1.
War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805
2.
Atlantic Ocean
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The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
5.
Isaac Hull
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Isaac Hull was a Commodore in the United States Navy. He commanded several famous US naval ships including USS Constitution and saw service in the Quasi War, the Barbary Wars, in the latter part of his career he was commander of the Washington Navy Yard, and later the Mediterranean Squadron. Isaac Hull was born in Derby, Connecticut, on March 9,1773, early in life he joined his mariner father, Joseph, on local voyages and longer trips to the West Indies. After his father died while young, Isaac was adopted by his uncle William Hull. During the mid-1790s, the young Hull commanded several merchant vessels, when troubles with the Barbary states heated up in 1802, he went to the Mediterranean as First Lieutenant of the frigate USS Adams. Hull later commanded the schooner USS Enterprise and the brig USS Argus, receiving promotion to the rank of Master Commandant in 1804 and to Captain in 1806. During the next few years, he supervised the construction of gunboats and, in 1809 and 1810, was given command of the frigates, USS Chesapeake, USS President. In 1809 Hull briefly commanded the USS Chesapeake, Isaac Hull assumed command of Constitution in June 1810, his time on the ship was eventful. He took the ship on a European cruise in 1811–1812, returning home before the War of 1812 broke out between the United States and Great Britain, an enemy squadron closely pursued his ship off the East Coast in July, but Hull skillfully evaded them. During 1823–1827, he commanded the Pacific Squadron operating out of South America aboard USS United States, Commodore Hulls next assignment, as Commandant of the Washington Navy Yard, ran from 1829 until 1835. Between 1839 and 1841, he commanded the Mediterranean Squadron, rendered unfit for further service by age and ill health, he spent the next two years on leave. Commodore Isaac Hull died at the age of 69 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and is buried there in Laurel Hill Cemetery. The U. S. Navy has named five ships in honor of Isaac Hull, including, USS Commodore Hull, USS Hull, USS Hull, USS Hull, the Commodore Isaac Hull Memorial Bridge spanning the Housatonic River between Derby and Shelton is named after him. Hull Street in Montgomery, Alabama is named in honor of Hull, bibliography of early American naval history List of ships Allen, Gardner Weld. P, Commodore Hull, Papers of Isaac Hull, Commodore United States Navy, the enduring journey of the USS Chesapeake. The Hickory Press, Charleston, SC. p.157, Old Ironsides, Eagle of the Sea, The Story of the USS Constitution. Isaac Hull, Captain of Old Ironsides, the life and fighting times of Isaac Hull, pellegrini and Cudahy, Original from the University of Michigan. The frigate Constitution, the figure of the Navy under sail
6.
Surrender (military)
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Surrender, in military terms, is the relinquishment of control over territory, combatants, fortifications, ships or armament to another power. A surrender may be accomplished peacefully, without fighting, or it may be the result of defeat in battle, a sovereign state may surrender following defeat in a war, usually by signing a peace treaty or capitulation agreement. A battlefield surrender, either by individuals or when ordered by officers, normally, a surrender will involve the handing over of weapons, the commanding officer of a surrendering force symbolically offers his sword to the victorious commander. Flags and ensigns are hauled down or furled, and ships colors are struck or the raising of a flag to the masts signals a surrender. When the parties agree to terms, the surrender may be conditional, that is, the leaders of the surrendering group negotiate privileges or compensation for the time, expense and loss of life saved by the victor through the stopping of resistance. Alternatively, in a surrender at discretion, the victor makes no promises of treatment, an early example of a military surrender is the defeat of Carthage by the Roman Empire at the end of the Second Punic War. Over time, generally accepted laws and customs of war have developed for such a situation, most of which are laid out in the Hague Convention of 1907. Normally, a belligerent will agree to surrender only if completely incapable of continuing hostilities. Traditionally, a ceremony was accompanied by the honors of war. The Third Geneva Convention states that prisoners of war should not be mistreated or abused, US Army policy, for example, requires that surrendered persons should be secured and safeguarded while being evacuated from the battlefield. While not a military law, the Code of the US Fighting Force disallows surrender unless all reasonable means of resistance exhausted. Certain death the only alternative, the Code states, I will never surrender of my own free will, if in command, I will never surrender the members of my command while they still have the means to resist. False surrender is a type of perfidy in the context of war and it is a war crime under Protocol I of the Geneva Convention. False surrenders are usually used to draw the enemy out of cover to attack them off guard, accounts of false surrender can be found relatively frequently throughout history. One of the more infamous examples was the false surrender of British troops at Kilmichael. Capitulation, an agreement in time of war for the surrender to an armed force of a particular body of troops. Debellatio occurs when a war ends because of the destruction of a belligerent state. No quarter occurs when a victor shows no clemency or mercy, under the laws of war, it is especially forbidden
7.
Frigate
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A frigate /ˈfrɪɡᵻt/ is any of several types of warship, the term having been used for ships of various sizes and roles over the last few centuries. In the 17th century, this term was used for any warship built for speed and maneuverability and these could be warships carrying their principal batteries of carriage-mounted guns on a single deck or on two decks. The term was used for ships too small to stand in the line of battle. In the late 19th century, the frigate was a type of ironclad warship that for a time was the most powerful type of vessel afloat. The term frigate was used because such ships still mounted their principal armaments on a continuous upper deck. Ship classes dubbed frigates have more closely resembled corvettes, destroyers, cruisers. The rank frigate captain derives from the name of type of ship. The term frigate originated in the Mediterranean in the late 15th century, referring to a lighter galleass type ship with oars, sails and a light armament, built for speed and maneuverability. The etymology of the word is unknown, although it may have originated as a corruption of aphractus, aphractus was, in turn, derived from the Ancient Greek phrase ἄφρακτος ναῦς, or undefended ship. In 1583, during the Eighty Years War, Habsburg Spain recovered the Southern Netherlands from the rebellious Dutch and this soon led to the occupied ports being used as bases for privateers, the Dunkirkers, to attack the shipping of the Dutch and their allies. To achieve this they developed small, maneuverable, sailing vessels that came to be referred to as frigates, in French, the term frigate became a verb, meaning to build long and low, and an adjective, adding further confusion. Even the huge English Sovereign of the Seas could be described as a frigate by a contemporary after her upper decks were reduced in 1651. The navy of the Dutch Republic was the first navy to build the larger ocean-going frigates, the first two tasks required speed, shallowness of draft for the shallow waters around the Netherlands, and the ability to carry sufficient supplies to maintain a blockade. The third task required heavy armament, sufficient to fight against the Spanish fleet, the first of these larger battle-capable frigates were built around 1600 at Hoorn in Holland. The effectiveness of the Dutch frigates became most visible in the Battle of the Downs in 1639, encouraging most other navies, especially the English, to adopt similar designs. The fleets built by the Commonwealth of England in the 1650s generally consisted of ships described as frigates, the largest of which were two-decker great frigates of the third rate. Carrying 60 guns, these vessels were as big and capable as great ships of the time, however, most other frigates at the time were used as cruisers, independent fast ships. The term frigate implied a long hull design, which relates directly to speed and also, in turn, in Danish, the word fregat is often applied to warships carrying as few as 16 guns, such as HMS Falcon which the British classified as a sloop
8.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
9.
United States Marine Corps
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The U. S. Marine Corps is one of the four armed service branches in the U. S. Department of Defense and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the military officer in the U. S. Armed Forces, is a Marine Corps general, the Marine Corps has been a component of the U. S. Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834, working closely with naval forces for training, transportation, and logistics. The USMC operates posts on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world, two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as a service branch of infantry troops capable of fighting for independence both at sea and on shore. The role of the Corps has since grown and evolved, expanding to aerial warfare and earning popular titles such as, Americas third air force, and, second land army. By the mid-20th century, the U. S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist of and its ability to rapidly respond on short notice to expeditionary crises gives it a strong role in the implementation and execution of American foreign policy. As of 2016, the USMC has around 182,000 active duty members and it is the smallest of the U. S. The USMC serves as an expeditionary force-in-readiness and this last clause, while seemingly redundant given the Presidents position as Commander-in-chief, is a codification of the expeditionary responsibilities of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the Congressional acts For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps of 1834, in 1951, the House of Representatives Armed Services Committee called the clause one of the most important statutory – and traditional – functions of the Marine Corps. In addition to its duties, the Marine Corps conducts Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure operations, as well as missions in direct support of the White House. The Marine Band, dubbed the Presidents Own by Thomas Jefferson, Marines from Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D. C. The Executive Flight Detachment also provides transport to Cabinet members. The relationship between the Department of State and the U. S. Marine Corps is nearly as old as the corps itself, for over 200 years, Marines have served at the request of various Secretaries of State. After World War II, an alert, disciplined force was needed to protect American embassies, consulates, in 1947, a proposal was made that the Department of War furnish Marine Corps personnel for Foreign Service guard duty under the provisions of the Foreign Service Act of 1946. A formal Memorandum of Agreement was signed between the Department of State and the Secretary of the Navy on December 15,1948, during the first year of the MSG program,36 detachments were deployed worldwide. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at sea and ashore, the Advanced Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships, Marine detachments served in their traditional duties as a ships landing force, manning the ships weapons and providing shipboard security. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II, during World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships
10.
Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
11.
Royal Marines
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The Corps of Royal Marines is the United Kingdoms amphibious light infantry force, forming part of the Naval Service, along with the Royal Navy. The Royal Marines were formed in 1755 as the Royal Navys infantry troops, as a highly specialised and adaptable light infantry force, the Royal Marines are trained for rapid deployment worldwide and capable of dealing with a wide range of threats. The Royal Marines have close ties with allied marine forces, particularly the United States Marine Corps. Today, the Royal Marines are a fighting force within the British Armed forces. The Royal Marines can trace its origins back as far as 28 October 1664 when at the grounds of the Honourable Artillery Company the Duke of York and Albanys maritime regiment of foot was first formed. On 5 April 1755, His Majestys Marine Forces, fifty Companies in three Divisions, headquartered at Chatham, Portsmouth, and Plymouth, were formed by Order of Council under Admiralty control. Initially all field officers were Royal Navy officers as the Royal Navy felt that the ranks of Marine field officers were largely honorary and this meant that the furthest a Marine officer could advance was to lieutenant colonel. It was not until 1771 that the first Marine was promoted to colonel and this attitude persisted well into the 1800s. During the rest of the 18th century, they served in numerous landings all over the world and they also served in the American War of Independence, being particularly courageous in the Battle of Bunker Hill led by Major John Pitcairn. In 1788 a detachment of four companies of marines, under Major Robert Ross, due to an error the Fleet left Portsmouth without its main supply of ammunition, and were not resupplied until the Fleet docked in Rio de Janeiro midway through the voyage. In 1802, largely at the instigation of Admiral the Earl St. Vincent, the Royal Marines Artillery was formed as a separate unit in 1804 to man the artillery in bomb ketches. These had been manned by the Armys Royal Regiment of Artillery, during the Napoleonic Wars the Royal Marines participated in every notable naval battle on board the Royal Navys ships and also took part in multiple amphibious actions. In the Caribbean theatre volunteers from freed French slaves on Marie-Galante were used to form Sir Alexander Cochranes first Corps of Colonial Marines and these men bolstered the ranks, helping the British to hold the island until reinforcements arrived. This practice was repeated during the War of 1812, where escaped American slaves were formed into Cochranes second Corps of Colonial Marines and these men were commanded by Royal Marines officers and fought alongside their regular Royal Marines counterparts at the Battle of Bladensburg. Throughout the war Royal Marines units raided up and down the east coast of America including up the Penobscot River and they fought in the Battle of New Orleans and later helped capture Fort Bowyer in Mobile Bay in what was the last action of the war. In 1855 the Infantry forces were renamed the Royal Marines Light Infantry, during the Crimean War in 1854 and 1855, three Royal Marines earned the Victoria Cross, two in the Crimea and one in the Baltic. In 1862 the name was altered to Royal Marine Light Infantry. The Royal Navy did not fight any other ships after 1850, in these Naval Brigades, the function of the Royal Marines was to land first and act as skimishers ahead of the sailor Infantry and Artillery
12.
USS Essex vs HMS Alert
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A naval engagement between USS Essex and HMS Alert took place on 13 August 1812, in which the light frigate, USS Essex,32 encountered and captured the British sloop Alert,20. With so trifling a skirmish Porter later said, Alert became the first American capture of the war, the duel itself lasted a mere eight minutes, during which Essex fired only one broadside. Porter kept his gunports closed making Laugharne believe that Essex was a merchantman and this gave confidence to Laugharne in maneuvering his ship within pistol shot range of Essex, which in turn ran out her carronades and devastated Alert. Alert remained in United States service until 1829, a shipment of 3rd pattern Brown Bess sea service muskets was found aboard Alert, which went towards arming the American Marines at the Washington and Boston Navy Yards. They were preferred for their caliber, longer bayonets and shorter barrels
13.
Capture of HMS Frolic
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The Americans captured the British vessel, but both vessels shortly thereafter captured by a British ship of the line which happened upon the scene of the battle. On 12 September 1812, a convoy of fourteen British merchant vessels left the Gulf of Honduras, bound for Britain, on 16 October, about 300 miles north of Bermuda, the convoy was scattered by a gale. Frolics rigging was damaged, the yard being carried away. During 17 October, the crew of the Frolic made some repairs, the American sloop of war USS Wasp had sailed from the Delaware River on 13 October and had run south-east to intercept ships sailing between Britain and the West Indies. It too had been damaged by the gale on 16 October. At 11,30 pm on 17 October, the crew spotted several sail to the leeward, Jacob Jones, commanding the Wasp, kept his distance during the night, but at dawn he identified them as merchantmen, with a Royal Navy brig between them and Wasp. Although the weather had cleared, there was still a strong wind blowing, both vessels shortened sail and prepared for action. The crew of Frolic took down the jury mainyard and lashed it to the deck, the Wasps crew fired low, into their opponents hull, while the Frolics gunners fired high, unusually for the Royal Navy, to disable their enemys rigging. As the action continued, the ships closed together, until the American gunners struck the sides of the Frolic with their rammers as they reloaded. After 22 minutes, Wasps rigging was damaged, with the main topmast, mizzen topgallant mast and gaff being shot away. The Frolic was even more damaged, and the crew had suffered very heavy casualties. With both vessels incapable of being handled, the Wasp drew slightly ahead and the Frolic collided with the American ship, the Wasp fired a final raking broadside which delivered the Coup de grâce. At 11,52 am, American sailors boarded the Frolic to find that every British officer and over half the crew,90 men, were wounded or dead, the Americans themselves had suffered only 10 casualties. Although it was acknowledged that the British crew had fought to their utmost, shortly after the fighting ended, both the Frolics masts fell. An American prize crew went aboard the Frolic and attempted to repair the rigging, Frolic was still unmanageable, and with its damaged rigging Wasp was soon overtaken and surrendered in the face of impossible odds. Master Commandant Jacob Jones and his crew were released by an exchange of prisoners. Jones was promoted and appointed to command USS Macedonian, which had captured from the Royal Navy on 25 October. He later served as second in command to Commodore Isaac Chauncey on Lake Ontario, Frolic had been too badly damaged to fight again and was broken up in November 1813
14.
USS United States vs HMS Macedonian
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The American vessel won the long bloody battle, capturing and bringing Macedonian back to the United States. It was the first British warship to ever be brought into an American harbor, the United States declared war on the United Kingdom on 18 June 1812. United States, the frigate Congress, and the brig Argus joined Commodore John Rodgerss squadron at New York City and put to sea immediately, the squadron again sailed on 8 October 1812, this time from Boston. Three days later, after capturing Mandarin, United States parted company, USS United States was the first of the six original frigates of the United States Navy, completed in 1797. Rated as a 44-gun vessel, the armament was thirty-two 24-pounder cannon mounted on the main gun deck. She had seen action during the Quasi-War of 1798-1800, capturing several small French vessels, HMS Macedonian was a Lively-class frigate, of the Royal Navys fifth rate. This was a design which had been used since 1804. Macedonian was the ship in the class, launched in 1810 just two years before the battle. Officially rated with 38 guns, the armament was twenty-eight 18-pounder cannon. She had not previously seen action, although Macedonian was larger than the fifth-rate frigates used in earlier conflicts, she was still significantly smaller and more lightly armed than United States. The American vessels broadside totalled 864 pounds of shot, whilst the British vessels was only 528 pounds, United States was the larger and more solidly built of the two, with 1576 tons burthen as opposed to Macedonians 1082 tons burthen. United States also carried a larger crew, at dawn, on 25 October, five hundred miles south of the Azores, lookouts on board United States reported seeing a sail 12 miles to windward. As the ship rose over the horizon, Captain Decatur made out the fine, familiar lines of HMS Macedonian, both ships were immediately cleared for action and commenced maneuvers at 0900. Captain Carden elected not to risk crossing the bows of United States to rake her, for his part, Decatur intended to engage Macedonian from fairly long range, where his 24 pounders would have the advantage over the British 18 pounders, and then move in for the kill. The actual battle developed according to Decaturs plan, United States began the action at 0920 by firing an inaccurate broadside. This was answered immediately by the British vessel, bringing down a small spar of United States, Decaturs next broadside had better luck, as it destroyed Macedonians mizzen top mast, letting her driver gaff fall and so giving the maneuvering advantage to the American frigate. United States next took up position off Macedonians quarter and proceeded to riddle the hapless frigate methodically with shot and she hailed Macedonian demanding the name of her antagonist and whether or not she surrendered. By noon, Macedonian was a dismasted hulk, when United States closed for another broadside, Carden was forced to strike her colors and surrender
15.
HMS Java (1811)
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HMS Java was a British Royal Navy 38-gun fifth-rate frigate. She was originally launched in 1805 as Renommée, described as a 40-gun Pallas-class French Navy frigate, Java had a crew of about 277 but during her engagement with Constitution her complement was 475. In May 1811, she was part of a squadron under François Roquebert, comprising Renommée, Clorinde and Néréide. On 20 May, the French encountered a British squadron comprising Astraea, Phoebe, Galatea, in the ensuing Battle of Tamatave, Renommée struck after her mainsail was set on fire. The British captured Néréide five days later at Tamatave, Madagascar, Clorinde, commanded by Jacques de Saint-Cricq, escaped. The British brought Renommée into service as Java and Néréide as Madagascar, in July Java was under Captain William Gordon, but not commissioned until August under Captain Henry Lambert, a senior commander who had seen combat on a number of occasions in His Majestys service. Java sailed from Portsmouth on 12 November for Bombay to deliver the appointed Governor, Lieutenant-General Sir Thomas Hislop, and his staff with their baggage and she was carrying additional personnel for other ships at the time and included another Royal Navy commander in transit. Captain Lambert of Java was an officer, having seen much combat during his service. Still, Java was well supplied and manned, and would prove to be well handled, USS Constitution had an experienced crew manning a heavy frigate carrying 54 cannon, thirty 24-pounder guns and twenty-four 32-pounder carronades, plus two 18-pounder bow chasers. On 26 December Hornet was sent into the port to communicate with the American consul stationed there, on 29 December at 9,00 AM still out at high sea in search of prizes crewmen aloft Constitution sighted strange sails on the distant horizon. Bainbridge initially was unsure of the disposition of the ships, but hours later as they drew closer he was able to discern that the vessels were large. Constitution tacking the wind made her way from the neutral Portuguese territorial waters with Java giving chase, the following day at 12,30 PM Java hoisted her colors and ensign with Constitution hoisting her colors in reply. With the dispositions of each ship confirmed, Java with the gauge to her advantage came about to position herself to rake Constitution. Being French-built, she was comparatively light for a frigate and was consequently faster, in reply Constitution fired a shot across Javas bow with Java returning fire with a full broadside. Java started the battle badly out-matched both in terms of the experience of her crew and the weight of her broadside, Constitution, with her experienced commander and crew, countered by not shortening sail as was standard. By 2 PM both ships were heading southeast, the opening phase of the action comprised both ships turning to and from attempting to get the better position for which to fire upon and rake the other, but with little success. Bainbridge now wore Constitution to a course and opened fire with a broadside at half a mile. This broadside accomplished nothing and forced Bainbridge to risk raking to close Java, another broadside from Java carried away Constitutions helm, disabling her rudder and leaving Bainbridge severely wounded, however he still maintained command refusing to sit out the battle
16.
Sinking of HMS Peacock
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The sinking of HMS Peacock was a naval action fought off the mouth of the Demerara River, Guyana on 24 February 1813, between the sloop of war USS Hornet and the Cruizer-class brig-sloop HMS Peacock. After an exchange of broadsides, Hornet was able to rake Peacock, Peacock was so damaged that she sank shortly after surrendering. On 26 October 1812, the frigate USS Constitution and sloop Hornet sortied from Boston, on 13 December, the two American ships arrived off Salvador, Bahia on the coast of Brazil, where they found the British sloop of war HMS Bonne Citoyenne. Commodore William Bainbridge, commanding Constitution, sent a letter to the captain of Bonne Citoyenne, challenging him to fight Hornet, the British captain refused, as his ship was carrying a valuable cargo of bullion. Bainbridge left Hornet to blockade Bonne Citoyenne and cruised to the south, eventually he found and sank the frigate HMS Java. Aboard Hornet, Master Commandant James Lawrence was aware from Portuguese sources that a British ship of the line was expected, on 24 January 1813, HMS Montagu appeared and Lawrence retreated into Portuguese territorial waters. After dark, he headed north along the South American coast, on 14 February, Hornet encountered and captured the British packet brig Resolution, which was carrying twenty thousand dollars in gold and silver. On 24 February, Lawrence pursued a British merchant brig into the mouth of the Demerara River, as evening drew on, Lawrence then noted a British brig-sloop, HMS Espiegle, at anchor in the river, and another, Peacock, approaching from seaward. Hornet beat to windward and gained the advantage of the windward position, Lawrence then tacked, and as Hornet and Peacock passed each other on opposite tacks they exchanged broadsides at half pistol shot. Even at this range, the British fire went high. Some American sailors were killed and wounded at the mastheads, Peacock suffered heavy damage to the hull. Captain Peake of Peacock turned downwind to bring his opposite battery to bear, the starboard bow of Hornet came up against the stern of Peacock from where the British could bring no guns to bear, and from this position, Hornets gunners shattered Peacock in a mere four minutes. Peake was killed, and his First lieutenant surrendered and almost immediately made a distress signal, the British lost 5 men killed and 33 wounded, the Americans lost only one man killed and four wounded, most to Peacocks first broadside. An American prize crew went aboard Peacock and tried to plug the holes below the waterline and throw the guns overboard to lighten the brig, three Americans and nine British sailors were trapped below deck and drowned. Peacock sank in only 33 feet of water, and four British sailors saved themselves by climbing the foremast, four others escaped to the shore in a boat in the confusion. It was said that Captain Peake had concentrated on the appearance of his rather than its fighting efficiency. The survivors of Peacock were taken aboard Hornet, where they joined some other prisoners from captured British merchant vessels, together with some American sailors from a recaptured prize, Hornet was now carrying 277 people. Hornet made for Marthas Vineyard, the nearest point of the American coast known not to be watched by the Royal Navy, even so, all on board were suffering severely from shortage of water when they arrived on 19 March
17.
Battle of Rappahannock River
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The Battle of Rappahannock River was fought in 1813 during the War of 1812. A British force blockading the Rappahannock River of Virginia sent several hundred men in boats to attack four American privateers, ultimately the British were victorious and the American ships were captured. They held several American prizes and were out to capture more so the British commanders prepared a cutting out expedition, on the following day, the British dispatched seventeen, pinnaces, barges, launches, and other boats with a few carronades to sail around the bay. Each boat carried up to fifty marines or sailors mainly armed with steel, while abreast of Windmill Point at about 4,00 pm, the expedition sighted five American vessels and chased them all through the night until losing sight as they passed a turn in the river. Four of the ships were armed schooners under Captain William S. Stafford in the twelve gun Dolphin. The others were Lynx of six guns, Racer of six guns, in all, the American schooners mounted 30 guns with 160 men. Most or all of vessels were built in Baltimore. Captain Stafford had little alternative but to scuttle the schooners or fight and he decided to offer resistance and anchored his ships in line of battle with portside guns facing the mouth of the Rappahannock where the British would originate. The largest of the American ships was Arab of over 380 tons but with a crew of only forty-five men, Dolphin of 300 tons was headmost and she was Captain Staffords flagship, carrying ninety-eight men into battle. When the British came within sight of the American line, they first stopped to wait for the wind, after a few more minutes the wind was still calm so the lieutenant ordered an attack in order to deny the Americans time to prepare defenses or escape. As the British closed range the Americans fired another broadside so Polkinghorne had his men alter course, when the British boats drew near there were three left, two having been hit and sunk by American fire. Racer and Lynx were quickly taken, their crews surrendered as the British climbed on deck, others jumped over the side, when Polkinghorne went for Dolphin, Captain Stafford put up a stubborn fight and it reportedly took fifteen minutes to secure the vessel. Five Americans were wounded before Dolphin struck her colors and ended the battle, though casualties from the other privateers amounted to six killed, by the time the fighting was over the remaining British boats arrived and assisted in taking over 100 prisoners. Polkinghorne reported that two of his men were killed and eleven wounded, including himself. American newspaper reports in Niles Register at first claimed that fifty Britons had been killed, a review by British and American historians later put the British losses at two dead and eleven wounded with American losses as sixteen killed and wounded. The battle lasted in between fifteen minutes and two hours according to various accounts, Captain Stafford later returned to Baltimore. He was treated well in captivity due to his good treatment towards British prisoners from his captured prizes. Lynx was taken into British service as Mosquidobit and was out of the Royal Navy in 1820
18.
Capture of USS Chesapeake
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The Chesapeake was captured in a brief but intense action in which over 80 men were killed. This was the only action of the war in which there was no preponderance of force on either side. Chesapeake suffered early in the exchange of gunfire, having her wheel and fore topsail halyard shot away, Lawrence himself was mortally wounded and was carried below. The American crew struggled to carry out their captains last order, but the British boarding party overwhelmed them. The battle was intense but of short duration, lasting ten to fifteen minutes. Shannons Captain Philip Broke was severely injured in fighting on the forecastle, Chesapeake and her crew were taken to Halifax, Nova Scotia, where the sailors were imprisoned, the ship was repaired and taken into service by the Royal Navy. She was sold at Portsmouth, England in 1819 and broken up, surviving timbers were used to build the nearby Chesapeake Mill in Wickham and can be seen and visited to this day. Shannon survived longer, being broken up in 1859 and he had dispart sights fitted to his 18-pounder long guns, which improved aiming as they compensated for the narrowing of the barrels from the breech to the muzzle. The carronades were similarly treated, but the screws on these cannon were marked in paint. As the decks of contemporary ships curved upwards towards the stern and bows, fire from the whole battery could also be focused on any part of an enemy ship. Broke drilled his crew to a high standard of naval gunnery, he regularly had them fire at targets. Often these drills would be made into competitions to see which gun crew could hit the target and how fast they could do so. He even had his gun fire at targets blindfold to good effect. This constituted an early example of director firing. In addition to these gunnery drills, Broke was fond of preparing hypothetical scenarios to test his crew, for example, after all hands had been drummed to quarters, he would inform them of a theoretical attack and see how they would act to defend the ship. Though the use of cutlasses in training was avoided a method of training called singlestick was regularly practised. It soon developed quickness of eye and wrist, many of the crew became very expert. Commander Lawrence of the United States Navy returned from a successful war cruise having defeated the sloop HMS Peacock and he was promoted to captain for his victory, and received orders to take command of USS Chesapeake
19.
USS Argus (1803)
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The first USS Argus, originally named USS Merrimack, was a brig in the United States Navy commissioned in 1803. She enforced the Embargo Act of 1807 and fought in the First Barbary War – taking part in the blockade of Tripoli and the capture of Derna – and the War of 1812. After a sharp fight during which Arguss captain, Master Commandant William Henry Allen, was mortally wounded, edmund Hartts brother, Joseph Hartt, drafted the plans for the brig, designed with a flush deck and fine lines to optimize her for sailing conditions in the Mediterranean Sea. Captain Edward Preble was appointed superintendent of her construction, and her keel was laid down at Hartts yard on 12 May 1803. Smith found that U. S. Navy officers disliked the name Merrimack for the new brig, and he directed that she be renamed Argus, the first U. S. Navy ship of that name, on 4 June 1803. Decatur recruited her crew and procured her armament from Providence, Rhode Island and her launch day finally came on 20 August 1803, but the attempt to launch her failed when she did not move down the ways. After the ways degree of incline was increased, Argus was successfully launched on 21 August 1803, in service, Argus was reported to sail swiftly and easily, although prone to heavy pitching when lying to. On more than one occasion, observers described her as a handsome ship. Argus set sail from Boston on 8 September 1803, bound for the Mediterranean and she returned to sea on 28 September 1803 and set a course for Gibraltar, where she arrived after a transatlantic voyage on 1 November 1803. There, Decatur exchanged commands with Lieutenant Isaac Hull, relinquishing command of Argus to Hull, during the early part of 1804, she cruised the western Mediterranean in an unsuccessful search for a Tripolitan cruiser reportedly operating in that area. In March 1804, she received orders to join the rest of the squadron off Tripoli, Argus resumed her blockade duties on 7 July 1804. At that point, Preble began preparations for a shore bombardment, heavy weather, however, postponed the action until early August. On 3 August 1804, the squadron moved in to provide support for the gunboats. The squadron conducted another bombardment of Tripoli on 7 August 1804. Two days later, Commodore Preble embarked in Argus to reconnoiter Tripoli harbor, during that mission, Tripolitan shore batteries fired upon Argus, and she was struck below the waterline by a single shot. Fortunately for her, the shot did not pass all the way through her hull, on 28 August 1804, the squadron conducted a third bombardment of the defenses of Tripoli in which its guns inflicted severe damage. A week later, on the night of 4 September 1804, when Intrepid blew up prematurely, killing her entire crew, Argus remained there to pick up survivors, but none had appeared by sunrise when she returned to her blockade station. Through the winter of 1804-1805, Argus alternated between blockade duty off Tripoli and periods in port at Malta and Syracuse, in the spring of 1805, she participated in one of the more celebrated episodes of American naval history, the capture of Derna
20.
Capture of HMS Boxer
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The capture of HMS Boxer in 1813 was a naval battle of the War of 1812, in which the United States Navy brig USS Enterprise defeated the Royal Navy brig HMS Boxer. The ship was sold at auction and continued for at least a decade as a merchantman, however, six US Navy ships would eventually carry the name. Local tradition holds that the battle was visible from the rooftop of a house on Metinic Island. Interestingly, Boxer was in the area having for a fee escorted an American merchantman with Swedish papers from New Brunswick to the Kennebec River, British Commander Samuel Blyth prepared for a fight to the finish, nailing ones flag to the foremast. In Enterprise, Lieutenant William Burrows demonstrated similar resolve and he moved one of his two long 9-pounders from the bow to a stern port, declaring, We are going to fight both ends and both sides of this ship as long as the ends and the sides hold together. The two brigs opened fire, and Blyth was killed during the initial fusillade, and Burrows suffered a mortal wound moments later, the fierce contest ended in 30 minutes with Boxer in ruins. Command of Enterprise passed to Lieutenant Edward McCall, while Lieutenant David McGrery assumed command of the battered Boxer, the dying Lieutenant Burrows declined to accept Commander Blyths sword, directing it be sent to the family of the dead British captain. I am satisfied, I die contented, Lieutenant Burrows exclaimed, McCall went into nearby Portland, Maine with the two ships and the casualties. A court martial found that a number of British seamen had deserted their quarters during the action. Newspapers in the United States rejoiced in another brilliant naval victory, after two days of planning, authorities conducted an impressive state funeral for the two commanders, and they rest side by side in Portlands Eastern Cemetery. Next to them is the grave of Lieutenant Kerwin Waters who suffered mortal wounds as a midshipman during the battle. He was an officer of distinguished merit, having received a sword from government for his conduct under Sir James L. Yeo. Blyth was also one of the pall-bearers of our lamented James Lawrence and it was his fate now to receive like courtesy at the hands of his enemy. His remains, in company with those of the brave Burrows, were brought to Portland and this battle was referenced by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in his poem My Lost Youth, I remember the sea-fight far away, How it thundered oer the tide. And the dead captains, as they lay In their graves, and the sound of that mournful song Goes through me with a thrill, A boys will is the winds will, And the thoughts of youth are long, long thoughts. A Ruinous and Unhappy War, New England and the War of 1812, frost, John The Pictorial Book Of The Commodores, Comprising Lives Of Distinguished Commanders In The Navy Of The United States. British Naval Problems at Halifax During the War of 1812, smith, Joshua M. Battle for the Bay, The War of 1812, pp. 75–91
21.
Sinking of HMS Reindeer
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The sinking of HMS Reindeer was one of the hardest-fought naval actions in the Anglo-American War of 1812. It took place on 28 June 1814, the ship-rigged sloop of war USS Wasp forced the Cruizer-class brig-sloop HMS Reindeer to surrender after far more than half the brigs crew, including the Captain, were killed or wounded. Reindeer was too damaged in the action to be salvaged so the Americans set her on fire. USS Wasp was one of a class of three heavy sloops of war designed by William Doughty, the sloop was commissioned in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and sortied on 1 May 1814. The commander was Master Commandant Johnston Blakely, and the crew consisted of 173 hand-picked New Englanders, blakelys orders were to raid British commerce in the mouth of the English Channel, following the spectacular though short-lived successes of USS Argus the previous year. Over several weeks, Blakely captured seven merchant vessels, at daybreak on 28 June, while Wasp was chasing two more merchantmen, the brig-sloop Reindeer was seen bearing down from the windward. Reindeer had sailed from Plymouth a few days earlier with orders to hunt down Wasp, Wasp was the heavier of the two vessels, mounting twenty-two 32-pounder carronades and two 12-pounder chase guns. Reindeer carried only eighteen 24-pounder carronades for some reason, as 32-pounders were the standard armament for brigs of the Cruizer class to which Reindeer belonged. Reindeer also mounted two 6-pounder bow chase guns, but the boat carried a 12-pounder carronade, which Commander William Manners was to use effectively. Although the sky was overcast, the wind was very light, as both vessels shortened sail, Reindeer was within 60 yards of Wasps quarter, where neither vessel could bring its broadside to bear. Over ten minutes, Manners fired five shots from his shifting boat carronade from this position. Eventually, Blakely turned downwind to bring his broadside to bear, after twenty minutes firing, the two vessels came into contact, and some of the British crew tried to board Wasp but were beaten back. Commander Manners was mortally wounded but continued to urge on his crew killed by a musket shot from Wasps rigging. The American boarding parties followed up the repulse of the British crew, once they had driven the surviving British crew below, the British captains clerk, almost the only surviving officer of any rank, surrendered. Reindeer had suffered 25 killed, including her commander, and 42 men wounded, the American victory could be ascribed almost entirely to superior weight of armament and numbers of crew. The casualties inflicted on both sides were almost in proportion to the odds, Reindeer had been beaten into a wreck, and Blakely set it on fire before putting some of the wounded prisoners aboard a neutral ship and proceeding into Lorient. After the abdication of Napoleon I, France was officially neutral in the quarrel between Britain and the United States, although French sympathies were decidedly with the Americans. Blakely was forced to remain for seven weeks while making repairs, chiefly to the damaged masts, when USS Wasp emerged from Lorient, she won further victories in the Channel before vanishing in the South Atlantic, probably falling victim to bad weather
22.
Sinking of HMS Avon
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The Sinking of HMS Avon was a single ship action fought during the War of 1812, and took place on 1 September 1814. In the battle, the sloop of war USS Wasp forced the Cruizer-class brig-sloop HMS Avon to surrender. The Americans could not take possession of the prize as other British brig-sloops appeared and prepared to engage, Avon sank shortly after the battle. Wasp sortied on 27 August, and almost immediately was involved in action, early on 1 September, a convoy of ten merchant ships escorted by the ship of the line HMS Armada was encountered. Wasp made repeated attacks and succeeded in capturing one ship loaded with iron, brass, later that day, as night was falling, Master Commandant Johnston Blakely, commanding Wasp, spotted four other unknown sail, and made for the nearest. The unknown vessel was the Cruizer-class brig-sloop HMS Avon, mounting sixteen 32-pounder carronades, Wasp carried twenty-two 32-pounder carronades, two 12-pounder chase guns and a 12-pounder boat carronade removed from Reindeer. As Wasp approached Avons quarter, the two vessels exchanged several hails, in which the Americans demanded that the British vessel heave to, Blakely eventually drew up alongside Avon, deliberately selecting the leeward position to prevent Avon escaping downwind. It was fully dark by this time, the wind was fresh, nevertheless, the American gunners were very accurate. After half an hour, Avon had been dismasted, one third of her crew were casualties and her guns had been silenced. Three quarters of an hour after the start of the battle, while the crew of Wasp were lowering a boat to take possession, another unknown vessel was seen approaching, followed by two more. Wasp made away downwind while the braces which had shot away were replaced. The nearest pursuer was the British brig-sloop HMS Castilian, the brig got close enough to fire an inaccurate broadside over Wasps quarter, but Avon had been making repeated distress signals, and Castilian broke off to help. Avons crew was taken off, and the brig sank soon afterwards. Wasp continued to cruise west of the mouth of the English Channel, on 21 September, it met with a neutral Swedish merchant vessel, on board which were two officers from the frigate USS Essex, which had been captured the previous year off the coast of Chile. Some of the officers from the prizes taken earlier by Wasp were put aboard the Swedish ship, after the two vessels parted, Wasp vanished, and was presumed lost to bad weather south of the Azores. The released prisoners brought news of the nature of the action between Wasp and Avon to Britain. This caused calls to be made for larger, better-armed sloops and brigs to be built, without taking into consideration the far more effective American gunnery
23.
Battle of Fayal
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The Battle of Fayal was an engagement fought in September 1814 during the war between the United States and the United Kingdom at the Portuguese colony of Fayal in the Azores. Three British warships and several boats filled with sailors and marines under assignment for the Louisiana Campaign attacked an American privateer in port and she was commanded by Captain Samuel Chester Reid who was not prepared to surrender his ship. Captain Loyd ordered that a pinnace under Lieutenant Robert Faussett be sent from the Plantagenet to ascertain the nationality of the stranger in port. When the British came within gun range of the American vessel and requested that its crew identify themselves, according to British reports, Lieutenant Faussett was unable to stop his boat in the rough tide water and it drifted too close to the General Armstrong. The Americans then opened fire with their long 9-pounders and scored hits on the pinnace, two men were killed and seven others wounded before it was able to retire out of range. Carnation then immediately moved in and anchored in front of the American schooner to begin negotiations for a solution to the problem, the first attack came at about 8,00 pm and when the American observed the incoming boats they maneuvered again to receive them. In the following skirmish, Carnation was kept out of range by enemy fire, one American was killed and another wounded. At about 9,00 pm, twelve boats armed with carronades and filled with 180 marines and sailors from the Plantagenet and the Rota were towed into battle by the Carnation, there the boats divided into three divisions for another attack. Lieutenant William Matterface commanded the boats and Carnation was directed to provide covering fire, Loyd anchored the Rota and the Plantagenet a few miles away and they did not participate in the engagement. Just after 9,00 pm the British headed forward, the boats advanced but accurate American fire and the current kept the Carnation from closing the range and she was damaged. It took Lieutenant Matterface until about 12,00 am for his boats to reach the General Armstrong, largely due to the current, Lieutenant Matterface and several other officers were killed and no one of sufficient rank survived to lead the remaining Britons. Altogether thirty-six sailors of the Royal Navy and Royal Marines were killed in action, the main action lasted over a half hour and only two Americans were killed and seven wounded in total, including Reid who was hit with a musket ball. Reids men fired nails, knife blades, brass buttons and other makeshift projectiles from their cannon which reportedly caused severe pain to the surviving British. After being repulsed the British slowly rowed back to their ships, a little later the Carnation appeared again but Captain Reid had already chosen to scuttle his brig by firing one of his swivel guns straight through the hull. The vessel was boarded while it was sinking and the British set the sails on fire, Reid and his crew escaped to the shore. The British wanted to land a detachment to search for the Americans, Captain Reid and the crew of General Armstrong were credited with helping delay the British attack on New Orleans and when they returned to America they were greeted as heroes. However, later showed that this was not the case. The above historical version, and similar accounts, on the Battle of Fayal are disputed by scholars, nor would it have made sense for the British to send fully armed launches simply to ascertain the identity of the Armstrong
24.
Capture of USS President
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The capture of USS President was one of many actions fought at the end of the War of 1812. President was part of a small squadron created in New York with the purpose of breaching the British blockade, every ship of the squadron succeeded in doing so but President. The action took place several weeks after the Treaty of Ghent, but there is no evidence to suggest the combatants were aware, at the time of the battle Commodore Stephen Decatur commanded President. In 1812, while in command of the frigate USS United States, after his return, the British instituted a strict blockade of the American coast. In 1813, Decatur tried to out of New York in United States and USS Macedonian. To lighten the two frigates sufficiently to tow them far enough upriver to be safe from British cutting-out expeditions, they were effectively hulked, or demilitarized. Decatur tried to out in United States in early 1814. Decatur and the crew of United States were transferred to President, on 13 December 1814, President and some smaller warships were in New York Harbor, preparing to break out past the British blockade to embark on cruises against British merchant shipping. They were under the command of Commodore John Hayes, who was captain of Majestic. On 13 January, a blizzard blew up from the northwest, the British ships were blown off their station, to the southeast. Decatur determined to take advantage of the situation by breaking out with President alone, the plan was that the smaller warships would break out later and rendezvous with President off Tristan da Cunha in the South Atlantic. He had ordered harbor pilots to mark the passage across the bar with anchored boats at the mouth of the harbor. President grounded on the bar and remained there for almost two hours, enduring a pounding from the wind and heavy sea. Although her accompanying vessels headed for safety, it was impossible for President to return to port as the gale was still blowing and he headed east, keeping close to the Long Island shore before heading southeast. Once the gale had abated, the British regrouped, at dawn on 14 January, they sighted President. After Majestic had fired some ranging shots which fell short, Pomone overtook her and led the pursuit, as the afternoon wore on, the wind eased to a breeze and Endymion, under Captain Henry Hope, overtook Majestic and President. By late afternoon, Endymion and President were exchanging fire using their bow-, by nightfall, Endymion had closed to Presidents quarter, where Decatur could bring no guns to bear. Endymion was a very fast ship, and Captain Hope yawed to fire a broadside into Presidents quarter, before turning again to follow, the Long Island shore was too near for Decatur to steer northwards and put Endymion astern
25.
Capture of HMS Cyane and HMS Levant
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The capture of HMS Cyane and HMS Levant was an action which took place at the end of the Anglo-American War of 1812. The British warships HMS Cyane and HMS Levant fought USS Constitution on 20 February 1815 about 100 miles east of Madeira, following exchanges of broadsides and musket fire, both Cyane and Levant surrendered. The war had finished a few days before the action with the ratification of the Treaty of Ghent by both sides, but the combatants were not aware of this. Constitution and the two prizes anchored in Porto Praya in the Cape Verde islands, Levant failed to escape when a British squadron appeared, and was recaptured. Stewart then embarked on a cruise which took Constitution to Bermuda, Madeira. At 1,00 pm on 20 February 1815, two ships were sighted to the south, and Stewart set all sail in chase, in an easterly wind, the crews of the two British vessels totalled 320. The two British ships were at first widely separated, Cyane increased sail to close on Levant and by 5,30 pm, the two British ships were within hail of each other. The two captains resolved to fight rather than split up and try to escape, at 6,10 pm, the action began, with Constitution to windward, Levant on her port bow and Cyane on her port quarter. After broadsides had been exchanged for quarter of an hour, the cloud of smoke from the firing which gathered under Constitutions lee hid the British ships from view. Stewart ordered his crew to fire, and the smoke cleared in time to allow the Americans to see Cyane attempting to cross their stern. Stewart ordered the sails to be thrown aback, and Constitution instead raked Cyane, as Levant tried to cross Constitutions bows, Stewart ordered the sails to be filled again, and raked Levant from astern. As Levant drifted downwind with battered rigging, Constitution turned again to engage Cyane, at 6,50, Cyane struck her colours. Lieutenant Hoffman, the lieutenant of Constitution, took command of Cyane. At 8,00 pm, Stewart set off to pursue Levant, the two vessels exchanged broadsides on opposite tacks. Captain Douglass then attempted to escape upwind but at 9,30, Levant was overtaken, although it was acknowledged that the crews of both British ships had fought determinedly and skilfully, Stewarts ship-handling had been faultless. The Americans lost 6 men killed and 9 wounded, aboard Cyane,12 men were killed and 26 wounded, some of whom later died of their injuries. Aboard Levant,7 men were killed and 16 wounded, Constitution and the two prizes made for Porto Praya in the Cape Verde islands, which were neutral Portuguese territory. They reached there on 10 March, while repairs were being made to all three ships and Stewart was preparing to send off the prisoners in a neutral cartel, a large ship was sighted making for the anchorage
26.
Capture of HMS Penguin
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On 23 March 1815 USS Hornet captured HMS Penguin in a short battle off Tristan da Cunha. It was one of engagements that took place after the War of 1812 had ended. The American gunnery was far more effective than the British, despite the two vessels being virtually identical in strength, after exchanges of broadsides and musket fire, the British commander was killed. The British brig rammed the American ship in an attempt to board, the British brig was too badly damaged to be salvaged and was set ablaze by the victors after its stores were removed. Late in 1814, the United States Navy had been preparing a small squadron at New York City, the squadron consisted of the frigate USS President, the sloops of war USS Peacock and USS Hornet and the brig-rigged tender USS Tom Bowline. Decatur was unable to back as the gale was still blowing. The commanders of the other American vessels were not aware of Decaturs fate, when another gale blew up on 22 January, they sailed out in broad daylight under storm canvas and evaded the blockaders through their speed and weatherliness. They made for a rendezvous with President off Tristan da Cunha. This island was being used by the Americans as a cruiser base, during the voyage, Hornet lost touch with the other two vessels. Peacock and Tom Bowline reached the rendezvous first, on 18 March, Hornet reached the island on 22 March. Biddle, commanding Hornet, was about to drop anchor when a sail was sighted to the southeast. Biddle at once made for the stranger and this was the Cruizer-class brig-sloop HMS Penguin, commanded by Captain James Dickenson. Penguin was a new vessel, which had first sailed in September 1814 and it carried roughly the same armament as Hornet. Some time earlier, Penguin had been sent from Cape Town to hunt an American privateer which had been attacking homeward-bound East Indiamen, as soon as Hornet was sighted, Dickenson steered for the sloop and prepared to engage. Penguin had the weather gage and for a time, Hornet ran before Penguin, then Penguin turned up-wind to port at almost the same moment as Hornet turned to starboard. The two vessels exchanged broadsides for 15 minutes, with the range gradually closing from musket shot, Dickenson turned downwind, to close with Hornet in an attempt to board and capture Hornet, but was mortally wounded. Penguins bowsprit ran across Hornets deck between the main and mizzen masts, badly damaging the American rigging, Penguins crew made no attempt to board Hornet and Hornets crew prepared to board but Biddle stopped them, to continue the gunnery duel. Biddle believed that the British had surrendered at this point and prepared to step aboard Penguin but was wounded by musket balls, as the two vessels separated, Penguins foremast fell, breaking off the bowsprit
27.
Battle of Baltimore
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The Battle of Baltimore was a sea/land battle fought between British invaders and American defenders in the War of 1812. American forces repulsed sea and land invasions off the port city of Baltimore, Maryland. The British and Americans first met at North Point, until April 1814, Great Britain was at war with Napoleonic France, which limited British war aims in America. During this time the British primarily used a strategy and repelled American invasions of the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada. However, the Americans gained naval control over Lake Erie in 1813, in the Southwest, General Andrew Jackson destroyed the military strength of the Creek nation at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814. Following the defeat of Napoleon in the spring of 1814, the British adopted an aggressive strategy. Thousands of seasoned British soldiers were deployed to British North America, the combined forces were to be used for diversionary raids along the Atlantic coast, intended to force the Americans to withdraw forces from Canada. They were under orders not to carry out any extended operations, the letter was considered by Ross and Vice-Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane in planning how to use their forces. Cochranes junior, Rear Admiral George Cockburn, had been commanding ships of the squadron in the operations on the Chesapeake Bay since the previous year. On 25 June he wrote to Cochrane stressing that the defenses there were weak, Cochrane suggested attacking Baltimore, Washington and Philadelphia. On 17 July, Cockburn recommended Washington as the target, because of the ease of attacking the national capital. On 18 July, Cochrane ordered Cockburn that to deter the enemy from a repetition of similar outrages and you are hereby required and directed to destroy and lay waste such towns and districts as you may find assailable. Cochrane instructed, You will spare merely the lives of the inhabitants of the United States. In August, the vessels in Bermuda sailed from the Royal Naval Dockyard, after defeating a US Navy gunboat flotilla, a military force totaling 4,370 under Ross was landed in Virginia. After beating off an American force of 1,200 on the 23rd, despite the considerable disadvantage in numbers and sustaining heavy casualties, the British force routed the American defenders and cleared the path into the capital. The Burning of Washington took place that night before the returned to the ships. The British also sent a fleet up the Potomac to cut off Washingtons water access and threaten the prosperous ports of Alexandria, just downstream of Washington, the mere appearance of the fleet cowed American defenders into fleeing from Fort Warburton without firing a shot, and undefended Alexandria surrendered. Baltimore was a port and was thought by the British to harbor many of the privateers who were raiding British shipping
28.
Battle of Hampden
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The Battle of Hampden was an action in the British campaign to conquer present-day Maine and remake it into the colony of New Ireland during the War of 1812. Sir John Sherbrooke led a British force from Halifax, Nova Scotia to establish New Ireland, the brief life of the colony yielded customs revenues which were subsequently used to finance a military library in Halifax and found Dalhousie College. The subsequent retirement of the British expeditionary force from its base in Castine to Nova Scotia ensured that eastern Maine would remain a part of the United States, lingering local feelings of vulnerability, however, would help fuel the post-war movement for statehood for Maine. The withdrawal of the British after the ratification of the Treaty of Ghent represented the end of two centuries of violent contest over Maine by rival nations. On August 26,1814, a British squadron from the Royal Navy base at Halifax moved to capture the Down East coastal town of Machias. The force consisted of five warships, HMS Dragon, HMS Endymion, HMS Bacchante, HMS Sylph, a large tender, the expedition was under the overall command of Sir John Sherbrooke, who was then the lieutenant governor of Nova Scotia. Major General Gerard Gosselin commanded the army and Rear Admiral Edward Griffith Colpoys controlled the naval elements. En route, the fell in with HMS Rifleman, and learned that the USS Adams, commanded by Captain Charles Morris, was undergoing repairs at Hampden. Sherbrooke changed his plan and headed for Castine at the mouth of the Penobscot and he rendezvoused off Matinicus Island and added HMS Bulwark, HMS Tenedos, HMS Peruvian, and the schooner and HM Schooner HMS Pictou to his force. The complete force entered the cove at Castine on September 1, moreover, the British would pay fair prices for all goods and services provided. Next, Gosselin crossed the bay with most of the 29th to occupy Belfast, locals did not challenge the occupation, although some 1,200 militiamen gathered three miles outside Belfast to await developments. Griffith assigned RN Captain Robert Barrie the task of going after the Adams, Barrie proceeded up the Penobscot with the Dragon, Sylph, Peruvian, the transport Harmony and a prize-tender. The ships carried a contingent of some 750 men drawn from the four participating regiments, the artillery company. During the war, Barrie was one of the few British officers in America to acquire a loathsome reputation, which he was about to reinforce. When Morris entered the late in August he moved past Buckstown. Anticipating an attack, he placed nine of the guns in battery on a nearby hill. Morris, commanding a crew of 150, called for help from Brigadier General John Blake, Blake responded with some 550 militiamen and formed the center of a defensive line running along a ridge facing south, or towards Castine. Lieutenant Lewis showed up with his two dozen or so regulars and two field pieces, adding a carronade, he went in line to the right or west and commanded the north-south road, the expected route of British attackers
29.
Battle of Fort Peter
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The Battle of Fort Point Peter was a successful attack in early 1815 by a British force on a smaller American force on the Georgia side of the St. Marys River near St. Marys, Georgia. The river was part of the international border between the United States and British-allied Spanish Florida, it now forms part of the boundary between Georgia and Florida. Occupying coastal Camden County allowed the British to blockade American transportation on the Intracoastal Waterway. The attack on Forts St. Tammany and Peter occurred in January 1815, after the signing of the Treaty of Ghent, which would end the War of 1812, but before the treatys ratification. The attack occurred at the time as the siege of Fort St. Philip in Louisiana and was part of the British occupation of St. Marys. Point Peter is the first landing site on the Georgia side of the St. Marys River and it is a peninsula between the North River and Point Peter Creek, which flow into the St. Marys River. James Seagrove and Jacob Weed received land grants nearby in 1787, in July 1794 Paul Hyacinth Perrault was commissioned to build a fort in St. Marys, probably Ft. St. Tammany. The following year, costs exceeded $1,400, the War Department approved payments relating to the fort in 1797 and 1800. The garrison eventually included a fort, battery, and a mooring for naval vessels, United States military posted at Point Peter were responsible for enforcing tariffs and protecting the nations southern border with Spanish Florida. The fort became involved in the Quasi-War in 1798, between 1793 and 1805, United States military manned the fort, and $16,000 dollars were spent on the Point Peter garrison. In 1809, the house and battery that formed the new American fort were approved. In 1811, eleven of the United States Navys 165 gunboats were stationed at St. Marys, the gunboats were powered by lateen sails and oar, and mounted heavy artillery. In 1811, the commander of Fort Point Peter, Lieutenant Col. However, president Madison and Secretary of State Monroe never gave direct orders to the Point Peter garrison to act in that conflict, unlike the later orders in the War of 1812. In the fall of 1812, the Camden County Battalion was raised at Point Peter and it served in the 1st Brigade of General John Floyds army division, which participated in the Creek Wars. On January 10,1815, British forces under the command of Admiral Sir George Cockburn landed on Cumberland Island off the Georgia coast. The British force consisted of the three Royal Marines Battalions, ships detachments of Royal Marines from the squadron, and two companies from the 2nd West India Regiment. On January 13 a British force first bombarded Fort Peter and then landed on Point Peter by the town of St. Marys, the British attacked and took the fort without suffering any casualties. The British land force then headed for St. Marys, on their way, they encountered a small American force of 160 soldiers of the 43rd Infantry Regiment and the Rifle Corps under Captain Abraham A. Massias
30.
Engagements on Lake Ontario
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The Engagements on Lake Ontario encompass the prolonged naval contest for control of the lake during the War of 1812. Few actions were fought, none of which had decisive results, when war was first declared, the British had an early advantage on the Great Lakes in that they possessed a quasi-naval body, the Provincial Marine. Although not particularly well manned or efficient, its ships were initially unopposed on Lake Erie and Lake Huron, and made possible the decisive early victories of Major General Isaac Brock. On Lake Ontario, they possessed the ships Royal George and Prince Regent, the schooners Seneca and Governor Simcoe were also taken into service. The chief officer was Commodore John Steel, who was years old. He was retired and replaced by Commander Hugh Earle, the Americans possessed only one brig, Oneida under Lieutenant Melancthon Taylor Woolsey, and a small navy yard at Sackets Harbor, New York. On 19 July, five vessels of the Provincial Marine attacked Oneida in the First Battle of Sacketts Harbor but were beaten off. To redress matters, on 3 September, the United States Navy appointed Commodore Isaac Chauncey, then commanding the New York Navy Yard, to command on the lakes. Although Chauncey was nominally in charge of the force on Lake Erie also, he took little part in its construction or operations there. The chief architects were Adam Brown, his brother Noah and Henry Eckford and they launched their first new ship, the corvette Madison, on 26 November. The trees from which it was constructed had still been standing in September, Chauncey hoisted his broad pendant aboard Oneida on 6 November and with his squadron, pursued the British ship Royal George into Kingston. After this engagement winter closed in, immobilising the ships of both sides in port. Chauncey feared an attack across the ice by British regular soldiers, however, the British had no intention at that stage of making such an attack. The British began building two corvettes to match Madison, one each at Kingston and York, plucknetts work was reckoned to be disorganised, as was that of the shipwright at Kingston, who was dismissed and replaced by the more experienced Daniel Allen. Allen in turn was removed after fomenting disputes over working conditions in March,1813, however, the Admiralty independently appointed Captain James Lucas Yeo to command the naval establishment on the Great Lakes. He collected reinforcements and materials in Britain, and crossed the Atlantic early in 1813, Chauncey had the advantage in ships and men once the ice melted. An attack on Kingston would have been decisive, but Chauncey and they instead attacked York, the provincial capital. On 27 April at the Battle of York, they defeated the defenders under Major General Roger Hale Sheaffe
31.
First Battle of Sacket's Harbor
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Part of the Engagements on Lake Ontario, Sackets Harbor was consequently the first engagement between British and US forces during the war. Sackets Harbor is located on Lake Ontario in Northern New York State and it was the chief shipbuilding yard for the United States during the War of 1812. It had a strategic position on the lake, with abundant resources. Following the first battle, the town and harbor became a large and centralized military complex, on Sunday, July 19,1812, Captain Melancthon Taylor Woolsey, of USS Oneida, discovered from the masthead of his brig five enemy vessels sailing up Sackets Harbor. The British vessels, which belonged to the Provincial Marine, were Royal George, Prince Regent, Earl of Moira, Governor Simcoe, and Seneca. The first shots were fired by the British at the brig USS Oneida, under the command of Commodore Chauncey, the British continued on and dropped anchor. Below the cannon a protective mound had been constructed about 6 feet high, alarm guns were fired and expresses were sent to call in the neighboring militias. Most of the militia did not arrive in time to render assistance, however, by the end of the day, some 3,000 local militia had assembled but they did not engage. The British had been misinformed about the defenses of the harbor, the force at that time in town was, besides the crew of Oneida, a regiment under Colonel Bellinger, a volunteer company of artillery under Captain Camp, and the militia. Captain Woolsey, leaving his brig in charge of a lieutenant, took command on shore, the 32-pounder being in charge of William Vaughan, a master. There was no shot in town larger than 24-pound balls, which were used with the aid of patches made of carpet, by the time these arrangements were made, the enemy had arrived within range, nearly in front of the battery. The action was commenced, the first shot was fired from the 32-pounder which failed to hit any of the British ships, a shout of laughter was heard from the fleet just after, indicating that the Americans first shot fell too short of target. The British returned a salvo briskly at the American battery and continued for two hours, most of the British shots were reportedly accurate. The Americans returned fire throughout the bombardment, USS Oneidas broadsides, Royal George also had severe damage to her top mast and rigging. Other British warships were damaged but the extent is unknown, upon this the signal of retreat was given and the British fleet bore away for Kingston, Ontario, without ceremony. At this, the American band struck up the tune of Yankee Doodle. On July 24,1812, General Jacob Brown attributed the success of the day to the officers Woolsey, Bellinger, and Camp, in their respective capacities, and especially to the crew of the 32-pounder. William Vaughan, who had commanded the 32-pounder, claimed the honor of having fired the first hostile gun in the war
32.
Battle of York
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The Battle of York was fought on April 27,1813, in York, the capital of the province of Upper Canada, during the Anglo-American War of 1812. Sheaffes forces were defeated and Sheaffe retreated with his regulars to Kingston, abandoning the militia. The Americans captured the fort, town and dockyard and they themselves suffered heavy casualties, including force leader Brigadier General Zebulon Pike and others killed when the retreating British blew up the forts magazine. The American forces subsequently carried out acts of arson and looting in the town before withdrawing. York, the capital of Upper Canada, stood on the north shore of Lake Ontario. At the start of the war, the British had a naval force, the Provincial Marine, with which they seized control of the lake. The United States Navy appointed Commodore Isaac Chauncey to regain control of the lakes and he created a squadron of fighting ships at Sacketts Harbor, New York by purchasing and arming several lake schooners and laying down new purpose-built fighting vessels. However, no action was possible before the onset of winter. To match Chaunceys ships, the British laid down a sloop of war at Kingston and this vessel was named Sir Isaac Brock after the general, who had been killed at the Battle of Queenston Heights the previous October. On January 13,1813, John Armstrong, Jr. was appointed United States Secretary of War. Having been a soldier, he quickly appreciated the situation on Lake Ontario. Working together with Chaunceys squadron, this force would capture Kingston before the Saint Lawrence River thawed, after Kingston was captured, the Americans would then capture the British positions at York and Fort George, at the mouth of the Niagara River. Armstrong conferred with Major General Henry Dearborn, commander of the American Army of the North, at Albany, both Dearborn and Chauncey agreed with Armstrongs plan at this point, but they subsequently had second thoughts. That month, Lieutenant General Sir George Prevost, the British Governor General of Canada and this visit was made necessary because Major General Roger Hale Sheaffe, who had succeeded Brock as Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada, was ill and unable to perform his various duties. Prevost was accompanied only by a few detachments of reinforcements. During March, Chauncey and Dearborn recommended to Armstrong that when the ice on the lake thawed, after capturing York, they would then attack Fort George. Although York was the Provincial capital of Upper Canada, it was far less important than Kingston as a military objective, Armstrong, by now back in Washington, nevertheless acquiesced in this change of plan as Dearborn might well have better local information. Historians such as John R. Elting have pointed out that this effectively reversed Armstrongs original strategy
33.
Battle of Fort George
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The Battle of Fort George was a battle fought during the War of 1812, in which the Americans defeated a British force and captured the Fort George in Upper Canada. The troops of the United States Army and vessels of the United States Navy cooperated in a successful amphibious assault. The fort was situated on the bank of the Niagara River near its mouth. On the American side of the river lay Fort Niagara, Fort George was constructed to replace and counterbalance Fort Niagara, which the British lost to the Americans after Jays Treaty in the year 1796. At the beginning of the war both the British forces near Fort George and the American forces at Fort Niagara felt unprepared for conflict and he stated that there were 400 soldiers of the 41st Regiment and a Captains Command of Artillery stationed at Fort George. He also wrote that he felt Fort George would not be able to withstand an attack by the Americans if they came with a considerable force, by July 1812 however, the American commander at Fort Niagara was expecting a British attack and was demanding more reinforcements. When that happened, a force of U. S, regulars commanded by Brigadier General Alexander Smyth were to travel by boat from Four Mile Creek to the rear of Fort George and capture the fort. This plan failed to materialize in part because Smyth failed to cooperate, an attempt to carry out the plan on the night of October 10/11 was thwarted by bad weather. Smyth marched his detachment back to Black Rock, New York, van Rensselaer attacked Queenston with the troops he had at Lewiston on the night of October 13/14, without Smyths troops. During the ensuing Battle of Queenston Heights, the guns of Fort George, during the exchange the Americans ended up burning the court house, jail, and fifteen or sixteen other buildings. During this battle Fort George was left under the control of Major Evans, the Americans drafted a new plan on February 10,1813. The plan was to attack Kingston, then York from Sackets Harbor with 4,000 soldiers, only then were they to assault Fort George. Simultaneously 3,000 soldiers from Buffalo, New York were to capture Fort Erie then march on Fort George, the American army was then transported across the lake in Chaunceys ships to Fort Niagara. Dearborn planned to attack Fort George next, but his army required rest, no preparations had been made to accommodate the troops at Fort Niagara, and they suffered considerable shortages and privations for several days. In particular, the wounded were left without shelter or medical attention, on May 15, Colonel Winfield Scott took up his appointment as Dearborns Adjutant General, having been exchanged after being captured at the Battle of Queenston Heights in the previous year. Scott improved the administration and pushed forward the plans for the forthcoming attack. At Fort George, the Americans planned to land on the shore of the rather than on the shore of the Niagara River. The troops would be supported as they landed by twelve schooners, each mounting one or more heavy cannon, two larger vessels, the corvette Madison and the brig Oneida would engage the nearest British batteries
34.
Second Battle of Sacket's Harbor
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The Second Battle of Sackets Harbor or simply the Battle of Sackets Harbor, took place on 29 May 1813, during the War of 1812. A British force was transported across Lake Ontario and attempted to capture the town and they were repulsed by American regulars and militia. In the early weeks of the War, the British had seized control of the Great Lakes. In September 1812 U. S. Navy Captain Isaac Chauncey was ordered to command of naval forces on Lakes Ontario. At the start of the season of 1813, the main American forces on the border between the United States and Canada had been concentrated at Sackets Harbor. Instead they proceeded to attack York, the Provincial capital of Upper Canada, on 27 April, the Americans won the Battle of York, temporarily occupying and looting the town. They then withdrew to Fort Niagara near the mouth of the Niagara River, late in 1812, Captain James Lucas Yeo had been appointed by the Admiralty to command the British naval force on the Great Lakes. He arrived at Quebec on 5 May 1813, and proceeded up the Saint Lawrence River to Kingston with a party of 150 naval officers and sailors. On the way, he overtook and joined the Governor General of Canada, Lieutenant General Sir George Prevost, Prevost and Yeo arrived at Kingston on 15 May. On 25 May, Chaunceys squadron was sighted off Fort George, the British commander there, Brigadier General John Vincent, immediately sent a dispatch vessel to Kingston with the information. On learning of Chaunceys presence off Fort George, Yeo and Prevost realised that the American squadron, there was an opportunity to capture Sackets Harbor, and deliver a decisive blow which would ensure that the British gained naval supremacy on the lake. The British force set out late on 27 May and arrived off Sackets Harbor early the next morning, the wind was very light, which made it difficult for Yeo to manoeuvre close to the shore. He was also unfamiliar with the conditions and depths of water. Shortly before midday on May 28, the troops began rowing ashore, in case they might be Chaunceys fleet, the attack was called off, and the troops returned to the ships. The strange sails proved to belong to twelve bateaux carrying troops from the 9th, regiments of Infantry from Oswego to Sackets Harbor. The British sent out three large canoes full of Native American warriors and a carrying a detachment of the Glengarry Light Infantry to intercept them. The British force caught up with the convoy off Stoney Point on Henderson Bay, as the British opened fire, the Americans, who were mostly raw recruits, landed their bateaux at Stoney Point and fled into the woods. The Natives pursued them through the trees and hunted them down, after about half an hour, during which they lost 35 men killed, the surviving United States troops regained their vessels and raised a white flag
35.
Battle of Lake Erie
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The Battle of Lake Erie, sometimes called the Battle of Put-in-Bay, was fought on 10 September 1813, in Lake Erie off the coast of Ohio during the War of 1812. Nine vessels of the United States Navy defeated and captured six vessels of British Royal Navy and it was one of the biggest naval battles of the War of 1812. When the war broke out, the British immediately seized control of Lake Erie and they already had a small force of warships there, the sloop-of-war Queen Charlotte and the brig General Hunter. The schooner Lady Prevost was under construction and was put into service a few weeks after the outbreak of war and these vessels were controlled by the Provincial Marine, which was a military transport service and not a naval service. Nevertheless, the Americans lacked any counter to the British armed vessels, the British took Adams when Detroit was surrendered, renaming her Detroit. Detroit ran aground on an island in the middle of the Niagara River and was set on fire to prevent her being recaptured, Caledonia was taken to the navy yard at Black Rock and commissioned into the United States Navy. Also present at Black Rock were the schooners Somers and Ohio and the sloop-rigged Trippe, while the British held Fort Erie and the nearby batteries which dominated the Niagara River, all these vessels were pinned down and unable to leave Black Rock. Dobbins recommended the bay of Presque Isle in Erie, Pennsylvania as a base on the lake. Dobbins was dispatched to build four gunboats there, although Lieutenant Elliot objected to the lack of facilities, Commodore Isaac Chauncey had been appointed to command of the United States naval forces on the Great Lakes in September 1812. Other than their rig and crude construction, the two brigs were close copies of the contemporary USS Hornet, the heaviest armament for the ships came from foundries on Chesapeake Bay, and were moved to Presque Isle only with great difficulty. However, the Americans could get other materials and fittings from Pittsburgh, which was expanding as a manufacturing center, master Commandant Oliver Hazard Perry had earlier been appointed to command on Lake Erie, through lobbying by Jeremiah B. Howell, the Senior Senator from Rhode Island, supplanting Lieutenant Elliot and he arrived at Presque Isle to take command at the end of March. Having arranged for the defense of Presque Isle, he proceeded to Lake Ontario to obtain reinforcements of seamen from Commodore Isaac Chauncey. Perry had them towed by oxen up the Niagara, an operation which took six days. Meanwhile, Commander Robert Heriot Barclay was appointed to command the British squadron on Lake Erie, another British officer had already endangered his career by refusing the appointment as success appeared unlikely. Barclay missed a rendezvous with Queen Charlotte at Point Abino and was forced to make the journey to Amherstburg overland. He brought with him only a handful of officers and seamen, nevertheless, he immediately set out in Queen Charlotte and Lady Prevost. He first reconnoitred Perrys base at Presque Isle and determined that it was defended by 2,000 Pennsylvania militia, with batteries and he then cruised the eastern end of Lake Erie, hoping to intercept the American vessels from Black Rock
36.
Battle of Fort Oswego (1814)
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The Battle of Fort Oswego was a partially successful British raid on Fort Ontario and the village of Oswego, New York on May 6,1814 during the War of 1812. Most of its garrison had marched off to the Niagara River, instead, Drummond and Yeo decided to attack the smaller post at Fort Ontario. This fort, with the village of Oswego, New York, was a vital staging point on the American supply route from New York. They planned, by capturing Oswego, to capture these guns, Yeos squadron embarked the landing force and set out from Kingston late on 3 May. They arrived off Oswego early in the morning, on 5 May, the troops prepared to land shortly after midday, but a southerly breeze sprang up, which made it impossible for Yeos ships to get close enough to the shore to provide support from their guns. That evening, a storm blew up, forcing the British squadron to withdraw for the night, the British squadron returned to Oswego at eleven oclock the next morning, and the landing proceeded. Four more companies of the Regiment de Watteville were in reserve, lieutenant Colonel Victor Fischer, the commanding officer of the Regiment de Watteville, was in charge of the landing. Opposed to them was an American force of 242 officers and enlisted men of the 3rd U. S. Regiment of Artillery,25 sailors of the U. S. Navy and about 200 of the New York Militia, while the two British frigates engaged the fort, the guns of six sloops and brigs swept the woods and landing beaches. The British landed at two oclock. Almost all the troops landed in water and their ammunition was soaked. Nevertheless, they fixed their bayonets and advanced under heavy fire, American foot soldiers drawn up on the glacis fell back into the fort. As the attackers reached the top of the glacis, the abandoned the fort. The separate Royal Navy casualty return for the engagement, signed by Yeo and this would give a grand total of either 18 killed and 69 wounded or 17 killed and 63 wounded, depending upon whether the Army or Navy casualty list is correct for the Royal Marines losses. Captain Mulcaster was seriously wounded by grapeshot, losing a leg, the American losses are hard to determine. Mitchells casualty return, which included the U. S. regular troops only. General Drummonds report of the engagement to Sir George Prevost stated that the British captured about 60 men, another British report, however, said that only 25 American soldiers and 1 civilian were captured. Still another British account said that 1 officer and 20 enlisted men of the Americans were found dead on the battlefield, the British gathered 2,400 barrels of useful supplies of all description, flour, pork, salt, bread and ordnance stores
37.
Battle of Plattsburgh
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The Battle of Plattsburgh, also known as the Battle of Lake Champlain, ended the final invasion of the northern states of the United States during the War of 1812. Downies squadron attacked shortly after dawn on 11 September 1814, but was defeated after a fight in which Downie was killed. When the battle took place, American and British delegates were meeting at Ghent in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, retaining territory they held at the end of hostilities. The Treaty of Ghent, in which captured or occupied territories were restored on the basis of Status quo ante bellum, was signed three months after the battle, in 1814, most of Britains army was engaged in the Peninsular War. Then in April, Napoleon I abdicated the throne of France and this provided Britain the opportunity to send 16,000 veteran troops from the Peninsula and other garrisons to North America. Several experienced Major-Generals were also detached from the Duke of Wellingtons army to command them, Prévost lacked the means to transport the troops necessary for an attack on Sacketts Harbor and the supplies for them up the Saint Lawrence River. Prévost therefore prepared to launch his offensive to Lake Champlain. Prévosts choice of route on reaching the lake was influenced by the attitude of the American state of Vermont, to spare Vermont from becoming a seat of war, Prévost therefore determined to advance down the western, New York State, side of the lake. The main American position on this side was at Plattsburgh, Prévost organized the troops which were to carry out the invasion into a division commanded by Major General Sir Francis de Rottenburg, the Lieutenant Governor of Lower Canada. Each brigade was supported by a battery of five 6-pounder guns, a squadron of the 19th Light Dragoons was attached to the force. The force numbered 11,000 in total, however, some units were detached and some sick men did not take part, so the actual number of troops present at Plattsburgh was just over 8,000. There was some tension within the force between the brigade and regimental commanders who were veterans of the Peninsular War or of earlier fighting in Upper Canada, and Prévost and his staff. Prévost had not endeared himself by complaining about the standards of dress of the troops from the Peninsular Army, on the American side of the frontier, Major General George Izard was the commander of the Northern Army, deployed along the Northeast frontier. In late August, Secretary of War John Armstrong ordered Izard to take the majority of his force, about 4,000 troops, Izards force departed on 23 August, leaving Brigadier General Alexander Macomb in command at Plattsburgh with only 1,500 American regulars. Most of these troops were recruits, invalids or detachments of odds and ends, Macomb ordered General Benjamin Mooers to call out the New York militia and appealed to the governor of Vermont for militia volunteers. Up to 2,000 militia eventually reported to Plattsburgh, however, the militia units were mostly untrained, and hundreds of them were unfit for duty. Macomb put the militiamen to use digging trenches and building fortifications, Macombs main position was a ridge on the south bank of the Saranac River. Its fortifications had been out by Major Joseph Gilbert Totten, Izards senior Engineer officer
38.
Battle of La Guaira (1812)
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The Battle of La Guaira was a naval engagement fought in the Caribbean Sea on 11 December 1812 during the war between Britain and the United States. An American privateer captured a British letter of marque at the Spanish port of La Guaira in Venezuela, on 10 December while on a commerce raiding cruise, the American schooner Saratoga, of 16 guns and 140 men under Captain Charles Whiting Wooster anchored off La Guaira. After Wooster arrived the American consul warned Wooster that if he remained in port, the Americans withdrew out of range but remained off the city. That same day Saratoga captured a British schooner and sent her as a back to the United States. On the following morning as a heavy fog cleared, the Americans spotted an incoming brig and she had been at sea for 57 days. Dalmahoy had died two weeks before the battle so a first mate named Alexander was in charge, immediately after spotting the British, Saratoga sailed to intercept but it took two hours for her to close to firing range. The Spanish colonists expected the arrival of Rachel and so hundreds of the rushed to the beaches to observe the engagement. When the range closed the two vessels began tacking towards land, Saratoga opened fire while 5 miles off the port, the British answered with shots from their port quarter guns until both ships were side by side. For over half an hour the two vessels dueled but the fighting ended when Rachels fire weakened, after volleys of small arms fire had driven the British sailors below decks, the Americans closed in and boarded. The British had two men killed, including Alexander, and two men wounded, one of whom died shortly thereafter, only two men from Saratoga were wounded. The next day, being short of water, Wooster released twenty-seven of the prisoners and he kept four of the prisoners on Rachel and two on Saratoga. The next day HMS Fawn, under the command of Captain Thomas Fellowes, encountered Rachel and captured her, together with the 12-man prize crew of Americans. The British took the Americans on board Fawn and put a prize crew on board Rachel, which they sent her into Jamaica. Fawn went into La Guaira and picked up Rachels crew, all of whom agreed to serve on Fawn, the Naval War of 1812, a documentary history
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Action of 13 December 1814
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The Action of 13 December 1814 was a naval action during the War of 1812. A flotilla of British longboats were on their way to fight the Battle of Lake Borgne, before reaching the lake, they would encounter an American schooner of the United States Navy. The Louisiana Campaign had begun, British ships were sailing off the American southern coast, the British landing area for the invasion of Louisiana was set for Lake Borgne but in order to land, a squadron of American gunboats and other ships, had to be destroyed. At night, on December 13,1814, the British set course for the lake, alexander Cochrane, of the Royal Navy, ordered Captain Nicholas Lockyer to proceed to the lake with a force of forty-two armed longboats, armed barges, armed launches and three armed gigs. Manned by 1,000 to 1,200 sailors and marines with 8 to 24 pound guns, the force pushed off from HMS Armide at an unknown time of evening. Sea Horse was armed only one 6 pound cannon and had a crew of fourteen men. The Americans also had a battery and unknown amount of artillery on land. Both sailors and artillery were sparse in the then frontier South, as soon as Lockyer spotted Sea Horse from a distance, an unknown number of boats were sent in that direction to cut the American schooner off and capture her. At some point, Sailing Master Johnson spotted the Royal Navy boats, a brief exchange occurred which resulted in light damage to the American schooner by a couple British shots. Two men were killed and another two wounded, william Johnson then ordered his crew to head for the nearby coastline, protected by an artillery battery. Once drawing the British boat fleet into range of the artillery battery, the artillery on the coast began firing and the British flotilla retreated, but only for a short while. After fighting off a British attack, Master Johnson felt the coastline under protection of the battery was a place to anchor his ship until the next morning. So the anchor was dropped and the Sea Horses crew began to settle for the night, after short while of rest, the British longboats returned, more in numbers this time. The Royal Navy was able to achieve a closer range than during their first attack, one member of the fourteen man U. S. crew spotted the silently approaching British boats and the alarm was raised. Immediately the crew were ordered to arm themselves with the issue of muskets. The British boats drew close and the Americans opened fire, hearing the Sea Horses fire, the American battery commenced. Accurate fire from the Americans small arsenal of weapons proved efficient, Captain Lockyer decided to abandon his attempt to capture the Sea Horse and ordered his men to continue on to Lake Borgne. The British suffered several armed longboats damaged in action and an number of dead
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Battle of Lake Borgne
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The Battle of Lake Borgne was a battle between the Royal Navy and Royal Marines on one side and the U. S. Navy and U. S. Marines on the other in the American South theatre of the War of 1812 and it occurred on December 14,1814 on Lake Borgne, and allowed the British to assault New Orleans ten days later. The defeat of the British attack in September on Fort Bowyer prevented the British from taking Mobile, Alabama, next, the British decided to attack New Orleans and the Americans began receiving warnings of a British fleet approaching Louisiana. The warnings reached Commodore Daniel Patterson of the New Orleans Squadron, the American force consisted of five Jeffersonian gunboats - No. 23, and No.162 - the schooner USS Sea Horse with Sailing-Master Johnson commanding,156, the flagship of the squadron, mounted one long 24-pounder, four 12-pounder carronades, and four swivel guns. She had a crew of forty-one men, in all, the squadron comprised 245 men, sixteen long guns, fourteen carronades, two howitzers and twelve swivel guns. Vice Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane, British Commander-in-Chief of the North American Station, ordered HMS Seahorse, Armide and they were to proceed to the Bayou Catalan, or De Pecheurs, at the head of the lake and 60 miles from the troopship anchorage. This was to be the point for the attack on New Orleans. The three British vessels reported that as they passed Cat Island, Mississippi, two American gunboats had fired at them, furthermore, lookouts on the masts had seen three more. When the fleet arrived on December 11, Cochrane decided to hunt out the Americans, Cochrane put all the boats of the British fleet under the command of Commander Nicholas Lockyer of Sophie, with orders to find and defeat the American flotilla. The boats came from Tonnant, Norge, Bedford, Royal Oak, Ramillies, Armide, Cydnus, Seahorse, Trave, Sophie, Belle Poule, Gorgon, Manly and Meteor. The British deployed forty-two longboats, launches and barges with one 12,18 or 24 pounder carronade each, the force consisted of some 1200 sailors and Royal Marines. At night on December 12, the British boats, under Lockyer, before reaching Lake Borgne, they encountered the one gun schooner Sea Horse. She was on a mission to destroy a powder magazine at Bay St. Louis in order to prevent its capture by the Royal Navy. The schooner, with the protection of a battery, fought off two of Lockyers longboat attacks but then was burnt later that night to prevent the main British fleet from capturing her. After rowing for about thirty-six hours, the British located the five American vessels drawn up in line abreast to block the channel between Malheureux Island and Point Claire on the mainland. As the British advanced, they spotted Alligator and immediately sent a few longboats under Roberts to cut her off, at 10 oclock on the morning of December 14, the boats had closed to within long gunshot by St. Joseph’s Island. At this point Lockyer ordered the crews to breakfast
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