1.
Terrorism
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Terrorism is, in its broadest sense, the use of intentionally indiscriminate violence as a means to create terror or fear, in order to achieve a political, religious, or ideological aim. It is classified as fourth-generation warfare and as a violent crime, in modern times, terrorism is considered a major threat to society and therefore illegal under anti-terrorism laws in most jurisdictions. It is also considered a war crime under the laws of war when used to target non-combatants, such as civilians, neutral military personnel, a broad array of political organizations have practiced terrorism to further their objectives. It has been practiced by both right-wing and left-wing political organizations, nationalist groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments, there is no universally agreed upon definition of the term, and many definitions exist. According to data from the Global Terrorism Database, more than 61,000 incidents of non-state terrorism, Terrorism comes from the French word terrorisme, and originally referred specifically to state terrorism as practiced by the French government during the 1793–1794 Reign of Terror. The French word terrorisme in turn derives from the Latin verb terrere meaning to frighten, the Jacobins, coming to power in France in 1792, are said to have initiated the Reign of Terror. After the Jacobins lost power, the word terrorist became a term of abuse, although terrorism originally referred to acts committed by a government, currently it usually refers to the killing of innocent people for political purposes in such a way as to create a spectacle. This meaning can be traced back to Sergey Nechayev, who described himself as a terrorist, Nechayev founded the Russian terrorist group Peoples Retribution in 1869. It is a form of state-terrorism, the concept was however developed long before the Second Gulf War by Harlan Ullman as chair of a forum of retired military personnel. The definition of terrorism has proven controversial, various legal systems and government agencies use different definitions of terrorism in their national legislation. Moreover, the community has been slow to formulate a universally agreed. These difficulties arise from the fact that the term terrorism is politically and emotionally charged, in this regard, Angus Martyn, briefing the Australian parliament, stated, The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. The international community has adopted a series of conventions that define. U. S. Bruce Hoffman, a scholar, has noted, experts and other long-established scholars in the field are equally incapable of reaching a consensus. Four years and a second later, Schmid was no closer to the goal of his quest. Walter Laqueur despaired of defining terrorism in both editions of his work on the subject, maintaining that it is neither possible to do so nor worthwhile to make the attempt. Hoffman believes it is possible to some key characteristics of terrorism. A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the George C, such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization
2.
Suicide attack
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A suicide attack is a violent attack in which the attacker expects to die in the process. They constituted only 4% of all terrorist attacks around the world over one period, ninety per cent of those attacks occurred in Afghanistan, Iraq, Israel, the Palestinian territories, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Overall, as of mid-2015 about three-quarters of all suicide attacks occurred in just three countries, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iraq, the motivation of suicide attackers varies. Kamikaze acted under orders and were motivated by obedience and nationalism. Before 2003, most attacks targeted forces occupying the attackers homeland, anthropologist Scott Atran states that since 2004 the overwhelming majority of bombers have been motivated by the ideology of Islamist martyrdom. Academic Fred Halliday, has written that assigning the descriptor of terrorist or terrorism to the actions of a group is a used by states to deny legitimacy and rights to protest. The definition of suicide is another issue, Suicide terrorism itself has been defined by one source as violent actions perpetrated by people who are aware that the odds they will return alive are close to zero. It may not always be clear to investigators which type of killing is which, the usage of the term suicide attack goes back a long way but suicide bombing dates back to at least 1940 when a New York Times article mentions the term in relation to German tactics. Less than two years later that newspaper referred to a Japanese kamikaze attempt on an American carrier as a suicide bombing, sometimes, to assign either a more positive or negative connotation to the act, suicide bombing is referred to by different terms. Istishhad Islamist supporters often call a suicide attack Istishhad, and the suicide attacker shahid, the idea being that the attacker died in order to testify his faith in God, for example while waging jihad bis saif. The term suicide is never used because Islam has strong strictures against taking ones own life, the terms Istishhad/martyrdom operation have been embraced by the Palestinian Authority, and by Hamas, Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades, Fatah and other Palestinian factions. The first to use the term for an audience was White House Press Secretary Ari Fleischer in April 2002. The only major media outlets to use it are Fox News Channel, Fox News producer Dennis Murray argued that a suicidal act should be reserved for a person who does something to kill themselves only. CNN Producer Christa Robinson argued that the term homicide bomber reflects only that you have killed other people, sacrifice bombing In the German-speaking area the term sacrifice bombing was proposed in 2012 by German scholar Arata Takeda. The term is intended to shift the focus away from the suicide of the perpetrators, until the second half of the twentieth century most suicide attacks occurred in a military context. The first recorded suicide attack came from Christian soldiers during the Crusades to free The Holy City of Jerusalem from the control of Muslim armies. During the Crusades, the Knights Templar destroyed one of their own ships with 140 Christians on board in order to kill 10 times as many Muslims in the opposing fleet. The 1st Century AD Jewish Sicarii sect are thought to have out carried suicidal attacks against Hellenized Jews they considered immoral collaborators
3.
Aircraft hijacking
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Aircraft hijacking is the unlawful seizure of an aircraft by an individual or a group. In most cases, the pilot is forced to fly according to the orders of the hijackers, occasionally, however, the hijackers have flown the aircraft themselves, such as the September 11 attacks. In at least three cases, the plane was hijacked by the pilot or co-pilot. Unlike the typical hijackings of vehicles or ships, skyjacking is not usually committed for robbery or theft. Most aircraft hijackers intend to use the passengers as hostages, either for monetary ransom or for political or administrative concession by authorities. Various motives have driven such occurrences, including demanding the release of inmates, highlighting the grievances of a particular community. Hijackers also have used aircraft as a weapon to target particular locations, hijackings for hostages commonly produce an armed standoff during a period of negotiation between hijackers and authorities, followed by some form of settlement. Settlements do not always meet the original demands. If the hijackers demands are deemed too great and the show no inclination to surrender. 1929, In the Fort Worth Star-Telegram daily newspaper 19 September 1970 and he was flying a postal route for the Mexican company Transportes Aeras Transcontinentales, ferrying mail from San Luis Potosí to Toreon and then on to Guadalajara. He was approached by Gen. Saturnino Cedillo, governor of the state of San Luis Potosí, Cedillo was accompanied by several other men. He was told through an interpreter that he had no choice in the matter and he stalled long enough to convey the information to his boss, who told him to cooperate. He had no maps, but was guided by the men as he flew above Mexican mountains and he landed on a road as directed, and was held captive for several hours under armed guard. He eventually was released with a Buenos from Cedillo and his staff, DeCelles kept his flight log, according to the article, but he did not file a report with authorities. He went on to work for the FAA in Fort Worth after his flying career,1931, The first recorded aircraft hijack took place on February 21,1931, in Arequipa, Peru. Byron Richards, flying a Ford Tri-Motor, was approached on the ground by armed revolutionaries and he refused to fly them anywhere and after a 10-day standoff, Richards was informed that the revolution was successful and he could go in return for flying one group member to Lima. 1939, The worlds first fatal hijacking occurred on 28 October 1939, larry Pletch shot Carl Bivens,39, a flight instructor who was offering Pletch lessons in a yellow Taylor Cub monoplane with tandem controls in the air after taking off in Brookfield, Missouri. Bivens, instructing from the front seat, was shot in the back of the head twice, Carl was telling me I had a natural ability and I should follow that line, Pletch later confessed to prosecutors in Missouri
4.
2 World Trade Center
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2 World Trade Center, also known by its street address,200 Greenwich Street, is an unfinished office building at the rebuilt World Trade Center in Manhattan, New York City. It replaces the original Two World Trade Center, which was completed in 1971 and was destroyed in the September 11 attacks, when completed, the tower will be located on the east side of Greenwich Street, across the street from the original location of the Twin Towers. The foundation work was completed in 2013, but construction is currently on hold, the original building was also known as the South Tower. When completed in 1973,2 World Trade Center became the second tallest building in the only by its twin. The South Towers rooftop observation deck was 1,362 ft high, the World Trade Center towers held the height record only briefly, the Sears Tower in Chicago, finished in May 1973, reached 1,450 feet at the rooftop. Throughout its existence, however, the South Tower had more floors than any other building and this number was not surpassed until the advent of the Burj Khalifa, which opened in 2010. Of the 110 stories, eight were set aside for services in mechanical floors. All the remaining floors were free for open-plan offices, each floor of the towers had 40,000 square feet of space for occupancy. The original Two World Trade Center had 95 express and local elevators, the tower had 3,800,000 square feet of office space. During the early years, various governmental organizations became key tenants of the World Trade Center towers including the State of New York. It was not until the 1980s that the citys perilous financial state eased, during the 1990s, approximately 500 companies had offices in the complex including many financial companies such as Morgan Stanley, Aon Corporation, Salomon Brothers and the Port Authority itself. The basement concourse of the World Trade Center included The Mall at the World Trade Center, electrical service to the towers was supplied by Consolidated Edison at 13,800 volts. This service passed through the World Trade Center Primary Distribution Center, the substations stepped down the 13,800 primary voltage to 480/277 volt secondary service, and then further down to 208/120 volt general power and lighting service. The complex also was served by emergency generators located in the sub-levels of the towers, at 9,03 a. m. EDT on September 11,2001, five terrorists crashed United Airlines Flight 175 into the southern facade of the South Tower. Three buildings in the World Trade Center complex, including 2 WTC, the light construction and hollow nature of the structures allowed the jet fuel to penetrate far inside the towers, igniting many large fires simultaneously over a wide area of the impacted floors. The fuel from the planes burned at most for a few minutes, but the contents of the burned over the next hour or hour. The fires might not have been as centrally positioned, nor as intense, had traditionally heavy high-rise construction been standing in the way of the aircraft. Debris and fuel would likely have remained mostly outside the buildings or concentrated in more peripheral areas away from the building cores, in this scenario, the towers might have stood far longer, perhaps indefinitely
5.
Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough and it is historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 for 60 guilders which equals US$1062 today. New York County is the United States second-smallest county by land area, on business days, the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3.9 million, or more than 170,000 people per square mile. Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York Citys five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, the City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan, and the borough houses New York City Hall, the seat of the citys government. The name Manhattan derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, a 1610 map depicts the name as Manna-hata, twice, on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River. The word Manhattan has been translated as island of hills from the Lenape language. The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use New York, NY rather than Manhattan, the area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City. It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company, a permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam, the 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony, New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it New York after the English Duke of York and Albany, the Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of battles in the early American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776. The city, greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the campaign, became the British political, British occupation lasted until November 25,1783, when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city
6.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
7.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
8.
Boeing 767
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The Boeing 767 is a mid- to large-size, long-range, wide-body twin-engine jet airliner built by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. It was Boeings first wide-body twinjet and its first airliner with a glass cockpit. The aircraft has two engines, a conventional tail, and, for reduced aerodynamic drag, a supercritical wing design. Development of the 767 occurred in tandem with a narrow-body twinjet, the 767 is produced in three fuselage lengths. The original 767-200 entered service in 1982, followed by the 767-300 in 1986 and the 767-400ER, the extended-range 767-200ER and 767-300ER models entered service in 1984 and 1988, respectively, while a production freighter version, the 767-300F, debuted in 1995. Engines featured on the 767 include the General Electric CF6, Pratt & Whitney JT9D and PW4000, United Airlines first placed the 767 in commercial service in 1982. The aircraft was flown on domestic and transcontinental routes, during which it demonstrated the reliability of its twinjet design. In 1985, the 767 became the first twin-engined airliner to receive approval for extended overseas flights. The aircraft was used to expand non-stop service on medium- to long-haul intercontinental routes. In 1986, Boeing initiated studies for a higher-capacity 767, ultimately leading to the development of the 777, in the 1990s, the 767 became the most frequently used airliner for transatlantic flights between North America and Europe. The 767 is the first twinjet wide-body type to reach 1,000 aircraft delivered, as of February 2017, Boeing has received 1,204 orders for the 767 from 74 customers,1,097 have been delivered. A total of 742 of these aircraft were in service in July 2016, competitors have included the Airbus A300, A310, and A330-200, while a successor, the 787 Dreamliner, entered service in October 2011. Despite this, the 767 still remains in production, in 1970, Boeings 747 became the first wide-body jetliner to enter service. The 747 was the first passenger jet that was enough to feature a twin-aisle cabin. Two years later, the manufacturer began a development study, code-named 7X7, for a new wide-body aircraft intended to replace the 707 and other early generation narrow-body jets. The aircraft would also provide twin-aisle seating, but in a smaller fuselage than the existing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and this marked the manufacturers first major international joint venture, and both Aeritalia and the CTDC received supply contracts in return for their early participation. At this stage the aircraft featured two or three engines, with possible configurations including over-wing engines and a T-tail. By 1976, a layout, similar to the one which had debuted on the Airbus A300
9.
United Airlines
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United Continental Holdings, Inc. commonly referred to as United, is a major American airline headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. It is the worlds third-largest airline when measured by revenue, operates a domestic and international route network. In the late 1920s, just prior to the use of the United Airlines name, The Boeing Company, currently one of the worlds largest aircraft manufacturers, United was previously known as United Air Lines. United is a member of Star Alliance, the worlds largest global airline alliance. Regional service is operated by independent carriers under the brand name United Express and its main competitors are American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, and Southwest Airlines. United operates out of nine airline hubs located in Chicago, Denver, Guam, Houston, Los Angeles, Newark, San Francisco, Tokyo and Washington, D. C. Chicago-OHare is Uniteds largest hub, both in terms of passengers carried annually and in terms of departures 181,488 in 2016) and this passed George Bush Intercontinental in Houston, which carried 15.5 million with 178,019 departures. The company employs over 86,000 people while maintaining its headquarters in Chicagos Willis Tower, through the airlines parent company, United Continental Holdings, it is publicly traded under NYSE, UAL with a market capitalization of over $18 billion as of September 2014. United operates maintenance bases in Cleveland and Orlando in addition to the maintenance locations located at Uniteds hubs, United Airlines traces its roots to the Varney Air Lines air mail service of Walter Varney, who also founded Varney Speed Lines from which Continental Airlines had originated. In 1927, aviation pioneer William Boeing founded his airline Boeing Air Transport to operate the San Francisco to Chicago air mail route, in 1933, United began operating the Boeing 247 airliner. It was able to fly a transcontinental flight in 20 hours, after passage of the Air Mail Act in 1934, UATC separated into United Aircraft, the Boeing Airplane Company and United Air Lines. In 1954 United Airlines became the first airline to purchase modern flight simulators which had visual, sound, purchased for US$3 million from Curtiss-Wright, these were the first of todays modern flight simulators for training of commercial passenger aircraft pilots. United merged with Capital Airlines in 1961 and regained its position as the United States largest airline, in 1968, the company reorganized, creating UAL Corporation, with United Airlines as a wholly owned subsidiary. In 1970, the UAL Corporation acquired Western International Hotels, the 1970s also saw economic turmoil, resulting in stagflation and labor unrest. The 1978 Airline Deregulation Act, resulting in industry shakeups, further added to the difficulties in a loss-making period. In 1982, United became the first carrier to operate the Boeing 767, in May 1985, the airline underwent a 29-day pilot strike over managements proposed B-scale pilot pay rates. Making it one of two US carriers permitted exclusive access to Heathrow under Bermuda II until open skies took effect in 2008, the aftermath of the Gulf War and increased competition from low-cost carriers led to losses in 1991 and 1992. In 1995, United became the first airline to introduce the Boeing 777 in commercial service, in 1997, United co-founded the Star Alliance airline partnership
10.
Aircraft registration
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In accordance with the Convention on International Civil Aviation, all civil aircraft must be registered with a national aviation authority using procedures set by each country. Every country, even those not party to the Chicago Convention, has a NAA whose functions include the registration of civil aircraft, an aircraft can only be registered once, in the one jurisdiction. The registration identifier must be displayed prominently on the aircraft, most countries also require the registration identifier to be imprinted on a permanent fireproof plate mounted on the fuselage in case of a post-fire/post-crash aircraft accident investigation. Military aircraft typically use tail codes and serial numbers, although each aircraft registration identifier is unique, some countries allow it to be re-used when the aircraft has been sold, destroyed or retired. For example, N3794N is assigned to a Mooney M20F and it had been previously assigned to a Beechcraft Bonanza. Also note that an aircraft may be assigned different registrations during its existence. This can be because the aircraft ownership, jurisdiction of registration. The first use of aircraft registrations was based on the radio callsigns allocated at the London International Radiotelegraphic Conference in 1913, the format was a single letter prefix followed by four other letters. The major nations operating aircraft were allocated a letter prefix. Smaller countries had to share a single letter prefix, but were allocated exclusive use of the first letter of the suffix and this was modified by agreement by the International Bureau at Berne and published on April 23,1913. The agreement stipulated that the nationality marks were to be followed by a then a group of four letters that must include a vowel. This system operated until the adoption of the system in 1928. The International Radiotelegraph Convention at Washington in 1927 revised the list of markings and these were adopted from 1928 and are the basis of the currently used registrations. The markings have been amended and added to over the years, upon registration, the aircraft receives its unique registration, which must be displayed prominently on the aircraft. Annex 7 to the Chicago Convention describes the definitions, location, the aircraft registration is made up of a prefix selected from the countrys callsign prefix allocated by the International Telecommunication Union and the registration suffix. Depending on the country of registration, this suffix is a numeric or alphanumeric code, a supplement to Annex 7 provides an updated list of approved nationality and common marks used by various countries. When painted on the fuselage, the prefix and suffix are usually separated by a dash, when entered in a flight plan, the dash is omitted. In some countries use a number suffix rather than letters, like the United States, South Korea, and Japan
11.
Logan International Airport
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It covers 2,384 acres, has six runways and four passenger terminals, and employs an estimated 16,000 people. It is the largest airport in the New England region and 17th-busiest airport in the United States and it is named after General Edward Lawrence Logan. In 2016, Massport reported an 8. 5% increase in passenger traffic comparing 2015 to 2016, the airport serves as a focus city for JetBlue, which carries out the largest operations from Logan International Airport, as well as a hub for Delta Air Lines. The regional airline Cape Air and commuter airline PenAir all carry out hub operations from Boston, American Airlines also carries out many operations from the airport. All of the major U. S. air carriers offer flights from Boston to all or the majority of their primary and secondary hubs and it is also a destination of many major European airlines. The airport has frequent service to destinations throughout North America, Latin America, the Caribbean, the North Atlantic region, the Middle East, Europe and this has turned Boston Logan in one of Americas fastest growing airports. Logan Airport opened on September 8,1923, and was used mainly by the Massachusetts Air Guard and it was then called Jeffery Field. The first scheduled passenger flights were on Colonial Air Transport between Boston and New York City in 1927. On January 1,1936, the weather station became the official point for Bostons weather observations. Until around 1950 the airline terminal was at 42. 367N71. 0275W, during the 1940s the airport added 1,800 acres of landfill in Boston Harbor, taken from the former Governors, Noddles and Apple Islands. In 1943 the state renamed the airport after Lt. General Edward Lawrence Logan, in 1952, Logan Airport became the first in the United States with an indirect rapid transit connection, with the opening of the Airport station on the Blue Line. The December 1950 diagram shows a similar to the current one,7,000 ft runway 4L,10, 000-ft 4R,7, 000-ft 9 and 7. The April 1957 Official Airline Guide shows 49 weekday departures on American,31 Eastern,25 Northeast,8 United,7 TWA domestic,6 National,6 Mohawk,2 TCA and one Provincetown-Boston. In addition TWA had nine departures a week to or from the Atlantic, Pan Am had 18, Air France 8, BOAC4, the jumbo jet era began at Logan in summer 1970 when Pan Am started daily Boeing 747s to London Heathrow Airport. Currently, the Boeing 747-400 is scheduled on flights to Boston by British Airways, Lufthansa also operates the Boeing 747-8i on one of its daily nonstop flights to Frankfurt. When Terminal E opened in 1974 it was the second largest international arrivals facility in the United States, between 1974 and 2015, the number of international travelers at Logan has tripled. International long-haul travel has been the fastest growing market sector at the airport and this project was undertaken to extend Runway 15R/33L, which later became Logans longest runway. Residents of the neighborhood, known as Wood Island, were out of their homes
12.
Los Angeles International Airport
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It is most often referred to by its IATA airport code LAX, with the letters pronounced individually. LAX is in the southwestern Los Angeles area along the Pacific Ocean between the neighborhood of Westchester to its north and the city of El Segundo to its immediate south. It is owned and operated by Los Angeles World Airports, an agency of the government of Los Angeles, formerly known as the Department of Airports. In 2015, LAX handled 74,936,256 passengers, the airport holds the claim for the worlds busiest origin and destination airport, and has for many years. To wit, relative to airports, many more travelers begin or end their trips in Los Angeles than use it as a connection. The airport also was the third busiest by aircraft movements. It is also the airport to rank among the top five U. S. airports for both passenger and cargo traffic. It is also notable for being one of the few U. S. airports with four parallel runways, LAX serves as a hub for Alaska Airlines, American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, United Airlines, and Virgin America. The airport serves as a city for Allegiant Air, Air New Zealand, Qantas, Southwest Airlines, Spirit Airlines. LAX serves as either a hub or focus city for more Mainline US Carriers than any airport in the Country and is the only airport that all three legacy carriers have designated a hub. As the largest international airport on the U. S, West Coast, LAX is a major gateway to and from Europe, Latin America, Asia and Oceania. With its deep connections to Asia and Latin America in particular, in 1928, the Los Angeles City Council selected 640 acres in the southern part of Westchester for a new airport. The fields of wheat, barley and lima beans were converted into dirt landing strips without any terminal buildings and it was named Mines Field for William W. Mines, the real estate agent who arranged the deal. 1, was erected in 1929 and is in the National Register of Historic Places, Mines Field opened as the airport of Los Angeles in 1930 and the city purchased it to be a municipal airfield in 1937. The name became Los Angeles Airport in 1941 and Los Angeles International Airport in 1949, in the 1930s the main airline airports were Burbank Airport in Burbank and the Grand Central Airport in Glendale. Mines Field did not extend west of Sepulveda Boulevard, Sepulveda was rerouted circa 1950 to loop around the west ends of the extended east–west runways, which by November 1950 were 6,000 feet long. A tunnel was completed in 1953 allowing Sepulveda Boulevard to revert to straight, for the next few years the two runways were 8,500 feet long. Before the 1930s, existing airports used a two-letter abbreviation based on the stations at the airports
13.
Airline
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An airline is a company that provides air transport services for traveling passengers and freight. Airlines utilize aircraft to supply services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for codeshare agreements. Generally, airline companies are recognized with an air operating certificate or license issued by a governmental aviation body, Airlines vary in size, from small domestic airlines to full-service international airlines. Airline services can be categorized as being intercontinental, domestic, regional, or international, the largest airline currently is American Airlines Group. DELAG, Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft was the worlds first airline and it was founded on November 16,1909 with government assistance, and operated airships manufactured by The Zeppelin Corporation. The first fixed wing scheduled air service was started on January 1,1914 from St. Petersburg, Florida to Tampa, the four oldest non-dirigible airlines that still exist are Netherlands KLM, Colombias Avianca, Australias Qantas, and the Czech Republics Czech Airlines. The earliest fixed wing airline in Europe was the Aircraft Transport and Travel, using a fleet of former military Airco DH. 4A biplanes that had been modified to carry two passengers in the fuselage, it operated relief flights between Folkestone and Ghent. On 15 July 1919, the company flew a proving flight across the English Channel, flown by Lt. H Shaw in an Airco DH.9 between RAF Hendon and Paris - Le Bourget Airport, the flight took 2 hours and 30 minutes at £21 per passenger. On 25 August 1919, the company used DH. 16s to pioneer a regular service from Hounslow Heath Aerodrome to Le Bourget, the airline soon gained a reputation for reliability, despite problems with bad weather and began to attract European competition. In November 1919, it won the first British civil airmail contract, six Royal Air Force Airco DH. 9A aircraft were lent to the company, to operate the airmail service between Hawkinge and Cologne. In 1920, they were returned to the Royal Air Force, the first French airline was Société des lignes Latécoère, later known as Aéropostale, which started its first service in late 1918 to Spain. The first German airline to use heavier than air aircraft was Deutsche Luft-Reederei established in 1917 which started operating in February 1919, in its first year, the D. L. R. Operated regularly scheduled flights on routes with a length of nearly 1000 miles. Network was more than 3000 km long, and included destinations in the Netherlands, Scandinavia, another important German airline was Junkers Luftverkehr, which began operations in 1921. It was a division of the aircraft manufacturer Junkers, which became a company in 1924. It operated joint-venture airlines in Austria, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Norway, Poland, Sweden, the Dutch airline KLM made its first flight in 1920, and is the oldest continuously operating airline in the world. Established by aviator Albert Plesman, it was awarded a Royal predicate from Queen Wilhelmina. Its first flight was from Croydon Airport, London to Amsterdam, using a leased Aircraft Transport and Travel DH-16, in 1921, KLM started scheduled services
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Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
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Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
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Los Angeles
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Los Angeles, officially the City of Los Angeles and often known by its initials L. A. is the cultural, financial, and commercial center of Southern California. With a census-estimated 2015 population of 3,971,883, it is the second-most populous city in the United States, Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated county in the United States. The citys inhabitants are referred to as Angelenos, historically home to the Chumash and Tongva, Los Angeles was claimed by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo for Spain in 1542 along with the rest of what would become Alta California. The city was founded on September 4,1781, by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve. It became a part of Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence, in 1848, at the end of the Mexican–American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, thereby becoming part of the United States. Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4,1850, the discovery of oil in the 1890s brought rapid growth to the city. The completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, delivering water from Eastern California, nicknamed the City of Angels, Los Angeles is known for its Mediterranean climate, ethnic diversity, and sprawling metropolis. Los Angeles also has an economy in culture, media, fashion, science, sports, technology, education, medicine. A global city, it has been ranked 6th in the Global Cities Index, the city is home to renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields, and is one of the most substantial economic engines within the United States. The Los Angeles combined statistical area has a gross metropolitan product of $831 billion, making it the third-largest in the world, after the Greater Tokyo and New York metropolitan areas. The city has hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984 and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics and thus become the second city after London to have hosted the Games three times. The Los Angeles area also hosted the 1994 FIFA mens World Cup final match as well as the 1999 FIFA womens World Cup final match, the mens event was watched on television by over 700 million people worldwide. The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the Tongva, a Gabrielino settlement in the area was called iyáangẚ, meaning poison oak place. Gaspar de Portolà and Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí, reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2,1769, in 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra directed the building of the Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, the first mission in the area. The Queen of the Angels is an honorific of the Virgin Mary, two-thirds of the settlers were mestizo or mulatto with a mixture of African, indigenous and European ancestry. The settlement remained a small town for decades, but by 1820. Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the district of Los Angeles Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street. New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, during Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico made Los Angeles Alta Californias regional capital
17.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
18.
September 11 attacks
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The September 11 attacks were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11,2001. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured over 6,000 others, two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. A third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia and it was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers in the history of the United States, with 343 and 72 killed respectively. Suspicion for the attack fell on al-Qaeda. The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks. Although al-Qaedas leader, Osama bin Laden, initially denied any involvement, al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U. S. support of Israel, the presence of U. S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq as motives. Having evaded capture for almost a decade, bin Laden was located and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U. S. Navy in May 2011. S. many closings, evacuations, and cancellations followed, out of respect or fear of further attacks. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002, on November 18,2006, construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site. The building was opened on November 3,2014. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets. Under the guidance of Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden became more radical, in 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia. Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed, Muslim legal scholars have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries, according to bin Laden. Bin Laden, who orchestrated the attacks, initially denied but later admitted involvement, in November 2001, U. S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al-Harbi, on December 27,2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said, It has become clear that the West in general and it is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, the transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims. He said that the attacks were carried out because, we are free, and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security we undermine yours, Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon
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Al-Qaeda
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It operates as a network made up of Islamic extremist, Salafist jihadists. Al-Qaeda has mounted attacks on civilian and military targets in various countries, including the 1998 U. S. embassy bombings, the September 11 attacks, the U. S. government responded to the September 11 attacks by launching the War on Terror. Characteristic techniques employed by al-Qaeda include suicide attacks and the bombing of different targets. Al-Qaeda ideologues envision a complete break from all foreign influences in Muslim countries, among the beliefs ascribed to al-Qaeda members is the conviction that a Christian–Jewish alliance is conspiring to destroy Islam. Al-Qaeda also opposes what it regards as man-made laws, and wants to replace them with a form of sharia law. Al-Qaeda has carried out attacks on targets it considers kafir. Al-Qaeda is also responsible for instigating violence among Muslims. Al-Qaeda leaders regard liberal Muslims, Shias, Sufis and other sects as heretics and have attacked their mosques, examples of sectarian attacks include the Yazidi community bombings, the Sadr City bombings, the Ashoura massacre and the April 2007 Baghdad bombings. Since the death of bin Laden in 2011, the group has been led by the Egyptian Ayman al-Zawahiri, al-Qaedas management philosophy has been described as centralization of decision and decentralization of execution. Many terrorism experts do not believe that the global jihadist movement is driven at every level by al-Qaedas leadership, marc Sageman, a psychiatrist and former Central Intelligence Agency officer, said that al-Qaeda is now just a loose label for a movement that seems to target the west. We like to create an entity called in our minds. This view mirrors the account given by Osama bin Laden in his October 2001 interview with Tayseer Allouni and this matter isnt about any specific person and. is not about the al-Qaidah Organization. We are the children of an Islamic Nation, with Prophet Muhammad as its leader, and all the true believers are brothers. So the situation isnt like the West portrays it, that there is an organization with a specific name and that particular name is very old. It was born without any intention from us, created a military base to train the young men to fight against the vicious, arrogant, brutal, terrorizing Soviet empire. So this place was called The Base, as in a base, so this name grew. We arent separated from this nation, and so we discuss the conscience of this nation. Bruce Hoffman, however, sees al-Qaeda as a network that is strongly led from the Pakistani tribal areas
20.
Marwan al-Shehhi
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Al-Shehhi was a student from the United Arab Emirates who moved to Germany in 1996 and soon became close friends with Mohamed Atta, Ziad Jarrah and Ramzi bin al-Shibh, forming the Hamburg cell. Together, after pledging their lives to martyrdom, they became the leaders of the September 11 attacks and he arrived in the United States in May 2000, one month before Atta. They both trained in Florida at Huffman Aviation, receiving their commercial pilot licenses in December 2000 from the FAA, on September 9,2001, he traveled from Florida to Boston, where he stayed at the Milner Hotel until September 11. m. 17 minutes after Mohamed Atta crashed American Airlines Flight 11 into the North Tower and he was the youngest hijacker-pilot to participate in the attacks. The impact of the Boeing 767 operating as United 175 into the South Tower was seen live on television as it happened. 56 minutes later at 9,59 A. M. the 110-story skyscraper collapsed, killing hundreds of innocent people, including around 900 office workers and first responders. Al-Shehhi was born in Ras al-Khaimah, on 9 May 1978, in the United Arab Emirates and he was described as a quiet and devout Muslim. Upon arriving in Germany in April 1996, al-Shehhi moved into an apartment, several months later, he moved into his own apartment. Those who knew him described al-Shehhi as a religious and friendly individual who wore western clothes and sometimes rented cars for trips to Berlin, France. While in Germany, al-Shehhi enrolled in the University of Bonn after completing a German course and he left Germany in June 1997 to attend to problems at home although the university forbade him. In early 1998, al-Shehhi transferred to the Technical University of Hamburg, a poor student, Marwan was directed by the Scholarship program administrators to repeat a semester of his studies back in Bonn beginning in August 1998. Al-Shehhi did not enroll back at Bonn until January 1999 and continued to struggle with his studies, by July 1999, Marwan returned to Hamburg to study shipbuilding. After moving to Hamburg in 1998, al-Shehhi helped form the Hamburg cell with Mohamed Atta, There, his views became more and more radical. They met three or four times a week to discuss anti-American feelings and plot possible attacks, when someone asked why he and Atta never laughed, al-Shehhi retorted, How can you laugh when people are dying in Palestine. In October 1999 Marwan al-Shehhi was filmed at Said Bahajis wedding in Germany with other 9/11 hijackers including Ziad Jarrah and they instead traveled to Afghanistan to meet with Osama bin Laden and train for terrorist attacks. Immediately afterwards, Atta, al-Shehhi, and Jarrah reported their passports stolen, after their training, the hijackers began to attempt to hide their radicalism. Al-Shehhi shaved his beard and seemed to his old friends like he had become less religious, after the attacks, a librarian in Hamburg reported that al-Shehhi boasted to her There will be thousands of dead. You will see, in America something is going to happen, There will be many people killed
21.
American Airlines Flight 11
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American Airlines Flight 11 was a domestic passenger flight that was hijacked by five al-Qaeda members on September 11,2001, as part of the September 11 attacks. Mohamed Atta deliberately crashed the plane into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City, killing all 92 people aboard and an unknown number in the buildings impact zone. Fifteen minutes into the flight, the injured at least three people, forcibly breached the cockpit, and overpowered the captain and first officer. Atta, a member and licensed commercial pilot, took over the controls. Air-traffic controllers noticed the flight was in distress when the crew was no longer responding and they realized the flight had been hijacked when Mohamed Attas announcements for passengers were transmitted to air traffic control. On board, flight attendants Amy Sweeney and Betty Ong contacted American Airlines, the aircraft crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center at 08,46,40 local time. Countless people in the streets of New York City witnessed the strike, documentary film maker Jules Naudet captured the only known footage of the initial impact from start to finish. Before the hijacking was confirmed, news began to report on the incident. The impact and subsequent fire caused the North Tower to collapse 102 minutes after the crash, during the recovery effort at the World Trade Center site, workers recovered and identified dozens of remains from Flight 11 victims, but many body fragments could not be identified. The American Airlines Flight 11 aircraft was a Boeing 767-223ER delivered in 1987, the capacity of the aircraft was 158 passengers, but the September 11 flight carried 81 passengers and 11 crew members. This was a load at 58.2 percent capacity. All 92 people on board were killed, including David Angell, his wife Lynn Angell, and actress Berry Berenson, family Guy creator Seth MacFarlane had been scheduled to be on the flight but arrived at the airport late. Actor Mark Wahlberg was also scheduled to be on the flight, actress Leighanne Littrell, wife of Backstreet Boys singer Brian Littrell, had also previously been booked on the flight, but like Wahlberg, changed her plans at the last minute. Mohamed Atta, the ringleader of the attacks, and a fellow hijacker, Abdulaziz al-Omari and they boarded Colgan Air Flight 5930, which was scheduled to depart at 06,00 from Portland, Maine, and fly to Boston. Both hijackers had first class tickets with a flight to Los Angeles. When they checked in, the Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System selected Atta for extra luggage scrutiny, the flight from Portland departed on time and arrived in Boston at 06,45. Three other hijackers, Waleed al-Shehri, Wail al-Shehri, and Satam al-Suqami, arrived at Logan Airport at 06,45, having left their rental car in the airport parking facility. At 06,52, Marwan al-Shehhi, the pilot of United Airlines Flight 175
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New York Air Route Traffic Control Center
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New York Air Route Traffic Control Center /New York ARTCC, or New York Center is one of 22 Air Route Traffic Control Centers in the United States. New York Center was the worlds first Air Route Traffic Control Center, collectively, the Center is responsible for air traffic service in 3,270,000 square miles of controlled airspace. ZNY assumes a route control over four extremely busy Class B airports, most of the air traffic in and out of the New York Metropolitan Area. The Center is located at 4205 Johnson Avenue on Long Island in Ronkonkoma, Long Island MacArthur Airport is north of the ARTCC. Of that,17,000 square miles are mainland airspace, the sector shelves start as low 0 AGL and top out as high as Flight Level 600 ASL. ZNY handles a total of 28 sectors, excluding Oceanic sectors and these are broken down into Low Altitude and High Altitude sectors, with 16 Low Altitude sectors and 12 High altitude sectors. Within the Center there are 6 Areas, which other ARTCCs might call specialties, in ZNY, the Areas are Lettered A through F. Area A covers the southeast edge of Pennsylvania, Area A puts arrivals in trail for Philadelphia TRACON via the BUNTS feed heading to Philadelphia Intl, Wilmington DE Airport and other Eastern PA and Northern NJ airports. Area A also feeds Harrisburg Approach, controlling Harrisburg Intl, Lancaster Airport, York, Reading Regional Airport, Allentown Airport and this traffic is handed off in trail on en route airways to Washington Center to the South and Cleveland Center to the West. Area B is the busiest area and covers the East side of Pennsylvania, the half of New Jersey. Area B controls departures heading west, south, and southwest out of N90, Area B sequences most of those departures into streams for the STARs to BWI, IAD, and DCA. Area B also sequences all Boston Logan arrivals travelling over JFK Airport, Area C covers the northern edge of Pennsylvania, and controls both eastbound arrivals into JFK on the LENDY5 STAR and some westbound departures out of N90. Area D is in the middle of Pennsylvania and borders the Cleveland ARTCCs east border, Area D handles the PHL SPUDS2/SLATT3 STAR along with PHL departures departing via the PTW exit westbound. Area Ds High Altitude sectors handle all westbound N90 departures, Area E is the first set of Oceanic sectors that mainly have control over the Atlantic just offshore from New York and New Jersey. Area E maintains 2 radar sectors that are both offshore and this sectors owns airspace to the southeast of Kennedy. There are no VORs or airports within this sector, because of this, there is a lot of vectoring and speed control involved. Warning area 107, when active, takes a big chunk of the sectors airspace, the second offshore radar sector in Area E is Sector 82. Aircraft are off-loaded to this sector there is weather along the east coast of the US
23.
Telephone call
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A telephone call is a connection over a telephone network between the called party and the calling party. The first telephone call was made on March 10,1876 by Alexander Graham Bell, Bell demonstrated his ability to talk with electricity by transmitting a call to his assistant, Thomas Watson. The first words transmitted were Mr Watson, come here and this event has been called Bells greatest success, as it demonstrated the first successful use of the telephone. Although it was his greatest success, he refused to have one in his own home because it was something he invented by mistake, the call may use land line, mobile phone, satellite phone or any combination thereof. When a telephone call has more than one called party it is referred to as a conference call, when two or more users of the network are sharing the same physical line, it is called a party line or Rural phone line. If the callers wireline phone is connected directly to the party, when the caller takes their telephone off-hook. This is called a hot line or ringdown, otherwise, the calling party is usually given a tone to indicate they should begin dialing the desired number. In some cases, if the party cannot dial calls directly. Calls may be placed through a public network provided by a telephone company or a private network called a PBX. In most cases a private network is connected to the network in order to allow PBX users to dial the outside world. Most telephone calls through the PSTN are set up using ISUP signalling messages or one of its variants between telephone exchanges to establish the end to end connection, calls through PBX networks are set up using QSIG, DPNSS or variants. Some types of calls are not charged, such as local calls dialed directly by a subscriber in Canada. In most other areas, all calls are charged a fee for the connection. Fees depend on the provider of the service, the type of service being used, in most circumstances, the calling party pays this fee. However, in circumstances such as a reverse charge or collect call. In some circumstances, the caller pays a flat charge for the telephone connection. The caller then rotary dials or presses buttons for the number needed to complete the call. The second phone makes a noise to alert its owner
24.
United Arab Emirates
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In 2013, the UAEs population was 9.2 million, of which 1.4 million are Emirati citizens and 7.8 million are expatriates. The country is a federation of seven emirates, and was established on 2 December 1971, the constituent emirates are Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah and Umm al-Quwain. Each emirate is governed by a monarch, together, they jointly form the Federal Supreme Council. One of the monarchs is selected as the President of the United Arab Emirates, Islam is the official religion of the UAE and Arabic is the official language. The UAEs oil reserves are the seventh-largest in the world while its natural gas reserves are the worlds seventeenth-largest, Sheikh Zayed, ruler of Abu Dhabi and the first President of the UAE, oversaw the development of the Emirates and steered oil revenues into healthcare, education and infrastructure. The UAEs economy is the most diversified in the Gulf Cooperation Council, while its most populous city of Dubai is an important global city, nevertheless, the country remains principally reliant on its export of petroleum and natural gas. The UAE is criticised for its rights record, including the specific interpretations of Sharia used in its legal system. The UAEs rising international profile has led analysts to identify it as a regional. It appears the land of the Emirates has been occupied for thousands of years, there is no proof of contact with the outside world at that stage, although in time it developed with civilisations in Mesopotamia and Iran. This contact persisted and became wide-ranging, probably motivated by trade in copper from the Hajar Mountains, in ancient times, Al Hasa was part of Al Bahreyn and adjoined Greater Oman. Sassanid groups were present on the Batinah coast, in 637, Julfar was an important port that was used as a staging post for the Islamic invasion of the Sassanian Empire. The area of the Al Ain/Buraimi Oasis was known as Tuam and was an important trading post for camel routes between the coast and the Arabian interior. The earliest Christian site in the UAE was first discovered in the 1990s, a monastic complex on what is now known as Sir Bani Yas Island. Thought to be Nestorian and built in 600 AD, the church appears to have been abandoned peacefully in 750 AD and it forms a rare physical link to a legacy of Christianity which is thought to have spread across the peninsula from 50 to 350 AD following trade routes. Certainly, by the 5th century, Oman had a bishop named John – the last bishop of Oman being Etienne, in 676 AD. This led to a group of travelling to Medina, converting to Islam and subsequently driving a successful uprising against the unpopular Sassanids. Following the death of Prophet Muhammad, the new Islamic communities south of the Persian Gulf threatened to disintegrate, with insurrections against the Muslim leaders. The Caliph Abu Bakr sent an army from the capital Medina which completed its reconquest of the territory with the battle of Dibba in which 10,000 lives are thought to have been lost
25.
Mohamed Atta
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At 33 years of age, he was the oldest hijacker to take part in the attacks. Born in 1968 in a town in Egypts Nile Delta, Atta moved with his family to the Abdeen section of Cairo at the age of 10. Atta studied architecture at Cairo University, graduating in 1990, and continued his studies in Hamburg, in Hamburg, Atta became involved with the al-Quds Mosque, where he met Marwan al-Shehhi, Ramzi bin al-Shibh, and Ziad Jarrah, together forming the Hamburg cell. Atta disappeared from Germany for periods of time, spending time in Afghanistan, including several months in late 1999 and early 2000 when he met Osama bin Laden. Atta and the other Hamburg cell members were recruited by bin Laden, Atta returned to Hamburg in February 2000, and began inquiring about flight training in the United States. Atta arrived in the United States, together with Marwan al-Shehhi, both ended up in Venice, Florida at Huffman Aviation, where they entered the Accelerated Pilot Program. Atta and Shehhi obtained instrument ratings in November 2000, and continued training on simulators, beginning in May 2001, Atta assisted with the arrival of the muscle hijackers. In July 2001, Atta traveled to Spain where he met with bin al-Shibh to exchange information, in August 2001, Atta traveled as a passenger on several surveillance flights, to establish in detail how the attacks could be carried out. In early September 2001, Atta traveled to Prince Georges County, Maryland, Atta then traveled to Boston, and on September 10, with Abdulaziz al-Omari to Portland, Maine. They spent the night at the Comfort Inn in South Portland, on the morning of September 11, Atta and Omari traveled on Colgan Air back to Boston, where they boarded American Airlines Flight 11. Fifteen minutes into the flight, the team of hijackers attacked, Atta crashed the Boeing 767 into the North Tower of the World Trade Center, killing everyone on board. The crash led to the collapse of the tower 102 minutes later at 10,28 A. M. ultimately causing the deaths of over 1600 civilians and first responders in the North Tower. In Germany, he registered his name as Mohamed el-Amir Awad el-Sayed Atta, in his will, written in 1996, Atta gives his name as Mohamed the son of Mohamed Elamir awad Elsayed. When he came to the United States, he used the name Mohamed Atta, Atta also claimed different nationalities, sometimes Egyptian and other times telling people he was from the United Arab Emirates. Atta was born on September 1,1968 in Kafr el-Sheikh and his father, Mohamed el-Amir Awad el-Sayed Atta, was a lawyer, educated in both sharia and civil law. His mother, Bouthayna Mohamed Mustapha Sheraqi, came from a farming and trading family and was also educated. Bouthayna and Mohamed married when she was 14, via an arranged marriage, the family had few relatives on the fathers side and kept a distance from Bouthaynas family. In-laws characterized Attas father as austere, strict, and private, Atta was the only son, he had two older sisters who are both well-educated and successful in their careers—one as a medical doctor and the other as a professor
26.
Fayez Banihammad
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Fayez Rashid Ahmed Hassan al-Qadi Banihammad was one of five hijackers aboard United Airlines Flight 175 as part of the September 11 attacks. Born in the United Arab Emirates, Banihammad left his family to pursue relief work, using the Visa Express program, Banihammad obtained a U. S. tourist visa. Banihammad arrived in the United States in June 2001, on September 11,2001, Banihammad boarded United Airlines Flight 175 and participated in the hijacking of the plane, so it could be flown into the South Tower of the World Trade Center. Banihammad was from Khor Fakkan in the United Arab Emirates and was born to Muhammad Fayez Banihammad, Banihammad typically went by the name Ahmed. Fayez told his parents, while spending time in Asir, that he hoped to work with the International Islamic Relief Organization. He only contacted his parents once after that and he is believed to have visited the Philippines for three days from October 17–20,2000. Banihammad used the controversial program Visa Express to gain entry into the country together with Saeed al-Ghamdi. Upon later review of his application, it was noticed that he had not listed an occupation or reason for visit, however, he still received the visa. Before the pair arrived in Orlando, Florida on June 27,2001 and he opened another account with SunTrust Banks in Orlando several days after his arrival, becoming one of nine hijackers to open an account with the bank. On July 18, Banihammad gave Mustafa power-of-attorney over his Dubai bank account, staying in the Milner Hotel from September 8–10, Banihammad asked a hotel clerk to fill out the registration card for the room, citing his poor English. On September 10,2001, he shared a room with four hijackers, Mohand al-Shehri, Marwan al-Shehhi and Satam al-Suqami at the Milner Hotel in Boston, on September 11, Banihammad boarded Flight 175, he sat in seat 2A, adjacent to Shehri. About a half an hour into the flight, the plane was hijacked and subsequently flown into the south tower of the World Trade Center
27.
Hamza al-Ghamdi
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Hamza al-Ghamdi was one of five hijackers of United Airlines Flight 175 as part of the September 11 attacks. Born in Saudi Arabia, Hamza left his family to fight in Chechnya and was sent to al-Qaeda training camps in Afghanistan where he was chosen to participate in the 9/11 attacks. He arrived in the United States in May 2001 on a tourist visa, some reports say that Hamza left his home to fight in Chechnya against the Russians in early 2000. He called home several times until mid-2001, saying he was in Chechnya, five other hijackers also passed through the UAE and purchased travellers cheques, including Majed Moqed, Saeed al-Ghamdi, Wail al-Shehri, Ahmed al-Haznawi and Ahmed al-Nami. In January 2001, Ghamdi rented a post office box in Delray Beach, Florida with another hijacker, according to FBI director Robert Mueller and the 9/11 Commission however, Hamza did not first enter the United States until a London flight on May 28 with Mohand and Abdulaziz al-Omari. In March 2001, Ghamdi was filmed in a video that was aired on al Jazeera. In the video, many future 9/11 hijackers swear to become martyrs, Ghamdi does not speak in the film, but is seen studying maps and flight manuals. He was one of 9 hijackers to open a SunTrust bank account with a cash deposit around June 2001, Ghamdi also applied for and received a Florida drivers license on June 27,2001. In the next two months, he obtained two duplicate licenses simply by filling out change-of-address forms, five other suspected hijackers also receive duplicate Florida licenses in 2001, and others had licenses in different states. Some have speculated that this was to allow persons to use the same identity. Ghamdi purchased his own eTicket for Flight 175 on August 29, the FBI also claimed that he also purchased an eTicket for a Flight 7950 from Los Angeles to San Francisco, although it does not give the projected date of flight. On August 30, Hamza bought Ahmed al-Ghamdi an identical eTicket for Flight 175, however, Ghamdi instead went with Mohand al-Shehri to Newark, New Jersey on $139.75 tickets purchased from the Mile High Travel agency in Lauderdale-by-the-Sea. Hamza and Ahmed al-Ghamdi stayed at the Charles Hotel in Cambridge, on September 8 they checked out of the hotel, and moved into the Days Hotel on Soldiers Field Road in Brighton, Boston, Massachusetts where they remained up until the attacks. On the morning of September 11,2001, Hamza left the hotel with Ahmed al-Ghamdi, the two men shared a taxicab to get to Logan International Airport, where they boarded Flight 175. On September 22,2001, Arab News reported that Hamza al-Ghamdis father told the Al-Watan newspaper that an FBI-released photograph bore absolutely no resemblance to his son. However, the picture Ghamdis father refers to is assumed to have not been a released by the FBI. He appeared in a released on September 7,2006
28.
Ahmed al-Ghamdi
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Ahmed Salah Said al-Ghamdi was one of five hijackers of United Airlines Flight 175 as part of the September 11 attacks. Ghamdi was born in Saudi Arabia in 1979 and he arrived in the United States in May 2001 on a tourist visa and helped plan out how the attacks would take place. An Imam, Ghamdi was from the al Bahah Province of Saudi Arabia and it is the capital of Al Bahah Province nestled between the resorts of Mecca and Abha, Al Bahah is one of the Kingdom’s prime tourist attractions. Ghamdi shared the same tribal affiliation with fellow hijackers Saeed al-Ghamdi, Hamza al-Ghamdi and this group is noted as being some of the more religiously observant of the hijackers, and they are thought to have met each other some time in 1999. In November, both he and Salem al-Hazmi flew to Beirut, though on separate flights and at different times, Ghamdi flew on the same flight as a senior Hezbollah operative, although the 9/11 Commission could find no evidence that either knew the other. His family claims to have last seen him in December, in March 2001, Ghamdi is reported to have met with a Jordanian who has been charged with providing false identification to at least 50 illegal aliens. Hijackers Majed Moqed, Hani Hanjour, and Nawaf al-Hazmi are reported to have met him at the same time. Inexplicably, this is more than a month before Ghamdi first arrived in the United States, according to the FBI, on May 2, Ghamdi arrived in the U. S. with fellow-hijacker Moqed, on a student visa. He listed the Naval Air Station in Pensacola, Florida as his permanent address on his drivers license and he and Moqed moved in with Hani Hanjour and Nawaf al-Hazmi in Falls Church, Virginia. All four later moved into an apartment in Paterson, New Jersey and he called his parents in July 2001, but did not mention being in the United States. Hamza al-Ghamdi purchased Ahmeds ticket online for United Airlines Flight 175 on August 29 or August 30 and he listed a Mail Boxes Etc. address for Ahmed. Hamza and Ahmed al-Ghamdi stayed at the Charles Hotel in Cambridge, on September 8 they checked out of the hotel, and moved into the Days Hotel on Soldiers Field Road in Brighton where they remained up until the attacks. On the morning of September 11,2001, Ahmed left the hotel with Hamza, the Final 9/11 Commission Report http, //news. bbc. co. uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/1559151. stm
29.
Mohand al-Shehri
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Mohand Muhammed Fayiz al-Shehri was one of five hijackers aboard United Airlines Flight 175 as part of the September 11 attacks. A Saudi, Shehri was a college student who dropped out after failing his courses. He later left his home to fight in Chechnya in 2000 and it was during that time that he would be chosen to take part in the attacks in America. He received a U. S. student visa in October 2000, Shehri arrived in the United States in May 2001. On September 11,2001, Shehri boarded United Airlines Flight 175, Shehri was also known under the aliases Mohammed al-Shehhi and Mohald al-Shehri. According to Arab News, Shehri went to fight in Chechnya in early 2000, on October 23, Mohand applied for a US B-1/B-2 visa in Jeddah. Other than an error on his schools address the application was not suspicious, Hamza and Mohand flew together from Iran into Kuwait that October. Three months later the pair rented a post office box in Delray Beach, Florida, according to FBI director Robert Mueller and the 9/11 Commission, however, Shehri did not first enter the United States until a London or Dubai flight on May 28 with Hamza and Abdulaziz al-Omari. He was one of nine hijackers to open a SunTrust bank account with a cash deposit around June 2001, Mohand occasionally trained on simulators at the FlightSafety Aviation School in Vero Beach, Florida together with Abdulaziz al-Omari and Saeed al-Ghamdi. On September 7 he flew from Fort Lauderdale to Newark, New Jersey with Hamza al-Ghamdi on $139.75 tickets purchased from the Mile High Travel agency in Lauderdale-by-the-Sea. On September 10,2001, he shared a room with four hijackers, Fayez Banihammad, Marwan al-Shehhi and Satam al-Suqami at the Milner Hotel in Boston, on September 11, Shehri boarded Flight 175, he sat adjacent to Banihammad. About a half an hour into the flight, the plane was hijacked and it was flown into the south tower of the World Trade Center
30.
Sports Authority
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Sports Authority, Inc. was a sports retailer in the United States that was headquartered in Englewood, Colorado. At its peak, Sports Authority operated more than 460 stores in 45 U. S. states, the companys website was on the GSI Commerce platform and supported the retail stores as well as other multi-channel programs. A joint venture with ÆON Co. Ltd. operated Sports Authority stores in Japan under a licensing agreement, on March 2,2016, Sports Authority filed for Chapter 11 Bankruptcy. On May 18,2016, the stores were sold to a group of liquidators and on May 25. On June 30,2016, Dicks Sporting Goods won the auction for Sports Authoritys brand name, on July 15,2016, the online store closed operations. On July 21,2016, the purchase of Sports Authoritys intellectual property by rival Dicks Sporting Goods was approved, as of July 28,2016, the Sports Authority website redirects to the Dicks Sporting Goods website. Gart Sports began in 1928, when Denver Post newspaper carrier Nathan Gart started the company with $50 in fishing rod samples, in 1971, Gart Sports Company opened the Sportscastle superstore in Denver, Colorado at the corner of 10th Avenue and Broadway. The 1980s marked a period of growth for the company through a series of acquisitions. These mergers included Hagans Sports Ltd. and Stevens Brown of Salt Lake City, in the fall of 1992, Leonard Green & Partners acquired Thrifty and became the companys largest shareholder. At the same time that Gart Sports Company opened the Sportscastle, the Hochberg family, the company grew to 60 stores in nine states. Gart Sports and Sportmart merged in 1998, Sportmart briefly operated in Canada in the 1990s before closing down their operations after two years. Oshmans Sporting Goods was founded in Houston, Texas in 1919 by Jake Oshman, by 1965, Oshmans had become the largest sporting goods chain in Texas, operating 43 Oshmans SuperSports USA stores and 15 traditional stores, the company merged with Gart Sports in 2001. The Sports Authority, Inc. was founded in Lakes Mall in Lauderdale Lakes, Florida by a syndicate of venture capital groups, the Sports Authority, Inc. opened its first store in November 1987 in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. In 1990, Kmart acquired the company, five years later, The Sports Authority had expanded to 136 stores in 26 states, and was spun off from parent Kmart. Its headquarters were in Lauderdale Lakes, near Fort Lauderdale, Gart Sports, which also operated Oshmans and Sportmart, completed a merger of equals with Sports Authority on August 4,2003. At the time of its merger with Gart Sports Company, The Sports Authority was the largest full-line sporting goods retailer in the United States, the combined company took the Sports Authority name. With the merger, each share of Sports Authority was exchanged with 0.37 shares of Gart Sports which gave investors in each about 50% of the new merchant, the new company was based in Englewood, Colorado, which was the home of Gart Sports. As of May 2006, the stores that were not operating under the Sports Authority name were re-branded to the Sports Authority name
31.
Boynton Beach, Florida
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Boynton Beach is a city in Palm Beach County, Florida, United States. The population was 68,217 at the 2010 census, in 2006, the city had a population of 66,714 according to the University of Florida, Bureau of Economic and Business Research. Boynton Beach is a city of the Miami metropolitan area. Boynton hailed from Port Huron, Michigan and he was so impressed by the natural beauty of the year-round sunshine and pristine beaches, he built the famous Boynton Hotel, where he also spent winters with his family. The first settlers, whom Boynton had brought along from Michigan, soon realized that many fruits, major Boynton died on May 27,1911 in Port Huron, but the hotel lasted until 1925. Boynton Beach was founded on September 26,1898 when Byrd Spilman Dewey, the town was incorporated in 1920 as the Town of Boynton. The name Boynton Beach was first used by a community that broke off from the Town of Boynton in 1931, in 1939, that community changed its name to Ocean Ridge while The Town of Boynton took the name Boynton Beach in 1941. As land became valuable, areas along the Intracoastal Waterway. To the west, many dairies were founded so that the Boynton area became the main supplier for Palm Beach County. By the 1970s, the dairies were no longer profitable and these too were converted to housing developments. Boynton Beach Oceanfront Park is located just north of the original Boynton Hotel site, in 1921, the Town of Boynton acquired the beach site from Lewis S. Howe by eminent domain for park and recreation purposes. The beach casino was built in 1928 and featured a dining hall, locker rooms and showers and residents used the casino for parties. The casino was demolished in 1967 and the property remained part of the beach park, from the 1920s to today, Boynton Beach Oceanfront Park has been popular with residents and visitors alike. In the mid-1990s, the park underwent a renovation during which the boardwalk was rebuilt out of recycled plastic. Boynton Beachs Oceanfront Park was voted the best family beach in Palm Beach County by The Palm Beach Post in 2001, in 2011 the boardwalk was renovated again, replacing the plastic with Ipe wood. In 2012 improvements were made to the buildings along the boardwalk, hurricane Wilma struck Boynton Beach on October 24,2005, causing widespread damage to homes and businesses. In 2006, the city government authorized the demolition of the historic Seaboard rail station, the year of 2006 also saw an increase in gang-related violent crime. This increase mirrored a similar increase across Palm Beach County, a gang-related shooting at the citys popular Boynton Beach Mall on Christmas Eve of 2006 caught national attention on many networks, such as CBS
32.
Walmart
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Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. doing business as Walmart, is an American multinational retailing corporation that operates as a chain of hypermarkets, discount department stores, and grocery stores. Headquartered in Bentonville, Arkansas, the company was founded by Sam Walton in 1962, as of January 31,2017, Walmart has 11,695 stores and clubs in 28 countries, under a total of 63 banners. The company operates under the name Walmart in the United States and it operates as Walmart de México y Centroamérica in Mexico and Central America, as Asda in the United Kingdom, as the Seiyu Group in Japan, and as Best Price in India. It has wholly owned operations in Argentina, Brazil, and Canada and it also owns and operates the Sams Club retail warehouses. Walmart is the worlds largest company by revenue, according to the Fortune Global 500 list in 2016 and it is a family-owned business, as the company is controlled by the Walton family. Sam Waltons heirs own over 50 percent of Walmart through their company, Walton Enterprises. Walmart is also one of the worlds most valuable companies by market value, in 2016,62.3 percent of Walmarts US$478.614 billion sales came from its U. S. operations. The company was listed on the New York Stock Exchange in 1972, by 1988, Walmart was the most profitable retailer in the U. S. and by October 1989, it had become the largest in terms of revenue. A Walmart in York, Pennsylvania opened in October 1990, bringing the store to the Northeast. In 1945, a businessman and a former J. C. Penney employee, Sam Walton and his primary focus was on selling products at low prices to get higher-volume sales at a lower profit margin, portraying it as a crusade for the consumer. He experienced setbacks, because the price and branch purchase were unusually high. He passed on the savings in the product pricing, sales increased 45 percent in his first year of ownership to US$105,000 in revenue, which increased to US$140,000 the next year and US$175,000 the year after that. Within the fifth year, the store was generating US$250,000 in revenue, when the lease for the location expired, Walton was unable to reach an agreement for renewal, so he opened up a new store at 105 N. Main Street in Bentonville, naming it Waltons Five and Dime and that store is now the Walmart Museum. On July 2,1962, Walton opened the first Walmart Discount City store at 719 W. Walnut Street in Rogers, within its first five years, the company expanded to 24 stores across Arkansas and reached US$12.6 million in sales. In 1968, it opened its first stores outside Arkansas, in Sikeston, Missouri and Claremore, the company was incorporated as Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. on October 31,1969. In 1970, it opened its office and first distribution center in Bentonville. It had 38 stores operating with 1,500 employees and sales of US$44.2 million and it began trading stock as a publicly held company on October 1,1970, and was soon listed on the New York Stock Exchange
33.
Leatherman
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Leatherman is a brand of multitools and knives made by Leatherman Tool Group of Portland, Oregon, US. The company was founded in July 1983 by Timothy S. Leatherman and Steve Berliner in order to market his idea of a capable and that same year Leatherman sold the first multitool, which was called the PST. Timothy S. Leatherman, a 1970 mechanical engineering graduate of Oregon State University and he spent several years perfecting the Mr. Crunch prototype and received his first U. S. patent in 1980. After additional refinement, Leatherman’s first product was introduced in 1983 as the Pocket Survival Tool and initially sold through Early Winters, Leatherman sold nearly 30,000 tools in 1984, fueling additional product development and both rapid company growth as well as manufacturing capacity. By the end of 2001, the company had sales of $100 million annually and had more than 20 million tools. Almost ten percent of the manufacturing facility area is concerned with the repairing and rebuilding of any tool that needs it, either domestically, or sent from distributors from around the world. Their system is to replace and return any tool sent in with an equivalent item, reducing the time the owner is without the tool, unless they request the same physical tool due to sentimental reasons. The same year, Tim Leatherman was inducted into the Blade magazine Cutlery Hall of Fame in recognition of his impact on the cutlery history. Folding knives were introduced into the Leatherman product line in 2005, in 2011 the Leatherman Tool Group acquired German light manufacturer, LED Lenser. The brand and companies are run separately, under the Leatherman Tool Group, the company also manufactures a line of multi-tools designed specifically for military and law enforcement personnel, as well as accessories for carrying and expanding the function of its tools. As of February 2011, Leatherman produced 50 products sold in 82 countries, Leatherman has a sponsorship deal with Major League Soccer team Portland Timbers. They are the shirt sponsor for the mascot, Timber Joey. Leatherman’s primary products are multi-tools and knives, most models have a built-in safety mechanism that locks the active tool in the open position when fully unfolded. Models range in weight from the 12.5 ounce Surge to 0.81 ounce Style, Leatherman currently produces folding knives under the Crater name. Models range from two tools to four, gerber multitool Victorinox Wenger Official website Portland Business Journal, Leatherman learns patent lessons the hard way
34.
Multi-tool
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A multi-tool is any one of a range of portable, versatile hand tools that combines several individual functions in a single unit. The smallest are credit-card or key sized units designed for carrying in a wallet or on a keyring, the idea of incorporating several tools in one small portable unit is very old, dating back at least as far as Middle Roman times. Many of these were based around eating, among the earliest contemporary examples is the Swiss Army knife as supplied by makers Victorinox and Wenger. The actual version supplied to the Swiss army includes a blade, a reamer, a bottle-opener–screwdriver–wire stripper. Besides Victorinox and Wenger, many manufacturers now make similar knives. Other versions may include items like a file, tweezers, folding scissors, a tooth pick. There are also versions that have tools for specific sports or outdoor activities like golf. Versions intended for cyclists may have a selection of keys, a selection of wrenches, screwdrivers, a spoke key. Models like the Wenger SwissGrip, Wenger Pocketgrip, Al Mar 4x4, SOG ToolClip, Snap-on, in 1983 Tim Leatherman sold his first Pocket Survival Tool, larger and more robust than a pocket-knife-based tool, and incorporating a set of needle-nosed pliers in a balisong-style mechanism. Too large for most pockets, it came with a belt pouch, today, Leatherman Tool Group manufactures and markets a variety of multi-tool models. In recent years, a number of urban and outdoor multi-tools have sprouted offering non-traditional tools one would not expect to find in a single unit. Substituting a toolbox, these functions include a hammer, spirit level, camera tripod, LED light, lighter, tape measure. Multifunction tools may be specialized for use in certain activities, cyclists may carry a folding tool with multiple screwdriver bits or wrenches to allow adjustment of bicycle fasteners during a ride, or for repairing a broken chain. For sport fisherman, a specialized multitool may combine common functions such as cutting fishing line, crimping weights, a specialized multitool may be used for adjustment, cleaning or minor repair of a firearm in field use. The advantage of a mutlitool is saving weight and space over a set of tools to perform the same functions. Leatherman Gerber Legendary Blades Swiss Army knife Ballpoint pen knife SOG Specialty Knives
35.
Cambridge, Massachusetts
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Cambridge is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, and is a part of the Boston metropolitan area. According to the 2010 Census, the population was 105,162. As of July 2014, it was the fifth most populous city in the state, behind Boston, Worcester, Springfield, Cambridge was one of the two seats of Middlesex County prior to the abolition of county government in 1997, Lowell was the other. The site for what would become Cambridge was chosen in December 1630, because it was located safely upriver from Boston Harbor, Thomas Dudley, his daughter Anne Bradstreet, and her husband Simon, were among the first settlers of the town. The first houses were built in the spring of 1631, the settlement was initially referred to as the newe towne. Official Massachusetts records show the name capitalized as Newe Towne by 1632, the original village site is in the heart of todays Harvard Square. In the late 19th century, various schemes for annexing Cambridge itself to the city of Boston were pursued and rejected, in 1636, the Newe College was founded by the colony to train ministers. Newe Towne was chosen for the site of the college by the Great and General Court primarily—according to Cotton Mather—to be near the popular, in May 1638 the name of the settlement was changed to Cambridge in honor of the university in Cambridge, England. Hooker and Shepard, Newtownes ministers, and the colleges first president, major benefactor, in 1629, Winthrop had led the signing of the founding document of the city of Boston, which was known as the Cambridge Agreement, after the university. It was Governor Thomas Dudley who, in 1650, signed the charter creating the corporation which still governs Harvard College, Cambridge grew slowly as an agricultural village eight miles by road from Boston, the capital of the colony. By the American Revolution, most residents lived near the Common and Harvard College, with farms and estates comprising most of the town. Coming up from Virginia, George Washington took command of the volunteer American soldiers camped on Cambridge Common on July 3,1775, most of the Tory estates were confiscated after the Revolution. On January 24,1776, Henry Knox arrived with artillery captured from Fort Ticonderoga, a second bridge, the Canal Bridge, opened in 1809 alongside the new Middlesex Canal. The new bridges and roads made what were formerly estates and marshland into prime industrial and residential districts, in the mid-19th century, Cambridge was the center of a literary revolution when it gave the country a new identity through poetry and literature. Cambridge was home to some of the famous Fireside Poets—so called because their poems would often be read aloud by families in front of their evening fires, the Fireside Poets—Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes—were highly popular and influential in their day. Cambridge was incorporated as a city in 1846, the citys commercial center began to shift from Harvard Square to Central Square, which became the downtown of the city around this time. The coming of the railroad to North Cambridge and Northwest Cambridge then led to three changes in the city, the development of massive brickyards and brickworks between Massachusetts Ave. For many decades, the citys largest employer was the New England Glass Company, by the middle of the 19th century it was the largest and most modern glassworks in the world
36.
Days Inn
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Days Inn is a hotel chain headquartered in the United States. It was founded in 1970 by Cecil B, Day, with the first location opening in Tybee Island, Georgia. The brand is now a part of the Wyndham Hotel Group, based in Parsippany, New Jersey and it is described by its president, Clyde Guinn, as striving to provide the best value under the sun. Day, before creating Days Inn, had worked in real estate in Atlanta, Georgia and he also owned several locations of the fast food chains Jiffy Drive-In and Carrols in Atlanta. Day sold his holdings to Phipps Land Company for $14 million in 1969, Day founded Days Inn on Tybee Island, Georgia in 1970. He proposed the idea as a means of using a piece of land he owned on the island, when the first Days Inn opened, Day could not find maid service, so he had his children make up the rooms beds. Also, a truck that delivered furniture was too heavy for the bridge onto the island, the first property featured 60 rooms and a price of $8 per room. Within 1970, Day opened the second location, in Forsyth, the property was constructed during a heavy rainstorm, and one family stayed at the property a week before it was completed, at Days insistence. Through the 1970s hotel guests could take home a paperback Bible from their guest rooms for free, Days Inn of America Inc. began franchising hotels in 1972 and within eight years created a system of more than 300 hotels in the United States, Mexico, and Canada. Stanley S. Tollman and Monty D. Hundley via the Tollman-Hundley Hotel Group became the largest franchisees in the 1980s and they took it into bankruptcy in 1991. They then sold it to Hospitality Franchise Systems in 1991, Tollman and Hundley were indicted on federal bank fraud and tax fraud charges that they had not disclosed all assets in the process. Tollman fled to London in 2002 where he fought extradition for many years, in 2008 Tollman agreed to a plea deal that would allow him to return home in exchange for more than $100 million. Starting with the location in Forsyth, many Days Inns featured a restaurant. Day refused to sell alcohol at Tasty World restaurants, Day did not drink alcohol, and decided to target families with the brand. Day noted that his refusal was criticized by bankers, who felt that including a bar would increase profits, Forsyth and many properties after it also featured on-site gasoline pumps to sell unbranded fuel to motel guests. Day, who was a devout Christian, also offered a network of chaplains to provide ministry at each motel, Days Inn was one of the first hotel chains to offer discounts to senior citizens. It was also among the first to locate its properties along suburban and rural exits on the Interstate Highway System, in the UK, the top four motorway services operators all have Days Inn hotels. Days Inn and Moto Hospitality have experimented with two hotels at Wetherby and Winchester Services, roadchef have Days Inn Hotels at most of their sites
37.
Garnet Bailey
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Garnet Edward Ace Bailey was a Canadian professional ice hockey player and scout who was a member of Stanley Cup and Memorial Cup winning teams. He died at the age of 53 while aboard United Airlines Flight 175, Garnet Edward Ace Bailey was born June 13,1948 in Lloydminster, Saskatchewan. He was not related to Irvine Ace Bailey, who played for the Toronto Maple Leafs from 1926 to 1933, Bailey played junior hockey with the Edmonton Oil Kings from 1964 to 1967, during which time the Oil Kings won the Memorial Cup in 1966. He joined the Boston Bruins in 1968 and was a member of their Stanley Cup championship teams in 1970 and 1972 and he later played for the Detroit Red Wings, St. Louis Blues and the Washington Capitals. In 1978-79, Bailey returned to Edmonton to play with the Edmonton Oilers of the World Hockey Association and he was head coach of the Wichita Wind, the Oilers Central Hockey League affiliate, in the 1980–81 season. Bailey then worked as a scout with the Oilers from 1981 to 1994, during which time the team won five Stanley Cups, in an NHL career spanning 10 seasons and 568 games, Bailey scored 107 goals and 171 assists with 633 penalty minutes. His most productive season offensively was 1975, when he scored 19 goals and 58 points for the Blues, in his sole WHA season, he scored 5 goals and 4 assists with 22 penalty minutes in 38 games. At the time of his death, he was the Kings director of pro scouting, Bailey and amateur scout Mark Bavis were traveling from Boston to Los Angeles for the Kings organizational meetings when the flight was hijacked. They were coming back from Manchester as they placed an AHL team there called the Monarchs. Bailey and Bavis are mentioned in the Boston-based Dropkick Murphys song Your Spirits Alive, Denis Leary wore a Bailey memorial T-shirt as the character Tommy Gavin in the season 1 episode Immortal and the fourth-season episode Pussified in the TV series Rescue Me. In his memory, the Los Angeles Kings named their new mascot Bailey, Baileys family founded the Ace Bailey Childrens Foundation in his memory. The foundation raises funds to benefit hospitalized children, infants and their families, at the National September 11 Memorial, Bailey and Bavis are memorialized at the South Pool, on Panel S-3. Kings general manager Dean Lombardi was also in attendance, traded by the Boston Bruins with future considerations, to the Detroit Red Wings for Gary Doak, March 1,1973. Traded by the Detroit Red Wings with Ted Harris and Bill Collins to the St. Louis Blues for Chris Evans, Bryan Watson and Jean Hamel, traded by the St. Louis Blues with Stan Gilbertson to the Washington Capitals for Denis Dupere, February 10,1975. Garnet Baileys biography at Legends of Hockey Garnet Baileys career statistics at The Internet Hockey Database
38.
Los Angeles Kings
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The Los Angeles Kings are a professional ice hockey team based in Los Angeles. They are members of the Pacific Division of the Western Conference of the National Hockey League, the Kings called The Forum in Inglewood, California, their home for thirty-two years until they moved to the Staples Center in Downtown Los Angeles to start the 1999–2000 season. During the 1970s and early 1980s, the Kings had many years marked by impressive play in the season only to be washed out by early playoff exits. In 1988, the Kings traded with the Oilers to get their captain Wayne Gretzky, Gretzky, fellow Hall of Famer Luc Robitaille and defenseman Rob Blake led the Kings to the franchises sole division title in 1990–91, and the Kings first Stanley Cup Final in 1993. After the 1993 Finals, the Kings entered financial problems, with a bankruptcy in 1995 that was solved after the franchise was acquired by Philip Anschutz. Under coach Darryl Sutter, who was hired early in the 2011–12 season, Quick and Williams respectively won the Conn Smythe Trophy as the most valuable player of the playoffs. The same color scheme was worn by the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association, frustrated by his dealings with the Coliseum Commission, Cooke said, I am going to build my own arena. Ive had enough of this balderdash. The Fabulous Forum finally opened its doors on December 30,1967, with the Kings being shut out by the Flyers, while the first two seasons had the Kings qualifying for the playoffs, afterwards poor management led the Kings into hard times. The general managers established a history of trading away first-round draft picks, usually for veteran players, eventually the Kings made two key acquisitions to resurge as a contender. Bob Pulford left the Kings after the 1976–77 season after constant feuding with then owner Jack Kent Cooke and this led to struggles in the 1977–78 season, where the Kings finished below.500 and were easily swept out of the first round by the Maple Leafs. Afterwards Vachon would become an agent and sign with the Detroit Red Wings. Each player benefited from other, with Simmer being the gritty player who battled along the boards, Taylor being the play maker. This line combination, known as the Triple Crown Line, would go on to one of the highest-scoring line combinations in NHL history. During the first three seasons of the Triple Crown Line, a period where Dr. Jerry Buss purchased the Kings, the Lakers, and the Forum for $67.5 million, despite Dionnes leadership, the Kings missed the playoffs in the next two seasons. A post-season return occurred in 1984–85 under coach Pat Quinn, where the Kings were quickly out of the playoffs by the Oilers in their second-straight Stanley Cup championship. In all, the Kings faced either the Oilers or the Flames in the four times during the 1980s. However, the 1988–89 season would be a big turning point for the franchise, in 1987, coin collector Bruce McNall purchased the Kings from Buss and turned the team into a Stanley Cup contender almost overnight. On August 9,1988, McNall acquired the leagues best player, Wayne Gretzky, the trade rocked the hockey world, especially north of the border where Canadians mourned the loss of a player they considered a national treasure
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National Hockey League
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Headquartered in New York City, the NHL is considered to be the premier professional ice hockey league in the world, and one of the major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada. The Stanley Cup, the oldest professional sports trophy in North America, is awarded annually to the playoff champion at the end of each season. At its inception, the NHL had four teams—all in Canada, the league expanded to the United States in 1924, when the Boston Bruins joined, and has since consisted of American and Canadian teams. After a labour-management dispute that led to the cancellation of the entire 2004–05 season, in 2009, the NHL enjoyed record highs in terms of sponsorships, attendance, and television audiences. The league draws many highly skilled players from all over the world, canadians have historically constituted the majority of the players in the league, with an increasing percentage of American and European players in recent seasons. The National Hockey League was established in 1917 as the successor to the National Hockey Association, founded in 1909, the NHA began play one year later with seven teams in Ontario and Quebec, and was one of the first major leagues in professional ice hockey. Realizing the NHA constitution left them unable to force Livingstone out, the four teams voted instead to suspend the NHA, frank Calder was chosen as its first president, serving until his death in 1943. The Bulldogs were unable to play, and the remaining owners created a new team in Toronto, the first games were played on December 19,1917. The Montreal Arena burned down in January 1918, causing the Wanderers to cease operations, the NHL replaced the NHA as one of the leagues that competed for the Stanley Cup, which was an interleague competition back then. Toronto won the first NHL title, and then defeated the Vancouver Millionaires of the Pacific Coast Hockey Association for the 1918 Stanley Cup. The Canadiens won the title in 1919, however their Stanley Cup Final against the PCHAs Seattle Metropolitans was abandoned as a result of the Spanish Flu epidemic. Montreal in 1924 won their first Stanley Cup as a member of the NHL, the Hamilton Tigers, won the regular season title in 1924–25 but refused to play in the championship series unless they were given a C$200 bonus. The league refused and declared the Canadiens the league champion after defeated the Toronto St. Patricks in the semi-final. Montreal was then defeated by the Victoria Cougars of the Western Canada Hockey League for the 1925 Stanley Cup and it was the last time a non-NHL team won the trophy, as the Stanley Cup became the de facto NHL championship in 1926 after the WCHL ceased operation. The National Hockey League embarked on rapid expansion in the 1920s, adding the Montreal Maroons, the Bruins were the first American team in the league. The New York Americans began play in 1925 after purchasing the assets of the Hamilton Tigers, the New York Rangers were added in 1926. The Chicago Black Hawks and Detroit Cougars were also added after the league purchased the assets of the defunct WCHL, a group purchased the Toronto St. Patricks in 1927 and immediately renamed them the Maple Leafs. The first NHL All-Star Game was held in 1934 to benefit Ace Bailey, the second was held in 1937 in support of Howie Morenzs family when he died of a coronary embolism after breaking his leg during a game
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Eastern Time Zone
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Places that use Eastern Standard Time when observing standard time are 5 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time. Eastern Daylight Time, when observing daylight saving time DST is 4 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, in the northern parts of the time zone, on the second Sunday in March, at 2,00 a. m. EST, clocks are advanced to 3,00 a. m. EDT leaving a one-hour gap, on the first Sunday in November, at 2,00 a. m. EDT, clocks are moved back to 1,00 a. m, southern parts of the zone do not observe daylight saving time. The Uniform Time Act of 1966 ruled that daylight saving time would run from the last Sunday of April until the last Sunday in October in the United States, the act was amended to make the first Sunday in April the beginning of daylight saving time as of 1987. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 extended daylight saving time in the United States beginning in 2007. So local times change at 2,00 a. m. EST to 3,00 a. m. EDT on the second Sunday in March, in Canada, the time changes as it does in the United States. However, a handful of communities unofficially observe Eastern Time because they are part of the Columbus, Georgia metropolitan area – Phenix City, Smiths Station, Lanett, and Valley. Florida, All of Florida is in the Eastern Time zone except for the portion of the Florida Panhandle west of the Apalachicola River, as the Eastern–Central zone boundary approaches the Gulf of Mexico, it follows the Bay/Gulf county line. Indiana, All of Indiana observes Eastern Time except for six counties in the Chicago metropolitan area. Kentucky, Roughly, the half of the state, including all of metropolitan Louisville, is in the Eastern Time Zone. Historically the entire state observed Central Time, when daylight saving time was first introduced, the Lower Peninsula remained on DST after it formally ended, effectively re-aligning itself into the Eastern Time Zone. The Upper Peninsula continued to observe Central Time until 1972, when all, Tennessee, Most of the eastern third of Tennessee is legally on Eastern Time. Eastern Time is also used somewhat as a de facto official time for all of the United States, since it includes the capital and the largest city. Major professional sports leagues also post all game times in Eastern time, for example, a game time between two teams from Pacific Time Zone will still be posted in Eastern time. Most cable television and national broadcast networks advertise airing times in Eastern time, national broadcast networks generally have two primary feeds, an eastern feed for Eastern and Central time zones, and a tape-delayed western feed for the Pacific Time Zone. The prime time is set on Eastern and Pacific at 8,00 p. m. with the Central time zone stations receiving the eastern feed at 7,00 p. m. local time. Mountain Time Zone stations receive a separate feed at 7,00 p. m. local time, as Arizona does not observe daylight saving time, during the summer months, it has its own feed at 7,00 p. m. local time
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First class (aviation)
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First class is a travel class on some passenger airliners intended to be more luxurious than business class, premium economy, and economy class. On a passenger jetliner, first class usually refers to a number of seats or cabins toward the front of the aircraft which have more space, comfort, service. In general, first class is the highest class offered, although some airlines have branded their new products as above first class, propeller airliners often had first class in the rear, away from the noise of the rotating propeller. First-class seats vary from large reclining seats with more legroom and width than other classes to suites with a reclining seat, workstation. International first-class seats usually have between 147–239 cm of pitch and between 48–89 cm of width while domestic flights may have between 86–173 cm of pitch and between 46–56 cm in width. In fact this means there is discomfort for taller people. Some airlines have first-class seats which allow passengers to let one guest sit for a short while face-to-face with the occupant of the cabin, first-class passengers usually have at least one lavatory for their exclusive use, with more than one on larger planes. Business- and economy-class passengers are not normally permitted in the first-class cabin, normally AVOD entertainment is offered, although sometimes normal films, television programs and interactive games are provided on medium-large seat-back or armrest-mounted flat panel monitors. Especially for long-haul and high-yielding routes on top airlines, a seat may have facilities akin to a five-star hotel. Since the 1990s, a trend developed in which many airlines eliminated first class sections in favour of a business class. However some, such as Garuda Indonesia, have opted to reintroduce first class seating sections with new aircraft, with business class seating moving upmarket, some airlines are modelling their first-class section as suites. Singapore Airlines now markets its highest class on its A380s as suites, the 2 m bed is separate from the seat and folds out from the back wall, with several other components of the suite lowering to accommodate the mattress. Windows are built into the doors and blinds offer privacy, suites located in the center can form a double bed after the privacy blinds between them are retracted into the ceiling. Etihad Airways introduced a suite called The Residence in December 2014 when it added the Airbus A380 to its fleet. The service is generally a step below long haul business class. US territories in the Western Pacific and sometimes Hawaii are considered international for service purposes, however, domestic first class does have two very different meanings on certain transcontinental routes between New York City and California. In the cases of American and JetBlue, first class is actually a three-cabin first class which is different from two-cabin first class, in these cases, domestic business class is generally slightly higher than a two-cabin domestic first class ticket. The three-cabin first class is more of a true first class rather than a business class
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Business class
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Business class is a travel class available on many commercial airlines and rail lines, known by brand names which vary by airline or rail company. Business class is distinguished from other classes by the quality of seating, food, drinks, ground service. In commercial aviation, full class is usually denoted J or C with schedule flexibility. Airlines began separating full-fare and discounted economy passengers in the late 1970s. United also cited the difficulty of tracking which passengers should be seated in section of the economy cabin on connecting flights. American Airlines also began separating full-fare economy passengers from discounted economy passengers in 1978, Pan Am announced that it would introduce Clipper Class in July 1978, and both Air France and Pan Am introduced business class in November 1978. Qantas claims to have launched the worlds first Business Class in 1979, on November 1,1981, Scandinavian Airlines System introduced EuroClass with a separate cabin, dedicated check-in counters and lounges for full-fare passengers. Simultaneously, first class disappeared from their European fleet, both Qantas and Virgin Australia offer Business Class on their domestic networks as well as on trans-Tasman flights to New Zealand. Flights between Perth and Sydney typically feature lie-flat seats, with deep recline cradle seats on other routes, on the other hand, Air New Zealand does not offer Business Class on its domestic network. Business Class is available on flights between New Zealand, Australia and the Pacific Islands when operated by Boeing 777 and Boeing 787 family aircraft, both of which have lie-flat seats. On short-haul flights, Air Canada, the carrier of Canada offers recliner seats. However, on some high-capacity routes, such as Vancouver-Toronto, Air Canada utilises its long-haul fleet, such as the Boeing 777, Boeing 787, Boeing 767, on flights using Internationally configured aircraft such as these, the business class product is a lie-flat product. However, on discount carriers, such as Air Transat, and WestJet Airlines, business class is euro-style, in the United States, lie-flat business class is usually only offered on transcontinental flights and flights from the East Coast to Hawaii. On other flights, Business class is typically a recliner seat, US carriers generally designate first class as the front cabin on other domestic two-cabin aircraft. European carriers generally offer a class consisting of enhanced economy seating with better service. There may be a curtain to separate business from economy class, based on demand, Business class has started to disappear from some short/medium haul routes, to be replaced with full fare economy and discount economy. On these routes, the seats are the same for all passengers, only the flexibility of the ticket, on shorter routes many airlines have removed business class entirely and offer only one class of service. British Airways used to offer Business UK on their system, offering the same service as Economy with the addition of expedited check-in, baggage reclaim, lounge access
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Air traffic controller
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Air traffic controllers are people trained to maintain the safe, orderly, and expeditious flow of air traffic in the global air traffic control system. The position of air traffic controller is one that requires highly specialized knowledge, skills, many controllers, however, would cite high salaries, and a very large, unique, and privileged degree of autonomy as major advantages of their jobs. Although the media in the United States frequently refers to them as air controllers, or flight controllers and they are also called air traffic control officers, air traffic control specialists, or simply controllers. For a more detailed article on the job itself, please see air traffic control, in games involving short-term memory, peer-induced stresses, and real-time risk analysis, air traffic control specialists scored better than the control group in every experiment. Excellent hearing and speaking skills are a requirement, and trainees undergo rigorous physical and psychological testing, almost universally, controllers are subjected to rigid medical and mental exams to ensure safety in the air traffic system. In the United States, for example, all air traffic controllers are required to take, conditions such as hypertension, while not disqualifying, are taken seriously and must be monitored with medical examinations by certified doctors. Controllers must take precautions to remain healthy and avoid certain medications that are banned for them, many drugs approved by the U. S. Food and Drug Administration such as SSRI antidepressants and benzodiazepines, are banned. Almost universally, trainee controllers begin work in their twenties and retire in their fifties and this is due to an FAA requirement that trainees begin their training at the Academy no later than their 31st birthday, and face mandatory retirement at age 56. Although local languages are used in ATC communications, the language of aviation worldwide is English. Controllers who do not speak English as a first language are expected to show a certain minimum level of competency with the language. Teamwork plays a role in a controller’s job, not only with other controllers and air traffic staff. Area controllers are responsible for the safety of aircraft at altitudes, in the en route phase of their flight surrounding busier airports. Area controllers may also handle aircraft at altitudes as well as air traffic around small airports that do not have their own towers or approach controllers. In most nations they are known as area, en route, or, colloquially in the US, Area controllers are responsible for specific sectors of 3D blocks of airspace with defined dimensions. Each sector is managed by at least one Area controller, known as an R-side controller that handles radio communications. During busier times of traffic there may also be a second Area controller, known as a D-side, in the United States, En-Route controllers work at Air Route Traffic Control Centers or ARTCCs. Aerodrome or Tower controllers control aircraft within the vicinity of the airport. The towers airspace is often a 5-nautical-mile radius around the airport, the roles of the positions are, Flight Data/Clearance Delivery, Issues IFR flight plan clearances, obtains squawk codes for VFR aircraft, helps with coordination for GC/LC, and cuts the ATIS
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Transponder (aeronautics)
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A transponder is an electronic device that produces a response when it receives a radio-frequency interrogation. Air traffic control units use the term squawk when they are assigning an aircraft a transponder code, Squawk thus can be said to mean select transponder code or squawking to mean I have selected transponder code xxxx. The transponder receives interrogation from the Secondary Surveillance Radar on 1030 MHz, Secondary surveillance radar is referred to as secondary, to distinguish it from the primary radar that works by passively reflecting a radio signal off the skin of the aircraft. Primary radar determines range and bearing to a target with high fidelity. SSR uses a transponder to transmit a response to an interrogation by a secondary radar. This response most often includes the pressure altitude and a 4-digit octal identifier. A pilot may be requested to squawk a given code by the air traffic controller via the radio, using a phrase such as Cessna 123AB, squawk 0363. The pilot then selects the 0363 code on their transponder and the track on the screen of the air traffic controller will become correctly associated with their identity. Because primary radar generally gives bearing and range information, but lacks altitude information, mode C. Some lower-end altimeters do not normally have a built in encoder and so a modified Gray code, around busy airspace there is often a regulatory requirement that all aircraft be equipped with an altitude-reporting mode C or mode S transponders. In the United States, this is known as a Mode C veil, Mode S transponders are compatible with transmitting the mode C signal, and have the capability to report in 25 foot increments. Without the pressure altitude reporting, the air controller has no display of accurate altitude information. Similarly, the collision avoidance system installed on some aircraft needs the altitude information supplied by transponder signals. All mode A, C, and S transponders include an IDENT button, when ground-based radar equipment receives the IDENT bit, it results in the aircrafts blip blossoming on the radar scope. This is often used by the controller to locate the aircraft amongst others by requesting the ident function from the pilot, e. g. Cessna 123AB, squawk 0363, a discrete transponder code is assigned by air traffic controllers to uniquely identify an aircraft. This allows easy identification of aircraft on radar, Squawk codes are four-digit octal numbers, the dials on a transponder read from zero to seven, inclusive. Thus the lowest possible squawk is 0000 and the highest is 7777, four octal digits can represent up to 4096 different codes, which is why such transponders are often called 4096 code transponders. Care must be not to squawk any emergency code during a code change
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