1.
Ultralight backpacking
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Ultralight backpacking is a style of backpacking that emphasizes carrying the lightest and simplest gear safely possible for a given trip. Base pack weight is reduced as much as possible, though reduction of the weight of consumables is also applied. For comparison, traditional backpacking practices often results in base pack weights above 30 pounds, Jardine claimed his first Pacific Crest Trail thru-hike was with a base pack weight of 25 pounds, and by his third PCT thru-hike it was below 9 pounds. By carrying lighter and more equipment, ultralight backpackers aim to cover longer distances per day with less wear and tear on the body. This is particularly useful when through-hiking a long-distance trail, many adherents suggest the following steps, Reduce each items weight. Modifying items to reduce weight, replacing items manufactured using heavy materials with items made from lighter ones. Based upon actual weight to be saved, one can make trades with cost, effectiveness, reliability, lifespan, an implied, but often overlooked, necessity is to first weigh every item and record its weight. Only with precise before and after weights can one optimize total pack weight, omit unnecessary items such as camp chairs, coffee makers, electronic gadgets, multiple items of clothing, etc. For example, four people sleep in a tent, one stove for 2-4 people. Swap gear for skills through reading and practice, the greater ones skills in using the environment and gear, the fewer tools one needs to carry. For example, by knowing where exactly to find water, one needs not carry as much, hiking shoes are often cheaper and lighter than hiking boots. Carry only what youll need for that trip of fuel, sunblock, string, batteries, lotions, try to find items that work well for different tasks, for example a bandana, poncho + tent, hiking + tent poles, wool sock + mittens, etc. Only at this last step, purchase/borrow lighter weight gear, start with the shelter, sleeping, and carrying systems which might include a tent/tarp/bivy, sleeping bag/quilt, sleeping pad, and backpack). Only last, think about a short toothbrush, all these efforts can result in base backpacking weight that is under six pounds. Although focusing on the weight is common, the philosophy of ultralight travel applies to the person. Weight on ones feet requires 4-6x times more energy to move than the weight on ones back. Minimizing footwear weight is the most efficient means to reduce a hikers total calories burned, stress on body, for example, Grandma Gatewood wore Keds rather than army boots. The rain shelter, sleeping system, and backpack are considered to be the three major items carried by backpackers, consequently, reducing the weight of these will reduce overall pack weight
2.
Aircraft flight control system
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Aircraft engine controls are also considered as flight controls as they change speed. The fundamentals of aircraft controls are explained in flight dynamics and this article centers on the operating mechanisms of the flight controls. The basic system in use on aircraft first appeared in a recognizable form as early as April 1908. Throttle controls to control engine speed or thrust for powered aircraft, the control yokes also vary greatly amongst aircraft. Centre sticks also vary between aircraft, some are directly connected to the control surfaces using cables, others have a computer in between which then controls the electrical actuators. Flight control has long been taught in such fashion for decades, as popularized in ab initio instructional books such as the 1944 work Stick. In some aircraft, the surfaces are not manipulated with a linkage. In ultralight aircraft and motorized hang gliders, for example, there is no mechanism at all, instead, the pilot just grabs the lifting surface by hand and moves it. In addition to the flight controls for roll, pitch. Other secondary flight control systems may be available, including slats, spoilers, air brakes, mechanical or manually operated flight control systems are the most basic method of controlling an aircraft. They were used in aircraft and are currently used in small aircraft where the aerodynamic forces are not excessive. Turnbuckles are often used to adjust control cable tension, the Cessna Skyhawk is a typical example of an aircraft that uses this type of system. Gust locks are used on parked aircraft with mechanical systems to protect the control surfaces and linkages from damage from wind. Some aircraft have gust locks fitted as part of the control system and this arrangement can be found on bigger or higher performance propeller aircraft such as the Fokker 50. Some mechanical flight control systems use servo tabs that provide aerodynamic assistance, servo tabs are small surfaces hinged to the control surfaces. The flight control mechanisms move these tabs, aerodynamic forces in turn move and this arrangement was used in early piston-engined transport aircraft and in early jet transports. The Boeing 737 incorporates a system, whereby in the event of total hydraulic system failure. The complexity and weight of mechanical flight control systems increase considerably with the size, hydraulically powered control surfaces help to overcome these limitations
3.
Aileron
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An aileron is a hinged flight control surface usually forming part of the trailing edge of each wing of a fixed-wing aircraft. Ailerons are used in pairs to control the aircraft in roll, movement around this axis is called rolling or banking. The aileron was first patented by the British scientist and inventor Matthew Piers Watt Boulton in 1868, considerable litigation ensued within the United States over the legal issues of lateral roll control, until World War I which compelled the U. S. Government to legislate a legal resolution. The name aileron, from French, meaning wing, also refers to the extremities of a birds wings used to control their flight. It first appeared in print in the 7th edition of Cassells French-English Dictionary of 1877, in the context of powered airplanes it appears in print about 1908. Prior to that, ailerons were often referred to as rudders, their older technical sibling, among the earliest printed aeronautical use of aileron was that in the French aviation journal LAérophile of 1908. He was the first to patent an aileron control system in 1868, Boultons description of his lateral flight control system was both clear and complete. It was the first record we have of appreciation of the necessity for active lateral control as distinguished from, with this invention of Boultons we have the birth of the present-day three torque method of airborne control as was praised by Charles Manly. This was also endorsed by C. H, the fact that the Wright brothers were able to gain a patent in 1906 did not invalidate Boultons lost and forgotten invention. The pioneering U. S. aeronautical engineer Octave Chanute published descriptions and drawings of the Wright brothers 1902 glider in the leading periodical of the day, LAérophile. This prompted Esnault-Pelterie, a French military engineer, to build a Wright-style glider in 1904 that used ailerons in lieu of wing warping. The French journal L’Aérophile then published photos of the ailerons on Esnault-Pelterie’s glider which were included in his June 1905 article, during the early years of powered flight the Wrights had better roll control on their designs than airplanes that used movable surfaces. From 1908, as aileron designs were refined it became clear that ailerons were much more effective, ailerons also had the advantage of not weakening the airplanes wing structure as did the wing warping technique, which was one reason for Esnault-Pelteries decision to switch to ailerons. By 1911 most biplanes used ailerons rather than wing warping - by 1915 ailerons had become almost universal on monoplanes as well, the Wright brothers quietly changed their aircraft flight controls from wing warping to the use of ailerons at that time as well. In 1886 his third glider design used rotation of the wing rather than just a trailing edge portion for roll control. By his own all of these changes in addition to his use of an elevator for pitch control provided entire control of the machine in the wind. Both Bullet prototypes crashed during their first flights when their wings broke off in flight due to flutter as a result of being deliberately unbraced. S, the patents importance lay in its claim of a new and useful method of controlling an airplane. Curiously, John J. Montgomery was granted U. S, Patent 831173 at nearly the same time for his methods of wing warping
4.
Elevator (aeronautics)
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Elevators are flight control surfaces, usually at the rear of an aircraft, which control the aircrafts pitch, and therefore the angle of attack and the lift of the wing. The elevators are usually hinged to the tailplane or horizontal stabilizer and they may be the only pitch control surface present, sometimes located at front or integrated into a rear all-moving tailplane also called a slab elevator or stabilator. The effects of drag and engine thrust may also result in pitch moments that need to be compensated with the horizontal stabilizer, both the horizontal stabilizer and the elevator contribute to pitch stability, but only the elevators provide pitch control. They do so by decreasing or increasing the force created by the stabilizer, an increased downward force, produced by up elevator, forces the tail down. At constant speed, the wing angle of attack causes a greater lift to be produced by the wing, accelerating the aircraft upwards. The drag and power demand also increase, a downward force at the tail, produced by down elevator, allows the tail to rise. At constant speed, the decrease in angle of attack reduces the lift, on many low-speed aircraft, a trim tab is present at the rear of the elevator, which the pilot can adjust to eliminate forces on the control column at the desired attitude and airspeed. Supersonic aircraft have all-moving tailplanes, because shock waves generated on the horizontal stabilizer greatly reduced the effectiveness of hinged elevators, delta winged aircraft combine ailerons and elevators –and their respective control inputs– into one control surface called elevon. Elevators are usually part of the tail, at the rear of an aircraft, in some aircraft, pitch-control surfaces are in the front, ahead of the wing, in a two-surface aircraft, this type of configuration is called a canard or a tandem wing. The Wright Brothers early aircraft were of type, Mignet Pou-du-Ciel. Some early three surface aircraft had front elevators, modern three surface aircraft may have both front and rear elevators and these may be used in many unmanned aerial vehicles and 6th generation fighter aircraft. Two promising approaches are flexible wings, and fluidics, in flexible wings, much or all of a wing surface can change shape in flight to deflect air flow. The X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing is a NASA effort, the Adaptive Compliant Wing is a military and commercial effort. In this use, fluidics promises lower mass, costs, and very low inertia and response times, and simplicity
5.
Rudder
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A rudder is a primary control surface used to steer a ship, boat, submarine, hovercraft, aircraft, or other conveyance that moves through a fluid medium. On an aircraft the rudder is used primarily to counter adverse yaw, a rudder operates by redirecting the fluid past the hull or fuselage, thus imparting a turning or yawing motion to the craft. In basic form, a rudder is a plane or sheet of material attached with hinges to the crafts stern, tail. Often rudders are shaped so as to minimize hydrodynamic or aerodynamic drag, on simple watercraft, a tiller—essentially, a stick or pole acting as a lever arm—may be attached to the top of the rudder to allow it to be turned by a helmsman. In larger vessels, cables, pushrods, or hydraulics may be used to link rudders to steering wheels, in typical aircraft, the rudder is operated by pedals via mechanical linkages or hydraulics. Generally, a rudder is part of the apparatus of a boat or ship that is fastened outside the hull, that is denoting all different types of oars, paddles. More specifically, the gear of ancient vessels can be classified into side-rudders and stern-mounted rudders. A third term, steering oar, can denote both types, in a Mediterranean context, side-rudders are more specifically called quarter-rudders as the later term designates more exactly the place where the rudder was mounted. Stern-mounted rudders are uniformly suspended at the back of the ship in a central position. S, a steering oar was used at this time because the rudder had not yet been invented. With a single sail, a frequent movement of the oar was required to steer a straight course. The steering oar or steering board is an oar or board to control the direction of a ship or other watercraft prior to the invention of the rudder. It is normally attached to the side in larger vessels, though in smaller ones it is rarely, if ever. Rowing oars set aside for steering appeared on large Egyptian vessels long before the time of Menes, in the Old Kingdom as much as five steering oars are found on each side of passenger boats. The tiller, at first a small pin run through the stock of the steering oar, both the tiller and the introduction of an upright steering post abaft reduced the usual number of necessary steering oars to one each side. In Iran, oars mounted on the side of ships for steering are documented from the 3rd millennium BCE in artwork, wooden models, the strength of the steering oar lay in its combination of effectiveness, adaptability and simpleness. Roman quarter steering oar mounting systems survived mostly intact through the medieval period, by the first half of the 1st century AD, steering gear mounted on the stern were also quite common in Roman river and harbour craft as proved from reliefs and archaeological finds. A tomb plaque of Hadrianic age shows a harbour tug boat in Ostia with a long stern-mounted oar for better leverage, interestingly, the boat already featured a spritsail, adding to the mobility of the harbour vessel. Further attested Roman uses of stern-mounted steering oars includes barges under tow, transport ships for wine casks, also, the well-known Zwammerdam find, a large river barge at the mouth of the Rhine, featured a large steering gear mounted on the stern
6.
Hang gliding
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Hang gliding is an air sport or recreational activity in which a pilot flies a light, non-motorized foot-launched heavier-than-air aircraft called a hang glider. Most modern hang gliders are made of an aluminium alloy or composite frame covered with synthetic sailcloth to form a wing, typically the pilot is in a harness suspended from the airframe, and controls the aircraft by shifting body weight in opposition to a control frame. Early hang gliders had a low ratio, so pilots were restricted to gliding down small hills. The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale and national airspace governing organizations control some aspects of hang gliding. Obtaining the safety benefits of being instructed is highly recommended, the earliest forms of gliding had existed in China. By the end of the sixth century A. D. the Chinese had managed to build kites large and it was only a matter of time before someone decided to simply remove the kite strings and see what happened. Most early glider designs did not ensure safe flight, the problem was that early pioneers did not sufficiently understand the underlying principles that made a birds wing work. Starting in the 1880s technical and scientific advancements were made that led to the first truly practical gliders, otto Lilienthal built controllable gliders in the 1890s, with which he could ridge soar. His rigorously documented work influenced later designers, making Lilienthal one of the most influential early aviation pioneers and his aircraft was controlled by weight shift and is similar to a modern hang glider. Hang gliding saw a stiffened flexible wing hang glider in 1904, in 1910 in Breslau, the triangle control frame with hang glider pilot hung behind the triangle in a hang glider, was evident in a gliding clubs activity. In April 1909, a article by Carl S. Volmer Jensen with a biplane hang glider in 1940 called VJ-11 allowed safe three-axis control of a foot-launched hang glider. In 1960-1962 Barry Hill Palmer adapted the flexible wing concept to make foot-launched hang gliders with four different control arrangements, in 1963 Mike Burns adapted the flexible wing to build a towable kite-hang glider he called Skiplane. Since then, the Rogallo wing has been the most used airfoil of hang gliders, there are basically two types of sail materials used in hang glider sails, Woven Polyester Fabrics, and Composite Laminated Fabrics made of some combination of polyester film and polyester fibers. Woven polyester sailcloth is a tight weave of small diameter polyester fibers that has been stabilized by the hot-press impregnation of a polyester resin. The resin impregnation is required to provide resistance to distortion and stretch and this resistance is important in maintaining the aerodynamic shape of the sail. Woven polyester provides the best combination of weight and durability in a sail with the best overall handling qualities. Laminated sail materials using polyester film achieve superior performance by using a stretch material that is better at maintaining sail shape but is still relatively light in weight. In most hang gliders, the control is and has achieved using a horizontal bar held by the pilot, also known as triangle control frame
7.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
8.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
9.
Recreational Aviation Australia
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Recreational Aviation Australia, formerly known as the Australian Ultralight Federation, is the governing body for ultralights in Australia. As of 31 December 2007 RA-Aus had almost 7800 voting members, excluding instructors and students, the members fly an average of 35 hours per year. List of RA-Aus Certified Aircraft Types Official web site
10.
Light-sport aircraft
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In the United States, several distinct groups of aircraft may be flown as light-sport. The accepted consensus standard is defined by ASTM Technical Committee F37, a company must have produced and certified at least one S-LSA in order to be permitted to sell E-LSA kits of the same model. Gross Takeoff Weight,1,320 lbs or 1,430 lbs for seaplanes Max, stall Speed,51 mph /45 knots CAS Max. Landing Gear, Fixed Can be manufactured and sold ready-to-fly under a new Special Light Sport Aircraft certification category, Aircraft must meet industry consensus standards. Aircraft under this certification may be used for sport and recreation, flight training, can be licensed Experimental Light Sport Aircraft if kit- or plans-built. Aircraft under this certification may be used only for sport and recreation, can be licensed Experimental Light Sport Aircraft if the aircraft has previously been operated as an ultralight but does not meet the FAR Part 103 definition of an ultralight vehicle. These aircraft must have been transitioned to E-LSA category no later than January 31,2008, will have a standard FAA registration - N-number. Category and class includes, Airplane, Gyroplane, Airship, Balloon, Weight-Shift-Control, Glider, U. S. or foreign manufacture of light sport aircraft is authorized. Aircraft with an airworthiness certificate that meet above specifications may be flown by sport pilots. However, the aircraft must remain in standard category and cannot be changed to light aircraft category. Several different kinds of aircraft may be certificated as LSA, the US definition of an LSA is similar to some other countries definition of microlight or ultralight aircraft. Except for the LSAs relatively generous MTOW of 1320 pounds, the other countries microlight definitions are less restrictive. By contrast, the US FAA has a definition of ultralight aircraft defined in Federal Aviation Regulations. Ultralight aircraft in the US do not require pilot licensing, medical certification, Aircraft certified as light-sport aircraft exceed the limitations defined for ultralight aircraft and require that the pilot possess, at a minimum, a sport pilot certificate. Several designers and manufacturers of aircraft kits have developed models that are compliant with the light-sport aircraft rules. The FAA announcement said that as a result the policy of reliance on manufacturers Statements of Compliance. AOPA points out that this is a development of a maturing standard and does not expect any significant changes in the rules. Aircraft that met light-sport requirements when the rules were announced appear in FAAs list, Light Sport Aircraft, some additional models of S-LSA, E-LSA and E-AB aircraft that meet light-sport requirements are listed here
11.
Ultralight aircraft (Canada)
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The Canadian Aviation Regulations define two types of ultralight aircraft, basic ultra-light aeroplane, and advanced ultra-light aeroplane. Regulation of ultra-light aircraft in Canada is covered by the Canadian Aviation Regulations, the basic ultralight category was established as a new category in 1982 to fill this gap. Many aircraft are available as AULAs in Canada and LSAs in the United States. For a two place aeroplane, MU =160 +0. 3P, in kg, where P is the engine power in kW, MU =350 +0. 5P, in lb. The maximum empty mass, MEmax, includes all equipment that is actually installed in the aeroplane. It includes the mass of the airframe, powerplant, required equipment, optional and specific equipment, fixed ballast, full engine coolant, hydraulic fluid, hence, the maximum empty mass = maximum take-off mass - minimum useful load. The registration marks for an advanced ultra-light aeroplane after 1997 begin with C-Ixxx, prior to that date they were C-Fxxx or C-Gxxx. Pilots holding a Recreational or higher license may carry a passenger in a two-seat advanced ultra-light aeroplane, pilots with only an ultra-light permit may not carry a passenger in an advanced ultralight unless they have received a passenger carrying endorsement. Basic ultralights cannot carry passengers unless the passenger is another pilot, student pilots undergoing training may be carried in basic ultralights. Canadian Basic and Advanced Ultralights may be flown in the USA if the pilot holds a Recreational Pilot Permit or higher designation, pilots holding an Ultralight Pilot Permit with instructor rating and who have at least 2 hours of cross country experience may also fly to the US. Any Canadian Ultralight flying to the US also requires a Special Flight Operations Certificate from the FAA and this is a form the pilot completes which is then valid for 180 days. Officially this category of aircraft are known in Canada as Ultra-light Aeroplanes although in use the American term Ultralight Airplanes is often used
12.
Pilot licensing in Canada
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Pilot licensing in Canada is administered by Transport Canada under the Aeronautics Act and the Canadian Aviation Regulations. At the end of 2008 there were 64,932 Canadian licences and permits held, giving Canada the second largest population of licensed pilots in the world. The first Canadian private pilots license was issued to James Stanley Scott on January 24,1920, a licence is issued by Transport Canada in accordance with International Civil Aviation Organization licence Standards And Recommended Practices. In April 1920 the first commercial license in Canada was issued to Roland Groome. Pilots with licences from foreign countries that are ICAO contracting states may apply to Transport Canada for a validation of their foreign licence and this allows them to fly Canadian registered aircraft in Canada. A foreign licence may be used to fly an aircraft registered in the state as the licence while in Canada. The term licence in Canada is equivalent to the certificate in the United States. The term licence is used in the United Kingdom. Under the ICAO they are all legally equivalent, the most common type of Canadian licence is the private pilot licence—aeroplane, which is used to fly light general aviation aircraft privately and recreationally. At the end of 2008 there were 27,138 aeroplane and 596 helicopter private pilot licences in force in Canada, the rarest licence or permit in Canada is the gyroplane pilot permit, with only 29 in force at the end of 2008. Every permit and licence has one or more ratings, a rating is a Transport Canada endorsement that grants additional special privileges. For example, a night rating allows a pilot to fly at night, each aircraft model requires different knowledge and skill to fly. For example, a single engine general aviation aircrafts design and operation is different from a gyroplane. Type ratings allow a pilot to fly an aircraft model. The CARs use the type instead of model. Some aircraft are covered by a type rating which is applicable to a grouping of aircraft types. For example, the aeroplanes blanket type rating covers all non-high performance, examples of this type of aircraft are the Cessna 172 and the Piper Cherokee. These are considered similar enough that specific ratings are not required for each type, other aircraft types are covered only by individual type ratings that apply to a single specific model of aircraft
13.
Ultralight aircraft (United States)
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Ultralight aircraft in the United States are much smaller and lighter than ultralight aircraft in all other countries. In the USA ultralights are classified as vehicles and not aircraft and are not required to be registered nor is the pilot required to have a pilot license or certificate. S. S. Operators of ultralight vehicles are not required to meet any aeronautical knowledge, age, ultralight vehicles are not required to be registered or to have registration markings. Ultralight vehicle cannot be flown except between the hours of sunrise and sunset, weight allowances can be made for amphibious landing gear, and ballistic parachute systems. In the United States, while no license or training is required by law for ultralights, training is highly advisable
14.
Stall (fluid mechanics)
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In fluid dynamics, a stall is a reduction in the lift coefficient generated by a foil as angle of attack increases. This occurs when the angle of attack of the foil is exceeded. The critical angle of attack is typically about 15 degrees, but it may vary depending on the fluid, foil. Stalls in fixed-wing flight are often experienced as a reduction in lift as the pilot increases the wings angle of attack. A stall does not mean that the engine have stopped working, vectored thrust in manned and unmanned aircraft is used to surpass the stall limit, thereby giving rise to post-stall technology. Because stalls are most commonly discussed in connection with aviation, this article discusses stalls as they relate mainly to aircraft, the principles of stall discussed here translate to foils in other fluids as well. A stall is a condition in aerodynamics and aviation wherein the angle of attack increases beyond a point such that lift begins to decrease. The angle at which this occurs is called the angle of attack. The critical angle of attack is the angle of attack on the lift coefficient versus angle-of-attack curve at which the lift coefficient occurs. Flow separation begins to occur at angles of attack while attached flow over the wing is still dominant. As angle of attack increases, the regions on the top of the wing increase in size. At the critical angle of attack, separated flow is so dominant that additional increases in angle of attack produce less lift, a fixed-wing aircraft during a stall may experience buffeting or a change in attitude. Most aircraft are designed to have a stall with characteristics that will warn the pilot. For example, an aircraft that does not buffet before the stall may have an alarm or a stick shaker installed to simulate the feel of a buffet by vibrating the stick fore. The buffet margin is, for a set of conditions, the amount of ‘g’. The critical angle of attack in steady straight and level flight can be attained only at low airspeed, attempts to increase the angle of attack at higher airspeeds can cause a high-speed stall or may merely cause the aircraft to climb. Any yaw of the aircraft as it enters the stall regime can result in autorotation, as air no longer flows smoothly over the wings during a stall, aileron control of roll becomes less effective, whilst simultaneously the tendency for the ailerons to generate adverse yaw increases. This characteristic increases the lift from the wing and increases the likelihood of the aircraft entering into a spin
15.
Pilot certification in the United States
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Pilot certification in the United States is typically required for an individual to act as a pilot-in-command of an aircraft. It is regulated by the Federal Aviation Administration, a branch of the U. S. Department of Transportation, a pilot is certified under the authority of Parts 61 or 141 of Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations, also known as the Federal Aviation Regulations. An FAA-issued pilot certificate is evidence that an individual is duly authorized to exercise piloting privileges, the pilot certificate is one of several kinds of airman certificates issued by the FAA. A pilot is certified to fly aircraft at one or more named privilege levels and, at each privilege level, rated to fly aircraft of specific categories. A type rating is required in a make and model of aircraft if the aircraft weighs more than 12,500 lb at takeoff or is powered by one or more turbojet engines. The Boeing 747, Beechcraft Super King Air 350, and the Hawker Hunter are examples of aircraft that require type ratings, to legally operate under instrument flight rules, a pilot can separately add an instrument rating to a private or commercial certificate. An airline transport pilot implicitly holds an instrument rating, so the instrument rating does not appear on an ATP certificate, the FAA issues instrument ratings separately for airplane and powered lift categories and the helicopter class. Glider and airship pilots may also operate under Instrument Flight Rules under certain circumstances, an individual may hold only one pilot certificate at one time, that certificate may authorize multiple privilege levels distinguished by aircraft category, class or type. Similarly a Commercial Pilot holder with a rating may have only Private Pilot privileges for single-engine land airplanes. For example, a holder of a DC-3 type rating who does not demonstrate instrument flying skills during the practical test would be assigned a limitation reading, Pilot certificates do not expire, although they may be suspended or revoked by the FAA. However, a pilot must maintain currency — recent flight experience that is relevant to the flight being undertaken. For most types of certificate, she or he must also undergo an examination at intervals ranging from six months to five years, depending on the pilots age. Other currency requirements apply to the carriage of passengers or to flight under instrument flight rules, a medical certificate is not necessary to fly a glider, balloon, or light-sport Aircraft. An ultralight aircraft may be piloted without a certificate or a medical certificate. Most pilots in the U. S. undergo flight training as private individuals with a flight instructor and those who have decided on aviation as a career often begin with an undergraduate aviation-based education. Some pilots are trained in the military and are issued with civilian certificates based on their military record, others are trained directly by airlines. The pilot may choose to be trained under Part 61 or Part 141 of the FARs, Part 141 requires that a certified flight school provide an approved, structured course of training, which includes a specified number of hours of ground training. Part 61 sets out a list of knowledge and experience requirements, most pilot certificates and ratings require the applicant to pass a knowledge test, also called the written test
16.
Pegasus Quantum
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The Pegasus Quantum is a British two-seat, ultralight trike that was designed and produced by Pegasus Aviation and later by P&M Aviation. The aircraft was supplied as a completed aircraft, as the company rationalized the two aircraft lines, Quantum production ended. By 2012 the manufacturer indicated, This aircraft is no longer in production. Full spares and support are still available, complete aircraft can still be manufactured but by special request only. The Quantum was intended as an up-scale touring trike for long distance flying and it was designed to comply with the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale microlight category, including the categorys maximum gross weight of 450 kg. It is also certified to comply with UK BCAR Section S, the aircraft has a maximum gross weight of 409 kg. It features a cable-braced hang glider-style high-wing, weight-shift controls, a two-seats-in-tandem, open cockpit, tricycle landing gear, the aircraft is made from bolted-together aluminium tubing, with its double-surface Pegasus Q2 wing covered in Dacron sailcloth. Its 10.4 m span wing is supported by a single tube-type kingpost, the Quantum line includes a number of models that incorporate various options packages and engines. Milton explains why he chose the Quantum at the start of planning for the record-circling flight, Quantum 503 The base model, without a cockpit fairing and powered by the Rotax 503, twin cylinder, two-stroke, air-cooled engine of 37 kW. Standard equipment when delivered included in-flight trim, all-wheel suspension and brakes, price in 2000 was US$14,000 ready to fly. Price in 2000 was US$16,500 ready to fly, price in 2000 was US$30,000 ready to fly. Data from Bertrand and P&M Aviation General characteristics Crew, one Capacity, one passenger Wingspan,10.4 m Wing area,15
17.
Ultralight trike
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An ultralight trike is a type of powered hang glider where flight control is by weight-shift. These aircraft have a fabric flex-wing from which is suspended a tricycle fuselage pod driven by a pusher propeller, the pod accommodates either a solo pilot, or a pilot and a single passenger. Trikes grant affordable, accessible and exciting flying, and have been popular since the 1980s, trikes are referred to as microlights in Europe. On 1948, engineer Francis Rogallo invented a self-inflating wing which he patented on March 20,1951, F. Rogallos team adapted and extended the totally flexible principle into semi-rigid variants. This mainly involved stabilizing the leading edges with compressed air beams or rigid structures like aluminum tubes, by 1960 NASA had already made test flights of a powered heavily framed cargo aircraft called the Ryan XV-8 or Fleep and by March 1962, of a weight-shift experimental glider called Paresev. The challenge then, was to modify and fit a Rogallo flexible wing with a frame to allow it to be used as a hang glider. An Australian engineer Mike Burns developed and used the boat-towed Rogallo-airfoiled SkiPlane starting in 1962 through the 1960s, an influence through John Dickensons duplication of his device, who named his flexible-wing ski-kite the Ski Wing. Dickensons Ski Wing turned out to be stable and controllable under tow, the Ski Wing kite was first kited in public at the Grafton Jacaranda Festival in September 1963 by Rod Fuller while towed behind a motorboat. Australian manufacturers like Bill Bennett and Bill Moyes, actively developed and marketed Dickensons innovations to the world, in 1972, Popular Mechanics and Popular Science magazines published articles on hang gliding which further increased its popularity, as the Sky Raiders hang gliding movie released in 1975. Francis Rogallo, Barry Palmer, John Dickenson, and others never made any money out of their innovations, profit to manufacturers of hang gliders and Rogallo-winged hang gliders came once organized and insured sporting events grew in popularity. Dickensons adaptation and innovations eventually produced a foldable hang glider that dramatically reduced difficulty in control, storage, transport, assembly, in addition, the flexible wing lends itself to design changes for possible improvements. In 1961, Engineer Thomas Purcell built a towable Rogallo-wing glider with a frame, wheels. In 1964, Swiss inventor Pierre Aubert saw a photo of NASAs Fleep, as with the Fleep, his Rogallo wing was fixed and did not allow for pendulum weight-shift control. The Paraplane used two West Bend-Chrysler 820 engines of 8 hp at 6000 RPM, reduced to 4700 RPM for about 6.5 hp each, each engine had a direct drive to a 27-inch-diameter two-blade propeller made of polyester and fiberglass. On March 24,1967, Palmer registered the trike with the FAA as the Palmer Parawing D-6, serial number 1A, registration number N7144, no restrictions were noted. It was powered by a 17 hp at 5000 RPM single-cylinder JLO L297 two-stroke engine, driving a propeller designed and built by Palmer himself. The engine had electric start and the craft had fiberglass composite spring landing gear, airframe construction was bolted 6061-T6 aluminum thin-wall tube, with 6061 T-6 extruded angle. The craft took off, flew, and landed at around 30 mph, magallon is thus generally thought to have invented the trike because it was he who first marketed it
18.
Flight Design CT
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The Flight Design CT series is a family of high-wing, tricycle undercarriage, two seat, ultralight and light-sport aircraft produced by Flight Design of Germany. The family includes the original CT and the CT2K, CTSW, CTLS, all models in the series mount a 80 hp Rotax 912UL or 100 hp Rotax 912ULS engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft are of composite construction, with carbon fiber being the primary material and this allows a very aerodynamic shape to the fuselage and very high useful loads. Although the standard and required equipment varies by country, the CTSW has a standard Ballistic Recovery Systems parachute for the airframe. In December 2009 the CTLS was granted a type approval and a production certificate by the Civil Aviation Administration of China, and in 2015. As of June 2012, there were 344 CTs registered in the USA,18 in Canada and 76 in the United Kingdom, one example was used by the Indian Air Force in a round-the-world expedition. Wing Commander Rahul Monga started off on 1 June 2007 and finished the flight on 19 August 2007. The total flight time logged was 247 hours, in 2010 the Air Volunteer Fire Department in Bomberos de Cuenca, Ecuador took delivery of a CTLS for use as an air support unit for fire fighting reconnaissance. The aircraft is based at Mariscal La Mar airport,8,300 feet above sea level, CT Composite Technology - original model, production commenced in 1997. CTLS Light Sport version, announced in 2008 and it improves on the CTSW in several areas, including a revised fuel system, a revised tailplane and upgraded landing gear as well as aerodynamic improvements. MC Metal Concept is a CT-LS fabricated predominantly from steel tubing and aluminium, introduced in July 2008, the MC has a lower cockpit sill for easier entry, is 5-7 knots slower than the LS, has 50 lb less useful load and 500 mi less range. CTLS-Lite CTLS with reduced features, lower empty weight and price US$20,000 lower, introduced at Sun n Fun 2010. CTHL High Lift variant for glider towing and floatplane use, announced at Sun n Fun 2010 and it will be equipped with a turbocharged 115 hp Rotax 914 powerplant, a 12% greater wing area, a larger stabilator and a full-aircraft parachute all as standard equipment. The price is forecast to be US$14,000 higher than the CTLS CTLE Law Enforcement model introduced in 2011 with stabilized camera mount underneath the wing for police surveillance aircraft use. CTLSi Version of the CTLS introduced in 2012 and powered by a Rotax 912 iS engine of 100 hp and this engine improves fuel consumption by 21%. The model has a $12,800 higher price, but that includes the new engine, electric trim, CT Supralight Model for the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale microlight category, with a gross weight of 472.5 kg. The standard engines for this version are 80 hp Rotax 912UL, the 100 hp Rotax 912ULS and the 115 hp Rotax 914 four-stroke powerplants
19.
Powered paragliding
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Powered paragliding, also known as paramotoring or PPG, is a form of ultralight aviation where the pilot wears a motor on their back which provides enough thrust to take off using a paraglider. It can be launched in still air, and on level ground, in many countries, including the United States, powered paragliding is minimally regulated and requires no licence. The ability to fly low and slow safely, the open feel, the minimal equipment and maintenance costs. Powered paragliders usually fly between 15 and 50 mph at altitudes from foot-dragging on the water up to 24, 000+ ft although most flying is done under 500 ft AGL. Due to the slow forward speed and nature of a soft wing, it is not normally in high winds, turbulence. The paramotor, weighing from 45 to 90 pounds is supported by the pilot during takeoff, after a brief run the wing lifts the motor and its harnessed pilot off the ground. After takeoff, the pilot gets into the seat and sits suspended beneath the inflated paraglider wing, control is available using brake toggles for roll and a hand-held throttle for pitch. Prices for a new package vary from approximately 5,000 USD to 13,000 USD. Powered paragliding has seen limited use in the military including insertion of special forces soldiers into specific areas. The Lebanese Airborne regiment adopted this technique in 2008, Powered paragliders are useful as replacements to terrestrial vehicles in difficult terrain. In the spring, when the sea or lakes are frozen, but the ice has begun melting, they cannot be walked, skied, or driven on. Hydrocopters, hovercraft, and aircraft are the ways to travel in such conditions. Furthermore, if the landscape is fractured by small and shallow lakes and bays, as in swamplands, observation and counting of protected species, e. g. Saimaa ringed seal, in such conditions has been conducted using a powered paraglider. Another use that has been demonstrated is the herding of reindeer, although the tundra is open terrain, there are no roads and the terrain is still uneven. A powered parachute can be used instead of a snowmobile or a motorcycle, research estimates that the activity is slightly safer than riding motorcycles and more dangerous than riding in cars. The most likely cause of injury is body contact with a spinning propeller. The next most likely cause of injury is flying into something other than the landing zone, some pilots carry a reserve parachute designed to open in as little as 50 ft. The most likely cause of fatality is drowning and this is one reason why flying activities get restricted from flying sites near noise sensitive areas
20.
Pterodactyl Ascender
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The Pterodactyl designs have their roots in the Manta Fledge hang gliders of the 1970s. The Fledge was designed by Klaus Hill and produced by Manta Products in a series ran from the Fledge I to the IV. The Fledge series were of a type, as opposed to the predominantly flex-wing hang glider designs then common. These designs all featured weight-shift pitch control and tip-rudders for yaw, the tip rudders were controlled by control-bar sliders which deployed one tip rudder at a time to create a yaw. The gliders swept wing then translated the yaw into a rolling motion. The Fledge series were considered to be high performance hang gliders during their run in the 1970s. The aircraft used a mouth-controlled throttle, as both hands were used on the tip rudder twist grips which were retained from the Fledge, the aircraft had no canard or tail and was a true flying wing. Power was supplied by a two-stroke Xenoah engine of 16 horsepower driving a 36-inch propeller and this new design, named the Pterodactyl Fledgling, was first flown in 1977. It is also referred to variously as the Pterodactyl Fledge and Pfledge, the aircraft was first publicly displayed at an ultralight fly-in at Gilroy, California in 1978. McCornack formed Pterodactyl Limited to produce a version of the design. At the convention they were invited by Mother Earth News magazine to fly the aircraft on to the Atlantic coast on pure ethanol supplied by the magazine, the flight from coast to coast was one of the longest trips of the period and garnered much attention for the start-up company. Limited production of the version flown to Oshkosh started in the fall of 1979, the model was called the Pterodactyl Pfledge OR and was powered by a Sachs SA-340336 cc direct drive two-stroke engine. Fittings to join the tubing was either extruded or made from sheet, the sails came in a wide variety of colour combinations. The new location was ideal as it included access to the Monterey Bay Academy Airport, the design went through a series of evolutionary improvements, mostly involving the powerplants installed and these resulted in a number of different models. Pterodactyl production commenced in 1979 and was completed in 1984, when the company was sold to a group of partners under the name Freedom Fliers and moved to Rowlett, the company quickly went out of business, and few aircraft were completed. McCornack was never paid for the sale of the company, a total of 1,396 aircraft were built by Pterodactyl. In 1991 one of McCornacks original dealers from 1978, Dave Froble and he located and purchased the old stock of Manta Products airframe parts and produced CAD drawings for the complete parts. In 1992 Froble started making parts available and later offered kits for aircraft in three models under the company name DFE Ultralights
21.
Ultraflight Lazair
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The Ultraflight Lazair is a family of Canadian designed and built twin-engine ultralight aircraft that were sold in kit form between 1979 and 1984. With a total production of over 2000 aircraft delivered the Lazair series is the most produced Canadian-designed aircraft, the designer of the Lazair, Dale Kramer, was an aeronautical engineering student at the University of Toronto when he attended the Oshkosh EAA convention in 1977. He was very impressed with the potential of the aircraft designs that he saw there. Convinced that improvements to the design were possible, Kramer started with a sheet of paper and designed a completely new aircraft. The design features a constant taper wing with a progressive and constant washout from root to tip, combined with an airfoil that is cambered with concave portions on both the top and bottom surfaces, this produced an aircraft with optimized low-speed handling and very gentle stall characteristics. The wing is constructed from an aluminum D cell leading edge, foam ribs, the aircraft also featured some of the first winglets used on light aircraft. The very long wing made the Lazair a good glider, giving it a 12,1 glide ratio, Kramer named the aircraft “Lazair” as a contraction of “Lazy-Air”, a comment on the slow cruise speed of the aircraft, which was about 40 mph. After the Mylar proved to have a service life due to UV damage, it was replaced by a more expensive product. For control run simplicity the control stick pivot point was located above the pilot with the stick hanging downwards, the ailerons and ruddervators on the inverted V-tail were interconnected so that turns were made with connected rudder and aileron by moving the stick to the side. Pitch control was via conventional fore-and-aft stick movement moving the ruddervators together as elevators, the entire concept was to produce an aircraft that would fly with minimum power and so the prototype had two chainsaw engines that produced a total of 11 hp. The first Lazair prototype was constructed by Kramer and his friend and associate Peter Corley, Kramer formed Ultraflight Aircraft to produce the design in his home town of Port Colborne, Ontario. Sales commenced in 1979 through the subsidiary Ultraflight Aircraft Sales, Series I The first Lazairs were originally marketed just under the model name Lazair, but were later termed “Series I” after improved models had appeared. The initial model Lazair was a single-seater with a 36. 3-foot wingspan and was powered by two 5.5 hp 100 cc Pioneer chainsaw engines, directly driving plastic propellers in tractor configuration. The main landing gear used 16-inch wheels with a track of just 26 inches, tail skids were fitted to the inverted V-tail. Series II There was customer demand for putting the Lazair on floats, the solution was to substitute 9.5 horsepower Rotax 185 engines. These single-cylinder engines were used extensively in forest fire fighting water pumps and had proved reliable in that application, the propellers were the same plastic units used on the Series I with its 5.5 hp engines. To absorb the greater power two propellers were stacked to form a “biplane propeller” and this was done because Ultraflight had ample supplies of the existing propellers and using them saved money over developing a new propeller. During the production of the Series II the tail skids were replaced with wheels and later on
22.
BoPET
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A variety of companies manufacture boPET and other polyester films under different brand names. In the UK and US, the most well-known trade names are Mylar, Melinex, BoPET film was developed in the mid-1950s, originally by DuPont, Imperial Chemical Industries and Hoechst. In 1964, NASA launched Echo II and it was a 40 m diameter balloon constructed from a 0. 35mil thick mylar film sandwiched between two layers of 0.18 mil thick aluminum foil and bonded together. The manufacturing process begins with a film of polyethylene terephthalate being extruded onto a chill roll. It is then biaxially oriented by drawing and it is also possible to draw the film in both directions simultaneously, although the equipment required for this is somewhat more elaborate. Draw ratios are typically around 3 to 4 in each direction, once the drawing is completed, the film is heat set or crystallized under tension in the oven at temperatures typically above 200 °C. The heat setting step prevents the film from shrinking back to its original unstretched shape, the orientation of the polymer chains is responsible for the high strength and stiffness of biaxially oriented PET film, which has a typical Youngs modulus of about 4 GPa. Another important consequence of the orientation is that it induces the formation of many crystal nuclei. The crystallites that grow rapidly reach the boundary of the neighboring crystallite, as a result, biaxially oriented PET film has excellent clarity, despite its semicrystalline structure. To make handling possible, microscopic inert inorganic particles are embedded in the PET to roughen the surface of the film. Biaxially oriented PET film can be metallized by vapor deposition of a film of evaporated aluminium, gold. The result is less permeable to gases and reflects up to 99% of light. For some applications like food packaging, the aluminized boPET film can be laminated with a layer of polyethylene, the polyethylene side of such a laminate appears dull and the PET side shiny. Other coatings, such as indium tin oxide, can be applied to boPET film by sputter deposition. Uses for boPET polyester films include, but are not limited to, Laminates containing metallized boPET foil protect food against oxidation and aroma loss, examples are coffee foil packaging and pouches for convenience foods. White boPET web substrate is used as lidding for dairy goods such as yogurt, clear boPET web substrate is used as lidding for fresh or frozen ready meals. Due to its excellent heat resistance, it can remain on the package during microwave or oven heating, for protecting the spine of important documents, such as medical records. Metallized boPET film emergency blankets conserve a shock victims body heat, as a thin strip to form an airtight seal between the control surfaces and adjacent structure of aircraft, especially gliders
23.
Air Creation Tanarg
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The Air Creation Tanarg is a French ultralight trike, designed and produced by Air Creation of Aubenas. The aircraft is supplied as complete ready-to-fly-aircraft, in the United Kingdom the Tanarg is amateur-built from kits supplied by Air Creation. It is also an accepted Special Light-Sport Aircraft in the United States, the aircraft is made from mixed constriction, with bolted-together aluminum tubing, composites and carbon fibre panels, with its double surface wing covered in Dacron sailcloth. With the BioniX wing it has a 9.85 m span that is supported by a single tube-type kingpost and uses an A frame weight-shift control bar. With the 912 engine the aircraft has an empty weight of 249 kg, with full fuel of 70 litres the payload is 183 kg. A number of different wings can be fitted to the trike, including the Air Creation iXess, Air Creation Nuvix, Air Creation Fun
24.
Powered hang glider
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A foot-launched powered hang glider, also called powered harness, nanolight, or hangmotor, is a powered hang glider harness with a motor and propeller in pusher configuration. Inventors from Australia, France and England produced several successful microlight motor gliders in the early 1970s, surprisingly, what really launched the powered ultralight aviation movement in the United States was not the Rogallo flexible wing but a whole series of rigid-wing motorized hang gliders. The Icarus V flying wing appeared with its tip rudders and swept-back style wing was used as a base for some powered experiments. Hang gliding record holder Don Mitchell fitted his BF-10 with a motor, though he used the pilots legs as undercarriage. In 1963 and during his time, aeronautical engineer Barry Palmer built and experimented with a foot-launched powered hang glider at Bloomfield. However, the engine was underpowered and the craft could not achieve flight. It is now estimated that a modern flexible Rogallo wing hang glider requires at least 6 hp at the prop shaft, during 1967 Barry Palmer built what is likely the first weight-shift powered trike aircraft. On March 15,1975 John Moody successfully added a 12.5 hp West Bend engine with a 71 cm propeller to an UFM Easy Riser biplane hang glider designed by Larry Mauro. Moody opened the throttle and ran until he lifted from the surface of a lake west of Racine, Wisconsin. Later he added wheels to the aircraft and by the end of 1979, there were almost 100 competing companies selling powered ultralights, in 1979, a powered backpack called the Motolotnia - White Eagle, designed by Jerzy Kolecki, became available for sale. Other powered harnesses to reach the market in the 1980s were The Ranger, as of 2008, there are a few harness designs similar to the Swedish Aerosport Mosquito each sporting unique strengths, and produced by other FLPHG manufacturers. The latest generation of powered harnesses bear names such as Wasp, Flylight Doodle Bug, Raven, X1, Zenon, Airtime Explorer, Fillo, unofficial FLPHG World Records - Confirmed but not validated by the FAI. On 5 August 1978 French pioneer Bernard Danis mated a Soarmaster unit to this 168 square feet SK 2SS wing,1978, David Cook becomes the first pilot to cross the English Channel while flying on a foot-launched powered hang glider, he used a VJ 23F glider. The unit, including glider, was heavier than the Soarmaster and Olympus glider combination. The hang glider was a Hiway Super Scorpion with a 10 hp McCulloch 125 cc engine mounted on the keel just forward of the hang strap, the journey was plagued with mechanical failures but Breen overcame them and completed the trip. For the most part, he relied on the sun and wind for propulsion in order to teach the young cranes to soar long distances and this exhausting $250,000 USD experiment lasted for six months and finished in winter 2002. On May 24,2009, Irish pilot Patrick Laverty broke the foot-launched powered hang glider altitude world record. He used an Aeros Discus 15 hang glider coupled to a supine custom-made harness equipped with a 29 hp ROS125 engine with the Supa-Tuna tuning lights system on a WB32 carburettor
25.
Federal Aviation Administration
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The Federal Aviation Administration of the United States is a national authority with powers to regulate all aspects of civil aviation. The FAAs roles include, Regulating U. S, each LOB has a specific role within the FAA. Airports — plans and develops projects involving airports, overseeing their construction, Air Traffic Organization — primary duty is to safely and efficiently move air traffic within the National Airspace System. ATO employees manage air traffic facilities including Airport Traffic Control Towers, Aviation Safety — Responsible for aeronautical certification of personnel and aircraft, including pilots, airlines, and mechanics. Commercial Space Transportation — ensures protection of U. S. assets during the launch or reentry of commercial space vehicles, the FAA is headquartered in Washington, D. C. as well as the William J. The newly created Aeronautics Branch, operating under the Department of Commerce assumed primary responsibility for aviation oversight, in fulfilling its civil aviation responsibilities, the Department of Commerce initially concentrated on such functions as safety regulations and the certification of pilots and aircraft. It took over the building and operation of the system of lighted airways. The Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce in 1934 to reflect its status within the Department. As commercial flying increased, the Bureau encouraged a group of airlines to establish the first three centers for providing air traffic control along the airways, in 1936, the Bureau itself took over the centers and began to expand the ATC system. The pioneer air traffic controllers used maps, blackboards, and mental calculations to ensure the separation of aircraft traveling along designated routes between cities. In 1938, the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the civil aviation responsibilities from the Commerce Department to a new independent agency. The legislation also expanded the role by giving them the authority. President Franklin D. Roosevelt split the authority into two agencies in 1940, the Civil Aeronautics Administration and the Civil Aeronautics Board, CAA was responsible for ATC, airman and aircraft certification, safety enforcement, and airway development. CAB was entrusted with safety regulation, accident investigation, and economic regulation of the airlines, the CAA was part of the Department of Commerce. The CAB was an independent federal agency, on the eve of Americas entry into World War II, CAA began to extend its ATC responsibilities to takeoff and landing operations at airports. This expanded role eventually became permanent after the war, the application of radar to ATC helped controllers in their drive to keep abreast of the postwar boom in commercial air transportation. The approaching era of jet travel, and a series of midair collisions and this legislation gave the CAAs functions to a new independent body, the Federal Aviation Agency. The act transferred air safety regulation from the CAB to the new FAA, the FAAs first administrator, Elwood R. Quesada, was a former Air Force general and adviser to President Eisenhower
26.
FAR 103 Ultralight Vehicles
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Ultralight aircraft in the United States are much smaller and lighter than ultralight aircraft in all other countries. In the USA ultralights are classified as vehicles and not aircraft and are not required to be registered nor is the pilot required to have a pilot license or certificate. S. S. Operators of ultralight vehicles are not required to meet any aeronautical knowledge, age, ultralight vehicles are not required to be registered or to have registration markings. Ultralight vehicle cannot be flown except between the hours of sunrise and sunset, weight allowances can be made for amphibious landing gear, and ballistic parachute systems. In the United States, while no license or training is required by law for ultralights, training is highly advisable
27.
Fixed-wing aircraft
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A fixed-wing aircraft is an aircraft, such as an aeroplane, which is capable of flight using wings that generate lift caused by the vehicles forward airspeed and the shape of the wings. Fixed-wing aircraft are distinct from rotary-wing aircraft, in which the form a rotor mounted on a spinning shaft. Glider fixed-wing aircraft, including free-flying gliders of various kinds and tethered kites, powered fixed-wing aircraft that gain forward thrust from an engine include powered paragliders, powered hang gliders and some ground effect vehicles. The wings of an aircraft are not necessarily rigid, kites, hang-gliders, variable-sweep wing aircraft. Most fixed-wing aircraft are flown by a pilot on board the aircraft, kites were used approximately 2,800 years ago in China, where materials ideal for kite building were readily available. Some authors hold that leaf kites were being flown much earlier in what is now Indonesia, by at least 549 AD paper kites were being flown, as it was recorded in that year a paper kite was used as a message for a rescue mission. Ancient and medieval Chinese sources list other uses of kites for measuring distances, testing the wind, lifting men, signaling, and communication for military operations. Stories of kites were brought to Europe by Marco Polo towards the end of the 13th century, although they were initially regarded as mere curiosities, by the 18th and 19th centuries kites were being used as vehicles for scientific research. This machine may have been suspended for its flight, some of the earliest recorded attempts with gliders were those by the 9th-century poet Abbas Ibn Firnas and the 11th-century monk Eilmer of Malmesbury, both experiments injured their pilots. In 1799, Sir George Cayley set forth the concept of the aeroplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion. Cayley was building and flying models of fixed-wing aircraft as early as 1803, in 1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made the first powered flight, by having his glider LAlbatros artificiel pulled by a horse on a beach. In 1884, the American John J. Montgomery made controlled flights in a glider as a part of a series of gliders built between 1883-1886, other aviators who made similar flights at that time were Otto Lilienthal, Percy Pilcher, and Octave Chanute. In the 1890s, Lawrence Hargrave conducted research on wing structures and his box kite designs were widely adopted. Although he also developed a type of aircraft engine, he did not create. Sir Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, in 1894, his machine was tested with overhead rails to prevent it from rising. The test showed that it had enough lift to take off, the craft was uncontrollable, which Maxim, it is presumed, realized, because he subsequently abandoned work on it. By 1905, the Wright Flyer III was capable of fully controllable, stable flight for substantial periods, the flight was certified by the FAI. This was the first controlled flight, to be officially recognised, the Bleriot VIII design of 1908 was an early aircraft design that had the modern monoplane tractor configuration
28.
Airplane
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An airplane or aeroplane is a powered, fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward by thrust from a jet engine or propeller. Airplanes come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and wing configurations, the broad spectrum of uses for airplanes includes recreation, transportation of goods and people, military, and research. Commercial aviation is a massive industry involving the flying of tens of thousands of daily on airliners. Most airplanes are flown by a pilot on board the aircraft, the Wright brothers invented and flew the first airplane in 1903, recognized as the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight. They built on the works of George Cayley dating from 1799, between 1867 and 1896, the German pioneer of human aviation Otto Lilienthal also studied heavier-than-air flight. Following its limited use in World War I, aircraft continued to develop. Airplanes had a presence in all the battles of World War II. The first jet aircraft was the German Heinkel He 178 in 1939, the first jet airliner, the de Havilland Comet, was introduced in 1952. The Boeing 707, the first widely successful commercial jet, was in service for more than 50 years. Aéroplane originally referred just to the wing, as it is a plane moving through the air, in an example of synecdoche, the word for the wing came to refer to the entire aircraft. In the United States and Canada, the airplane is used for powered fixed-wing aircraft. In the United Kingdom and most of the Commonwealth, the aeroplane is usually applied to these aircraft. Many stories from antiquity involve flight, such as the Greek legend of Icarus and Daedalus, and this machine may have been suspended for its flight. Some of the earliest recorded attempts with gliders were those by the 9th-century poet Abbas ibn Firnas, leonardo da Vinci researched the wing design of birds and designed a man-powered aircraft in his Codex on the Flight of Birds. In 1799, George Cayley set forth the concept of the airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion. Cayley was building and flying models of fixed-wing aircraft as early as 1803, in 1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made the first powered flight, by having his glider LAlbatros artificiel pulled by a horse on a beach. Then Alexander F. Mozhaisky also made some innovative designs, in 1883, the American John J. Montgomery made a controlled flight in a glider. Other aviators who made similar flights at that time were Otto Lilienthal, Percy Pilcher, sir Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, with a 110-foot wingspan that was powered by two 360-horsepower steam engines driving two propellers
29.
Powered parachute
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A powered parachute often abbreviated PPC and also called a motorised parachute or paraplane is a type of ultralight aircraft that consists of a parachute with a motor and wheels. The aircrafts airspeed is typically about 25–35 mph, PPCs operate safely at heights ranging from a few feet off the ground to altitudes as high as 10, 000+ feet. But typical operating heights are between 500 and 1500 feet, equipped with the standard 5 or 10 gallon fuel tank, PPCs can typically be flown for about three hours. They have very short take-off and landing rolls, sometimes less than 100 ft. PPCs are among the least expensive aerial vehicles, a new one-person powered parachute may cost as little as $5,000, though double-seaters more typically cost about $10,000. Top end two-seater PPCs usually cost $15, 000–$25,000, empty weight is typically around 200–300 lb and payload can be upwards of 500 lb. In the United States, most single place PPCs are flown under part 103 of the Federal Aviation Regulations and, therefore, flight instruction is, however, highly recommended, and an average student can learn to fly a PPC safely with 5 to 10 hours of flight instruction. Two-seat PPCs are light aircraft in the United States. The pilot must have at least a sport pilot certificate issued by the FAA to fly them, a minimum of 10 hours of flight instruction, and 2 hours of solo as a student pilot, is required to obtain this certificate. Powered parachuting is not to be confused with powered paragliding, PPCs are often considered to be safer than normal fixed-wing aircraft because of their inherent stability, limited response to control inputs, and stall resistance. If the trailing edge of the wing is pulled in on both sides at the time, the aircraft flares, i. e. slows. The flare is used to make fine adjustments in altitude when flying close to the ground and, in particular. The power-off glide ratio of a powered parachute ranges from 3,1 to 6,1, glide ratio varies depending on the chute size and shape, and the weight that the chute is carrying. Engine-off landings are generally safe, provided that the aircraft is within range of a suitable landing zone. Flaring, in terms of powered parachuting, refers to the usage of the steering bars pushed out simultaneously and this is caused by the reshaping of the rear of the wing or parachute, which is pulled downwards. This results in the entire aircraft rocking on the axis, thus slowing the aircraft momentarily. Done properly, flaring will allow a landing to be much smoother than simply relying on the lift of the ram-air canopy to cushion the landing. Although possible, it is difficult to cause the aircraft to get into an attitude, stall. Chute collapse is considered by many pilots to be impossible with square wings
30.
Powered paraglider
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Powered paragliding, also known as paramotoring or PPG, is a form of ultralight aviation where the pilot wears a motor on their back which provides enough thrust to take off using a paraglider. It can be launched in still air, and on level ground, in many countries, including the United States, powered paragliding is minimally regulated and requires no licence. The ability to fly low and slow safely, the open feel, the minimal equipment and maintenance costs. Powered paragliders usually fly between 15 and 50 mph at altitudes from foot-dragging on the water up to 24, 000+ ft although most flying is done under 500 ft AGL. Due to the slow forward speed and nature of a soft wing, it is not normally in high winds, turbulence. The paramotor, weighing from 45 to 90 pounds is supported by the pilot during takeoff, after a brief run the wing lifts the motor and its harnessed pilot off the ground. After takeoff, the pilot gets into the seat and sits suspended beneath the inflated paraglider wing, control is available using brake toggles for roll and a hand-held throttle for pitch. Prices for a new package vary from approximately 5,000 USD to 13,000 USD. Powered paragliding has seen limited use in the military including insertion of special forces soldiers into specific areas. The Lebanese Airborne regiment adopted this technique in 2008, Powered paragliders are useful as replacements to terrestrial vehicles in difficult terrain. In the spring, when the sea or lakes are frozen, but the ice has begun melting, they cannot be walked, skied, or driven on. Hydrocopters, hovercraft, and aircraft are the ways to travel in such conditions. Furthermore, if the landscape is fractured by small and shallow lakes and bays, as in swamplands, observation and counting of protected species, e. g. Saimaa ringed seal, in such conditions has been conducted using a powered paraglider. Another use that has been demonstrated is the herding of reindeer, although the tundra is open terrain, there are no roads and the terrain is still uneven. A powered parachute can be used instead of a snowmobile or a motorcycle, research estimates that the activity is slightly safer than riding motorcycles and more dangerous than riding in cars. The most likely cause of injury is body contact with a spinning propeller. The next most likely cause of injury is flying into something other than the landing zone, some pilots carry a reserve parachute designed to open in as little as 50 ft. The most likely cause of fatality is drowning and this is one reason why flying activities get restricted from flying sites near noise sensitive areas
31.
Autogyro
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While similar to a helicopter rotor in appearance, the autogyros rotor must have air flowing through the rotor disc to generate rotation. Invented by the Spanish engineer Juan de la Cierva to create an aircraft that could fly safely at low speeds, De la Ciervas aircraft resembled the fixed-wing aircraft of the day, with a front-mounted engine and propeller in a tractor configuration to pull the aircraft through the air. Under license from Cierva in the 1920s and 1930s, the Pitcairn & Kellett companies made further innovations, late-model autogyros patterned after Etienne Dormoys Buhl A-1 Autogyro and Igor Bensens designs feature a rear-mounted engine and propeller in a pusher configuration. The latter term was adopted as a trademark by Bensen Aircraft. An autogyro is characterized by a rotor that turns because of the passage of air through the rotor from below. The vertical component of the total aerodynamic reaction of the rotor gives lift for the vehicle, because the craft must be moving forward in order to force air through the overhead rotor, autogyros are generally not capable of vertical takeoff or landing. A few types have short takeoff or landing. Pitch control is achieved by tilting the rotor fore and aft, three designs to affect the tilt of the rotor are a tilting hub, swashplate, or servo-flaps. On pusher configuration autogyros, the rudder is placed in the propeller slipstream to maximize yaw control at low airspeed. There are three primary flight controls, control stick, rudder pedals, and throttle, typically, the control stick is termed the cyclic and tilts the rotor in the desired direction to provide pitch and roll control. The rudder pedals provide yaw control, and the throttle controls engine power, collective pitch controls are not usually fitted to autogyros, but can be found on the Air & Space 18A and McCulloch J-2 and the Westermayr Tragschrauber and are capable of near VTOL performance. Unlike a helicopter, autogyros without collective pitch or another jump start facility need a runway to take off, however, like helicopters, each autogyro has a specific height–velocity diagram for safest operation, although the dangerous area is usually smaller than for helicopters. So-called tipjets, actually hydrogen peroxide rockets, are placed at the tips of the rotor, the rockets are used only during takeoff and emergency landing, so they do not consume much propellant. Furthermore, the weight and engine power may be reduced by half because a smaller engine is needed for takeoff. The Fairey Jet Gyrodyne and Fairey Rotodyne had true tipjets instead of the rockets and they were technically successful but were not mass-produced due to concerns about tipjet noise. Modern autogyros typically follow one of two basic configurations, the most common design is the pusher configuration, where the engine and propeller are located behind the pilot and rotor mast, such as in the Bensen Gyrocopter. It was developed by Igor Bensen in the decades following World War II, less common today is the tractor configuration. In this version, the engine and propeller are located at the front of the aircraft, ahead of the pilot and this was the primary configuration in early autogyros, but became less common after the advent of the helicopter
32.
Autorotation
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The term autorotation dates to a period of early helicopter development between 1915 and 1920, and refers to the rotors turning without the engine. It is analogous to the flight of a fixed-wing aircraft. The most common use of autorotation in helicopters is to land the aircraft in the event of an engine failure or tail-rotor failure. It is an emergency procedure taught to helicopter pilots as part of their training. It is the means by which a helicopter can land safely in the event of engine failure. Consequently, all single-engine helicopters must demonstrate this capability to obtain a type certificate, the longest autorotation in history was performed by Jean Boulet in 1972 when he reached a record altitude of 12,440 m in an Aérospatiale Lama. Because of a −63 °C temperature at that altitude, as soon as he reduced power the engine flamed out, by using autorotation he was able to land the aircraft safely. The freewheeling unit is a clutch mechanism that disengages anytime the engine rotational speed is less than the rotor rotational speed. If the engine fails, the unit automatically disengages the engine from the main rotor allowing the main rotor to rotate freely. If altitude permits, autorotations may also be used to recover from vortex ring state, in all cases, a successful landing depends on the helicopters height and velocity at the commencement of autorotation. At the instant of failure, the main rotor blades are producing lift and thrust from their angle of attack. This upward flow of air through the rotor provides sufficient thrust to maintain rotor rotational speed throughout the descent, since the tail rotor is driven by the main rotor transmission during autorotation, heading control is maintained as in normal flight. Several factors affect the rate of descent in autorotation, density altitude, gross weight, rotor rotational speed, the pilots primary control of the rate of descent is airspeed. Higher or lower airspeeds are obtained with the pitch control just as in normal flight. Rate of descent is high at zero airspeed and decreases to a minimum at approximately 50 to 90 knots, depending upon the particular helicopter, as the airspeed increases beyond the speed that gives minimum rate of descent, the rate of descent increases again. Even at zero airspeed, the rotor is quite effective as it has nearly the drag coefficient of a parachute despite having much lower solidity. When landing from an autorotation, the energy stored in the rotating blades is used to decrease the rate of descent. A greater amount of energy is required to stop a helicopter with a high rate of descent than is required to stop a helicopter that is descending more slowly
33.
Helicopter
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A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by rotors. This allows the helicopter to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forward, backward and these attributes allow helicopters to be used in congested or isolated areas where fixed-wing aircraft and many forms of VTOL aircraft cannot perform. English language nicknames for helicopter include chopper, copter, helo, heli, Helicopters were developed and built during the first half-century of flight, with the Focke-Wulf Fw 61 being the first operational helicopter in 1936. Some helicopters reached limited production, but it was not until 1942 that a helicopter designed by Igor Sikorsky reached full-scale production, with 131 aircraft built. Though most earlier designs used more than one rotor, it is the single main rotor with anti-torque tail rotor configuration that has become the most common helicopter configuration. Tandem rotor helicopters are also in use due to their greater payload capacity. Coaxial helicopters, tiltrotor aircraft, and compound helicopters are all flying today, quadcopter helicopters pioneered as early as 1907 in France, and other types of multicopter have been developed for specialized applications such as unmanned drones. The earliest references for vertical flight came from China, since around 400 BC, Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys. This bamboo-copter is spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor, the spinning creates lift, and the toy flies when released. The 4th-century AD Daoist book Baopuzi by Ge Hong reportedly describes some of the ideas inherent to rotary wing aircraft, designs similar to the Chinese helicopter toy appeared in Renaissance paintings and other works. In the 18th and early 19th centuries Western scientists developed flying machines based on the Chinese toy. It was not until the early 1480s, when Leonardo da Vinci created a design for a machine that could be described as an aerial screw, that any recorded advancement was made towards vertical flight. His notes suggested that he built flying models, but there were no indications for any provision to stop the rotor from making the craft rotate. As scientific knowledge increased and became accepted, people continued to pursue the idea of vertical flight. In July 1754, Russian Mikhail Lomonosov had developed a small coaxial modeled after the Chinese top but powered by a spring device. It was powered by a spring, and was suggested as a method to lift meteorological instruments. Sir George Cayley, influenced by a fascination with the Chinese flying top, developed a model of feathers, similar to that of Launoy and Bienvenu. By the end of the century, he had progressed to using sheets of tin for rotor blades and his writings on his experiments and models would become influential on future aviation pioneers
34.
Hot air balloon
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A hot air balloon is a lighter than air aircraft consisting of a bag, called an envelope, which contains heated air. Suspended beneath is a gondola or wicker basket, which carries passengers, the heated air inside the envelope makes it buoyant since it has a lower density than the colder air outside the envelope. As with all aircraft, hot air balloons cannot fly beyond the atmosphere, unlike gas balloons, the envelope does not have to be sealed at the bottom, since the air near the bottom of the envelope is at the same pressure as the surrounding air. In modern sport balloons the envelope is made from nylon fabric. The hot air balloon is the first successful human-carrying flight technology, the first hot-air balloon flown in the Americas was launched from the Walnut Street Jail in Philadelphia on January 9,1793 by the French aeronaut Jean Pierre Blanchard. Hot air balloons that can be propelled through the air rather than simply drifting with the wind are known as thermal airships, early unmanned hot air balloons were used in China. Zhuge Liang of the Shu Han kingdom, during the Three Kingdoms era and these lanterns are known as Kongming lanterns. Later that same day, Pilatre de Rozier became the human to ascend into the air, reaching an altitude of 26 m. The first free flight with passengers was made a few weeks later. King Louis XVI had originally decreed that condemned criminals would be the first pilots, the first military use of a hot air balloon happened in 1794 during the battle of Fleurus, when the French used the balloon lEntreprenant for observation. Modern hot air balloons, with a heat source, were developed by Ed Yost, beginning during the 1950s, his work resulted in his first successful flight. The first modern hot air balloon to be made in the United Kingdom was the Bristol Belle, presently, hot air balloons are used primarily for recreation. Hot air balloons are able to fly to extremely high altitudes, on November 26,2005 Vijaypat Singhania set the world altitude record for highest hot air balloon flight, reaching 21,027 m. He took off from downtown Mumbai, India, and landed 240 km south in Panchale, the previous record of 19,811 m had been set by Per Lindstrand on June 6,1988, in Plano, Texas. With a volume of 74 thousand cubic meters, the envelope was the largest ever built for a hot air craft. Designed to fly in the jet streams, the Pacific Flyer recorded the fastest ground speed for a manned balloon at 245 mph. The longest duration record was set by Swiss psychiatrist Bertrand Piccard, Auguste Piccards grandson and it was the first nonstop trip around the world by balloon. The balloon left Château-dOex, Switzerland, on March 1,1999, the two men exceeded distance, endurance, and time records, traveling 19 days,21 hours, and 55 minutes
35.
Hopper balloon
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A hopper balloon is a small, one-person hot air balloon. Unlike a conventional hot air balloon where people ride inside a basket, instead, the hopper pilot usually sits on a seat or wears a harness similar to a parachute harness. Hoppers are typically flown for recreation and these aircraft are sometimes called Cloud Hoppers or Cloudhoppers. However, these terms refer to the products of a particular manufacturer. Nonetheless, Cloudhopper is used by people as a genericized trademark. Most hopper balloons have envelopes that range in volume from 14,000 to 35,000 cubic feet and have a flight duration of 1 to 1.5 hours. The two principal commercial balloon manufacturers today offering hopper balloons for sale are Cameron Balloons and Lindstrand Balloons, most other hopper balloons are experimental aircraft designed and built by amateur constructors. Balloon-jumping as a sport emerged in the United States as early as 1923, balloon-jumping really meant jumping for many enthusiasts, with insufficient buoyancy to sustain flight, the balloonists actually had to use their muscles to start a balloon-assisted hop. The tool was especially handy, since the safest places to launch large high-altitude balloons were located in places without real airport facilities. The first modern hot air balloon was flown by Ed Yost under sponsorship by the U. S. Office of Naval Research on October 22,1960, in Bruning, Nebraska. The name Cloudhopper is often used to refer to a hot air balloon where the pilot sits in a harness or small seat. There is often a tank behind the pilots back. Often the balloons burner, tank, and pilots harness can swivel independently of the hot air balloon envelope, to let the pilot turn to any direction in flight, the term Cloudhopper was originally coined and trademarked by British balloonist Colin Prescot. The development of the Cloudhopper was carried out by Per Lindstrand of Colt Balloons in 1979, Colt Balloons later merged with Thunder Balloons to form Thunder & Colt Balloons, which inherited the Cloudhopper name. Finally, Per Lindstrand left Thunder & Colt to form his own Lindstrand Balloons, shortly after the team at Colt built and flew its first Cloudhopper, Cameron Balloons came up with its own backpack-style balloon, called the SkyHopper. Its main distinguishing feature was a twist-grip mounted on an arm rest to control the burner, on the original Colt Cloudhopper, as well as all modern-day Cloudhopper designs, the burner controls are mounted at the bottom of the burner, like on regular passenger-carrying hot air balloons
36.
Electric aircraft
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An electric aircraft is an aircraft powered by electric motors. Electricity may be supplied by a variety of including, batteries, ground power cables, solar cells, ultracapacitors, fuel cells. Electrically powered model aircraft have flown since the 1970s, with one unconfirmed report as early as 1957. They have since developed into small battery-powered unmanned aerial vehicles or drones, between 2015 and 2016, Solar Impulse 2 completed a circumnavigation of the Earth. All electric aircraft to date have been powered by electric motors driving thrust-generating propellers or lift-generating rotors, some of the propeller-driven types have been airships. Mechanisms for storing and supplying the necessary electricity vary considerably, mechanisms used include, Batteries can retain a significant electrical charge, although their weight still limits the range achievable. Power cables connect to a ground-based supply, Solar cells convert sunlight directly into electricity. Ultracapacitors can store a limited amount of energy for short bursts of high-power use Fuel cells are similar to batteries, microwave energy has been beamed from a ground-based source. Batteries are the most common Energy carrier component of electric aircraft, Batteries were the earliest source of electricity, first powering airships in the nineteenth century. Modern battery types include Lithium-based and a number of other widely used technologies. Such batteries remain a power source today, although they still have limited life between charges and hence limited range. Batteries are also used for temporary storage of electricity generated by another source. An electrical power cable may be connected to a ground-based supply, at low altitudes this can avoid carrying heavy batteries and was used by the experimental Petróczy-Kármán-Žurovec PKZ-1 observation helicopter of 1917. However such a craft must remain tethered to a facility, and the higher it flies. A Solar cell converts sunlight directly into electricity, either for direct power or temporary storage, the power output of solar cells is small, even when many are connected together, which limits their use and is also expensive. However their use of available sunlight makes them attractive for high-altitude. For endurance flights, keeping the craft in the air all night typically requires a storage system. Its advantage over a battery is the ability to charge and discharge much faster with higher peak currents
37.
Electric Aircraft Corporation
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Electric Aircraft Corporation is an American aircraft manufacturer that was founded by Randall Fishman, a retired New Jersey jeweler. The company is based in Cliffside Park, New Jersey and specializes in the design, the companys first product was the ElectraFlyer Trike, an ultralight trike powered by an in-house designed electric motor and battery pack. The company then started selling power train components to convert existing ultralights to electric power, the single-seat ElectraFlyer-C followed, using the same 18 hp electric motor and a converted Monnett Moni motorglider airframe. In 2008 Fishman won the August Raspet Memorial Award for his electric aircraft work, the award recognizes the person who has made an outstanding contribution to the advancement of light aircraft design each year. The company next developed a new design that was intended for production, an all composite aircraft, the ElectraFlyer-X. The ElectraFlyer-X did not, however, enter production, the Great Recession caused development of the company products to be delayed. In 2011 Fishman said, The recession has made this not a business right now. I have done okay because I have kept it small, selling a few complete trikes and many propulsion kits, meters, the company developed an electric powered version of the Airsport Song, called the Electric Aircraft Corporation ElectraFlyer-ULS, which was introduced in 2012
38.
Horsepower
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Horsepower is a unit of measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower, two common definitions being used today are the mechanical horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 735.5 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of engines with the power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors. The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions, most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1,2010, units called horsepower have differing definitions, The mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower equals approximately 745.7 watts. It was defined originally as exactly 550 foot-pounds per second [745.7 N. m/s), the metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts. It was defined originally as 75 kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts, the Pferdestärke PS is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. The boiler horsepower equals 9809.5 watts and it was used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts, one horsepower for rating Continental European electric motors is equal to 735 watts. Continental European electric motors used to have dual ratings, one British Royal Automobile Club horsepower can equal a range of values based on estimates of several engine dimensions. It is one of the tax horsepower systems adopted around Europe, the development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines and this royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour, the wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π ×12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds-force. So, P = W t = F d t =180 l b f ×2.4 ×2 π ×12 f t 1 m i n =32,572 f t ⋅ l b f m i n. Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft·lbf/min, Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100 ft per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony, engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute
39.
Energy density
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Energy density is the amount of energy stored in a given system or region of space per unit volume. Colloquially it may also be used for energy per unit mass, often only the useful or extractable energy is measured, which is to say that chemically inaccessible energy such as rest mass energy is ignored. In short, pressure is a measure of the enthalpy per unit volume of a system, a pressure gradient has a potential to perform work on the surroundings by converting enthalpy until equilibrium is reached. There are many different types of stored in materials. In order of the magnitude of the energy released, these types of reactions are, nuclear, chemical, electrochemical. Chemical reactions are used by animals to derive energy from food, electrochemical reactions are used by most mobile devices such as laptop computers and mobile phones to release the energy from batteries. The following is a list of the energy densities of commonly used or well-known energy storage materials. Note that this list does not consider the mass of reactants commonly available such as the oxygen required for combustion or the efficiency in use. The following unit conversions may be helpful when considering the data in the table,1 MJ ≈0.28 kWh ≈0.37 HPh. In energy storage applications the energy density relates the mass of a store to the volume of the storage facility. The higher the density of the fuel, the more energy may be stored or transported for the same amount of volume. The energy density of a fuel per unit mass is called the energy of that fuel. The greatest energy source by far is mass itself and this energy, E = mc2, where m = ρV, ρ is the mass per unit volume, V is the volume of the mass itself and c is the speed of light. This energy, however, can be released only by the processes of nuclear fission, nuclear fusion, nuclear reactions cannot be realized by chemical reactions such as combustion. Although greater matter densities can be achieved, the density of a star would approximate the most dense system capable of matter-antimatter annihilation possible. A black hole, although denser than a star, does not have an equivalent anti-particle form. In the case of small black holes the power output would be tremendous. The highest density sources of energy aside from antimatter are fusion and fission, fusion includes energy from the sun which will be available for billions of years but so far, sustained fusion power production continues to be elusive
40.
Aerosport (air show)
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Aerosport is an airshow that takes place at the Igualada-Òdena aerodrome every year since 1993. It is the only Spanish airshow fully dedicated to corporate and sport aircraft, the show includes technical conferences regarding topics such as cartography and air space, aircraft engines, insurances and the history or aircraft. The first edition of Aerosport took place in 1993, the third edition in 1995, gathered 40 exhibitors, mainly from Catalonia and the rest of Spain, but also from France, Italy or Belgium. It included demonstrations of hang gliding, paragliding, paramotors, ultralight aircraft, parachuting, gliding, helicopters, firefighting and an acrobatic show. For several years the show was one of the components of the Igualada Air Week together with the European Balloon Festival, the largest hot air balloon festival in Spain, that takes place in July. The show was moved to the months of April or May, some entertainment activities were moved to the month of July. In 2010, 51% of the came from Catalonia, 41% from the rest of Spain
41.
Backpack helicopter
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A backpack helicopter is a helicopter motor and rotor and controls assembly that can be strapped to a persons back, so he can walk about on the ground wearing it, and can use it to fly. It uses a harness like a harness and should have a strap between the legs. Some designs may use a fan design to increase upward thrust. Several inventors have tried to make backpack helicopters, with mixed results, typically, a backpack helicopter differs from a conventional helicopter in two main ways, First, there is no tail rotor, and the main rotors are contra-rotating. Yaw is controlled by adjustment of a differential gear in the rotor drive transmission. When one rotor is adjusted to spin faster than the other. Second, the rotors are fixed pitch, which assists with simplicity, this means, however, usually, a ballistic parachute would be incorporated for safety. An edition of Popular Science magazine in 1969 featured a helicopter that used small jet engines in a tip jet configuration instead of contra-rotating rotors. This design could function in autorotation, related are devices like a backpack helicopter which also include a seat and leg supports, which are small, open-topped helicopters. The Heliofly was a make which was designed in Germany in 1941 onwards, the Pentecost HX-1 Hoppi-Copter was developed by Horace T. Pentecost, an independent inventor and demonstrated to the military in 1945. Rhyme The Libelula from Tecnologia Aeroespacial Mexicana has a 2-bladed rotor driven by a rocket motor at the end of each rotor blade. The company also manufactures a jetpack, martin Jetpack Vortech designed various models which have seats. They formerly also made a pure backpack model with two very long rotor blades driven by a little propane-powered jet motor at the end of each blade, genH4 The Aerospace Corporations Springtail Backpack helicopters are a popular gadget in fiction. The SoloTrek XFV has appeared in spy films, such as the 2003 film Agent Cody Banks, in real life, backpack helicopters are flown with the pilots body vertical, but some appear in fiction that are flown with the pilots body horizontal. Several action figures come equipped with backpack helicopters, such an accessory was released as part of the G. I. Joe toyline for any figure to use, the Annihilator figure had a helicopter back-pack as part of its accessories. Another vertical example is the Turbo-Copter unit for the popular Action Man toy figure, the 1984 Commodore 64 video game H. E. R. O. He couldnt rise more than a few feet off the ground, nor for longer than several seconds, despite much arm-flapping
42.
Jet pack
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A jet pack, rocket belt or rocket pack is a device, usually worn on the back, which uses jets of gas to propel the wearer through the air. The concept emerged from science fiction in the 1960s and became popular as the technology became a reality, the most common use of the jet pack has been in extra-vehicular activities for astronauts. To compensate for the limitations of the body, the jet pack must accommodate for all factors of flight such as lift. The first jet pack was developed in 1919 by the Russian inventor Aleksandr Fyodorovich Andreyev, the project was well regarded by Nikolai Rynin and technology historians Yu. V. Biryukov and S. V. Golotyuk. Later it was issued a patent but apparently was not built or tested and it was oxygen-and-methane-powered with wings each roughly 1 m long. A hydrogen peroxide-powered engine is based on the reaction of hydrogen peroxide. Nearly pure hydrogen peroxide is used, the reaction is exothermic, i. e. accompanied by the liberation of much heat, forming in this case a steam-gas mixture at 740 °C. This hot gas is used exclusively as the mass and is fed directly to one or more jet nozzles. The great disadvantage is the operating time. The jet of steam and oxygen can provide significant thrust from fairly lightweight rockets, currently, such rocket belts can only fly for about 30 seconds. A more conventional bipropellant could more than double the specific impulse, however, although the exhaust gases from the peroxide-based engine are very hot, they are still significantly cooler than those generated by alternative propellants. Using a peroxide-based propellant greatly reduces the risk of a fire/explosion which would cause injury to the operator. In contrast to, for example, turbojet engines which mainly expel atmospheric air to produce thrust, the classical rocket pack construction of Wendell Moore can be made under workshop conditions, given good engineering training and a high level of tool-making craftsmanship. The main disadvantages of this type of rocket pack are, Short duration of flight, the high expense of the peroxide propellant. The inherent dangers of flying below minimum altitude, and hence without any safety equipment to protect the operator if there is an accident or malfunction. Safely learning how to fly it, given there are no dual-control training versions. The sheer difficulty of manually flying such a device, justin Capră claimed that he invented a flying rucksack in 1956 in Romania, and informed the American Embassy of his idea. A device he designed in the mid-1960s, is similar to earlier models created at Bell Laboratories, the 1956 model is at a museum in Ploiești
43.
Nanolight
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A Nanolight is an Australian class of ultralight powered aircraft. It was originally defined as a Powered Hang Glider with an empty weight, a Nanolight may be launched on foot or using a wheeled undercarriage. Nanolights are somewhat slower than purpose-built microlights, because they are so light, they are often used for thermal soaring. The engine is used to launch the aircraft to a safe altitude and it is then turned off and the pilot uses thermal lift alone to gain altitude. Nanolights are popular with glider pilots who use them to get flying time without the logistical problems attendant with finding a suitable hill
44.
Experimental Aircraft Association
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The Experimental Aircraft Association is an international organization of aviation enthusiasts based in Oshkosh, Wisconsin. Since its inception it has grown internationally with over 180,000 members, the organization is overseen by a chairman, a president, a CEO and a board of directors. Paul Poberezny assumed the duties of president and CEO at the 1953 founding, in 1989 he assumed the position of chairman of the board, and his son Tom Poberezny became president and CEO. In March 2009 Paul Poberezny resigned, and the board voted to elevate Tom Poberezny to chairman of the board, at AirVenture 2010, it was announced that Rod Hightower would succeed Tom Poberezny as president of the organization, effective September 2010. Hightower resigned on 22 October 2012 effective immediately, directly after a board of directors meeting during which former Cessna chairman, president, Hightower indicated he was resigning to spend more time with his family and would not relocate from St. Louis to Oshkosh. Pelton was named acting CEO and will oversee the process for Hightowers permanent replacement. McClellan said, I know theres all kinds of complaints, the board sees the president/CEO living in the Fox Valley as essential to the mission. Local chapters may be formed whenever ten or more EAA members reside in a given area, chapters are encouraged to meet monthly. The first chapter meeting occurred at Flabob Airport in California, with noted aircraft designer and builder Ray Stits presiding, the EAA was founded in 1953 by veteran aviator Paul Poberezny along with other aviation enthusiasts. The organization began as more or less a flying club, homebuilding is still a large part of EAA, but the organization has grown over the years to include almost every aspect of aviation and aeronautics. EAAs first home was in the basement of the Poberezny home, in the early 1960s, the associations first headquarters was built in the Milwaukee suburb of Franklin. That was the headquarters for the organization until 1983, when EAA combined its headquarters and fly-in site in Oshkosh, the EAA Aviation Center also includes the EAA Aviation Museum, with more than 200 aircraft, approximately 130 of which are on display at any given time. In 1953 the Experimental Aircraft Association released a two-page newsletter named The Experimenter, the newsletter was written and published by founding members Paul and Audrey Poberezny along with other volunteers. The newsletter transitioned to a format and was renamed Sport Aviation. The Experimenter name lives on, however, in a magazine specifically for amateur-built. Located adjacent to EAAs headquarters in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, the EAA Aviation Museum is a collection of aircraft. The Museum is home to EAAs collection of more than 200 aircraft, the museums Pioneer Airport is a re-creation of a vintage aerodrome, with more than 40 additional airplanes on display. From May through mid-October, flights are offered in vintage aircraft, there is no charge for this on-site review
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