1.
LNER Class A4 4488 Union of South Africa
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60009 Union of South Africa is an LNER Class A4 steam locomotive built in Doncaster in 1937. It is one of six surviving Gresley A4s, currently operational and it was briefly renamed Osprey during part of the 1980s and 1990s due to political opposition against apartheid South Africa at the time. Built by the London and North Eastern Railway in 1937 at Doncaster and originally numbered 4488 and it had previously been allocated the name Osprey on 17 April 1937, but was renamed Union of South Africa to operate the Coronation streamlined train. It eventually carried the name Osprey in the 1980s and 1990s and this was due to the contemporary political opposition against South Africa, which undertook a controversial policy of racial apartheid from 1948–94. The name Osprey had previously carried by A4 No.4494. 60009s name has reverted to Union of South Africa. The works number was 1853, the plaques are located in the cab itself, the springbok plaque on the side of the locomotive was donated on 12 April 1954 by a Bloemfontein newspaper proprietor. Only the one plaque was fitted on the hand side of the locomotive. Two cast Springbok plaques were given to John Cameron in the mid 1970s and they have since been removed during overhauls but the original boiler side plaque remains. 60009 is fitted with an American, Crosby chime whistle in common with other members of its class, Union of South Africa has worn many liveries throughout her career. The first livery she wore was as 4488 in garter blue, the next livery applied was LNER wartime black on 21 March 1942. This livery was amended on 14 August 1943 when the L and R were removed to confuse potential spies,21 February 1947 saw Union of South Africa regain garter blue with red and white lining. Her number was changed to just 9 on 12 January 1946, under the scheme of Gresleys successor. She gained a stainless steel number 9 during this repaint,4 August 1949 saw 60009 applied with the standard British Railways express passenger blue livery. Finally on 2 October 1952, Union of South Africa was painted in British Railways brunswick green livery and she has worn this livery throughout preservation to date. As with all 35 of the Gresley A4 pacific steam locomotives, Union of South Africa was fitted with streamlined valances, or side skirting and this was found to hinder maintenance and, as with her sisters, it was removed. 4488 lost her valances during a works visit 21 March 1942,60009 has been fitted with 14 boilers during her career,8951,9129,8955,9128,8957,9027,29285,29278,27965,27961 and 29337. 60009 has had five tenders through her career, of two differing types, the first tender she had was a 1928 pattern streamlined corridor tender
2.
Dutch language
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It is the third most widely spoken Germanic language, after English and German. Dutch is one of the closest relatives of both German and English and is said to be roughly in between them, Dutch vocabulary is mostly Germanic and incorporates more Romance loans than German but far fewer than English. In both Belgium and the Netherlands, the official name for Dutch is Nederlands, and its dialects have their own names, e. g. Hollands, West-Vlaams. The use of the word Vlaams to describe Standard Dutch for the variations prevalent in Flanders and used there, however, is common in the Netherlands, the Dutch language has been known under a variety of names. It derived from the Old Germanic word theudisk, one of the first names used for the non-Romance languages of Western Europe. It literarily means the language of the people, that is. The term was used as opposed to Latin, the language of writing. In the first text in which it is found, dating from 784, later, theudisca appeared also in the Oaths of Strasbourg to refer to the Germanic portion of the oath. This led inevitably to confusion since similar terms referred to different languages, owing to Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry in the 16th and 17th centuries, the English term came to refer exclusively to the Dutch. A notable exception is Pennsylvania Dutch, which is a West Central German variety called Deitsch by its speakers, Jersey Dutch, on the other hand, as spoken until the 1950s in New Jersey, is a Dutch-based creole. In Dutch itself, Diets went out of common use - although Platdiets is still used for the transitional Limburgish-Ripuarian Low Dietsch dialects in northeast Belgium, Nederlands, the official Dutch word for Dutch, did not become firmly established until the 19th century. This designation had been in use as far back as the end of the 15th century, one of them was it reflected a distinction with Hoogduits, High Dutch, meaning the language spoken in Germany. The Hoog was later dropped, and thus, Duits narrowed down in meaning to refer to the German language. g, in English, too, Netherlandic is regarded as a more accurate term for the Dutch language, but is hardly ever used. Old Dutch branched off more or less around the same time Old English, Old High German, Old Frisian and Old Saxon did. During that period, it forced Old Frisian back from the western coast to the north of the Low Countries, on the other hand, Dutch has been replaced in adjacent lands in nowadays France and Germany. The division in Old, Middle and Modern Dutch is mostly conventional, one of the few moments linguists can detect somewhat of a revolution is when the Dutch standard language emerged and quickly established itself. This is assumed to have taken place in approximately the mid-first millennium BCE in the pre-Roman Northern European Iron Age, the Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups, East, West, and North Germanic. They remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period, Dutch is part of the West Germanic group, which also includes English, Scots, Frisian, Low German and High German
3.
Afrikaans
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Afrikaans is a West Germanic language spoken in South Africa, Namibia and, to a lesser extent, Botswana and Zimbabwe. Hence, it is a language of Dutch, and was previously referred to as Cape Dutch or kitchen Dutch. Although, it is described as a creole, a partially creolised language the least. The term is derived from Dutch Afrikaans-Hollands meaning African Dutch. It is the first language of most of the Afrikaner and Coloured people of Southern Africa, therefore, differences with Dutch often lie in the more analytic morphology and grammar of Afrikaans, and a spelling that expresses Afrikaans pronunciation rather than standard Dutch. There is a degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages—especially in written form. With about 7 million native speakers in South Africa, or 13. 5% of the population and it has the widest geographical and racial distribution of all the eleven official languages of South Africa, and is widely spoken and understood as a second or third language. About 1. 5% of black South Africans speak it as their first language, large numbers of speakers of Bantu languages and English-speaking South Africans also speak it as their second language. It is taught in schools, with about 10.3 million second-language students and it, along with German, was among the official languages of Namibia until the country became independent in 1990, 25% of the population of Windhoek spoke Afrikaans at home. Both Afrikaans and German survive as recognised regional languages in the country, estimates of the total number of Afrikaans speakers range between 15 and 23 million. The Afrikaans language arose in the Dutch Cape Colony, through a gradual divergence from European Dutch dialects, there is a degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages, particularly in written form. Nevertheless, Dutch speakers are confronted with fewer non-cognates when listening to Afrikaans than the way round. Mutual intelligibility thus tends to be asymmetrical, as it is easier for Dutch speakers to understand Afrikaans than for Afrikaans speakers to understand Dutch, in general, mutual intelligibility between Dutch and Afrikaans is better than between Dutch and Frisian or between Danish and Swedish. The workers and slaves who contributed to the development of Afrikaans were Asians and Malagasys, as well as the Khoi, San, and Bantu peoples who also lived in the area. African creole people in the early 18th century — documented on the cases of Hendrik Bibault, Only much later in the second half of the 19th century did the Boers adopt this attribution, too. The Khoi and mixed-race groups became collectively referred to as Coloureds, beginning in about 1815, Afrikaans started to replace Malay as the language of instruction in Muslim schools in South Africa, written with the Arabic alphabet, see Arabic Afrikaans. Later, Afrikaans, now written with the Latin alphabet, started to appear in newspapers and political, in 1925, Afrikaans was recognised by the South African government as a real language, rather than simply a slang version of Dutch proper. Before the Boer Wars, and indeed for some time afterwards, rather, Afrikaans was described derogatorily as ‘a kitchen language’ or as ‘a bastard jargon, suitable for communication mainly between the Boers and their servants
4.
Flag of South Africa
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The flag of South Africa was adopted on 27 April 1994, at the beginning of South Africas 1994 general election, to replace the flag that had been used since 1928. The new national flag, designed by the then State Herald of South Africa Frederick Brownell, was chosen to represent the new democracy after the end of Apartheid. The flag has horizontal bands of red and blue, of width, separated by a central green band which splits into a horizontal Y shape. The Y embraces a black isosceles triangle from which the arms are separated by yellow bands. The stripes at the fly end are in the 5,1,3,1,5 ratio, at the time of its adoption, the South African flag was the only national flag in the world to comprise six colours in its primary design. The other three – red, white and blue – are displayed on the Dutch tricolour and the British Union flag and are said represent the white population. The green pall is commonly interpreted to mean the unification of the ethnic groups. The design therefore represents a converging of paths, the merging of both the past and the present, the Anglo-Boer War between 1899 and 1902 ended with the Treaty of Vereeniging on 31 May 1902 and resulted in what is now South Africa falling under the British Union Flag. The former Boer Republics of the Orange Free State and the Zuid-Afrikaanse Republiek became British colonies along with the existing Cape, each was also entitled to a colonial flag following in the British tradition. On 31 May 1910 these four colonies came together to form the Union of South Africa, once again, as a British dominion the British Union Flag was to continue as the national flag and the standard British ensign pattern was used as a basis for distinctive South African flags. These ensigns were not intended to be used as the Unions national flag, although these ensigns were primarily intended for maritime use, they were also flown on land. These flags never enjoyed popular support due to the animosities lingering after the Anglo-Boer War. This provoked often violent controversy that lasted for three years based on whether the British Union Flag should be included in the new design or not. The Natal Province even threatened to secede from the Union should it be decided to remove it, finally, a compromise was reached that resulted in the adoption of a separate flag for the Union in late 1927 and the design was first hoisted on 31 May 1928. The design was based on the so-called Van Riebeeck flag or Prinsenvlag that was originally the Dutch flag, it consisted of orange, white, a version of this flag had been used as the flag of the Dutch East India Company at the Cape from 1652 until 1795. The South African addition to the design was the inclusion of three smaller flags centred in the white stripe, the miniature flags were the British Union Flag towards the hoist, the flag of the Orange Free State hanging vertically in the middle and the Transvaal Vierkleur towards the fly. The position of each of the flags is such that each has equal status. That the Orange Free State flag, since it hangs vertically, is higher than the two, is a plus factor
5.
God Save the Queen
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God Save the Queen is the national and/or royal anthem in a number of Commonwealth realms, their territories, and the British Crown Dependencies. The author of the tune is unknown and it may originate in plainchant and it is also the royal anthem of all the aforementioned countries, as well as Australia, Canada, Barbados and Tuvalu. In countries not previously part of the British Empire, the tune of God Save the Queen has provided the basis for various patriotic songs, in the United States, the melody is used for the patriotic song My Country, Tis of Thee. The melody is used for the national anthem of Liechtenstein. Beyond its first verse, which is consistent, God Save the Queen/King has many historic, since its first publication, different verses have been added and taken away and, even today, different publications include various selections of verses in various orders. In general, only one verse is sung, sometimes two verses are sung, and on rare occasions, three. The sovereign and her or his consort are saluted with the entire anthem, the first six bars also form all or part of the Vice Regal Salute in some Commonwealth realms outside the UK, as well as the salute given to governors of British overseas territories. He also points to several pieces by Henry Purcell, one of which includes the notes of the modern tune. Nineteenth-century scholars and commentators mention the widespread belief that an old Scots carol, the first published version of what is almost the present tune appeared in 1744 in Thesaurus Musicus. The 1744 version of the song was popularised in Scotland and England the following year and this manuscript has the tune depart from that which is used today at several points, one as early as the first bar, but is otherwise clearly a strong relative of the contemporary anthem. It was recorded as being sung in London theatres in 1745, with, for example, Scholes analysis includes mention of untenable and doubtful claims, as well as an American misattribution. The surgical knife that was purpose-built for the occasion is on display in the Musée dhistoire de la médecine, lully set words by Marie de Brinon to music, and Créquy claims the tune was later plagiarised by Handel. Translated in Latin under the name Domine, Salvum Fac Regem, after the Battle of Culloden, the Hanover dynasty supposedly then adopted this melody as the British anthem. James Oswald, He is an author of the Thesaurus Musicus, so may have played a part in the history of the song. Dr Henry Carey, Scholes refutes this attribution, first on the grounds that Carey himself never made such a claim, second, when the claim was made by Careys son, it was accompanied by a request for a pension from the British Government on that score. Third, the younger Carey claimed that his father had written parts of it in 1745, Scholes recommends the attribution traditional or traditional, earliest known version by John Bull. The English Hymnal gives no attribution, stating merely 17th or 18th cent, God Save the Queen is the national anthem of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Like many aspects of British constitutional life, its official status derives from custom and use, in general only one or two verses are sung, but on rare occasions three
6.
Die Stem van Suid-Afrika
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In May 1918, C. J. Langenhoven wrote an Afrikaans poem called Die Stem, for which music was composed by the Reverend Marthinus Lourens de Villiers in 1921. It was widely used by the South African Broadcasting Corporation in the 1920s and it was sung publicly for the first time on 31 May 1928. It was not translated into English until 1952, while God Save The Queen did not cease to have official status until 1957, the poem originally had only three verses, but the government asked the author to add a fourth verse with a religious theme. The anthem speaks throughout of commitment to the Vaderland and to God, however, the anthem was generally disliked by black South Africans, who saw it as triumphalist and associated it with the apartheid regime where one verse shows dedication to Afrikaners. At the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona that year, Schillers Ode to Joy, as set to Beethovens music, was used instead, Die Stem van Suid-Afrika retained official status after the advent of full multi-racial democracy which followed the 1994 general election. The anthem shared equal status with Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika, which had long been a hymn used by the ANC. In 1995, Die Stem van Suid-Afrika was sung by a choir at the Rugby World Cup final match. The practice of singing two different anthems had been a cumbersome arrangement during the transition to post-apartheid South Africa, in 1997, following the adoption of a new constitution, a new hybrid anthem was introduced, which combined Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika and Die Stem van Suid-Afrika. List of historical national anthems National anthem of South Africa National anthem of the Orange Free State National anthem of the Transvaal YouTube recording of Die Stem van Suid Afrika
7.
South West Africa
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South West Africa was the name for modern-day Namibia when it was ruled by the German Empire and later South Africa. As a German colony from 1884, it was known as German South West Africa, germany had a difficult time administering the territory, which experienced many insurrections, especially those led by guerilla leader Jacob Morenga. The main port, Walvis Bay, and the Penguin Islands were annexed by Britain in 1878, following the creation of the Union of South Africa in 1910, Walvis Bay became part of the Cape Province. As part of the Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty in 1890, a corridor of land taken from the border of Bechuanaland. It was named the Caprivi Strip after the German Chancellor Leo von Caprivi, in 1915, during South West Africa Campaign of the First World War, South Africa captured the German colony. After the war, it was declared a League of Nations Class C Mandate territory under the Treaty of Versailles, from 1922, this included Walvis Bay, which, under the South West Africa Affairs Act, was governed if it were part of the mandated territory. South West Africa remained a League of Nations Mandate until World War II, the Mandate was supposed to become a United Nations Trust Territory when League of Nations Mandates were transferred to the United Nations following the Second World War. This was to the advantage of the National Party, which enjoyed support from the predominantly Afrikaners. Between 1950 and 1977, all of South West Africas parliamentary seats were held by the Nationalists, an additional consequence of this was the extension of apartheid laws to the territory. The ICJ also clarified that the General Assembly was empowered to receive petitions from the inhabitants of South West Africa and to call for reports from the mandatory nation, the General Assembly constituted the Committee on South West Africa to perform the supervisory functions. In 1956, the Court further ruled that the Committee had the power to grant hearings to petitioners from the mandated territory, in 1960, Ethiopia and Liberia filed a case in the International Court of Justice against South Africa alleging that South Africa had not fulfilled its mandatory duties. This case did not succeed, with the Court ruling in 1966 that they were not the parties to bring the case. There was a struggle between South Africa and forces fighting for independence, particularly after the formation of the South West Africa Peoples Organisation in 1960. In 1966, the General Assembly passed resolution 2145 which declared the Mandate terminated and it also ruled that all member states of the United Nations were under an obligation not to recognise as valid any act performed by South Africa on behalf of Namibia. South West Africa became known as Namibia by the UN when the General Assembly changed the name by Resolution 2372 of 12 June 1968. In 1977, South Africa transferred control of Walvis Bay back to the Cape Province, the territory became the independent Republic of Namibia on 21 March 1990, although Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands were only incorporated into Namibia in 1994. The South African authorities established 10 bantustans in South West Africa in the late 1960s and early 1970s in accordance with the Odendaal Commission and these bantustans were replaced with separate ethnicity based governments in 1980
8.
History of Namibia
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The history of Namibia has passed through several distinct stages from being colonised in the late nineteenth century to Namibias independence on 21 March 1990. From 1884, Namibia was a German colony, German South West Africa, after the First World War, the League of Nations mandated South Africa to administer the territory. South Africa objected arguing that a majority of the people were content with South African rule. There is a diversity of peoples in Namibia. The most famous, San are generally assumed to have been the earliest inhabitants of the region comprising todays Namibia, Botswana, the San were hunters and gatherers with a nomadic lifestyle. The most important part of their diet consisted of fruits, nuts and roots, over time, many different ethnic groups of immigrants settled in Namibia. The Ovambo, and the smaller and closely related group Kavango, lived in northern Namibia, southern Angola and, in the case of the Kavango, being settled people they had an economy based on farming, cattle and fishing, but they also produced metal goods. Both groups belonged to the Bantu nation, until about 2,000 years ago the original hunters and gatherers of the San people were the only inhabitants in Namibia. At this time the Nama, the Khoikhoi and the Hottentots settled around the Orange River in the south on the border between Namibia and South Africa where they kept herds of sheep and goats. Both the San and the Nama were Khoisan peoples, and spoke languages from the Khoisan language group, in the 9th century the Damara entered Namibia. The Damara do not relate to the other Khoisan peoples although they share a similar language and it is believed that they separated themselves early on from their Bantu brothers of Southern and Central Africa and moved to Southwest Africa. It is unclear where they came from, but they settled in the grasslands in central Namibia, during the 17th century the Herero, a pastoral, nomadic people keeping cattle, moved into Namibia. They came from the east African lakes and entered Namibia from the northwest, First they resided in Kaokoland, but in the middle of the 19th century some tribes moved farther south and into Damaraland. A number of tribes remained in Kaokoland, these were the Himba people, during German occupation of this region about one third of the population was wiped out in a genocide that continues to provoke widespread indignation. An apology was sought for this travesty in more recent times, in the 19th century white farmers, mostly Boers, moved farther north, pushing the indigenous Khoisan peoples, who put up a fierce resistance, across the Orange River. Known as Oorlams, these Khoisan adopted Boer customs and spoke a similar to Afrikaans. Armed with guns, the Oorlams caused instability as more and more came to settle in Namaqualand, under the leadership of Jonker Afrikaner, the Oorlams used their superior weapons to take control of the best grazing land. In the 1830s Jonker Afrikaner concluded an agreement with the Nama chief Oaseb whereby the Oorlams would protect the grasslands of Namibia from the Herero who were then pushing south
9.
League of Nations
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The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organisation founded on 10 January 1920 as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organisation whose mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament, at its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, however, the Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them, after a number of notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. Germany withdrew from the League, as did Japan, Italy, Spain, the onset of the Second World War showed that the League had failed its primary purpose, which was to prevent any future world war. The League lasted for 26 years, the United Nations replaced it after the end of the Second World War on 20 April 1946 and inherited a number of agencies and organisations founded by the League. As historians William H. Harbaugh and Ronald E. Powaski point out, the organisation was international in scope, with a third of the members of parliaments serving as members of the IPU by 1914. Its aims were to encourage governments to solve disputes by peaceful means. Annual conferences were held to help refine the process of international arbitration. Its structure consisted of a council headed by a president, which would later be reflected in the structure of the League, at the start of the 20th century, two power blocs emerged from alliances between the European Great Powers. It was these alliances that, at the start of the First World War in 1914 and this was the first major war in Europe between industrialised countries, and the first time in Western Europe that the results of industrialisation had been dedicated to war. By the time the fighting ended in November 1918, the war had had an impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe. Anti-war sentiment rose across the world, the First World War was described as the war to end all wars, the causes identified included arms races, alliances, militaristic nationalism, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit. Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson, a British political scientist, coined the term League of Nations in 1914, together with Lord Bryce, he played a leading role in the founding of the group of internationalist pacifists known as the Bryce Group, later the League of Nations Union. The group became more influential among the public and as a pressure group within the then governing Liberal Party. In Dickinsons 1915 pamphlet After the War he wrote of his League of Peace as being essentially an organisation for arbitration and conciliation
10.
Cape Town
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Cape Town is a coastal city in South Africa. It is the second-most populous urban area in South Africa after Johannesburg and it is also the capital and primate city of the Western Cape province. As the seat of the Parliament of South Africa, it is also the capital of the country. It forms part of the City of Cape Town metropolitan municipality, the city is famous for its harbour, for its natural setting in the Cape Floristic Region, and for such well-known landmarks as Table Mountain and Cape Point. As of 2014, it is the 10th most populous city in Africa and it is one of the most multicultural cities in the world, reflecting its role as a major destination for immigrants and expatriates to South Africa. The city was named the World Design Capital for 2014 by the International Council of Societies of Industrial Design, in 2014, Cape Town was named the best place in the world to visit by both the American New York Times and the British Daily Telegraph. Located on the shore of Table Bay, Cape Town was first developed by the Dutch East India Company as a station for Dutch ships sailing to East Africa, India. Jan van Riebeecks arrival on 6 April 1652 established the first permanent European settlement in South Africa, Cape Town quickly outgrew its original purpose as the first European outpost at the Castle of Good Hope, becoming the economic and cultural hub of the Cape Colony. Until the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the development of Johannesburg, Cape Town was the largest city in South Africa, the earliest known remnants in the region were found at Peers Cave in Fish Hoek and date to between 15,000 and 12,000 years ago. It was later renamed by John II of Portugal as Cape of Good Hope because of the optimism engendered by the opening of a sea route to India. Vasco da Gama recorded a sighting of the Cape of Good Hope in 1497, in the late 16th century, Portuguese, French, Danish, Dutch and English but mainly Portuguese ships regularly stopped over in Table Bay en route to the Indies. They traded tobacco, copper and iron with the Khoikhoi in exchange for fresh meat, the settlement grew slowly during this period, as it was hard to find adequate labour. This labour shortage prompted the authorities to import slaves from Indonesia, many of these became ancestors of the first Cape Coloured communities. Some of these, including grapes, cereals, ground nuts, potatoes, apples and citrus, had an important, the Dutch Republic being transformed in Revolutionary Frances vassal Batavian Republic, Great Britain moved to take control of its colonies. Britain captured Cape Town in 1795, but the Cape was returned to the Dutch by treaty in 1803, British forces occupied the Cape again in 1806 following the Battle of Blaauwberg. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814, Cape Town was permanently ceded to Britain and it became the capital of the newly formed Cape Colony, whose territory expanded very substantially through the 1800s. With expansion came calls for independence from Britain, with the Cape attaining its own parliament. Suffrage was established according to the non-racial, but sexist Cape Qualified Franchise, the discovery of diamonds in Griqualand West in 1867, and the Witwatersrand Gold Rush in 1886, prompted a flood of immigrants to South Africa
11.
Pretoria
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Pretoria is a city in the northern part of Gauteng Province, South Africa. It is one of the three capital cities, serving as the seat of the executive branch of government. Pretoria is the part of the Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality which was formed by the amalgamation of several former local authorities including Centurion. There have been proposals to change the name of Pretoria itself to Tshwane, the elder Pretorius had become a national hero of the Voortrekkers after his victory over Dingane and the Zulus in the Battle of Blood River. The elder Pretorius also negotiated the Sand River Convention, in which Britain acknowledged the independence of the Transvaal and it became the capital of the South African Republic on 1 May 1860. The founding of Pretoria as the capital of the South African Republic can be seen as marking the end of the Boers settlement movements of the Great Trek, during the First Boer War, the city was besieged by Republican forces in December 1880 and March 1881. The peace treaty ended the war was signed in Pretoria on 3 August 1881 at the Pretoria Convention. The Second Boer War resulted in the end of the Transvaal Republic, the city surrendered to British forces under Frederick Roberts on 5 June 1900 and the conflict was ended in Pretoria with the signing of the Peace of Vereeniging on 31 May 1902. The Pretoria Forts were built for the defence of the city just prior to the Second Boer War, though some of these forts are today in ruins, a number of them have been preserved as national monuments. The Boer Republics of the ZAR and the Orange River Colony were united with the Cape Colony, Pretoria then became the administrative capital of the whole of South Africa, with Cape Town the legislative capital and Bloemfontein served as the judicial capital. Between 1910 and 1994, the city was also the capital of the province of Transvaal, on 14 October 1931, Pretoria achieved official city status. When South Africa became a republic in 1961, Pretoria remained its administrative capital and it lies at an altitude of about 1,339 m above sea level, in a warm, sheltered, fertile valley, surrounded by the hills of the Magaliesberg range. Pretoria has a subtropical climate with long hot rainy summers and short cool to cold. The city experiences the typical winters of South Africa with cold, clear nights, although the average lows during winter are mild it can get bitterly cold due to the clear skies, with nighttime low temperatures in recent years in the range of 2 to −5 °C. The average annual temperature is 18.7 °C, rain is chiefly concentrated in the summer months, with drought conditions prevailing over the winter months, when frosts may be sharp. Snowfall is a rare event, snowflakes were spotted in 1959,1968 and 2012 in the city. During a nationwide heatwave in November 2011, Pretoria experienced temperatures that reached 39 °C, similar record-breaking extreme heat events also occurred in January 2013, when Pretoria experienced temperatures exceeding 37 °C on several days. The year 2014 was one of the wettest on record for the city, a total of 914 mm fell up to the end of December, with 220 mm recorded in this month alone
12.
Bloemfontein
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Bloemfontein is the capital city of the province of Free State of South Africa, and, as the judicial capital of the nation, one of South Africas three national capitals. Bloemfontein is the sixth largest city in South Africa, Bloemfontein was popularly and poetically known as the city of roses, owing to the abundance of these flowers and the annual rose festival held there. The citys Sesotho name is Mangaung, meaning place of cheetahs, Bloemfontein has since 2011 formed part of the Mangaung Metropolitan Municipality, having previously been part of the Mangaung Local Municipality. Bloemfontein is situated at an altitude of 1,395 m above sea level, the city is home to 369,568 residents, while the Mangaung Metropolitan Municipality has a population of 645,455. Although modern day Bloemfontein has a reputation for its flowers in an arid region. Bloemfontein literally means fountain of flowers or flower spring in Dutch, with colonial policy shifts, the region changed into the Orange River Sovereignty and eventually the Orange Free State Republic. From 1902–10 it served as the capital of the Orange River Colony, in 1910 it became the Judicial capital of the Union of South Africa. Warden originally chose the site largely because of its proximity to the route to Winburg, the spacious open country. Bloemfontein was the farm of Johannes Nicolaas Brits born 21 February 1790, owner. Johann – as he was known – sold the farm to Maj Warden, as the capital of the Orange Free State Republic the growth and maturing of the Republic resulted in the growth of the town. Numerous public buildings remain in use today were constructed. This was largely facilitated by the excellent governance of the Republic, the old Orange Free States presidential residence the Old Presidency is currently a museum and cultural space in the city. A railway line was built in 1890 connecting Bloemfontein to Cape Town. The writer J. R. R. Tolkien was born in the city on 3 January 1892, though his family left South Africa following the death of his father, Arthur Tolkien and he recorded that his earliest memories were of a hot country. In 1899 the city was the site of the Bloemfontein Conference, the conference was a final attempt to avert a war between Britain and the South African Republic. With its failure the stage was set for war, which broke out on 11 October 1899, the rail line from Cape Town provided a centrally located railway station, and proved critical to the British in occupying the city later. On 13 March 1900, following the Battle of Paardeberg, British forces captured the city and built a concentration camp nearby to house Boer women and children. The National Womens Monument, on the outskirts of the city, the hill in town was named Naval Hill after the naval guns brought in by the British in order to fortify the position against attack
13.
Pietermaritzburg
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Pietermaritzburg is the capital and second-largest city in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa and is also regarded as the birth place of legends. It was founded in 1838 and is governed by the Msunduzi Local Municipality. Its Zulu name umGungundlovu is the used for the district municipality. Pietermaritzburg is popularly called Maritzburg in English and Zulu alike, and it is a regionally important industrial hub, producing aluminium, timber and dairy products. It is home to schools and tertiary education institutions, including a campus of the University of KwaZulu-Natal. It had a population of 228,549 in 1991, the current population is around 500,000 and has one of the largest populations of Indian South Africans in South Africa. The city was founded by the Voortrekkers, following the defeat of Dingane at the Battle of Blood River, britain took over Pietermaritzburg in 1843 and it became the seat of the Natal Colonys administration with the first lieutenant-governor, Martin West, making it his home. Fort Napier, named after the governor of the Cape Colony, in 1893, Natal received responsibility for their own government and an assembly building was built along with the city hall. In 1910, when the Union of South Africa was formed, Natal became a province of the Union, there exist two interpretations about the origin of the citys name. One is that it was named after Piet Retief and Gert Maritz, the other is that it was originally named after Piet Retief alone, since his full name was Pieter Maurits Retief. In this interpretation the name was Pieter Maurits Burg, later transliterated to the current name. Retief in fact never reached Pietermaritzburg and was killed by Dingane, successor to Shaka, Maritz died of illness on 23 September 1838 near the present-day town of Estcourt, some hundreds of kilometres northwest of Pietermaritzburg. This was after the battle with the Zulus at Bloukranz, in 1938, however, the city announced officially that the second element Maritz should also honour Gert Maritz. At the time of the rise of the Zulu Empire, the site that was to become Pietermaritzburg was called Umgungundlovu and this is popularly translated from the Zulu as Place of the Elephant, although it could also be translated to mean The elephant wins. Umgungundlovu is thus thought to be the site of some Zulu kings victory since Elephant is a name taken by the Zulu monarch. Legend has it that Shaka had his warriors hunt elephant there to sell the ivory to English traders at Durban, today, the town is still called by its Voortrekker name, although the municipality of which it is part bears the Zulu name. During apartheid, the city was segregated into various sections, 90% of the Indian population was moved to the suburb of Northdale while most of its Zulu inhabitants were moved to the neighbouring township of Edendale. The University of Natal was founded in 1910 as the Natal University College, the two campuses were incorporated into the University of Natal in March 1949
14.
Unitary state
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The majority of states in the world have a unitary system of government. Of the 193 UN member states,165 of them are governed as unitary states, unitary states are contrasted with federal states. In a unitary state, sub-national units are created and abolished, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is an example of a unitary state. Many unitary states have no areas possessing a degree of autonomy, in such countries, sub-national regions cannot decide their own laws. Examples are the Republic of Ireland and the Kingdom of Norway, in federal states, the sub-national governments share powers with the central government as equal actors through a written constitution, to which the consent of both is required to make amendments. This means that the units have a right of existence. The United States of America is an example of a federal state, under the U. S. Constitution, powers are shared between the federal government and the states
15.
Constitutional monarchy
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A constitutional monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the sovereign exercises their authorities in accordance with a written or unwritten constitution. A constitutional monarchy may refer to a system in which the acts as a non-party political head of state under the constitution. Political scientist Vernon Bogdanor, paraphrasing Thomas Macaulay, has defined a constitutional monarch as a sovereign who reigns, in addition to acting as a visible symbol of national unity, a constitutional monarch may hold formal powers such as dissolving parliament or giving royal assent to legislation. Many constitutional monarchies still retain significant authorities or political influence however, such as through certain reserve powers, the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms are all constitutional monarchies in the Westminster tradition of constitutional governance. Three states – Malaysia, Cambodia and the Holy See – are elective monarchies, the oldest constitutional monarchy dating back to ancient times was that of the Hittites. These were scattered noble families that worked as representatives of their subjects in an adjutant or subaltern federal-type landscape, the most recent country to move from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy was Bhutan, between 2007 and 2008. At the same time, in Scotland the Convention of Estates enacted the Claim of Right Act 1689, although Queen Anne was the last monarch to veto an Act of Parliament when in 1707 she blocked the Scottish Militia Bill, Hanoverian monarchs continued to selectively dictate government policies. For instance George III constantly blocked Catholic Emancipation, eventually precipitating the resignation of William Pitt the Younger as Prime Minister in 1801, Queen Victoria was the last monarch to exercise real personal power but this diminished over the course of her reign. In 1839 she became the last sovereign to keep a Prime Minister in power against the will of Parliament when the Bedchamber crisis resulted in the retention of Lord Melbournes administration, today, the role of the British monarch is by convention effectively ceremonial. No person may accept significant public office without swearing an oath of allegiance to the Queen, with few exceptions, the monarch is bound by constitutional convention to act on the advice of the Government. Constitutional monarchy also occurred briefly in the years of the French Revolution. As originally conceived, a monarch was head of the executive branch and quite a powerful figure even though his or her power was limited by the constitution. In many cases the monarchs, while still at the top of the political and social hierarchy, were given the status of servants of the people to reflect the new. In the course of Frances July Monarchy, Louis-Philippe I was styled King of the French rather than King of France, following the Unification of Germany, Otto von Bismarck rejected the British model. However this model of constitutional monarchy was discredited and abolished following Germanys defeat in the First World War. Later, Fascist Italy could also be considered as a constitutional monarchy and this eventually discredited the Italian monarchy and led to its abolition in 1946. After the Second World War, surviving European monarchies almost invariably adopted some variant of the constitutional monarchy model originally developed in Britain, nowadays a parliamentary democracy that is a constitutional monarchy is considered to differ from one that is a republic only in detail rather than in substance. However, three important factors distinguish monarchies such as the United Kingdom from systems where greater power might otherwise rest with Parliament, other privileges may be nominal or ceremonial
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Monarchy of South Africa
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The monarchs constitutional roles were mostly delegated to the Governor-General of the Union of South Africa. South Africa became a republic and left the Commonwealth on 31 May 1961, on 31 May 1994, South Africa rejoined the Commonwealth as a republic, after the end of apartheid. The monarchy was created by the South Africa Act 1909 which united four British colonies in southern Africa, Cape of Good Hope, Natal, Orange River Colony and Transvaal. The Act also made provisions for admitting Southern Rhodesia as a province of the Union in the future. South-West Africa became a League of Nations mandate of the Union in 1915, following a referendum on the subject, South Africa adopted a new constitution in 1961 which abolished the monarchy. King George VI, his wife Queen Elizabeth, and their daughters Elizabeth and Margaret, Queen Elizabeth II, accompanied by the Duke of Edinburgh, visited South Africa in her capacity as Head of the Commonwealth, in 1995 and 1999. State President of South Africa President of South Africa
17.
George V
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George V was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 until his death in 1936. He was the son of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. From the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession behind his father and his own brother, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence. From 1877 to 1891, George served in the Royal Navy, on the death of his grandmother in 1901, Georges father became King-Emperor of the British Empire, and George was created Prince of Wales. He succeeded his father in 1910 and he was the only Emperor of India to be present at his own Delhi Durbar. His reign saw the rise of socialism, communism, fascism, Irish republicanism, the Parliament Act 1911 established the supremacy of the elected British House of Commons over the unelected House of Lords. In 1917, George became the first monarch of the House of Windsor, in 1924 he appointed the first Labour ministry and in 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognised the dominions of the Empire as separate, independent states within the Commonwealth of Nations. He had health problems throughout much of his reign and at his death was succeeded by his eldest son. George was born on 3 June 1865, in Marlborough House and he was the second son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Albert Edward and Alexandra. His father was the eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and he was baptised at Windsor Castle on 7 July 1865 by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Longley. As a younger son of the Prince of Wales, there was expectation that George would become king. He was third in line to the throne, after his father and elder brother, George was only 17 months younger than Albert Victor, and the two princes were educated together. John Neale Dalton was appointed as their tutor in 1871, neither Albert Victor nor George excelled intellectually. For three years from 1879, the brothers served on HMS Bacchante, accompanied by Dalton. They toured the colonies of the British Empire in the Caribbean, South Africa and Australia, and visited Norfolk, Virginia, as well as South America, the Mediterranean, Egypt, Dalton wrote an account of their journey entitled The Cruise of HMS Bacchante. Between Melbourne and Sydney, Dalton recorded a sighting of the Flying Dutchman, after Lausanne, the brothers were separated, Albert Victor attended Trinity College, Cambridge, while George continued in the Royal Navy. He travelled the world, visiting many areas of the British Empire, during his naval career he commanded Torpedo Boat 79 in home waters then HMS Thrush on the North America station, before his last active service in command of HMS Melampus in 1891–92. From then on, his rank was largely honorary
18.
Edward VIII
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Edward VIII was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Empire, and Emperor of India, from 20 January 1936 until his abdication on 11 December the same year. Edward was the eldest son of George V and Mary of Teck and he was named Prince of Wales on his sixteenth birthday, nine weeks after his father succeeded as king. As a young man, he served in the British Army during the First World War, Edward became king on his fathers death in early 1936. However, he showed impatience with court protocol, and caused concern among politicians by his apparent disregard for established constitutional conventions. Only months into his reign, he caused a crisis by proposing marriage to Wallis Simpson. When it became apparent that he could not marry Wallis and remain on the throne and he was succeeded by his younger brother, George VI. With a reign of 326 days, Edward was one of the monarchs in British history. After his abdication, he was created Duke of Windsor and he married Wallis in France on 3 June 1937, after her second divorce became final. Later that year, the couple toured Germany, after the war, Edward spent the rest of his life in retirement in France. Edward was born on 23 June 1894 at White Lodge, Richmond Park and he was the eldest son of the Duke and Duchess of York. His father was the son of the Prince and Princess of Wales and his mother was the eldest daughter of Francis and Mary Adelaide, Duke and Duchess of Teck. At the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession to the throne and he was baptised Edward Albert Christian George Andrew Patrick David in the Green Drawing Room of White Lodge on 16 July 1894 by Edward White Benson, Archbishop of Canterbury. The names were chosen in honour of Edwards late uncle, who was known to his family as Eddy or Edward and he was always known to his family and close friends by his last given name, David. As was common practice with children of the time, Edward. One of Edwards early nannies often abused him by pinching him before he was due to be presented to his parents and his subsequent crying and wailing would lead the Duke and Duchess to send him and the nanny away. The nanny was discharged after her mistreatment of the children was discovered, Edwards father, though a harsh disciplinarian, was demonstrably affectionate, and his mother displayed a frolicsome side with her children that belied her austere public image. She was amused by the children making tadpoles on toast for their French master, initially Edward was tutored at home by Helen Bricka. Upon his parents return, Edward was placed under the care of two men, Frederick Finch and Henry Hansell, who brought up Edward and his brothers
19.
George VI
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George VI was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death. He was the last Emperor of India and the first Head of the Commonwealth, known as Albert until his accession, George VI was born in the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria, and was named after his great-grandfather Albert, Prince Consort. As the second son of King George V, he was not expected to inherit the throne and spent his life in the shadow of his elder brother. He attended naval college as a teenager, and served in the Royal Navy, in 1920, he was made Duke of York. He married Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon in 1923 and they had two daughters, Elizabeth and Margaret, in the mid-1920s, he had speech therapy for a stammer, which he never fully overcame. Georges elder brother ascended the throne as Edward VIII upon the death of their father in 1936, however, later that year Edward revealed his desire to marry divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson. British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin advised Edward that for political and religious reasons he could not marry a divorced woman, Edward abdicated in order to marry, and George ascended the throne as the third monarch of the House of Windsor. During Georges reign, the break-up of the British Empire and its transition into the Commonwealth of Nations accelerated, the parliament of the Irish Free State removed direct mention of the monarch from the countrys constitution on the day of his accession. The following year, a new Irish constitution changed the name of the state to Ireland, from 1939, the Empire and Commonwealth – except Ireland – was at war with Nazi Germany. War with Italy and Japan followed in 1940 and 1941, respectively, though Britain and its allies were ultimately victorious in 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union rose as pre-eminent world powers and the British Empire declined. After the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, George remained king of countries, but relinquished the title of Emperor of India in June 1948. Ireland formally declared itself a republic and left the Commonwealth in 1949, George adopted the new title of Head of the Commonwealth. He was beset by problems in the later years of his reign. He was succeeded by his eldest daughter, Elizabeth II, George was born at York Cottage, on the Sandringham Estate in Norfolk, during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria. His father was Prince George, Duke of York, the second and eldest-surviving son of the Prince and his mother was the Duchess of York, the eldest child and only daughter of the Duke and Duchess of Teck. His birthday was the 34th anniversary of the death of his great-grandfather, Albert, uncertain of how the Prince Consorts widow, Queen Victoria, would take the news of the birth, the Prince of Wales wrote to the Duke of York that the Queen had been rather distressed. Two days later, he again, I really think it would gratify her if you yourself proposed the name Albert to her. Consequently, he was baptised Albert Frederick Arthur George at St. Mary Magdalenes Church near Sandringham three months later, within the family, he was known informally as Bertie
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Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
21.
Governor-General of the Union of South Africa
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The Governor-general of the Union of South Africa was the representative of the British and later South African Crown in the Union of South Africa between 31 May 1910 and 31 May 1961. The Union of South Africa was a Commonwealth realm in which Queen Elizabeth II was given the title Queen of South Africa, as in other Dominions, this would change, and from 1943 onward only South Africans held the office. The office was established by the South Africa Act 1909, although the Governor General was nominally the countrys chief executive, in practice he was bound by convention to act on the advice of the prime minister and the cabinet. In the interim, the National Party used the Governor-Generals post as a sinecure for retired National Party ministers. In 1957, God Save the Queen ceased to have status with Die Stem van Suid-Afrika as a national anthem. However, it was not until 1960 that prime minister Hendrik Verwoerd advised governor-general Swart to hold a referendum on the issue, the result was 52 per cent in favour of the change. Swart, the last governor-general, asked the Queen to relieve him of his duties on 30 April 1961, state President of South Africa President of South Africa Prime Minister of South Africa
22.
Herbert Gladstone, 1st Viscount Gladstone
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Herbert John Gladstone, 1st Viscount Gladstone GCB GCMG GBE PC JP was a British Liberal statesman. The youngest son of William Ewart Gladstone, he was Home Secretary from 1905 to 1910, in secret meetings with Labour leaders in 1903 he forged the famous Gladstone–MacDonald pact. In two-member constituencies, it arranged that Liberal and Labour candidates did not split the vote, historians give him much of the credit for the Liberal triumph in 1906, with 400 MPs and a majority of 243. Historian John Grigg states that while his name is not often included in any list of radicals, his radical record is second to none in the Campbell-Bannerman Government. He was, to be sure, no firebrand, but a party man whose common sense inclined him to be less Gladstonian in the matter of State intervention then than his famous father had been. With his able under-secretary, Herbert Samuel, he sponsored no less than 34 acts Acts of Parliament during his time at the Home Office, William Henry Gladstone and Lord Gladstone of Hawarden were his elder brothers. He was educated at Eton and University College, Oxford, and lectured in history at Keble College, Oxford, in 1880 Gladstone became private secretary to his father. Having been a junior Lord of the Treasury from 1881 to 1885, the following year served for a brief period as Financial Secretary to the War Office in his fathers third administration. The Liberals fell from power in 1895 and he became the Liberals Chief Whip in 1899 and in 1903 he negotiated on behalf of the Liberals an electoral pact with the Labour Representation Committee. He was president of the Darlington Liberal and Radical Association from early 1900, Gladstone returned to office in 1905 when Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman appointed him Home Secretary. As Prince of Wales, King Edward VII had come to enjoy warm and mutually respectful relations with W. E. Gladstone and these feelings did not extend to his son. In September 1908 he permitted Roman Catholic priests in vestments, led by Cardinal Vanutelli, there were a flood of protests, and the King asked Gladstone to ban the procession to avert a breach of the peace. In the end the Prime Minister H. H. Asquith had to ask Lord Ripon, philip Magnus suggests that Gladstone may have become a whipping-boy for the Kings general irritation with the Liberal Government. Gladstone was sacked in the reshuffle in 1910 and the King agreed, with some reluctance and he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George and raised to the peerage as Viscount Gladstone, of the County of Lanark, the same year. He was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire in 1917, Lord Gladstone married Dorothy Mary, daughter of Sir Richard Paget, 1st Baronet, in 1901. She was over twenty years his junior, there were no children from the marriage. Lord Gladstone died in March 1930, aged 76, at his Ware home, with no children, his title became extinct at his death. The Viscountess Gladstone died in June 1953, the whip as paymaster, Herbert Gladstone and party organization
23.
Charles Robberts Swart
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Swart was born on 5 December 1894 on the farm Morgenzon, in the Winburg district, part of the Boer republic of the Orange Free State. He was the third of six children, born to Hermanus Bernardus Swart, the Anglo Boer War broke out when he was 5 years old. During the war his mother and the children were interned at the Winburg concentration camp, of the three boys only two survived the concentration camp. His father was wounded and captured by the British during the Battle of Paardeberg and he became a prisoner of war and stayed in Groenpunt and Simonstad until the end of the war. When Swart was 7 years old he went to the government school in Winburg and he later went to a C. N. O. School, which is a set up by the Afrikaners in response to Lord Milners anglicisation policy at the government sponsored schools. Later on, the schools merged again with the result that he moved up a grade. He was only 13 years old when he passed his higher exam and he established himself as a barrister in 1914. He spent a period in Hollywood acting in silent films. He practised law in Bloemfontein from 1919 to 1948 and he earned a degree in journalism from Columbia University in New York in 1921–1922. He reported briefly from Washington for the Die Burger newspaper and he was married to Cornelia Wilhelmina de Klerk and had three children. In 1923 he was elected to the House of Assembly as Member of Parliament for Ladybrand until he was defeated in 1938 and he became leader of the National Party in the Orange Free State and MP for Winburg in 1939. As a staunch republican, he was a member of the National Party for many years, during the war he was well known as being a fascist sympathiser. Several figures in the Congress of Democrats were imprisoned for exposing his earlier links with fascism, from 1949–1950 he held the portfolio for Education, Arts and Science and became acting Prime Minister in 1958. Swart was appointed Governor-General in 1960, like his predecessor, Dr Jansen, he declined to take the oath of allegiance to Queen Elizabeth II or to wear the ceremonial uniform. In a referendum later that year, a majority of White voters endorsed a government proposal to establish a republic. Although elected for a seven-year term office, Swart served as State President for only six years and he died on 16 July 1982, aged 87. Swart was popularly known as Blackie, the tallest building in Bloemfontein, South Africa, which houses the provincial administration and various governmental departments was named after him
24.
Prime Minister of South Africa
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The Prime Minister of South Africa was the head of government in South Africa between 1910 and 1984. The position of Prime Minister was established in 1910, when the Union of South Africa was formed and he was appointed by the head of state—the Governor-General until 1961 and the State President after South Africa became a republic in 1961. In practice, he was the leader of the majority party or coalition in the House of Assembly, the first Prime Minister was Louis Botha, a former Boer general and war hero during the Second Boer War. He was the leading political figure and de facto chief executive. The last Prime Minister, Pieter Willem Botha, became the first executive State President after the constitutional reform, parties South African Party United Party National Party State President of South Africa President of South Africa Governor-General of the Union of South Africa
25.
Louis Botha
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Louis Botha was a South African politician who was the first Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa—the forerunner of the modern South African state. A Boer war hero during the Second Boer War, he would fight to have South Africa become a British Dominion. He was born in Greytown, Natal as one of 13 children born to Louis Botha Senior and he briefly attended the school at Hermannsburg before his family relocated to the Orange Free State. The name Louis runs throughout the family, with every generation since General Louis Botha having the eldest son named Louis, Botha led Dinuzulus Volunteers, a group of Boers that had supported Dinuzulu against Zibhebhu in 1884. He later became a member of the parliament of Transvaal in 1897, in 1899, Botha fought in the Second Boer War, initially under Lucas Meyer in Northern Natal, and later as a general commanding and fighting impressively at Colenso and Spion Kop. On the death of P. J. Joubert, he was made commander-in-chief of the Transvaal Boers, after the battle at the Tugela, Botha granted a twenty-four-hour armistice to General Buller to enable him to bury his dead. Winston Churchill revealed that General Botha was the man who captured him at the ambush of a British armoured train on 15 November 1899, coetzer 1996, p.30 also claims that Botha captured Churchill at train ambush 15 November 1899. Churchill was not aware of the mans identity until 1902, when Botha travelled to London seeking loans to assist his countrys reconstruction, the incident is also mentioned in Arthur Conan Doyles book, The Great Boer War, published in 1902. But more recent sources claim that Field-Cornet Sarel Oosthuizen was in fact the Boer-soldier who, at gunpoint, another version claims that the unit to capture Churchill was the Italian Volunteer Legion and its commander, Camillo Ricchiardi. After the fall of Pretoria in June 1900, Botha led a guerrilla campaign against the British together with Koos de la Rey. The success of his measures was seen in the resistance offered by the Boers to the very close of the three-year war. Botha was a representative of his countrymen in the negotiations of 1902. He later worked towards peace with the British, representing the Boers at the negotiations in 1902. In the period of reconstruction under British rule, Botha went to Europe with de Wet and his war record made him prominent in the politics of Transvaal and he was a major player in the postwar reconstruction of that country, becoming Prime Minister of Transvaal on 4 March 1907. In 1911, together with another Boer war hero, Jan Smuts, he formed the South African Party, widely viewed as too conciliatory with Britain, Botha faced revolts from within his own party and opposition from James Barry Munnik Hertzogs National Party. When South Africa obtained dominion status in 1910, Botha became the first Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa, after the First World War started, he sent troops to take German South-West Africa, a move unpopular among Boers, which provoked the Boer Revolt. At the end of the War he briefly led a British Empire military mission to Poland during the Polish-Soviet War and he argued that the terms of the Versailles Treaty were too harsh on the Central Powers, but signed the treaty. Botha was unwell for most of 1919 and he was plagued by fatigue and ill-health that arose from his robust waist-line. ”General Louis Botha died of heart failure following an attack of Spanish influenza on 27 August 1919 in the early hours of the morning
26.
Jan Smuts
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Field Marshal Jan Christiaan Smuts OM, CH, ED, PC, KC, FRS was a prominent South African and British Commonwealth statesman, military leader and philosopher. In addition to holding various posts, he served as prime minister of the Union of South Africa from 1919 until 1924. Smuts subsequently lost the 1948 election to hard-line Afrikaners who created apartheid and he continued to work for reconciliation and emphasised the British Commonwealth’s positive role until his death in 1950. He led a Boer Commando in the Second Boer War for the Transvaal, during the First World War, he led the armies of South Africa against Germany, capturing German South-West Africa and commanding the British Army in East Africa. From 1917 to 1919, he was one of the members of the British Imperial War Cabinet. He became a marshal in the British Army in 1941. He was the man to sign both of the peace treaties ending the First and Second World Wars. A statue of him stands in Parliament Square and he was born on 24 May 1870, at the family farm, Bovenplaats, near Malmesbury, in the Cape Colony. His parents, Jacobus Smuts and his wife Catharina, were prosperous, traditional Afrikaner farmers, long established, Jan was quiet and delicate as a child, strongly inclined towards solitary pursuits. During his childhood, he went out alone, exploring the surrounding countryside, this awakened a passion for nature. As the second son of the family, rural custom dictated that he would remain working on the farm, however, in 1882, when Jan was twelve, his elder brother died, and Jan was sent to school in his brothers place. Jan attended the school in nearby Riebeek West and he made excellent progress here, despite his late start, and caught up with his contemporaries within four years. He moved on to Victoria College, Stellenbosch, in 1886, at Stellenbosch, he learned High Dutch, German, and Ancient Greek, and immersed himself further in literature, the classics, and Bible studies. His deeply traditional upbringing and serious outlook led to isolation from his peers. However, he made outstanding academic progress, graduating in 1891 with double First-class honours in Literature and Science. During his last years at Stellenbosch, Smuts began to cast off some of his shyness and reserve, and it was at time that he met Isie Krige. On graduation from Victoria College, Smuts won the Ebden scholarship for overseas study and he decided to travel to the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom to read law at Christs College, Cambridge. Smuts found it difficult to settle at Cambridge, he felt homesick and isolated by his age, worries over money also contributed to his unhappiness, as his scholarship was insufficient to cover his university expenses
27.
J. B. M. Hertzog
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General James Barry Munnik Hertzog KC, better known as Barry Hertzog or J. B. M. Hertzog, was a South African politician and soldier. He was a Boer general during the second Anglo-Boer War who became Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa from 1924 to 1939, throughout his life he encouraged the development of Afrikaner culture, determined to protect the Afrikaners from British influence. He is the only South African Prime Minister to have served under three British Monarchs, Hertzog first studied law at Victoria College in Stellenbosch, Cape Colony. In 1889 he went to the Netherlands to read law at the University of Amsterdam and he had a law practice in Pretoria from 1892 until 1895, when he was appointed to the Orange Free State High Court. During the Boer War of 1899–1902 he rose to the rank of general, despite some military reverses, he gained renown as a daring and resourceful leader of the guerilla forces continuing to fight the British. Eventually, convinced of the futility of further bloodshed, he signed the May 1902 Treaty of Vereeniging, with South Africa now at peace, Hertzog entered politics as the chief organiser of the Orangia Unie Party. In 1907, the Orange River Colony gained self-government and Hertzog joined the cabinet as Attorney-General and his insistence that Dutch as well as English be taught in the schools met bitter opposition. He was appointed national Minister of Justice in the newly formed Union of South Africa and he continued in office until 1912. His antagonism to imperialism and to Premier Botha led to a ministerial crisis, in 1913 he led a secession of the Old Boer and anti-imperialist section from the South African Party. At the outbreak of the South African rebellion in 1914, he stayed neutral, in the years following the war, he headed the opposition to the government of General Smuts. In 1934, the National Party and the South African Party merged to form the United Party, as prime minister, Hertzog presided over the passage of a wide range of social and economic measures which did much to improve conditions for working-class whites. According to one historian, “The government of 1924, which combined Hertzog’s NP with the Labour Party, oversaw the foundations of an Afrikaner welfare state. ”A Department of Labour was established while the Wages Act laid down minimum wages for unskilled workers, although it excluded farm labourers, domestic servants, and public servants. It also established a Wage Board that regulated pay for certain kinds of work, the Old Age Pensions Act provided retirement benefits for white workers. Coloureds also received the pension, but the maximum for Coloureds was only 70% that of whites, various forms of assistance to agriculture were also introduced. Dairy farmers, for instance, were aided by a levy imposed on all butter sales, farmers also benefited from preferential railway tariffs and from the widening availability of loans from the Land Bank. The government also assisted farmers by guaranteeing prices for farm produce, secondary industries were established to improve employment opportunities, which did much to reduce white poverty and enabled many whites to join the ranks of both semi-skilled and skilled labour. A law on miners phthisis was overhauled, and increased protection of white urban tenants against eviction was introduced at a time when houses were in short supply. The civil service was opened up to Afrikaners through the promotion of bilingualism, while a widening of the suffrage was carried out, the Pact also instituted ‘penny postage’, automatic telephone exchanges, a COD postal service, and an experimental airmail service which was later made permanent
28.
Johannes Gerhardus Strijdom
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Johannes Gerhardus Strijdom, commonly called JG Strydom or Hans Strydom, nicknamed the Lion of the North, was Prime Minister of South Africa from 30 November 1954 to 24 August 1958. He was an uncompromising Afrikaner nationalist, and a proponent of racial segregation that led the way to the establishment of the system of apartheid. He was born on the family farm Klipfontein near Willowmore in Cape Colony and trained as a lawyer at Victoria College and the University of Pretoria. Strijdom served in the German South West Africa campaign in World War I, as a member of the South African Medical Corps and, later, of Helgaardts Scouts, Strijdom later settled in Nylstroom, Transvaal. He identified strongly with this area and its people and became a community leader among the Afrikaners. In 1929, Strijdom was elected to the House of Assembly as MP for Waterberg, Strijdom was also leader of the NP in Transvaal, by far the most important province of South Africa, and as such had a strong power base. After the National Party of J. B. M, later, after the United Party was formed, the GNP became known as the National Party under the leadership of Dr. D. F. Malan. Malan, Strijdom and their followers distrusted Smuts and opposed his pro-British policy, most of the National Partys MPs stayed with Hertzog, and as Strijdom was loyal to Malan, he was the only MP from Transvaal to support Malans ideals. Strijdom favoured the establishment of a republic, but this was not achieved until 1961, although it was not one of the classic portfolios, it was apparently Strijdoms choice since he had a keen interest in agriculture and was a part-time farmer. Strijdom was not so pleased with the portfolio although he was fond of farming, Malan gave him the portfolio because his young wife disliked Strijdom. That was also why Malan tried his best to get Nicolaas Havenga to succeed him as Prime Minister, rather than Strijdom. However, Strijdom was popular among NP party members and people trusted him to push things smoothly forward towards a republic, the extended Treason Trial of 156 activists involved in the Freedom Charter, happened during Strijdoms term in office. He also managed to extend the NPs parliamentary seats during the general election in 1957. Strijdoms government also severed relations with the Soviet Union. During his last year in office, his health led to long terms of absence. His father Petrus Strijdom was a well known farmer and innovator in the Baviaanskloof where Strijdom was born. He owned three farms in the kloof of which the farm was Sandvlakte on which the local school, church. He owned businesses and shops right down to the Gamtoos valley and he also sold Baboon fur and manufactured shoes and soap amongst other products
29.
Hendrik Verwoerd
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Verwoerd played an instrumental role in helping the far right National Party come to power in 1948 serving as their propagandist and political strategist. He eventually rose to party leader in 1958 and he greatly empowered, modernized and enlarged the police, secret police and army. Verwoerd ordered a secret all-out offensive against those who opposed apartheid, Verwoerd was a right wing authoritarian leader and Afrikaner nationalist. He was an advocate of the Afrikaner volk, language, culture. He held that belief that white control over South Africa could only continue if the races lived apart and he survived an assassination attempt in 1960, succumbing to a subsequent one in 1966. Prior to entering politics, Verwoerd was regarded as a brilliant social science professor at Stellenbosch University and he completed his undergraduate studies magna cum laude majoring in Sociology, Psychology and Philosophy. Verwoerd, continued his studies completing his Masters and Doctorate in both Social Psychology and Philosophy, upon his return to South Africa, he was appointed professor of Applied Psychology at Stellenbosch University at the age of 26. He was then appointed as head of the Sociology department in 1933. Verwoerd was prime minister during the establishment of the Republic of South Africa in 1961 and his term ended with his assassination on 6 September 1966 by Dimitri Tsafendas. Verwoerd was born in the Netherlands, thus making him the only South African prime minister who was not born in the country and he was the second child of Anje Strik and Wilhelmus Johannes Verwoerd, he had an elder brother named Leendert and a younger sister named Lucie. His father was a shopkeeper and a religious man who decided to move his family to South Africa in 1903 because of his sympathy towards the Afrikaner nation after the Second Boer War. Verwoerd went to a Lutheran primary school in Wynberg, a suburb of Cape Town, by the end of 1912 the Verwoerd family moved to Bulawayo, in what was then Rhodesia, where his father became an assistant evangelist in the Dutch Reformed Church. Hendrik Verwoerd attended Milton High School where he was awarded the Beit Scholarship, established through the generosity of the diamond magnate, Verwoerd received the top marks for English literature in the whole of Rhodesia. In 1917 the family moved back to South Africa because the congregation in Bulawayo appointed a minister of religion. His father took up a position in the church in Brandfort, due to the worldwide Spanish flu epidemic, the younger Verwoerd only sat for his matriculation exams in February 1919, achieving first position in the Orange Free State and fifth in South Africa. After his schooling, he proceeded to study theology at the University of Stellenbosch and he was regarded as a brilliant student and known to possess a nearely photographic memory. He was also a member of a club as well as a hiking club. In 1921 he graduated with honours and he applied for admission to the Theology School
30.
Parliament of South Africa
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The Parliament of South Africa is South Africas legislature and under the countrys current Constitution is composed of the National Assembly and the National Council of Provinces. It has undergone many transformations as a result of the countrys torturous history, from 1910 to 1994, it was elected mainly by South Africas white minority, before the first elections with universal suffrage were held in 1994. The predecessor of the Parliament of South Africa, before the 1910 Union of South Africa, was the bicameral Parliament of the Cape of Good Hope and this was composed of the House of Assembly and the Legislative Council. The buildings of the Cape Parliament went on to house the Parliament of South Africa, when the Union of South Africa was established in 1910, the Parliament was bicameral and consisted of the King or the Queen, the Senate, and the House of Assembly. The King was represented by the Governor-General, the Senate consisted of senators nominated by the four provinces, and by the Governor-General, initially for a period of ten years. The number of senators was changed from time to time, the Senate was chaired by a President of the Senate chosen by the senators from among themselves. The House of Assembly consisted of members who were elected by the voters. Each MP represented a district, and most of them were elected on the basis of their political party. The number of constituencies and parliamentary seats was increased from time to time, the House was chaired by a Speaker chosen by the MPs from among themselves. Only white men could be senators or MPs, in 1934, Parliament was declared the sovereign legislative power in and over the Union. From 1950, white voters in South West Africa, which was under South African administration at that time, were represented by four senators and six MPs. From 1957, Coloured voters were separated from the whites – in the Senate they were represented by separate senators, representation of black voters was ended in 1960. Voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 in 1960, in a referendum held in 1960, a small majority of the white voters approved the conversion of the country from a Commonwealth Realm to a republic. The Republic of South Africa was established in 1961, the only change made to the composition of the Parliament was the substitution of the State President for the Queen. A few significant changes were later, Coloured representation was ended in 1968. South West Africa ceased to be represented in Parliament from 1977, the Senate was abolished in 1981, changing Parliament to a unicameral legislature. A new Constitution, introduced in 1984, re-enfranchised the Coloured population, each house consisted of members elected to represent constituencies, plus a few additional members elected by the MPs, and some nominated by the State President. Each house legislated on own affairs exclusive to its own race group, in practice, the House of Assembly, which had more MPs than the other two houses combined, continued to dominate the legislature
31.
Senate of South Africa
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The Senate was the upper house of the Parliament of South Africa between 1910 and its abolition from 1 January 1981, and between 1994 and 1997. The remaining Senators were appointed by the Governor-General of the Union on the advice of the Prime Minister, the Senates presiding officer was called the President, whereas his counterpart in the House of Assembly was the Speaker. The South Africa Act 1909, which created the Senate, included provisions for the selection of the first elected Senators. The Union Parliament was prohibited from changing the arrangements for the Senate during its first ten years, the First Senate included eight Senators from each province. They were elected for a term, by the members serving during the final session of the legislatures of each of the four colonies which joined the Union of South Africa. The election was by a form of the single transferable vote, the remaining eight seats were filled, by appointment by the Governor-General-in-Council. New Senators, elected in this way, held the seat for the residue of the ten-year term, nominated Senators, appointed to fill vacancies, received a ten-year term and did not have to vacate their seats at the end of the term for the provincial representatives. In 1920 the Senate term was for ten years and there was no provision for a dissolution of the Senate. The provisions for nominated Senators were unchanged from those in the First Senate, the Second Senate had a small majority for the South African Party. When the National Party -led Pact government took office in 1924, the Senate Act 1926 modified the original constitutional provisions for the Senate. Another provision required the nominated Senators to vacate their seats there was a change of government. After the South African general election,1929 the Senate dissolution power was used for the first time, the Third Senate had a small NP majority, in 1929. After the NP and the SAP formed a coalition in 1933 and fused to form the United Party in 1934, the UP government passed the Representation of Natives Act 1936. This legislation affected the Senate by adding another four Senators to represent the population of South Africa. The Native Representative Senators were white people, who held office for a term and were not affected by a dissolution of the Senate. The new seats were filled by election, the black electors being officeholders such as tribal chiefs. Just before the expiry of the ten-year Senate term, the UP split over the issue of South Africas participation in the Second World War, the provincial Electoral Colleges met on 17 November 1939. After the election and the filling of the seats, the Senate was left with a pro-war majority
32.
House of Assembly of South Africa
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The members were elected by first-past-the-post voting in single-member electoral divisions. The elected additional members were chosen by proportional representation, by means of the single transferable vote, the South Africa Act 1909 provided that the franchise in each province should be the same as that in the corresponding colony before the Union, until altered by the Union Parliament. The franchise, in all parts of the Union, was limited to men over the age of 21. White women were enfranchised in 1929 and the property and income qualifications affecting white men were abolished in 1930. The voting age was reduced to 18 in the 1960s, there were some additional qualifications and disqualifications which varied between provinces. The voters in the Orange Free State, Transvaal and South-West Africa had to be qualified white people, the Cape of Good Hope had a franchise based on property and wage qualifications, open to people of all races. From 1930, the traditional Cape franchise only affected non-white electors, the 1929 and 1930 extensions of white voting rights were not granted to the non-white majority of the population. Until 1937, a number of blacks in the Cape Province were included on the common voters roll. Under the Representation of Natives Act, three members were elected to represent black voters in the province, with the voters roll being limited to only 11000. In 1960, these seats were abolished, coloured electors complying with qualifications were subsequently given four white MPs between 1958 and 1970. These seats were abolished in 1968 through the Separate Representation of Voters Amendment Act,1968 and this removed all political representation for non-whites in South Africa, Indians had never had any parliamentary representation. Natal had a theoretically non-racial franchise, which was similar to from the property, in practice, few non-white electors ever qualified to vote under it. It was estimated, in 1908, that 200 non-Europeans out of a total of 22,786 electors had secured franchise rights, in 1935, there was one black elector in Natal. He retained the general roll franchise when the Cape black voters lost it, in 1949, the South West Africa Affairs Amendment Act extended parliament representation to South West Africas white minority, who elected six MPs to the House of Assembly. They were first elected in 1950, with the territory being represented in the South African Parliament until 1977, South-West Africas representation in the South African Parliament was abolished in 1977, to pave the way for independence for the territory. However, Walvis Bay was transferred back to the Cape Province, from 1980, it formed part of the Green Point constituency in Cape Town, before becoming a separate constituency in 1982. J
33.
South Africa Act 1909
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The South Africa Act 1909 was an Act of the British Parliament which created the Union of South Africa from the British colonies of the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, Orange River Colony, and Transvaal. The Act also made provisions for admitting Rhodesia as a province of the Union in the future. Earlier, the British North America Act,1867 had united three colonies and the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act,1900 had united the Australian colonies. In the aftermath of the Anglo-Boer War, Britain re-annexed the South African Republic and these new territories, renamed the Transvaal Colony and the Orange River Colony respectively, were added to Britains existing South African territories, the Cape Colony and Colony of Natal. These political forces resulted in the 1908 National Convention, which met on 12 October 1908 and this Convention settled on the terms and constitution of a governmental, legislative, and economic Union. These proposals were transmitted to the British government, which prepared a Bill to give effect to these wishes. The Bill was passed by Parliament on 20 September 1909 and on 20 September 1909 King Edward VII of the United Kingdom proclaimed that the Union of South Africa would be established on 31 May 1910. Although South Africa became a republic in 1961 and left the Commonwealth, the structure of the 1909 Act continued to live on in its replacement. However, the last vestiges of the 1909 Act finally disappeared in 1983 when the government enacted a new constitution. The structure of the government of the Union of South Africa was similar to the government of other British Dominions, a Governor-General of South Africa was appointed to represent the British Monarch, who was also the Monarch of South Africa. Executive power was vested in the Monarch/Governor-General and was exercised on the advice of the Executive Council, as in other British Dominions, the Governor-General appointed the leader of the largest political party in the lower house of Parliament as Prime Minister. Prime Ministers were also sworn in as Executive Councilors if they were not already members of the Executive Council, legislative power was vested in a Parliament consisting of the Monarch, a Senate, and a House of Assembly. The composition and election of the Senate would later be modified as part of the move towards apartheid, the House of Assembly had more power than the Senate, much like the relationship between the House of Commons and House of Lords. Because the House of Assembly was much larger than the Senate, unlike the Australian model, no double dissolution election occurred before a joint sitting, further strengthening the position of the House of Assembly and the Prime Minister over the Senate. The Act also established a Supreme Court of South Africa, which served as a court system for the Union and consisted of local, provincial. The old supreme courts of the provinces became the divisions of the new Supreme Court of South Africa. The appellate division, which was the highest court in the land, was seated at Bloemfontein, there was a further appeal to the Privy Council, particularly in Admiralty cases. The power judicial review of Parliamentary legislation and administrative acts was the same as in the United Kingdom, in addition, the Supreme Court could review Parliamentary amendments of the entrenched clauses of the South Africa Act of 1909
34.
South African republic referendum, 1960
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A referendum on becoming a republic was held in South Africa on 5 October 1960. The National Party government subsequently organised the referendum on whether the then Union of South Africa should become a republic, the vote, which was restricted to whites, was narrowly approved by 52. 29% of the voters. The Republic of South Africa was constituted on 31 May 1961, despite the defeat of the two Boer republics, the South African Republic and the Orange Free State, republican sentiment remained strong in the Union of South Africa among Afrikaners. After the cultural and economic needs, the Afrikaner will have to devote his attention to the needs of our people. Added to that objective must be an entirely independent genuine, Afrikaans form of government for South Africa. A form of government which through its embodiment in our own personal head of state, bone of our bone, flesh of our flesh, will inspire us to irresistible unity and strength. On the matter of continued Commonwealth membership, the Broederbonds view was that departure from the Commonwealth as soon as possible remains a cardinal aspect of our republican aim. In 1948, the National Party, now led by D. F. Malans successor as Prime Minister, J G Strijdom, also downplayed the republic issue, however, he later reaffirmed his partys commitment to a republic, as well as a single national flag. Strijdom stated that the matter of whether South Africa would be a republic inside or outside the Commonwealth would be decided with a view to circumstances then prevailing. Like his precessor, Strijdom declared the belief that a republic could only be proclaimed on the basis of the broad will of the people. On becoming Prime Minister in 1958, Verwoerd gave a speech to Parliament in which he declared that, This has indeed been the basis of our struggle all these years and this has been the struggle since 1910, a republic as opposed to the monarchical connection. We stand unequivocally and clearly for the establishment of the republic in the correct manner, in 1960, Verwoerd announced plans to hold a whites-only referendum on the establishment of a republic, with a bill to that effect being introduced in Parliament on 23 April of that year. The Referendum Act received assent on 3 June 1960 and he stated that a simple majority in favour of the change would be decisive, although minimal changes would be made to the existing constitutional structures. Also included on the roll were white voters in South West Africa. As in South Africa, the Afrikaners and ethnic Germans in the territory outnumbered English-speaking whites, in addition, Coloureds were no longer enfranchised as voters and were not eligible to vote in the referendum. This prompted Verwoerd to declare in the House of Assembly, It was not the Republic of South Africa that was told, We are not going to support you in this respect. Those words were addressed to the monarchy of South Africa, and it was a warning given to all of us, English-speaking and Afrikaans-speaking, republican and anti-republican. It was clear to all of us that as far as matters are concerned
35.
Cape Colony
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The Cape of Good Hope, also known as the Cape Colony, was a British colony in present-day South Africa and Namibia, named after the Cape of Good Hope. The British colony was preceded by an earlier Dutch colony of the same name, the Dutch lost the colony to Britain following the 1795 Battle of Muizenberg, but had it returned following the 1802 Peace of Amiens. It was re-occupied by the British following the Battle of Blaauwberg in 1806, the Cape of Good Hope then remained in the British Empire, becoming self-governing in 1872, and uniting with three other colonies to form the Union of South Africa in 1910. It then was renamed the Cape of Good Hope Province, South Africa became fully independent in 1931 by the Statute of Westminster. In the north, the Orange River, also known as the Gariep River, served as the boundary for some time, from 1878, the colony also included the enclave of Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands, both in what is now Namibia. An expedition of the Dutch East India Company led by Jan van Riebeeck established a trading post, van Riebeecks objective was to secure a harbour of refuge for Dutch ships during the long voyages between Europe and Asia. Reflecting the multi-national nature of the trading companies, the Dutch also granted vrijburger status to a number of former Scandinavian and German employees as well. In 1688 they also sponsored the immigration of two hundred French Huguenot refugees who had fled to the Netherlands upon the Edict of Fontainebleau. There was a degree of assimilation due to intermarriage. Many of the colonists who settled directly on the frontier became increasingly independent, known as Boers, they migrated westwards beyond the Cape Colonys initial borders and had soon penetrated almost a thousand kilometres inland. Some Boers even adopted a nomadic lifestyle permanently and were denoted as trekboers, Dutch traders imported thousands of slaves to the Cape of Good Hope from the Dutch East Indies and other parts of Africa. By the end of the century the Capes population swelled to about 26,000 people of European descent and 30,000 slaves. In 1795, France occupied the Seven Provinces of the Netherlands and this prompted Great Britain to occupy the territory in 1795 as a way to better control the seas in order stop any potential French attempt to reach India. The British sent a fleet of nine warships which anchored at Simons Town and, following the defeat of the Dutch militia at the Battle of Muizenberg, the Dutch East India Company transferred its territories and claims to the Batavian Republic in 1798, and ceased to exist in 1799. In 1806, the Cape, now controlled by the Batavian Republic, was occupied again by the British after their victory in the Battle of Blaauwberg. The temporary peace between Britain and Napoleonic France had crumbled into open hostilities, whilst Napoleon had been strengthening his influence on the Batavian Republic. The British, who set up a colony on 8 January 1806, hoped to keep Napoleon out of the Cape, in 1814 the Dutch government formally ceded sovereignty over the Cape to the British, under the terms of the Convention of London. The British started to settle the border of the colony
36.
Colony of Natal
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The Colony of Natal was a British colony in south-eastern Africa. It is now the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa, fierce conflict with the Zulu population led to the evacuation of Durban, and eventually the Boers accepted British annexation in 1844 under military pressure. A British governor was appointed to the region and many emigrated from Europe. The British established a sugar industry in the 1860s. Farm owners had a difficult time attracting Zulu labourers to work on their plantations, as a result of the importation of Indian labourers, Durban became the home to the largest concentration of Indians outside of India. In 1823 Francis Farewell, formerly a lieutenant in the British navy, with merchants of Cape Town. In the brig Salisbury, commanded by James S. King, the voyage was not successful as a trading venture, but Farewell was so impressed with the possibilities of Natal both for trade and colonization that he resolved to establish himself at the port. He went on with ten companions, among them Henry Francis Fynn, all the rest save Farewell and Fynn speedily returned to the Cape, but the two who remained were joined by three sailors, John Cane, Henry Ogle and Thomas Holstead. On the 27th of the same month Farewell declared the territory he had acquired a British possession, Farewell, King and Fynn made independent settlements at various parts of the bay. Both Dr Smith and Uys travelled overland through Kaffraria, and were received by the English living at the bay. The next step was taken by the settlers at the port, who in 1835 resolved to lay out a town, to all these requests no official answer was returned. The settlers had joined in the year named by Allen Francis Gardiner. With the support of the traders he founded a station on the hill overlooking the bay. In 1837 Gardiner was given authority by the British government to exercise jurisdiction over the traders and they, however, refused to acknowledge Gardiners authority, and from the Cape government he received no support. The next wave of immigration consisted of Voortrekkers fleeing British rule in Cape Colony, in May 1838 the Boers took control of the port and soon afterwards established the Natalia Republic. The Republic suffered from disorganized government and poor relations with the Zulus, on 2 December 1841, Sir George Thomas Napier, governor of Cape Colony, issued a proclamation declaring his intent to resume British military occupation of Port Natal. Most of the Voortrekkers left by 1843, Natal was proclaimed a British Colony in 1843, and administered from the Cape Colony in 1844. However, it was not until the end of 1845 that an administration was installed with Martin West as lieutenant-governor that the power of the Boer Volksraad finally came to an end
37.
Orange River Colony
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The Orange River Colony was the British colony created after Britain first occupied and then annexed the independent Orange Free State in the Second Boer War. The colony ceased to exist in 1910, when it was absorbed into the Union of South Africa as Orange Free State Province, during the Second Boer War, the British forces entered the territory of the Orange Free State and occupied the capital Bloemfontein on 13 March 1900. The Orange Free State government had moved to Kroonstad during the first months of the war, from the perspective of the Orange Free State, independence was only lost with the ratification of the Treaty of Vereeniging on 31 May 1902. Therefore, there existed an ambiguous constitutional situation between 6 October 1900 and 31 May 1902, with two entities and two governments. On the British side, Sir Alfred Milner was appointed Administrator of the Orange River Colony on 4 January 1901 and he was sworn in as Governor and Commander-in-Chief of Orange River Colony on the same day. The Orangia Unie was formally constituted in May 1906, after months of preparation. A similar organisation, called Het Volk, had formed by the Transvaal Boers in January 1905. The chairman of the Orangia Unie was Abraham Fischer, leading politician of the pre-Boer War period, among the other prominent members were J. B. M. Hertzog, Christiaan de Wet and Martinus Theunis Steyn. A second political party, the Constitutional Party was formed by a group of burghers content with British rule, chairman of the party was Sir John G. Fraser, before the Second Boer War a prominent member of the Volksraad of the Orange Free State. The Constitutional Party had a following in Bloemfontein, but not outside the capital. It is noteworthy that the programmes of the two parties were very similar, the real difference between them being the attitude towards British annexation and Afrikaner influence. In 1905 Lord Selborne, formerly First Lord of the Admiralty, replaced Viscount Milner as high commissioner for South Africa and governor of the Transvaal, Selborne had come to South Africa with a brief to guide the former Boer republics from Crown colony government towards self-government. When Liberal Party came into office in Britain in December 1905 the process was speeded up, Selborne accepted the changed situation, and the experiment proved successful. On 7 January 1907 Selborne released a despatch, known as the Selborne Memorandum, the document had a marked influence on the course of events and together with Selbornes conciliatory approach assisted in reconciling the Dutch and British communities of South Africa. After the elections of 1907, the colony received self-government on 27 November 1907, Abraham Fischer became the first prime minister of the colony. The first Legislative Assembly consisted of members of the Orangia Unie, five Constitutionalists. The first Legislative Council counted five members from the Orangia Unie, five Constitutionalists, in this convention former state president M. T. Under the imperial act by which unification was established the colony entered the Union under the style of the Orange Free State Province, Fischer and Hertzog became members of the first Union government, while A. E. W
38.
Transvaal Colony
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The physical borders of the Transvaal Colony were not identical to the defeated South African Republic, but was larger. In 1910 the entire territory became the Transvaal Province of the Union of South Africa, both the Boer republics, the South African Republic known as ZAR and the Orange Free State were defeated in the Anglo Boer War and surrendered to Britain. That all burghers so surrendering will not be deprived of their property No Civil or Criminal proceedings against burghers for acts of war, the Commission would also feed the homeless and assist with the reconstruction of homes affected by the war. To that end, the crown agrees to a grant of £3,000,000 as well as loans at no interest for two years to be repaid at 3 percent interest over years thereafter. In 1902, with following the signing of the Treaty of Vereeniging. The political issue faced depended on what side of politics you stood on, the existing British administrators under Alfred Milner wished to anglicise the population through two main means. One by increasing the English speaking population of the Transvaal and secondly teach the Boer children in English with very little Dutch used, followed by self-rule, the Transvaal Boers political objectives was the restoration of self-rule in the colony and the political environment to be dominated by the Boer. As the war ended the British were faced with a proportion of Boer men as prisoners of war. As the British followed a scorched earth policy in the Transvaal, Boer lands, stock, roman Dutch law was translated into English so the law courts could continue, with some old acts repealed and a considerable amount of new law promulgated by the authorities in Johannesburg. The Resident Magistrate then submitted the names of three members of the district to the Governor for district commission under the magistrate. They would consist of one British subject, and two Boers, one from those who had surrendered early on in the war and one who had fought until the end. Repatriation depots were established in the districts and they were stocked with food, seed, agricultural equipment, transport, plough animals and stone, the rail transport network struggled to compete with the transport of army requirement to maintain a garrison and civilian requirements to repair the colony. All feed for transport animals had to be brought to the depots as process started in the winter of 1902, refugees from the concentration camps and prisoners of war were returned to their districts in a system of drafts. At the depots, they would receive farm equipment, tents and rations to start again, food rations were provided for almost a year. The loan scheme was never going to compensate a person for the actual loss experienced by the war, damage and the reconstruction required varied from district to district, In the larger towns, municipal or health boards were “appointed” to manage them under the resident Magistrate. They had limited functions and the rates they levied were for sanitary functions. The British administrators set out to place most Boer farmers back on their land by March 1903 with nineteen million pounds spent on war damages, grants, the administrators reformed the state agricultural departments to modernise farming in the colony which resulted in a maize and beef surplus by 1908. They also attempted to solve the poor white problem by settling them as tenant farmers on land but lack of capital
39.
South African Republic
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The territory of the ZAR became known after this war as the Transvaal Colony. Constitutionally the name of the country was Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek, many people also called the ZAR Transvaal, in reference to the area over the Vaal River including the British press and the press in Europe. In fact the name Transvaal was later so often used later the British objected to the use of the real name. The British pointed out that the Convention of Pretoria of 3 August 1881 referred to the Transvaal Territory and that the Transvaal and the South African Republic did not have the same boundaries. However, in the London Convention dated 27 February 1884, a subsequent treaty between Britain and the ZAR, Britain acquiesced and reverted to the use of the true name and this proclamation was issued during the Second Boer War and whilst the ZAR was still an independent country. On 20 May 1903 an Inter Colonial Council was established, to manage the colonies of the British Government, the name Transvaal was finally changed in 1994, when the ANC government broke up the Transvaal area and renamed the core to Gauteng. In paleolithic times, between 2.2 and 3.3 million years ago, hominids lived within the area of the ZAR. The earliest hominid bones, between 2.2 and 3.3 million years old, were discovered at Sterkfontein in 1994, in 1938 Paranthropus robustus bones were found at Kromdraai, and during 1947 several more examples of Australopithecus africanus were uncovered in Sterkfontein. The capital was established at Potchefstroom and later moved to Pretoria, the parliament was called the Volksraad and had 24 members. The South African Republic became fully independent on the 27 February 1884 when the London Convention was signed, the country independently also entered into various agreements with other foreign countries after that date. On 3 November 1884 the country signed a Postal convention with the government of the Cape Colony, on the November 1859 the independent Republic of Lijdenburg merged with the Zuid Afrikaansche Republiek. On 9 May 1887, burghers from the territories of Stellaland, on 25 July 1895 the burghers that took part in the battle at Zoutpansberg, were granted citizenship of the ZAR. The constitution of the Zuid Afrikaansche Republiek has been referred to as interesting for its time. It contained provisions for the division between the leadership and office bearers in government administration. The legal system consisted of higher and lower courts and had adopted a jury system, the laws were enforced by the South African Republic Police which were divided into Mounted Police and Foot Police. Also established was a Municipal Government, Witwatersrand District court and the High Court of Transvaal, initially the State and Church were not separated in the constitution of the ZAR, citizens of the ZAR had to be members of the Dutch Reformed Church. In 1858 these clauses were altered in the constitution to allow for the Volksraad to approve other Dutch Christian churches. The Reformed Church was approved by the Volksraad in 1858, which had the effect of allowing Paul Kruger, the Bible itself was also often used to interpret the intention of legal documents
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South Africa
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
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Namibia
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Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Zambia and Angola to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south, although it does not border Zimbabwe, a part of less than 200 metres of the Zambezi River separates the two countries. Namibia gained independence from South Africa on 21 March 1990, following the Namibian War of Independence. Its capital and largest city is Windhoek, and it is a state of the United Nations, the Southern African Development Community, the African Union. The dry lands of Namibia were inhabited since early times by the San, Damara, since about the 14th century, immigrating Bantu peoples arrived as part of the Bantu expansion. Since then the Bantu groups in total, known as the Ovambo people, have dominated the population of the country, in the late 19th century during European colonization, the German Empire established rule over most of the territory as a protectorate in 1884. It began to develop infrastructure and farming, and maintained this German colony until 1915, after the end of World War I, in 1920 the League of Nations mandated the country to the United Kingdom, under administration by South Africa. It imposed its laws, including racial classifications and rules, from 1948, with the National Party elected to power, South Africa applied apartheid also to what was known as South West Africa. In 1878 the Cape of Good Hope had annexed the port of Walvis Bay and the offshore Penguin Islands, following continued guerrilla warfare, South Africa installed an interim administration in Namibia in 1985. Namibia obtained full independence from South Africa in 1990, but Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands remained under South African control until 1994. Namibia has a population of 2.1 million people and a stable multi-party parliamentary democracy, Agriculture, herding, tourism and the mining industry – including mining for gem diamonds, uranium, gold, silver, and base metals – form the basis of its economy. The large, arid Namib Desert has resulted in Namibia being overall one of the least densely populated countries in the world, Namibia enjoys high political, economic and social stability. The name of the country is derived from the Namib Desert, before its independence in 1990, the area was known first as German South-West Africa, then as South-West Africa, reflecting the colonial occupation by the Germans and the South Africans. The dry lands of Namibia were inhabited since early times by San, Damara, from about the 14th century, immigrating Bantu peoples arrived during the Bantu expansion from central Africa. From the late 18th century onwards, Oorlam people from Cape Colony crossed the Orange River and their encounters with the nomadic Nama tribes were largely peaceful. The missionaries accompanying the Oorlam were well received by them, the right to use waterholes, on their way further northwards, however, the Oorlam encountered clans of the Herero at Windhoek, Gobabis, and Okahandja, who resisted their encroachment. The Nama-Herero War broke out in 1880, with hostilities ebbing only after the German Empire deployed troops to the places and cemented the status quo among the Nama, Oorlam. The first Europeans to disembark and explore the region were the Portuguese navigators Diogo Cão in 1485 and Bartolomeu Dias in 1486, like most of interior Sub-Saharan Africa, Namibia was not extensively explored by Europeans until the 19th century
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British Cape Colony
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The Cape of Good Hope, also known as the Cape Colony, was a British colony in present-day South Africa and Namibia, named after the Cape of Good Hope. The British colony was preceded by an earlier Dutch colony of the same name, the Dutch lost the colony to Britain following the 1795 Battle of Muizenberg, but had it returned following the 1802 Peace of Amiens. It was re-occupied by the British following the Battle of Blaauwberg in 1806, the Cape of Good Hope then remained in the British Empire, becoming self-governing in 1872, and uniting with three other colonies to form the Union of South Africa in 1910. It then was renamed the Cape of Good Hope Province, South Africa became fully independent in 1931 by the Statute of Westminster. In the north, the Orange River, also known as the Gariep River, served as the boundary for some time, from 1878, the colony also included the enclave of Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands, both in what is now Namibia. An expedition of the Dutch East India Company led by Jan van Riebeeck established a trading post, van Riebeecks objective was to secure a harbour of refuge for Dutch ships during the long voyages between Europe and Asia. Reflecting the multi-national nature of the trading companies, the Dutch also granted vrijburger status to a number of former Scandinavian and German employees as well. In 1688 they also sponsored the immigration of two hundred French Huguenot refugees who had fled to the Netherlands upon the Edict of Fontainebleau. There was a degree of assimilation due to intermarriage. Many of the colonists who settled directly on the frontier became increasingly independent, known as Boers, they migrated westwards beyond the Cape Colonys initial borders and had soon penetrated almost a thousand kilometres inland. Some Boers even adopted a nomadic lifestyle permanently and were denoted as trekboers, Dutch traders imported thousands of slaves to the Cape of Good Hope from the Dutch East Indies and other parts of Africa. By the end of the century the Capes population swelled to about 26,000 people of European descent and 30,000 slaves. In 1795, France occupied the Seven Provinces of the Netherlands and this prompted Great Britain to occupy the territory in 1795 as a way to better control the seas in order stop any potential French attempt to reach India. The British sent a fleet of nine warships which anchored at Simons Town and, following the defeat of the Dutch militia at the Battle of Muizenberg, the Dutch East India Company transferred its territories and claims to the Batavian Republic in 1798, and ceased to exist in 1799. In 1806, the Cape, now controlled by the Batavian Republic, was occupied again by the British after their victory in the Battle of Blaauwberg. The temporary peace between Britain and Napoleonic France had crumbled into open hostilities, whilst Napoleon had been strengthening his influence on the Batavian Republic. The British, who set up a colony on 8 January 1806, hoped to keep Napoleon out of the Cape, in 1814 the Dutch government formally ceded sovereignty over the Cape to the British, under the terms of the Convention of London. The British started to settle the border of the colony
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Orange Free State
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It is the historical precursor to the present-day Free State province. In the northern part of the territory a Voortrekker Republic was established at Winburg in 1837 and this state was in federation with the Republic of Potchefstroom which later formed part of the South African Republic. The new republic incorporated the Orange River Sovereignty and included the traditions of the Winburg-Potchefstroom Republic and it ceased to exist as an independent Boer republic on 31 May 1902 with the signing of the Treaty of Vereeniging at the conclusion of the Second Anglo-Boer War. Following a period of rule by the British, it joined the Union of South Africa in 1910 as the Orange Free State Province, along with the Cape Province, Natal. In 1961, the Union of South Africa became the Republic of South Africa. The republics name derives partly from the Orange River, which in turn was named in honour of the Dutch ruling royal family, the official language in the Orange Free State was Dutch. Europeans first visited the north of the Orange River towards the close of the 18th century. At that time, the population was sparse, early in the 19th century Griquas established themselves north of the Orange. Between 1817 and 1831, the country was devastated by the chief Mzilikazi and his Matabele in the known as the Mfecane. Up to this time the few Europeans who had crossed the Orange had come mainly as hunters or as missionaries and they were followed in 1836 by the first parties of the Great Trek. These emigrants left the Cape Colony for various reasons, but all shared the desire to escape from British authority. When Boer families first reached the area discovered that it had been devastated by a section of the Zulu tribe under Mzilikazi and his people. The Matebele had swept the country, destroying the fields, carrying off the cattle, the Boers soon came into collision with Mzilikazis raiding parties, which attacked Boer hunters who crossed the Vaal River. Reprisals followed, and in November 1837 the Boers decisively defeated Mzilikazi, in the meantime another party of Cape Dutch emigrants had settled at Thaba Nchu, where the Wesleyans had a mission station for the Barolong. The emigrants were treated with kindness by Moroka II, the chief of that tribe. In December 1836 the emigrants beyond the Orange drew up in general assembly an elementary form of government. After the defeat of Mzilikazi the town of Winburg was founded, a Volksraad elected, the emigrants already numbered some 500 men, besides women and children and many servants. Dissensions speedily arose among the emigrants, whose numbers were added to
Namibia
South Africa.svg)
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pronunciation (help·info)) is the historic predecessor to the present-day republic of South Africa. It came into being on 31 May 1910 with the unification of four previously separate British colonies: the Cape, Natal, Transvaal and Orange River colonies. It included the territories formerly part of the Boer republics annexed in 1902, the South African Republic and the Orange Free State.
Wikimedia Atlas of Union of South Africa
Media related to History of South Africa at Wikimedia Commons
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