1.
War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805
2.
Atlantic Ocean
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The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
5.
Isaac Hull
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Isaac Hull was a Commodore in the United States Navy. He commanded several famous US naval ships including USS Constitution and saw service in the Quasi War, the Barbary Wars, in the latter part of his career he was commander of the Washington Navy Yard, and later the Mediterranean Squadron. Isaac Hull was born in Derby, Connecticut, on March 9,1773, early in life he joined his mariner father, Joseph, on local voyages and longer trips to the West Indies. After his father died while young, Isaac was adopted by his uncle William Hull. During the mid-1790s, the young Hull commanded several merchant vessels, when troubles with the Barbary states heated up in 1802, he went to the Mediterranean as First Lieutenant of the frigate USS Adams. Hull later commanded the schooner USS Enterprise and the brig USS Argus, receiving promotion to the rank of Master Commandant in 1804 and to Captain in 1806. During the next few years, he supervised the construction of gunboats and, in 1809 and 1810, was given command of the frigates, USS Chesapeake, USS President. In 1809 Hull briefly commanded the USS Chesapeake, Isaac Hull assumed command of Constitution in June 1810, his time on the ship was eventful. He took the ship on a European cruise in 1811–1812, returning home before the War of 1812 broke out between the United States and Great Britain, an enemy squadron closely pursued his ship off the East Coast in July, but Hull skillfully evaded them. During 1823–1827, he commanded the Pacific Squadron operating out of South America aboard USS United States, Commodore Hulls next assignment, as Commandant of the Washington Navy Yard, ran from 1829 until 1835. Between 1839 and 1841, he commanded the Mediterranean Squadron, rendered unfit for further service by age and ill health, he spent the next two years on leave. Commodore Isaac Hull died at the age of 69 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and is buried there in Laurel Hill Cemetery. The U. S. Navy has named five ships in honor of Isaac Hull, including, USS Commodore Hull, USS Hull, USS Hull, USS Hull, the Commodore Isaac Hull Memorial Bridge spanning the Housatonic River between Derby and Shelton is named after him. Hull Street in Montgomery, Alabama is named in honor of Hull, bibliography of early American naval history List of ships Allen, Gardner Weld. P, Commodore Hull, Papers of Isaac Hull, Commodore United States Navy, the enduring journey of the USS Chesapeake. The Hickory Press, Charleston, SC. p.157, Old Ironsides, Eagle of the Sea, The Story of the USS Constitution. Isaac Hull, Captain of Old Ironsides, the life and fighting times of Isaac Hull, pellegrini and Cudahy, Original from the University of Michigan. The frigate Constitution, the figure of the Navy under sail
6.
Surrender (military)
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Surrender, in military terms, is the relinquishment of control over territory, combatants, fortifications, ships or armament to another power. A surrender may be accomplished peacefully, without fighting, or it may be the result of defeat in battle, a sovereign state may surrender following defeat in a war, usually by signing a peace treaty or capitulation agreement. A battlefield surrender, either by individuals or when ordered by officers, normally, a surrender will involve the handing over of weapons, the commanding officer of a surrendering force symbolically offers his sword to the victorious commander. Flags and ensigns are hauled down or furled, and ships colors are struck or the raising of a flag to the masts signals a surrender. When the parties agree to terms, the surrender may be conditional, that is, the leaders of the surrendering group negotiate privileges or compensation for the time, expense and loss of life saved by the victor through the stopping of resistance. Alternatively, in a surrender at discretion, the victor makes no promises of treatment, an early example of a military surrender is the defeat of Carthage by the Roman Empire at the end of the Second Punic War. Over time, generally accepted laws and customs of war have developed for such a situation, most of which are laid out in the Hague Convention of 1907. Normally, a belligerent will agree to surrender only if completely incapable of continuing hostilities. Traditionally, a ceremony was accompanied by the honors of war. The Third Geneva Convention states that prisoners of war should not be mistreated or abused, US Army policy, for example, requires that surrendered persons should be secured and safeguarded while being evacuated from the battlefield. While not a military law, the Code of the US Fighting Force disallows surrender unless all reasonable means of resistance exhausted. Certain death the only alternative, the Code states, I will never surrender of my own free will, if in command, I will never surrender the members of my command while they still have the means to resist. False surrender is a type of perfidy in the context of war and it is a war crime under Protocol I of the Geneva Convention. False surrenders are usually used to draw the enemy out of cover to attack them off guard, accounts of false surrender can be found relatively frequently throughout history. One of the more infamous examples was the false surrender of British troops at Kilmichael. Capitulation, an agreement in time of war for the surrender to an armed force of a particular body of troops. Debellatio occurs when a war ends because of the destruction of a belligerent state. No quarter occurs when a victor shows no clemency or mercy, under the laws of war, it is especially forbidden
7.
Frigate
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A frigate /ˈfrɪɡᵻt/ is any of several types of warship, the term having been used for ships of various sizes and roles over the last few centuries. In the 17th century, this term was used for any warship built for speed and maneuverability and these could be warships carrying their principal batteries of carriage-mounted guns on a single deck or on two decks. The term was used for ships too small to stand in the line of battle. In the late 19th century, the frigate was a type of ironclad warship that for a time was the most powerful type of vessel afloat. The term frigate was used because such ships still mounted their principal armaments on a continuous upper deck. Ship classes dubbed frigates have more closely resembled corvettes, destroyers, cruisers. The rank frigate captain derives from the name of type of ship. The term frigate originated in the Mediterranean in the late 15th century, referring to a lighter galleass type ship with oars, sails and a light armament, built for speed and maneuverability. The etymology of the word is unknown, although it may have originated as a corruption of aphractus, aphractus was, in turn, derived from the Ancient Greek phrase ἄφρακτος ναῦς, or undefended ship. In 1583, during the Eighty Years War, Habsburg Spain recovered the Southern Netherlands from the rebellious Dutch and this soon led to the occupied ports being used as bases for privateers, the Dunkirkers, to attack the shipping of the Dutch and their allies. To achieve this they developed small, maneuverable, sailing vessels that came to be referred to as frigates, in French, the term frigate became a verb, meaning to build long and low, and an adjective, adding further confusion. Even the huge English Sovereign of the Seas could be described as a frigate by a contemporary after her upper decks were reduced in 1651. The navy of the Dutch Republic was the first navy to build the larger ocean-going frigates, the first two tasks required speed, shallowness of draft for the shallow waters around the Netherlands, and the ability to carry sufficient supplies to maintain a blockade. The third task required heavy armament, sufficient to fight against the Spanish fleet, the first of these larger battle-capable frigates were built around 1600 at Hoorn in Holland. The effectiveness of the Dutch frigates became most visible in the Battle of the Downs in 1639, encouraging most other navies, especially the English, to adopt similar designs. The fleets built by the Commonwealth of England in the 1650s generally consisted of ships described as frigates, the largest of which were two-decker great frigates of the third rate. Carrying 60 guns, these vessels were as big and capable as great ships of the time, however, most other frigates at the time were used as cruisers, independent fast ships. The term frigate implied a long hull design, which relates directly to speed and also, in turn, in Danish, the word fregat is often applied to warships carrying as few as 16 guns, such as HMS Falcon which the British classified as a sloop
8.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
9.
United States Marine Corps
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The U. S. Marine Corps is one of the four armed service branches in the U. S. Department of Defense and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the military officer in the U. S. Armed Forces, is a Marine Corps general, the Marine Corps has been a component of the U. S. Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834, working closely with naval forces for training, transportation, and logistics. The USMC operates posts on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world, two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as a service branch of infantry troops capable of fighting for independence both at sea and on shore. The role of the Corps has since grown and evolved, expanding to aerial warfare and earning popular titles such as, Americas third air force, and, second land army. By the mid-20th century, the U. S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist of and its ability to rapidly respond on short notice to expeditionary crises gives it a strong role in the implementation and execution of American foreign policy. As of 2016, the USMC has around 182,000 active duty members and it is the smallest of the U. S. The USMC serves as an expeditionary force-in-readiness and this last clause, while seemingly redundant given the Presidents position as Commander-in-chief, is a codification of the expeditionary responsibilities of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the Congressional acts For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps of 1834, in 1951, the House of Representatives Armed Services Committee called the clause one of the most important statutory – and traditional – functions of the Marine Corps. In addition to its duties, the Marine Corps conducts Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure operations, as well as missions in direct support of the White House. The Marine Band, dubbed the Presidents Own by Thomas Jefferson, Marines from Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D. C. The Executive Flight Detachment also provides transport to Cabinet members. The relationship between the Department of State and the U. S. Marine Corps is nearly as old as the corps itself, for over 200 years, Marines have served at the request of various Secretaries of State. After World War II, an alert, disciplined force was needed to protect American embassies, consulates, in 1947, a proposal was made that the Department of War furnish Marine Corps personnel for Foreign Service guard duty under the provisions of the Foreign Service Act of 1946. A formal Memorandum of Agreement was signed between the Department of State and the Secretary of the Navy on December 15,1948, during the first year of the MSG program,36 detachments were deployed worldwide. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at sea and ashore, the Advanced Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships, Marine detachments served in their traditional duties as a ships landing force, manning the ships weapons and providing shipboard security. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II, during World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships
10.
Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
11.
Royal Marines
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The Corps of Royal Marines is the United Kingdoms amphibious light infantry force, forming part of the Naval Service, along with the Royal Navy. The Royal Marines were formed in 1755 as the Royal Navys infantry troops, as a highly specialised and adaptable light infantry force, the Royal Marines are trained for rapid deployment worldwide and capable of dealing with a wide range of threats. The Royal Marines have close ties with allied marine forces, particularly the United States Marine Corps. Today, the Royal Marines are a fighting force within the British Armed forces. The Royal Marines can trace its origins back as far as 28 October 1664 when at the grounds of the Honourable Artillery Company the Duke of York and Albanys maritime regiment of foot was first formed. On 5 April 1755, His Majestys Marine Forces, fifty Companies in three Divisions, headquartered at Chatham, Portsmouth, and Plymouth, were formed by Order of Council under Admiralty control. Initially all field officers were Royal Navy officers as the Royal Navy felt that the ranks of Marine field officers were largely honorary and this meant that the furthest a Marine officer could advance was to lieutenant colonel. It was not until 1771 that the first Marine was promoted to colonel and this attitude persisted well into the 1800s. During the rest of the 18th century, they served in numerous landings all over the world and they also served in the American War of Independence, being particularly courageous in the Battle of Bunker Hill led by Major John Pitcairn. In 1788 a detachment of four companies of marines, under Major Robert Ross, due to an error the Fleet left Portsmouth without its main supply of ammunition, and were not resupplied until the Fleet docked in Rio de Janeiro midway through the voyage. In 1802, largely at the instigation of Admiral the Earl St. Vincent, the Royal Marines Artillery was formed as a separate unit in 1804 to man the artillery in bomb ketches. These had been manned by the Armys Royal Regiment of Artillery, during the Napoleonic Wars the Royal Marines participated in every notable naval battle on board the Royal Navys ships and also took part in multiple amphibious actions. In the Caribbean theatre volunteers from freed French slaves on Marie-Galante were used to form Sir Alexander Cochranes first Corps of Colonial Marines and these men bolstered the ranks, helping the British to hold the island until reinforcements arrived. This practice was repeated during the War of 1812, where escaped American slaves were formed into Cochranes second Corps of Colonial Marines and these men were commanded by Royal Marines officers and fought alongside their regular Royal Marines counterparts at the Battle of Bladensburg. Throughout the war Royal Marines units raided up and down the east coast of America including up the Penobscot River and they fought in the Battle of New Orleans and later helped capture Fort Bowyer in Mobile Bay in what was the last action of the war. In 1855 the Infantry forces were renamed the Royal Marines Light Infantry, during the Crimean War in 1854 and 1855, three Royal Marines earned the Victoria Cross, two in the Crimea and one in the Baltic. In 1862 the name was altered to Royal Marine Light Infantry. The Royal Navy did not fight any other ships after 1850, in these Naval Brigades, the function of the Royal Marines was to land first and act as skimishers ahead of the sailor Infantry and Artillery
12.
USS Essex vs HMS Alert
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A naval engagement between USS Essex and HMS Alert took place on 13 August 1812, in which the light frigate, USS Essex,32 encountered and captured the British sloop Alert,20. With so trifling a skirmish Porter later said, Alert became the first American capture of the war, the duel itself lasted a mere eight minutes, during which Essex fired only one broadside. Porter kept his gunports closed making Laugharne believe that Essex was a merchantman and this gave confidence to Laugharne in maneuvering his ship within pistol shot range of Essex, which in turn ran out her carronades and devastated Alert. Alert remained in United States service until 1829, a shipment of 3rd pattern Brown Bess sea service muskets was found aboard Alert, which went towards arming the American Marines at the Washington and Boston Navy Yards. They were preferred for their caliber, longer bayonets and shorter barrels
13.
Capture of HMS Frolic
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The Americans captured the British vessel, but both vessels shortly thereafter captured by a British ship of the line which happened upon the scene of the battle. On 12 September 1812, a convoy of fourteen British merchant vessels left the Gulf of Honduras, bound for Britain, on 16 October, about 300 miles north of Bermuda, the convoy was scattered by a gale. Frolics rigging was damaged, the yard being carried away. During 17 October, the crew of the Frolic made some repairs, the American sloop of war USS Wasp had sailed from the Delaware River on 13 October and had run south-east to intercept ships sailing between Britain and the West Indies. It too had been damaged by the gale on 16 October. At 11,30 pm on 17 October, the crew spotted several sail to the leeward, Jacob Jones, commanding the Wasp, kept his distance during the night, but at dawn he identified them as merchantmen, with a Royal Navy brig between them and Wasp. Although the weather had cleared, there was still a strong wind blowing, both vessels shortened sail and prepared for action. The crew of Frolic took down the jury mainyard and lashed it to the deck, the Wasps crew fired low, into their opponents hull, while the Frolics gunners fired high, unusually for the Royal Navy, to disable their enemys rigging. As the action continued, the ships closed together, until the American gunners struck the sides of the Frolic with their rammers as they reloaded. After 22 minutes, Wasps rigging was damaged, with the main topmast, mizzen topgallant mast and gaff being shot away. The Frolic was even more damaged, and the crew had suffered very heavy casualties. With both vessels incapable of being handled, the Wasp drew slightly ahead and the Frolic collided with the American ship, the Wasp fired a final raking broadside which delivered the Coup de grâce. At 11,52 am, American sailors boarded the Frolic to find that every British officer and over half the crew,90 men, were wounded or dead, the Americans themselves had suffered only 10 casualties. Although it was acknowledged that the British crew had fought to their utmost, shortly after the fighting ended, both the Frolics masts fell. An American prize crew went aboard the Frolic and attempted to repair the rigging, Frolic was still unmanageable, and with its damaged rigging Wasp was soon overtaken and surrendered in the face of impossible odds. Master Commandant Jacob Jones and his crew were released by an exchange of prisoners. Jones was promoted and appointed to command USS Macedonian, which had captured from the Royal Navy on 25 October. He later served as second in command to Commodore Isaac Chauncey on Lake Ontario, Frolic had been too badly damaged to fight again and was broken up in November 1813
14.
USS United States vs HMS Macedonian
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The American vessel won the long bloody battle, capturing and bringing Macedonian back to the United States. It was the first British warship to ever be brought into an American harbor, the United States declared war on the United Kingdom on 18 June 1812. United States, the frigate Congress, and the brig Argus joined Commodore John Rodgerss squadron at New York City and put to sea immediately, the squadron again sailed on 8 October 1812, this time from Boston. Three days later, after capturing Mandarin, United States parted company, USS United States was the first of the six original frigates of the United States Navy, completed in 1797. Rated as a 44-gun vessel, the armament was thirty-two 24-pounder cannon mounted on the main gun deck. She had seen action during the Quasi-War of 1798-1800, capturing several small French vessels, HMS Macedonian was a Lively-class frigate, of the Royal Navys fifth rate. This was a design which had been used since 1804. Macedonian was the ship in the class, launched in 1810 just two years before the battle. Officially rated with 38 guns, the armament was twenty-eight 18-pounder cannon. She had not previously seen action, although Macedonian was larger than the fifth-rate frigates used in earlier conflicts, she was still significantly smaller and more lightly armed than United States. The American vessels broadside totalled 864 pounds of shot, whilst the British vessels was only 528 pounds, United States was the larger and more solidly built of the two, with 1576 tons burthen as opposed to Macedonians 1082 tons burthen. United States also carried a larger crew, at dawn, on 25 October, five hundred miles south of the Azores, lookouts on board United States reported seeing a sail 12 miles to windward. As the ship rose over the horizon, Captain Decatur made out the fine, familiar lines of HMS Macedonian, both ships were immediately cleared for action and commenced maneuvers at 0900. Captain Carden elected not to risk crossing the bows of United States to rake her, for his part, Decatur intended to engage Macedonian from fairly long range, where his 24 pounders would have the advantage over the British 18 pounders, and then move in for the kill. The actual battle developed according to Decaturs plan, United States began the action at 0920 by firing an inaccurate broadside. This was answered immediately by the British vessel, bringing down a small spar of United States, Decaturs next broadside had better luck, as it destroyed Macedonians mizzen top mast, letting her driver gaff fall and so giving the maneuvering advantage to the American frigate. United States next took up position off Macedonians quarter and proceeded to riddle the hapless frigate methodically with shot and she hailed Macedonian demanding the name of her antagonist and whether or not she surrendered. By noon, Macedonian was a dismasted hulk, when United States closed for another broadside, Carden was forced to strike her colors and surrender
15.
HMS Java (1811)
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HMS Java was a British Royal Navy 38-gun fifth-rate frigate. She was originally launched in 1805 as Renommée, described as a 40-gun Pallas-class French Navy frigate, Java had a crew of about 277 but during her engagement with Constitution her complement was 475. In May 1811, she was part of a squadron under François Roquebert, comprising Renommée, Clorinde and Néréide. On 20 May, the French encountered a British squadron comprising Astraea, Phoebe, Galatea, in the ensuing Battle of Tamatave, Renommée struck after her mainsail was set on fire. The British captured Néréide five days later at Tamatave, Madagascar, Clorinde, commanded by Jacques de Saint-Cricq, escaped. The British brought Renommée into service as Java and Néréide as Madagascar, in July Java was under Captain William Gordon, but not commissioned until August under Captain Henry Lambert, a senior commander who had seen combat on a number of occasions in His Majestys service. Java sailed from Portsmouth on 12 November for Bombay to deliver the appointed Governor, Lieutenant-General Sir Thomas Hislop, and his staff with their baggage and she was carrying additional personnel for other ships at the time and included another Royal Navy commander in transit. Captain Lambert of Java was an officer, having seen much combat during his service. Still, Java was well supplied and manned, and would prove to be well handled, USS Constitution had an experienced crew manning a heavy frigate carrying 54 cannon, thirty 24-pounder guns and twenty-four 32-pounder carronades, plus two 18-pounder bow chasers. On 26 December Hornet was sent into the port to communicate with the American consul stationed there, on 29 December at 9,00 AM still out at high sea in search of prizes crewmen aloft Constitution sighted strange sails on the distant horizon. Bainbridge initially was unsure of the disposition of the ships, but hours later as they drew closer he was able to discern that the vessels were large. Constitution tacking the wind made her way from the neutral Portuguese territorial waters with Java giving chase, the following day at 12,30 PM Java hoisted her colors and ensign with Constitution hoisting her colors in reply. With the dispositions of each ship confirmed, Java with the gauge to her advantage came about to position herself to rake Constitution. Being French-built, she was comparatively light for a frigate and was consequently faster, in reply Constitution fired a shot across Javas bow with Java returning fire with a full broadside. Java started the battle badly out-matched both in terms of the experience of her crew and the weight of her broadside, Constitution, with her experienced commander and crew, countered by not shortening sail as was standard. By 2 PM both ships were heading southeast, the opening phase of the action comprised both ships turning to and from attempting to get the better position for which to fire upon and rake the other, but with little success. Bainbridge now wore Constitution to a course and opened fire with a broadside at half a mile. This broadside accomplished nothing and forced Bainbridge to risk raking to close Java, another broadside from Java carried away Constitutions helm, disabling her rudder and leaving Bainbridge severely wounded, however he still maintained command refusing to sit out the battle
16.
Sinking of HMS Peacock
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The sinking of HMS Peacock was a naval action fought off the mouth of the Demerara River, Guyana on 24 February 1813, between the sloop of war USS Hornet and the Cruizer-class brig-sloop HMS Peacock. After an exchange of broadsides, Hornet was able to rake Peacock, Peacock was so damaged that she sank shortly after surrendering. On 26 October 1812, the frigate USS Constitution and sloop Hornet sortied from Boston, on 13 December, the two American ships arrived off Salvador, Bahia on the coast of Brazil, where they found the British sloop of war HMS Bonne Citoyenne. Commodore William Bainbridge, commanding Constitution, sent a letter to the captain of Bonne Citoyenne, challenging him to fight Hornet, the British captain refused, as his ship was carrying a valuable cargo of bullion. Bainbridge left Hornet to blockade Bonne Citoyenne and cruised to the south, eventually he found and sank the frigate HMS Java. Aboard Hornet, Master Commandant James Lawrence was aware from Portuguese sources that a British ship of the line was expected, on 24 January 1813, HMS Montagu appeared and Lawrence retreated into Portuguese territorial waters. After dark, he headed north along the South American coast, on 14 February, Hornet encountered and captured the British packet brig Resolution, which was carrying twenty thousand dollars in gold and silver. On 24 February, Lawrence pursued a British merchant brig into the mouth of the Demerara River, as evening drew on, Lawrence then noted a British brig-sloop, HMS Espiegle, at anchor in the river, and another, Peacock, approaching from seaward. Hornet beat to windward and gained the advantage of the windward position, Lawrence then tacked, and as Hornet and Peacock passed each other on opposite tacks they exchanged broadsides at half pistol shot. Even at this range, the British fire went high. Some American sailors were killed and wounded at the mastheads, Peacock suffered heavy damage to the hull. Captain Peake of Peacock turned downwind to bring his opposite battery to bear, the starboard bow of Hornet came up against the stern of Peacock from where the British could bring no guns to bear, and from this position, Hornets gunners shattered Peacock in a mere four minutes. Peake was killed, and his First lieutenant surrendered and almost immediately made a distress signal, the British lost 5 men killed and 33 wounded, the Americans lost only one man killed and four wounded, most to Peacocks first broadside. An American prize crew went aboard Peacock and tried to plug the holes below the waterline and throw the guns overboard to lighten the brig, three Americans and nine British sailors were trapped below deck and drowned. Peacock sank in only 33 feet of water, and four British sailors saved themselves by climbing the foremast, four others escaped to the shore in a boat in the confusion. It was said that Captain Peake had concentrated on the appearance of his rather than its fighting efficiency. The survivors of Peacock were taken aboard Hornet, where they joined some other prisoners from captured British merchant vessels, together with some American sailors from a recaptured prize, Hornet was now carrying 277 people. Hornet made for Marthas Vineyard, the nearest point of the American coast known not to be watched by the Royal Navy, even so, all on board were suffering severely from shortage of water when they arrived on 19 March
17.
Battle of Rappahannock River
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The Battle of Rappahannock River was fought in 1813 during the War of 1812. A British force blockading the Rappahannock River of Virginia sent several hundred men in boats to attack four American privateers, ultimately the British were victorious and the American ships were captured. They held several American prizes and were out to capture more so the British commanders prepared a cutting out expedition, on the following day, the British dispatched seventeen, pinnaces, barges, launches, and other boats with a few carronades to sail around the bay. Each boat carried up to fifty marines or sailors mainly armed with steel, while abreast of Windmill Point at about 4,00 pm, the expedition sighted five American vessels and chased them all through the night until losing sight as they passed a turn in the river. Four of the ships were armed schooners under Captain William S. Stafford in the twelve gun Dolphin. The others were Lynx of six guns, Racer of six guns, in all, the American schooners mounted 30 guns with 160 men. Most or all of vessels were built in Baltimore. Captain Stafford had little alternative but to scuttle the schooners or fight and he decided to offer resistance and anchored his ships in line of battle with portside guns facing the mouth of the Rappahannock where the British would originate. The largest of the American ships was Arab of over 380 tons but with a crew of only forty-five men, Dolphin of 300 tons was headmost and she was Captain Staffords flagship, carrying ninety-eight men into battle. When the British came within sight of the American line, they first stopped to wait for the wind, after a few more minutes the wind was still calm so the lieutenant ordered an attack in order to deny the Americans time to prepare defenses or escape. As the British closed range the Americans fired another broadside so Polkinghorne had his men alter course, when the British boats drew near there were three left, two having been hit and sunk by American fire. Racer and Lynx were quickly taken, their crews surrendered as the British climbed on deck, others jumped over the side, when Polkinghorne went for Dolphin, Captain Stafford put up a stubborn fight and it reportedly took fifteen minutes to secure the vessel. Five Americans were wounded before Dolphin struck her colors and ended the battle, though casualties from the other privateers amounted to six killed, by the time the fighting was over the remaining British boats arrived and assisted in taking over 100 prisoners. Polkinghorne reported that two of his men were killed and eleven wounded, including himself. American newspaper reports in Niles Register at first claimed that fifty Britons had been killed, a review by British and American historians later put the British losses at two dead and eleven wounded with American losses as sixteen killed and wounded. The battle lasted in between fifteen minutes and two hours according to various accounts, Captain Stafford later returned to Baltimore. He was treated well in captivity due to his good treatment towards British prisoners from his captured prizes. Lynx was taken into British service as Mosquidobit and was out of the Royal Navy in 1820
18.
Capture of USS Chesapeake
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The Chesapeake was captured in a brief but intense action in which over 80 men were killed. This was the only action of the war in which there was no preponderance of force on either side. Chesapeake suffered early in the exchange of gunfire, having her wheel and fore topsail halyard shot away, Lawrence himself was mortally wounded and was carried below. The American crew struggled to carry out their captains last order, but the British boarding party overwhelmed them. The battle was intense but of short duration, lasting ten to fifteen minutes. Shannons Captain Philip Broke was severely injured in fighting on the forecastle, Chesapeake and her crew were taken to Halifax, Nova Scotia, where the sailors were imprisoned, the ship was repaired and taken into service by the Royal Navy. She was sold at Portsmouth, England in 1819 and broken up, surviving timbers were used to build the nearby Chesapeake Mill in Wickham and can be seen and visited to this day. Shannon survived longer, being broken up in 1859 and he had dispart sights fitted to his 18-pounder long guns, which improved aiming as they compensated for the narrowing of the barrels from the breech to the muzzle. The carronades were similarly treated, but the screws on these cannon were marked in paint. As the decks of contemporary ships curved upwards towards the stern and bows, fire from the whole battery could also be focused on any part of an enemy ship. Broke drilled his crew to a high standard of naval gunnery, he regularly had them fire at targets. Often these drills would be made into competitions to see which gun crew could hit the target and how fast they could do so. He even had his gun fire at targets blindfold to good effect. This constituted an early example of director firing. In addition to these gunnery drills, Broke was fond of preparing hypothetical scenarios to test his crew, for example, after all hands had been drummed to quarters, he would inform them of a theoretical attack and see how they would act to defend the ship. Though the use of cutlasses in training was avoided a method of training called singlestick was regularly practised. It soon developed quickness of eye and wrist, many of the crew became very expert. Commander Lawrence of the United States Navy returned from a successful war cruise having defeated the sloop HMS Peacock and he was promoted to captain for his victory, and received orders to take command of USS Chesapeake
19.
USS Argus (1803)
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The first USS Argus, originally named USS Merrimack, was a brig in the United States Navy commissioned in 1803. She enforced the Embargo Act of 1807 and fought in the First Barbary War – taking part in the blockade of Tripoli and the capture of Derna – and the War of 1812. After a sharp fight during which Arguss captain, Master Commandant William Henry Allen, was mortally wounded, edmund Hartts brother, Joseph Hartt, drafted the plans for the brig, designed with a flush deck and fine lines to optimize her for sailing conditions in the Mediterranean Sea. Captain Edward Preble was appointed superintendent of her construction, and her keel was laid down at Hartts yard on 12 May 1803. Smith found that U. S. Navy officers disliked the name Merrimack for the new brig, and he directed that she be renamed Argus, the first U. S. Navy ship of that name, on 4 June 1803. Decatur recruited her crew and procured her armament from Providence, Rhode Island and her launch day finally came on 20 August 1803, but the attempt to launch her failed when she did not move down the ways. After the ways degree of incline was increased, Argus was successfully launched on 21 August 1803, in service, Argus was reported to sail swiftly and easily, although prone to heavy pitching when lying to. On more than one occasion, observers described her as a handsome ship. Argus set sail from Boston on 8 September 1803, bound for the Mediterranean and she returned to sea on 28 September 1803 and set a course for Gibraltar, where she arrived after a transatlantic voyage on 1 November 1803. There, Decatur exchanged commands with Lieutenant Isaac Hull, relinquishing command of Argus to Hull, during the early part of 1804, she cruised the western Mediterranean in an unsuccessful search for a Tripolitan cruiser reportedly operating in that area. In March 1804, she received orders to join the rest of the squadron off Tripoli, Argus resumed her blockade duties on 7 July 1804. At that point, Preble began preparations for a shore bombardment, heavy weather, however, postponed the action until early August. On 3 August 1804, the squadron moved in to provide support for the gunboats. The squadron conducted another bombardment of Tripoli on 7 August 1804. Two days later, Commodore Preble embarked in Argus to reconnoiter Tripoli harbor, during that mission, Tripolitan shore batteries fired upon Argus, and she was struck below the waterline by a single shot. Fortunately for her, the shot did not pass all the way through her hull, on 28 August 1804, the squadron conducted a third bombardment of the defenses of Tripoli in which its guns inflicted severe damage. A week later, on the night of 4 September 1804, when Intrepid blew up prematurely, killing her entire crew, Argus remained there to pick up survivors, but none had appeared by sunrise when she returned to her blockade station. Through the winter of 1804-1805, Argus alternated between blockade duty off Tripoli and periods in port at Malta and Syracuse, in the spring of 1805, she participated in one of the more celebrated episodes of American naval history, the capture of Derna
20.
Capture of HMS Boxer
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The capture of HMS Boxer in 1813 was a naval battle of the War of 1812, in which the United States Navy brig USS Enterprise defeated the Royal Navy brig HMS Boxer. The ship was sold at auction and continued for at least a decade as a merchantman, however, six US Navy ships would eventually carry the name. Local tradition holds that the battle was visible from the rooftop of a house on Metinic Island. Interestingly, Boxer was in the area having for a fee escorted an American merchantman with Swedish papers from New Brunswick to the Kennebec River, British Commander Samuel Blyth prepared for a fight to the finish, nailing ones flag to the foremast. In Enterprise, Lieutenant William Burrows demonstrated similar resolve and he moved one of his two long 9-pounders from the bow to a stern port, declaring, We are going to fight both ends and both sides of this ship as long as the ends and the sides hold together. The two brigs opened fire, and Blyth was killed during the initial fusillade, and Burrows suffered a mortal wound moments later, the fierce contest ended in 30 minutes with Boxer in ruins. Command of Enterprise passed to Lieutenant Edward McCall, while Lieutenant David McGrery assumed command of the battered Boxer, the dying Lieutenant Burrows declined to accept Commander Blyths sword, directing it be sent to the family of the dead British captain. I am satisfied, I die contented, Lieutenant Burrows exclaimed, McCall went into nearby Portland, Maine with the two ships and the casualties. A court martial found that a number of British seamen had deserted their quarters during the action. Newspapers in the United States rejoiced in another brilliant naval victory, after two days of planning, authorities conducted an impressive state funeral for the two commanders, and they rest side by side in Portlands Eastern Cemetery. Next to them is the grave of Lieutenant Kerwin Waters who suffered mortal wounds as a midshipman during the battle. He was an officer of distinguished merit, having received a sword from government for his conduct under Sir James L. Yeo. Blyth was also one of the pall-bearers of our lamented James Lawrence and it was his fate now to receive like courtesy at the hands of his enemy. His remains, in company with those of the brave Burrows, were brought to Portland and this battle was referenced by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in his poem My Lost Youth, I remember the sea-fight far away, How it thundered oer the tide. And the dead captains, as they lay In their graves, and the sound of that mournful song Goes through me with a thrill, A boys will is the winds will, And the thoughts of youth are long, long thoughts. A Ruinous and Unhappy War, New England and the War of 1812, frost, John The Pictorial Book Of The Commodores, Comprising Lives Of Distinguished Commanders In The Navy Of The United States. British Naval Problems at Halifax During the War of 1812, smith, Joshua M. Battle for the Bay, The War of 1812, pp. 75–91
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