic Srivijaya Empire in Sumatra, in Sanskrit, sri means fortunate, prosperous, or happy and vijaya means victorious or excellence. Sulu Archipelago and the Visayas Islands were once Buddhist and Hindu and were subject states or tributaries of the empire. The early people in the Visayas region were the Austronesians and Negritos who migrated to the islands about 6,000 to 30,000 years ago and these early settlers were animist tribal groups. In the 12th century, settlers from the collapsing Hindu-Buddhist Srivijaya Empire led by Datu Putih and his retinue, settled in the island of Panay and it was also during the 12th century that Visayans are said to have made a series of raids along the coast of China. They were said to have a reputation, and the mention of their name would cause many to flee in terror. By the 14th century, Arab traders and their followers, venturing into Maritime Southeast Asia and these tribes practiced a mixture of Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam and Animism beliefs. There is evidence of trade among other Asian people, the Visayas is subsequently home to several Prehispanic kingdoms like the Rajahnate of Cebu, the Kedatuan of Bohol and the Kedatuan of Madja-as. Among the archaeological proofs of the existence of this Hiligaynon nation are the found in pre-Hispanic tombs from many parts of the island. There are also recent discoveries of artifacts of eight-foot inhabitants of Isla de Gigantes, including extra-large Lungon. After the Magellan expedition, King Philip II of Spain sent Miguel López de Legazpi in 1543 and 1565, the Visayas region and many tribes began converting to Christianity and adopting western culture. By the 18th and 19th centuries, the effects of colonization on various ethnic groups soon turned sour, various personalities who fought against Spanish Colonial Government arose from the islands. Negros briefly had a state in the Visayas in the form of the Cantonal Republic of Negros before it was dissolved because of the American invasion of the Philippines, in 2005, Palawan Island was transferred to Region VI by Executive Order 429. However this planned reorganization was held in abeyance, hence, Palawan currently remains part of Region IV-B. The chiefs and followers were said to be the ancestors of the Visayan people, the documents were accepted by Filipino historians and found their way into the history of the Philippines
38.
Persian Gulf
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The Persian Gulf is a mediterranean sea in Western Asia. The body of water is an extension of the Indian Ocean through the Strait of Hormuz, the Shatt al-Arab river delta forms the northwest shoreline. The Persian Gulf was a battlefield of the 1980–1988 Iran–Iraq War and it is the namesake of the 1991 Gulf War, the largely air- and land-based conflict that followed Iraqs invasion of Kuwait. The gulf has many fishing grounds, extensive coral reefs, and abundant pearl oysters, the body of water is historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf. Some Arab governments refer to it as the Arabian Gulf or The Gulf, the name Gulf of Iran is used by the International Hydrographic Organization. The Persian Gulf is geologically young, having been formed around 15,000 years ago. Its length is 989 kilometres, with Iran covering most of the northern coast, the Persian Gulf is about 56 km wide at its narrowest, in the Strait of Hormuz. The waters are very shallow, with a maximum depth of 90 metres. Various small islands lie within the Persian Gulf, some of which are the subject of territorial disputes between the states of the region. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the Persian Gulfs southern limit as The Northwestern limit of Gulf of Oman and this limit is defined as A line joining Ràs Limah on the coast of Arabia and Ràs al Kuh on the coast of Iran. The Persian Gulf and its areas are the worlds largest single source of crude oil. Safaniya Oil Field, the worlds largest offshore oilfield, is located in the Persian Gulf, large gas finds have also been made, with Qatar and Iran sharing a giant field across the territorial median line. Using this gas, Qatar has built up a substantial liquefied natural gas, the oil-rich countries that have a coastline on the Persian Gulf are referred to as the Persian Gulf States. In 550 BC, the Achaemenid Empire established the first ancient empire in Persis, consequently, in the Greek sources, the body of water that bordered this province came to be known as the Persian Gulf. In the travel account of Pythagoras, several chapters are related to description of his travels accompanied by the Achaemenid king Darius the Great, to Susa and Persepolis, and the area is described. This water channel separates the Iran Plateau from the Arabia Plate, has enjoyed an Iranian Identity since at least 2200 years ago. Before being given its present name, the Persian Gulf was called many different names, the classical Greek writers, like Herodotus, called it the Red Sea. In Babylonian texts, it was known as the sea above Akkad, the name of the gulf, historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf after the land of Persia, has been disputed by some Arab countries since the 1960s
39.
Combat air patrol
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Combat air patrol is a type of flying mission for fighter aircraft. Combat air patrols apply to both overland and overwater operations, protecting other aircraft, fixed and mobile sites on land, known by the acronym CAP, it typically entails fighters flying a tactical pattern around or screening a defended target, while looking for incoming attackers. Effective CAP patterns may include aircraft positioned at both high and low altitudes, in order to shorten response times when an attack is detected, modern CAPs are either GCI or AWACS-controlled to provide maximum early warning for defensive reaction. Fighter escorts typically stay with the asset they are supporting and at the speed of the supported group, when an escort engages, the supported force is left unprotected. Also refers to fighter aircraft placed between a strike force and an area of expected airborne threat, also known as a MiG screen. FastCAP, Combat air patrol to protect fighter strike aircraft, FORCAP, Force Combat Air Patrol, a patrol of fighters maintained over the strike force, essentially an escort. HAVCAP, High Asset Value Combat Air Patrol, flown to protect a high-value asset such as an AWACS aircraft or aerial refueling aircraft during its time on station. MiGCAP, Used primarily during the Vietnam War, a MiGCAP is directed specifically against MiG aircraft, all egress MiGCAP flights were fully fueled from tankers and relieved the target area CAP. SARCAP, Search and Rescue Combat Air Patrol, a version of RESCAP. Slow CAP, A combat air patrol to protect slower aircraft, such as the EB-66, B-52, or EC-121 during the Vietnam War, replaced by HAVCAP. Strike/CAP, Aircraft with a strike role and a secondary air defense role, permitted to jettison strike ordnance. Strike/CAP aircraft also have an egress CAP role once strike ordnance has been delivered on target, TARCAP, Target Combat Air Patrol is flown over or near a strike target in order to protect specialized attack aircraft such as AC-130 gunships from enemy fighters. Counter-air patrol Futrell, L. Frank, et al, united States Air Force in Southeast Asia, Aces and Aerial Victories - 1965–1973, Air University, Headquarters USAF, on-line edition Griffith, Paddy
40.
Iraq
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The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds, others include Assyrians, Turkmen, Shabakis, Yazidis, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians, around 95% of the countrys 36 million citizens are Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism, and Mandeanism also present. The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish, two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, historically known as Mesopotamia, is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws, the area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC. Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian and it was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ayyubid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires. Iraqs modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres, Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932, in 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Baath Party from 1968 until 2003, after an invasion by the United States and its allies in 2003, Saddam Husseins Baath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in 2005. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011, but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country, the Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name, one dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for city, UR. An Arabic folk etymology for the name is rooted, well-watered. During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī, for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the south of the Hamrin Mountains. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ or /ɪˈræk/, the American Heritage Dictionary, the pronunciation /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in U. S. media. Since approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq was one of centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture where agriculture, the following Neolithic period is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations
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Kuwait
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Kuwait /kuːˈweɪt/, officially the State of Kuwait, is a country in Western Asia. Situated in the edge of Eastern Arabia at the tip of the Persian Gulf, it shares borders with Iraq. As of 2016, Kuwait has a population of 4.2 million people,1.3 million are Kuwaitis and 2.9 million are expatriates, expatriates account for 70% of the population. Oil reserves were discovered in 1938, from 1946 to 1982, the country underwent large-scale modernization. In the 1980s, Kuwait experienced a period of geopolitical instability, in 1990, Kuwait was invaded by Iraq. The Iraqi occupation came to an end in 1991 after military intervention by coalition forces, at the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure. Kuwait is a constitutional emirate with a political system. It has an income economy backed by the worlds sixth largest oil reserves. The Kuwaiti dinar is the highest valued currency in the world, according to the World Bank, the country has the fourth highest per capita income in the world. The Constitution was promulgated in 1962, making Kuwait the most democratic country in the region, Kuwait ranks highly in regional metrics of gender equality, as it has the regions highest Global Gender Gap ranking. During the Ubaid period, Kuwait was the site of interaction between the peoples of Mesopotamia and Neolithic Eastern Arabia, mainly centered in As-Subiya in northern Kuwait. The earliest evidence of habitation in Kuwait dates back 8000 B. C. where Mesolithic tools were found in Burgan. As-Subiya in northern Kuwait is the earliest evidence of urbanization in the whole Persian Gulf basin area, mesopotamians first settled in the Kuwaiti island of Failaka in 2000 B. C. Traders from the Sumerian city of Ur inhabited Failaka and ran a mercantile business, the island had many Mesopotamian-style buildings typical of those found in Iraq dating from around 2000 B. C. The Neolithic inhabitants of Kuwait were among the worlds earliest maritime traders, one of the worlds earliest reed-boats was discovered in northern Kuwait dating back to the Ubaid period. In 3rd century BC, the ancient Greeks colonized the bay of Kuwait under Alexander the Great, according to Strabo and Arrian, Alexander the Great named Failaka Ikaros because it resembled the Aegean island of that name in size and shape. Remains of Greek colonization include a large Hellenistic fort and Greek temples, in 224 AD, Kuwait became part of the Sassanid Empire. At the time of the Sassanid Empire, Kuwait was known as Meshan, Akkaz was a Partho-Sassanian site, the Sassanid religions tower of silence was discovered in northern Akkaz
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Naval Air Station Alameda
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Naval Air Station Alameda was a United States Navy Naval Air Station in Alameda, California, on San Francisco Bay. NAS Alameda had two runways, 07-25 and 13–31, two helicopter pads and a control tower were also part of the facilities. The airport site included the Alameda Terminal of the First Transcontinental Railroad, by 1930, United States Army Air Corps operations referred to the site as Benton Field. Pan American World Airways used the harbor as the California terminal for China Clipper trans-Pacific flights beginning in 1935. The China Clipper terminal is designated California Historical Landmark #968, on 1 June 1936, the city of Alameda, California ceded the airport to the United States government a few months before the Army discontinued operations from the field. Pan American World Airways shifted its terminal to Treasure Island in 1939 for the Golden Gate International Exposition, congressional appropriations passed in 1938 for construction of naval air station facilities for two carrier air wings, five seaplane squadrons and two utility squadrons. Appropriations were increased in 1940 for construction of two hangars and an aircraft carrier berthing pier, and naval operations began on 1 November 1940. Fleet Air Wing 8 began patrol and scouting missions following the attack on Pearl Harbor, in April 1942, the USS Hornet loaded at Alameda the 16 B-25 aircraft that would take part in the Doolittle Raid on Japan. Air support training unit No.2 at Alameda included the fleet radar operators school, Link celestial navigation Trainer school, from 1949 to 1953, the Navy-based the Lockheed R6V Constitution—the largest airplane ever listed on the Navy inventory—at NAS Alameda. The two prototypes regularly flew between nearby NAS Moffett Field and Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, the base was the focus for northern California United States Navy Reserve drill after 1961. Runways were lengthened for jet aircraft, and the airport was renamed Nimitz Field in 1967 following the death of Admiral Chester W. Nimitz. Nuclear powered aircraft carriers were home ported at Alameda into the 1990s, the base was closed in 1997. After the base closed on 25 April 1997, the USS Hornet was given to the air station to be used as a museum ship. The television series MythBusters often conducted vehicle-based experiments on the grounds of the station, for the same reason, this location has been used as a checkpoint for the Bullrun rally race, the lengthy airstrip allowed for the staging of a challenge involving chasing a semi-trailer. A two-mile freeway loop was constructed on the base for the filming of a car chase sequence for the movie The Matrix Reloaded. The loop cost over $1.5 million to construct and was used solely for shooting the films chase scenes before it was demolished, the route is still visible on some aerial photography on the former 07/25 and 13/31 runways. Since 2000, the city of Alameda has been planning the redevelopment of the former Naval Air Station, in August 2001, Alameda selected Alameda Point Community Partners as the master developer for the property. APCP was a partnership of financier Morgan Stanley, Shea Homes of Livermore, Centex Homes of Dallas, the development was estimated to cost $2 billion and take 15 years to complete
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Somalia
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Somalia, officially the Federal Republic of Somalia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the west, Djibouti to the northwest, the Gulf of Aden to the north, the Indian Ocean to the east, Somalia has the longest coastline on Africas mainland, and its terrain consists mainly of plateaus, plains and highlands. Climatically, hot conditions prevail year-round, with monsoon winds. Somalia has an population of around 12.3 million. Around 85% of its residents are ethnic Somalis, who have inhabited the northern part of the country. Ethnic minorities are largely concentrated in the southern regions, the official languages of Somalia are Somali and Arabic, both of which belong to the Afroasiatic family. Most people in the country are Muslim, with the majority being Sunni, in antiquity, Somalia was an important commercial centre. It is among the most probable locations of the fabled ancient Land of Punt, during the Middle Ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade, including the Ajuran Empire, the Adal Sultanate, the Warsangali Sultanate, and the Geledi Sultanate. The toponym Somalia was coined by the Italian explorer Luigi Robecchi Bricchetti, Italian occupation lasted until 1941, yielding to British military administration. British Somaliland would remain a protectorate, while Italian Somaliland in 1949 became a United Nations Trusteeship under Italian administration, in 1960, the two regions united to form the independent Somali Republic under a civilian government. The Supreme Revolutionary Council seized power in 1969 and established the Somali Democratic Republic, led by Mohamed Siad Barre, this government later collapsed in 1991 as the Somali Civil War broke out. Various armed factions began competing for influence in the power vacuum, during this period, due to the absence of a central government, Somalia was a failed state, and residents returned to customary and religious law in most regions. A few autonomous regions, including the Somaliland and Puntland administrations emerged in the north, the early 2000s saw the creation of fledgling interim federal administrations. The Transitional National Government was established in 2000, followed by the formation of the Transitional Federal Government in 2004, in 2006, the TFG, assisted by Ethiopian troops, assumed control of most of the nations southern conflict zones from the newly formed Islamic Courts Union. The ICU subsequently splintered into more radical groups such as Al-Shabaab, by mid-2012, the insurgents had lost most of the territory that they had seized. In 2011–2012, a political process providing benchmarks for the establishment of permanent democratic institutions was launched, within this administrative framework a new provisional constitution was passed in August 2012, which reformed Somalia as a federation. Somalia has maintained an informal economy, mainly based on livestock, remittances from Somalis working abroad, Somalia has been inhabited since at least the Paleolithic. During the Stone Age, the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished here, the oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to the 4th millennium BCE
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Mogadishu
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Mogadishu, known locally as Hamar, is the capital and most populous city of Somalia. Located in the coastal Banaadir region on the Indian Ocean, the city has served as an important port for millennia, tradition and old records assert that southern Somalia, including the Mogadishu area, was historically inhabited by hunter-gatherers. These were later joined by Cushitic-speaking agro-pastoralists, who would go on to establish local aristocracies, during its medieval Golden Age, Mogadishu was ruled by the Muzaffar dynasty, a vassal of the Ajuran Sultanate. It subsequently fell under the control of an assortment of local Sultanates and polities, the city later became the capital of Italian Somaliland in the colonial period. After the Somali Republic became independent in 1960, Mogadishu became known, the ICU thereafter splintered into more radical groups, notably al-Shabaab, which fought the Transitional Federal Government and its African Union Mission to Somalia allies. With a change in administration in late 2010, government troops, Mogadishu has subsequently experienced a period of intense reconstruction. As Somalias capital city, many important national institutions are based in Mogadishu and it is the seat of the Federal Government of Somalia established in August 2012, with the Somalia Federal Parliament serving as the governments legislative branch. Yusuf Hussein Jimaale has been the Mayor of Mogadishu since October 2015, villa Somalia is the official residential palace and principal workplace of the President of Somalia, Hassan Sheikh Mohamud. In May 2012, the First Somali Bank was established in the capital, the establishment of a local construction yard has also galvanized the citys real-estate sector. Arbaa Rukun Mosque is one of the oldest Islamic places of worship in the capital, the Mosque of Islamic Solidarity in Mogadishu is the largest masjid in the Horn region. Mogadishu Cathedral was built in 1928 by the authorities in Italian Somaliland in a Norman Gothic style. The National Museum of Somalia is based in Mogadishu and holds many important artefacts. The National Library of Somalia is undergoing a $1 million Somali federal government funded renovation, Mogadishu is home to a number of scholastic and media institutions. As part of the urban renewal program,100 schools across the capital are scheduled to be refurbished and reopened. The Somali National University was established in the 1950s, and professors from the university founded the non-governmental Mogadishu University. Benadir University was established in 2002 with the intention of training doctors, various national sporting bodies have their headquarters in Mogadishu, including the Somali Football Federation and the Somali Olympic Committee. Mogadishu Stadium was constructed in 1978 during the Siad Barre administration and it hosts football matches with teams from the Somali First Division and the Somalia Cup. Additionally, the Port of Mogadishu serves as a national seaport and is the largest harbour in Somalia
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Unified Task Force
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The Unified Task Force was a US-led, United Nations-sanctioned multinational force, which operated in Somalia between 5 December 1992 –4 May 1993. However, the intransigence of the local faction leaders operating in Somalia. The mission never reached its mandated strength, over the final quarter of 1992, the situation in Somalia continued to worsen. Factions were splintering into smaller factions, and then splintered again, agreements for food distribution with one party were worthless when the stores had to be shipped through the territory of another. Some elements were actively opposing the UNOSOM intervention, troops were shot at, aid ships attacked and prevented from docking, cargo aircraft were fired upon and aid agencies, public and private, were subject to threats, looting and extortion. In the face of mounting pressure and frustration, UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali presented several options to the Security Council. Diplomatic avenues having proved largely fruitless, he recommended that a significant show of force was required to bring the groups to heel. Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations allows for action by air, sea or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace, Boutros-Ghali believed the time had come for employing this clause and moving on from peacekeeping. However, Boutros-Ghali felt that action would be difficult to apply under the mandate for UNOSOM. Moreover, he realised that solving Somalia’s problems would require such a deployment that the UN Secretariat did not have the skills to command. Accordingly, he recommended that an intervention force be constituted under the command of member states. The goal of deployment was to prepare the way for a return to peacekeeping. The Security Council urged the Secretary-General and member states to make arrangements for the unified command, UNITAF has been considered part of a larger state building initiative in Somalia, serving as the military arm to secure the distribution of humanitarian aid. However, UNITAF cannot be considered a building initiative due to its ‘specific, limited and palliative aims. The primary objective of UNITAF was security rather than larger institution building initiatives, prior to Resolution 794, the United States had approached the UN and offered a significant troop contribution to Somalia, with the caveat that these personnel would not be commanded by the UN. CIA Paramilitary Officer Larry Freedman from their Special Activities Division became the first US casualty of the conflict in Somalia when his vehicle struck an anti-tank mine. Freedman was a former Army Delta Force operator and Special Forces soldier and had served in every conflict that the US was involved in both officially and unofficially since Vietnam, Freedman was awarded the Intelligence Star for extraordinary heroism. The first Marines of UNITAF landed on the beaches of Somalia on 9 December 1992 amid a media circus, the press seemed to know the exact time and place of the Marines arrival and waited on the airport runway and beaches to capture the moment
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