1.
ISO 4217
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The ISO4217 code list is used in banking and business globally. ISO4217 codes are used on tickets and international train tickets to remove any ambiguity about the price. The first two letters of the code are the two letters of the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes and the third is usually the initial of the currency itself, so Japans currency code is JPY—JP for Japan and Y for yen. This eliminates the problem caused by the dollar, franc, peso and pound being used in dozens of different countries. Also, if a currency is revalued, the currency codes last letter is changed to distinguish it from the old currency. Other changes can be seen, however, the Russian ruble, for example, changed from RUR to RUB and these currency units are denominated as one troy ounce of the specified metal as opposed to USD1 or EUR1. The code XTS is reserved for use in testing, the code XXX is used to denote a transaction involving no currency. There are also codes specifying certain monetary instruments used in international finance, the codes for most supranational currencies, such as the East Caribbean dollar, the CFP franc, the CFA franc BEAC and the CFA franc BCEAO. The predecessor to the euro, the European Currency Unit, had the code XEU, the use of an initial letter X for these purposes is facilitated by the ISO3166 rule that no official country code beginning with X will ever be assigned. Because of this rule ISO4217 can use X codes without risk of clashing with a country code. ISO3166 country codes beginning with X are used for private custom use, consequently, ISO4217 can use X codes for non-country-specific currencies without risk of clashing with future country codes. The inclusion of EU in the ISO 3166-1 reserved codes list, the ISO4217 standard includes a crude mechanism for expressing the relationship between a major currency unit and its corresponding minor currency unit. This mechanism is called the exponent and assumes a base of 10. For example, USD is equal to 100 of its currency unit the cent. So the USD has exponent 2, the code JPY is given the exponent 0, because its minor unit, the sen, although nominally valued at 1/100 of a yen, is of such negligible value that it is no longer used. Usually, as with the USD, the currency unit has a value that is 1/100 of the major unit, but in some cases 1/1000 is used. Mauritania does not use a decimal division of units, setting 1 ouguiya equal to 5 khoums, some currencies do not have any minor currency unit at all and these are given an exponent of 0, as with currencies whose minor units are unused due to negligible value. There is also a code number assigned to each currency
2.
Currency symbol
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A currency symbol is a graphic symbol used as a shorthand for a currencys name, especially in reference to amounts of money. The European Commission considers the global recognition of the euro sign € part of its success, in 2009, India launched a public competition to replace the ₨ ligature it shared with neighbouring countries. It finalised its new symbol, ₹ on 15 July 2010. It is a blend of the Latin letter R with the Devanagari letter र, when writing currency amounts the location of the symbol varies by currency. Many currencies in the English-speaking world and Latin America, place it before the amount, the Cape Verdean escudo places its symbol in the decimal separator position. The usage of many European countries, such as France, Germany, the decimal separator also follows local countries standards. For instance, the United Kingdom often uses an interpunct as the point on price stickers. Commas or decimal points are common separators used in other countries, see decimal separator for information on international standards. Older currency symbols have evolved slowly, often from previous currencies, the dollar and peso symbols originated from the mark employed to denote the Spanish real de a ocho, whereas the pound and lira symbols evolved from an L standing for libra, a Roman pound of silver. Newly invented currencies and currencies adopting new symbols have symbolism closer to their adopter, the added center bar in the real sign is meant to symbolize stability. The new Indian rupee symbol, ₹, is a combination of Latin. There are also considerations, such as the perception of the business community. For a new symbol to be used, software to render it needs to be promulgated, the EU was criticized for not considering how the euro symbol would need to be customized to work in different fonts. The original design was exceptionally wide. These two factors have led to most typefaces employing customized, font-specific versions, usually with reduced width, List of currencies List of circulating currencies Currency Symbols
3.
United Arab Emirates
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In 2013, the UAEs population was 9.2 million, of which 1.4 million are Emirati citizens and 7.8 million are expatriates. The country is a federation of seven emirates, and was established on 2 December 1971, the constituent emirates are Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah and Umm al-Quwain. Each emirate is governed by a monarch, together, they jointly form the Federal Supreme Council. One of the monarchs is selected as the President of the United Arab Emirates, Islam is the official religion of the UAE and Arabic is the official language. The UAEs oil reserves are the seventh-largest in the world while its natural gas reserves are the worlds seventeenth-largest, Sheikh Zayed, ruler of Abu Dhabi and the first President of the UAE, oversaw the development of the Emirates and steered oil revenues into healthcare, education and infrastructure. The UAEs economy is the most diversified in the Gulf Cooperation Council, while its most populous city of Dubai is an important global city, nevertheless, the country remains principally reliant on its export of petroleum and natural gas. The UAE is criticised for its rights record, including the specific interpretations of Sharia used in its legal system. The UAEs rising international profile has led analysts to identify it as a regional. It appears the land of the Emirates has been occupied for thousands of years, there is no proof of contact with the outside world at that stage, although in time it developed with civilisations in Mesopotamia and Iran. This contact persisted and became wide-ranging, probably motivated by trade in copper from the Hajar Mountains, in ancient times, Al Hasa was part of Al Bahreyn and adjoined Greater Oman. Sassanid groups were present on the Batinah coast, in 637, Julfar was an important port that was used as a staging post for the Islamic invasion of the Sassanian Empire. The area of the Al Ain/Buraimi Oasis was known as Tuam and was an important trading post for camel routes between the coast and the Arabian interior. The earliest Christian site in the UAE was first discovered in the 1990s, a monastic complex on what is now known as Sir Bani Yas Island. Thought to be Nestorian and built in 600 AD, the church appears to have been abandoned peacefully in 750 AD and it forms a rare physical link to a legacy of Christianity which is thought to have spread across the peninsula from 50 to 350 AD following trade routes. Certainly, by the 5th century, Oman had a bishop named John – the last bishop of Oman being Etienne, in 676 AD. This led to a group of travelling to Medina, converting to Islam and subsequently driving a successful uprising against the unpopular Sassanids. Following the death of Prophet Muhammad, the new Islamic communities south of the Persian Gulf threatened to disintegrate, with insurrections against the Muslim leaders. The Caliph Abu Bakr sent an army from the capital Medina which completed its reconquest of the territory with the battle of Dibba in which 10,000 lives are thought to have been lost
4.
Central bank
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A central bank, reserve bank, or monetary authority is an institution that manages a states currency, money supply, and interest rates. Central banks also usually oversee the commercial banking system of their respective countries, Central banks in most developed nations are institutionally designed to be independent from political interference. Still, limited control by the executive and legislative bodies usually exists, prior to the 17th century most money was commodity money, typically gold or silver. However, promises to pay were widely circulated and accepted as value at least five hundred years earlier in both Europe and Asia. The Song dynasty was the first to issue generally circulating paper currency, in 1455, in an effort to control inflation, the succeeding Ming Dynasty ended the use of paper money and closed much of Chinese trade. The Bank of Amsterdam, established in the Dutch Republic in 1609, is considered to be the forerunner to modern central banks. The Wisselbanks innovations helped lay the foundations for the birth and development of the banking system that now plays a vital role in the worlds economy. Along with a number of local banks, it performed many functions of a central banking system. Lucien Gillard calls it the European guilder, and Adam Smith devotes many pages to explaining how the bank guilder works, the model of the Wisselbank as a state bank was adapted throughout Europe, including the Bank of Sweden and the Bank of England. Established by Dutch-Latvian Johan Palmstruch in 1668, Sveriges Riksbank is often considered by many as the worlds oldest central bank, the lenders would give the government cash and also issue notes against the government bonds, which could be lent again. A Royal Charter was granted on 27 July through the passage of the Tonnage Act 1694, the bank was given exclusive possession of the governments balances, and was the only limited-liability corporation allowed to issue banknotes. The £1. 2M was raised in 12 days, half of this was used to rebuild the Navy and these modern central banking functions evolved slowly through the 18th and 19th centuries. The currency crisis of 1797, caused by panicked depositors withdrawing from the Bank led to the government suspending convertibility of notes into specie payment. The bank was accused by the bullionists of causing the exchange rate to fall from over issuing banknotes. Nevertheless, it was clear that the Bank was being treated as an organ of the state, henry Thornton, a merchant banker and monetary theorist has been described as the father of the modern central bank. An opponent of the real bills doctrine, he was a defender of the bullionist position, thorntons process of monetary expansion anticipated the theories of Knut Wicksell regarding the cumulative process which restates the Quantity Theory in a theoretically coherent form. Until the mid-nineteenth century, commercial banks were able to issue their own banknotes, many consider the origins of the central bank to lie with the passage of the Bank Charter Act of 1844. Under this law, authorisation to issue new banknotes was restricted to the Bank of England, at the same time, the Bank of England was restricted to issue new banknotes only if they were 100% backed by gold or up to £14 million in government debt
5.
Central Bank of the United Arab Emirates
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The Central Bank of the United Arab Emirates is the state institution responsible for managing the currency, monetary policy and banking regulation in the United Arab Emirates. It was established on 19 May 1973 as the United Arab Emirates Currency Board and this followed the creation of the UAE as an independent state in 1971. The original purpose of the UAE Currency Board was to issue an independent currency for the new state to replace the currencies in use, the Qatari riyal. The new UAE dirham entered circulation on the day the Currency Board was established. At this time, the Currency Board of the UAE did not have full central bank powers and it was mandated to manage the currency and the countrys gold and foreign exchange reserves, but did not have regulatory authority and was not empowered to manage the UAEs monetary policy. On 10 December 1980, Union Law No. was passed, the Bank is overseen by a Board of Directors, comprising seven members. The composition of the Board is defined by the UAE Union Law No 10 which provides for a Chairman, Vice Chairman, each member is appointed by a Union Decree after approval by the UAE Council of Ministers, and serves for four years. Mubarak Rashed Al Mansoori, Governor of the Central Bank, was ranked #3 on the Public Investor 100 for 2016, in addition to its Head Office in Abu Dhabi, the Bank has branches in five other cities in the UAE. These are, Al Ain Dubai Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah Sharjah This department is responsible for oversight of the UAE banking industry. A significant part of the department is located in the Banks Dubai office, since the industry in the UAE is largely concentrated in this city. The scope of its regulatory mandate includes domestic banks, foreign banks located in the UAE as well as house and other financial institutions. In June 2013, there were 23 domestic banks and 28 foreign banks in the UAE, the departments functions include the issuing of licenses to banking institutions, setting banking standards and regulations, and monitoring compliance. This department is responsible for issuing and managing currency notes and coins in the UAE and it also manages the UAEs electronic payment systems. This department processes economic data which it publishes in a series of publications, including the Central Banks Annual Report, the Economic Bulletin and this department covers a number of back office functions. These include managing the Banks library, archiving of records, purchasing, buildings maintenance and this department has three main areas, Treasury Operations, Accounts and Management Information. Treasury Operations is part of the back office function of the Treasury Department and this department is responsible for managing and investing the Central Banks assets and reserves. The department is organized into four sections, Capital Markets, Money Markets and Foreign Exchange, Certificates of Deposit. This department undertakes audit functions across the following areas, payment security - checks are performed on all transactions that involve the transfer of funds from accounts maintained by the Central Bank
6.
Fixed exchange-rate system
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There are benefits and risks to using a fixed exchange rate. In doing so, the rate between the currency and its peg does not change based on market conditions, the way floating currencies do. A fixed exchange-rate system can also be used as a means to control the behavior of a currency, however, in doing so, the pegged currency is then controlled by its reference value. In other words, a currency is dependent on its reference value to dictate how its current worth is defined at any given time. The central bank provides the assets and/or the foreign currency or currencies which are needed in order to any payments imbalances. In the 21st century, the associated with large economies typically do not fix or peg exchange rates to other currencies. The last large economy to use a fixed exchange system was the Peoples Republic of China which, in July 2005. The European Exchange Rate Mechanism is also used on a basis to establish a final conversion rate against the Euro from the local currencies of countries joining the Eurozone. The gold standard or gold standard of fixed exchange rates prevailed from about 1870 to 1914. The period between the two wars was transitory, with the Bretton Woods system emerging as the new fixed exchange rate regime in the aftermath of World War II. It was formed with an intent to rebuild war-ravaged nations after World War II through a series of currency stabilization programs, the early 1970s saw the breakdown of the system and its replacement by a mixture of fluctuating and fixed exchange rates. Timeline of the exchange rate system, The earliest establishment of a gold standard was in the United Kingdom in 1821 followed by Australia in 1852. Under this system, the value of all currencies was denominated in terms of gold with central banks ready to buy. Each central bank maintained gold reserves as their official reserve asset, for example, during the “classical” gold standard period, the U. S. dollar was defined as 0.048 troy oz. of pure gold. Following the Second World War, the Bretton Woods system replaced gold with the U. S. dollar as the reserve asset. The regime intended to combine binding legal obligations with multilateral decision-making through the International Monetary Fund, the rules of this system were set forth in the articles of agreement of the IMF and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. S. Dollar and to exchange rates within 1% of parity by intervening in their foreign exchange markets. In December 1971, the Smithsonian Agreement paved the way for the increase in the value of the price of gold from US$35.50 to US$38 an ounce
7.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
8.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
9.
Dirham
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Dirham, dirhem or dirhm is a unit of currency in several Arab states and formerly, the related unit of mass in the Ottoman Empire and Persian states. The name derives from the ancient Greek currency the drachma, in the late Ottoman Empire, the standard dirham was 3.207 g,400 dirhem equal one oka. In Egypt in 1895, it was equivalent to 47.661 troy grains, there is currently a movement within the Islamic world to revive the Dirham as a unit of mass for measuring silver, although the exact value is disputed. The word dirham comes from drachma, the Greek coin, the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire controlled the Levant and traded with Arabia, circulating the coin there in pre-Islamic times and afterward. It was this currency which was adopted as an Arab word, then near the end of the 7th century the coin became an Islamic currency bearing the name of the sovereign
10.
Qatari riyal
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The Qatari riyal is the currency of the State of Qatar. It is divided into 100 dirhams and is abbreviated as either QR or ر. ق, until 1966, Qatar used the Indian rupee as currency, in the form of Gulf rupees. When India devalued the rupee in 1966, Qatar, along with the states using the Gulf rupee. Before doing so, Qatar briefly adopted the Saudi riyal, then introduced the Qatar, the Saudi riyal was worth 1.065 rupees, whilst the Qatar and Dubai riyal was equal to the rupee prior to its devaluation. Following Dubais entrance into the United Arab Emirates, Qatar began issuing the Qatari riyal separate from Dubai on 19 May 1973, the old notes continued to circulate in parallel for 90 days, at which time they were withdrawn. For a wider history surrounding currency in the region, see the history of British currency in the Middle East, in 1966, coins were introduced in the name of Qatar and Dubai for 1,5,10,25 and 50 dirham. In 1973, a new series of coins was introduced in the sizes and compositions as the earlier pieces. On September 18,1966, the Qatar & Dubai Currency Board introduced notes for 1,5,10,25,50 and 100 riyals. These were replaced on 19 May 1973 by notes of the Qatar Monetary Agency in denominations of 1,5,10,100, and 500 riyals, the Qatar Central Bank was established by decree 15 on 5 August 1973. All coins and notes issued by the Qatar Monetary Agency became the property of the bank, the Qatari riyal is pegged to the US dollar at a fixed exchange rate of $1 USD =3.64 QR. This rate was enshrined into Qatari law by Royal Decree No.34 of 2001, signed by Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani, Emir of Qatar, on 9 July 2001. Article provides the Qatar Central Bank with the authority to determine the volume and the time of sale of US dollars, article cancels the earlier Royal Decree No.60 of 1975, by which the riyal was officially pegged to the IMFs special drawing rights
11.
Abu Dhabi
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Abu Dhabi is the capital and the second most populous city of the United Arab Emirates, and also capital of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, the largest of the UAEs seven emirates. Abu Dhabi lies on a T-shaped island jutting into the Persian Gulf from the western coast. The city proper had a population of 1.5 million in 2014, Abu Dhabi houses federal government offices, is the seat of the United Arab Emirates Government, home to the Abu Dhabi Emiri Family and the President of the UAE, who is from this family. Abu Dhabis rapid development and urbanisation, coupled with the high average income of its population, has transformed the city into a large. Today the city is the center of political and industrial activities. Abu Dhabi accounts for about two-thirds of the roughly $400-billion United Arab Emirates economy, Abu Dhabi is the fourth most expensive city for expatriate employees in the region, and in 2014 was the 68th most expensive big city in the world. Abu Dhabi is full of evidence that points to civilizations, such as the Umm an-Nar Culture. Settlements were also found farther outside the city of Abu Dhabi. There is evidence of civilizations around the mountain of Hafeet and this location is very strategic because it is the UAE’s second tallest mountain, so it would have great visibility. It also contains a lot of moisture in its springs and lakes, origin of the name Abu Dhabi The origin of the name Abu Dhabi is uncertain. Meaning Father of the Gazelle, when translated from Arabic. According to Bilal al-Budoor, assistant under-secretary for Cultural Affairs at the Ministry of Culture, Youth and Community Development, The area had a lot of dhibaa, an old story tells about a man who used to chase deer and was named the father of the animal. Abu Dhabis original name was Milh salt, possibly referring to the salty water of the Persian Gulf, some Bedouins called the city Umm Dhabi, while British records refer to the place as Abu Dhabi. According to some accounts, the name Abu Dhabi was first used more than 300 years ago. The first word of Abu Dhabi is pronounced Bu by inhabitants on the western coast. In the eastern part of the city, the pronunciation is Abu, origins of the Al Nahyan family The Bani Yas bedouin were originally centered on the Liwa Oasis. This tribe was the most significant in the area, having over 20 subsections, in 1793, the Al Bu Falah subsection migrated to the island of Abu Dhabi on the coast of the Persian Gulf due to the discovery of fresh water there. One family within this section was the Al Nahyan family and this family makes up the rulers of Abu Dhabi today
12.
Bahraini dinar
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The dinar is the currency of Bahrain. It is divided into 1000 fils, the name dinar derives from the Roman denarius. The dinar was introduced in 1965, replacing the Gulf rupee at a rate of 10 rupees =1 dinar, the Bahraini dinar is abbreviated. د. ب or BD. It is usually represented with three decimal places denoting the fils, in 1965, coins were introduced in denominations of 1,5,10,25,50 and 100 fils. The 1,5 and 10 fils were struck in bronze, the 1 fils coin was not produced after 1966 and no longer circulates. In 1992, brass replaced bronze in the 5 and 10 fils, a bimetallic 500 fils followed in 2000. The Central Bank of Bahrain discontinued the Bimetallic 500 fils after the revolution of Bahrain on 14 Feb 2011, for a wider history surrounding currency in the region, see The History of British Currency in the Middle East. On October 16,1965, the Bahrain Currency Board introduced notes in denominations of 1⁄4, 1⁄2,1,5 and 10 dinars, a 100-fils note was introduced on September 2,1967. In 1973, the Bahrain Monetary Agency took over the issuance of paper money, on September 7,2006, the Bahrain Monetary Agency was renamed the Central Bank of Bahrain. On March 17,2008, the Central Bank of Bahrain introduced a new family of notes reflecting Bahrains heritage as well as its modern development. Saudi riyals are also acceptable in Bahrain, with the exception of the Saudi 500 riyal note which is accepted in major supermarkets, airports. In December 1980, the dinar was pegged to the IMFs special drawing rights. In practice, it is fixed at $1 USD =0.376 BD and this rate was made official in 2001. Before Maltas adoption of the euro on 1 January 2008, it was the currency unit after the Kuwaiti dinar. After Malta adopted the euro, the became the second highest-valued currency unit
13.
Qatar
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Qatar, officially the State of Qatar, is a sovereign country located in Western Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. Its sole land border is with Saudi Arabia to the south, with the rest of its surrounded by the Persian Gulf. A strait in the Persian Gulf separates Qatar from the island country of Bahrain, as well as sharing maritime borders with the United Arab Emirates. Following Ottoman rule, Qatar became a British protectorate in the early 20th century until gaining independence in 1971, Qatar has been ruled by the House of Thani since the early 19th century. Sheikh Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani was the founder of the State of Qatar, Qatar is a hereditary monarchy and its head of state is Emir Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani. Whether it should be regarded as a constitutional or a monarchy is a matter of opinion. In 2003, the constitution was approved in a referendum. In early 2017, Qatars total population was 2.3 million,313,000 Qatari citizens and 2.6 million expatriates, Qatar is a high income economy and is a developed country, backed by the worlds third largest natural gas reserves and oil reserves. The country has the highest per capita income in the world, Qatar is classified by the UN as a country of very high human development and is the most advanced Arab state for human development. Qatar is a significant power in the Arab world, supporting several rebel groups during the Arab Spring both financially and through its globally expanding media group, Al Jazeera Media Network. For its size, Qatar wields disproportionate influence in the world, Qatar will host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, becoming the first Arab country to do so. A century later, Ptolemy produced the first known map to depict the peninsula, the map also referenced a town named Cadara to the east of the peninsula. The term Catara was exclusively used until the 18th century, after which Katara emerged as the most commonly recognised spelling, eventually, the modern derivative Qatar was adopted as the countrys name. In Standard Arabic, the name is pronounced, while in the local dialect it is, Human habitation of Qatar dates back to 50,000 years ago. Settlements and tools dating back to the Stone Age have been unearthed in the peninsula, Mesopotamian artefacts originating from the Ubaid period have been discovered in abandoned coastal settlements. Al Daasa, a settlement located on the western coast of Qatar, is the most important Ubaid site in the country and is believed to have accommodated a small seasonal encampment. Kassite Babylonian material dating back to the second millennium BC found in Al Khor Islands attests to trade relations between the inhabitants of Qatar and the Kassites in modern-day Bahrain, among the findings were 3,000,000 crushed snail shells and Kassite potsherds. It has been suggested that Qatar is the earliest known site of shellfish dye production, in 224 AD, the Sasanian Empire gained control over the territories surrounding the Persian Gulf
14.
Saudi riyal
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The Saudi riyal, is the currency of Saudi Arabia. It is abbreviated as ر. س or SR and it is subdivided into 100 halalas. The Hejaz riyal was based on but not equivalent to the Ottoman 20 kuruş coin and was divided into 20 qirsh. However, although the Hejaz riyal was the weight as the Ottoman 20 kuruş, it was minted in.917 fineness. The system remained even though the riyal was subsequently debased to an equivalent, in silver content. In 1960, the system was changed to 20 qirsh to a riyal, some Saudi coins still bear denominations in qirsh, but it is no longer commonly used. In 1925, transitional copper coins for 1⁄4 and 1⁄2 qirsh were minted in Makkah by Ibn Saud and they were followed, in 1926, by 1⁄4, 1⁄2 and 1 qirsh cupro-nickel pieces carrying the title King of Hejaz and Sultan of Nejd. In 1927, the title was changed to King of Hejaz and Nejd and Dependencies and coins were issued in denominations of 1⁄4, 1⁄2 and 1 qirsh in cupro-nickel and 1⁄4. In 1935, the first coins were issued in the name of Saudi Arabia and these were silver 1⁄4, 1⁄2 and 1 riyal coinswhich were nearly 50% lighter than the previous issue. Cupro-nickel 1⁄4, 1⁄2 and 1 qirsh were also issued from 1937, in 1946, many of the cupro-nickel coins were countermarked with the Arabic numerals 65 in what Krause and Mishler describe as a move to break money changers monopoly on small coins. Cupro-nickel 2 and 4 qirsh were introduced in 1957, in 1963, the halala was introduced, and bronze 1 halala coins were issued. That was the year they were struck. Cupro-nickel 5,10,25 and 50 halala followed in 1972, in 1976, cupro-nickel 1 riyal coins were introduced, which are also inscribed with the denomination 100 halala. Bimetallic 1 riyal coins, also marked 100 halala, were issued in 1999, in 2017, a new serie of seven coins is introduced and replace previous coins in a aim to make coins more popular. The following denomination are introduced In 1953, the Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency began issuing Haj Pilgrim Receipts for 10 riyals, with 1 and 5 riyals following in 1954 and 1956 and these resembled banknotes and were initially intended for use by pilgrims who exchanged foreign currency for them. However, they became widely accepted in Saudi Arabia and largely replaced silver riyal coins in major financial transactions, consequently, the Monetary Agency began issuing regular banknotes for 1,5,10,50 and 100 riyals on 15 June 1961. The Pilgrim Receipts were withdrawn on 1 February 1965,500 Riyal notes were introduced in 1983. 20 and 200 riyal banknotes were issued in 2000 to commemorate the centenary of the founding of what became the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the 5th series of banknotes bearing the face of King Abdullah were issued in 2007
15.
Cupronickel
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Cupronickel is an alloy of copper that contains nickel and strengthening elements, such as iron and manganese. Despite its high content, cupronickel is silver in colour. Cupronickel is highly resistant to corrosion in seawater because its potential is adjusted to be neutral with regard to seawater. Another common use of cupronickel is in silver-coloured modern-circulated coins, a typical mix is 75% copper, 25% nickel, and a trace amount of manganese. In the past, true silver coins were debased with cupronickel, Cupronickel alloys are used for marine applications due to their resistance to seawater corrosion, good fabricability, and their effectiveness in lowering macrofouling levels. Alloys ranging in composition from 90% Cu–10% Ni to 70% Cu–30% Ni are commonly specified in heat exchanger or condenser tubes in a variety of marine applications. Desalination plants, Cupronickel alloys are used in brine heaters, heat rejection and recovery, offshore oil and gas platforms and processing and FPSO vessels, Cupronickel alloys are used in systems and splash zone sheathings. Power generation, Cupronickel alloys are used in steam turbine condensers, oil coolers, auxiliary cooling systems and high pressure pre-heaters at nuclear, seawater system design, Cupronickel alloys are used in tubular heat exchangers and condensers, piping and high pressure systems. Seawater system components, Cupronickel alloys are used in condenser and heat exchanger tubes, tubesheets, piping, fittings, pumps, in Europe, Switzerland pioneered the nickel billon coinage in 1850, with the addition of silver. In 1968, Switzerland adopted the far cheaper 75,25 copper to nickel ratio then being used by the Belgians, the United States, and Germany. From 1947 to 2012, all “silver” coinage in the UK was made from cupronickel, prior to these dates, both denominations had been made only in silver in the United States. Cupronickel is the cladding on either side of United States half-dollars since 1971, currently, some circulating coins, such as the United States Jefferson nickel, the Swiss franc, and the South Korean 500 and 100 won are made of solid cupronickel. Single-core thermocouple cables use a single pair of thermocouple conductors such as iron-constantan. These have the element of constantan or nickel-chromium alloy within a sheath of copper. Cupronickel is used in cryogenic applications, beginning around the turn of the 20th century, bullet jackets were commonly made from this material. It was soon replaced with gilding metal to reduce fouling in the bore. Currently, cupronickel remains the basic material for silver-plated cutlery and it is commonly used for mechanical and electrical equipment, medical equipment, zippers, jewelry items, and as material for strings for string instruments. Fender Musical Instruments used CuNiFe magnets in their Wide Range Humbucker pickup for various Telecaster and Starcaster guitars during the 1970s, for high-quality cylinder locks and locking systems, cylinder cores are made from wear-resistant cupronickel
16.
Eastern Arabic numerals
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These numbers are known as أرقام هندية in Arabic. They are sometimes also called Indic numerals in English, however, that is sometimes discouraged as it can lead to confusion with Indian numerals, used in Brahmic scripts of India. Each numeral in the Persian variant has a different Unicode point even if it looks identical to the Eastern Arabic numeral counterpart, however the variants used with Urdu, Sindhi and other South Asian languages are not encoded separately from the Persian variants. See U+0660 through U+0669 and U+06F0 through U+06F9, written numerals are arranged with their lowest-value digit to the right, with higher value positions added to the left. That is identical to the arrangement used by Western texts using Hindu-Arabic numerals even though Arabic script is read from right to left. There is no conflict unless numerical layout is necessary, as is the case for arithmetic problems and lists of numbers, Eastern Arabic numerals remain strongly predominant vis-à-vis Western Arabic numerals in many countries to the East of the Arab world, particularly in Iran and Afghanistan. In Pakistan, Western Arabic numerals are more used as a considerable majority of the population is anglophone. Eastern numerals still continue to see use in Urdu publications and newspapers, in North Africa, only Western Arabic numerals are now commonly used. In medieval times, these used a slightly different set
17.
Commemorative coin
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Commemorative coins are coins that were issued to commemorate some particular event or issue. Most world commemorative coins were issued from the 1960s onward, although there are examples of commemorative coins of earlier date. Such coins have a design with reference to the occasion on which they were issued. Many coins of this serve as collectors items only, although some countries are also issuing commemorative coins for regular circulation. Vast numbers of coins are continuously being issued, highlighting ancient monuments or sites, historical personalities. While such thematic coins may or may not commemorate any event or jubilee. Circulating commemoratives are intended to be used for commerce, but the design will only be issued for a time, is intended to draw some attention to a specific event or person. Examples include the €2 commemorative coins, or U. S.50 State Quarters, non-circulating legal tender are coins which are legal tender, and thus can in theory be used to purchase goods or services, but are not intended to be used in such a manner. Rather, they are intended to be used only as souvenirs, historically, the coins issued by any state have always reflected the current political or economic situation. Many ancient and pre-modern coins certainly commemorate events in contemporary times, for instance, Roman coins often have references to military campaigns and the defeat of foreign powers. These reverse types often represent the subordination of recently conquered territories to Roman authority. Such coins are examples of ancient political propaganda, the Roman Empire may be represented by a proud warrior raising an undersized figure, representing the defeated enemy. Throughout history, coins have commonly been issued on special occasions, in some cases, emergency money have been issued under unfavourable conditions, such as a city under siege. Such emergency coins were issued in Vienna in 1529, while the city was besieged by the troops of the Ottoman Empire, due to the conditions at the time, such coins are frequently minted on square flans, rather than round ones. European square coins of this era are known by their German name klippe, coins might also be issued with the specific purpose of financing a military campaign, or for the payment of tribute or war indemnity by a feudal lord to his sovereign. During recent centuries, specially prepared coins have been issued to proclaim the coronation of a new monarch, such coins are known as largesse coins. This type of coins were issued in India during the Mughal era, in Europe, such coins were scattered from the royal chariot, to achieve attention and applause from the public. In Sweden, coins of this type were issued as late as 1873, during the era of the formation of the European nation states, the issuance of special coins explicitly commemorating various events became increasingly common
18.
Islamic calendar
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The Islamic, Muslim, or Hijri calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year of 354 or 355 days. It is used to date events in many Muslim countries and it is also used by Muslims to determine the proper days of Islamic holidays and rituals, such as the annual period of fasting and the proper time for the pilgrimage to Mecca. The Islamic calendar employs the Hijri era whose epoch was retrospectively established as the Islamic New Year of AD622, during that year, Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Yathrib and established the first Muslim community, an event commemorated as the Hijra. In the West, dates in this era are usually denoted AH in parallel with the Christian, in Muslim countries, it is also sometimes denoted as H from its Arabic form. In English, years prior to the Hijra are reckoned as BH, the current Islamic year is 1438 AH. In the Gregorian calendar,1438 AH runs from approximately 3 October 2016 to 21 September 2017, four of the twelve Hijri months are considered sacred, Rajab, and the three consecutive months of Dhū al-Qa‘dah, Dhu al-Ḥijjah and Muḥarram. As the lunar calendar lags behind the solar calendar by about ten days every gregorian year, the cycle repeats every 33 lunar years. Each month of the Islamic calendar commences on the birth of the new lunar cycle, traditionally this is based on actual observation of the crescent marking the end of the previous lunar cycle and hence the previous month, thereby beginning the new month. Consequently, each month can have 29 or 30 days depending on the visibility of the moon, astronomical positioning of the earth and weather conditions. However, certain sects and groups, most notably Dawoodi Bohra Muslims and Shia Ismaili Muslims, use a tabular Islamic calendar in which odd-numbered months have thirty days, in Arabic, the first day of the week corresponds with Sunday of the planetary week. The Islamic weekdays, like those in the Hebrew and Baháí calendars, the Christian liturgical day, kept in monasteries, begins with vespers, which is evening, in line with the other Abrahamic traditions. Christian and planetary weekdays begin at the following midnight, Muslims gather for worship at a mosque at noon on gathering day which corresponds with Friday. Thus gathering day is regarded as the weekly day of rest. A few others have adopted the Saturday-Sunday weekend while making Friday a working day with a midday break to allow time off for worship. Inscriptions of the ancient South Arabian calendars reveal the use of a number of local calendars, at least some of these calendars followed the lunisolar system. For Central Arabia, especially Mecca, there is a lack of epigraphical evidence, both al-Biruni and al-Masudi suggest that the Ancient Arabs used the same month names as the Muslims, though they also record other month names used by the pre-Islamic Arabs. Nevertheless, the Islamic position equating Nisan with Dhū al-Ḥijja has prevailed, for a comparison between the Islamic and pre-Islamic months, see Islamic and Jahili months. The Islamic tradition is unanimous in stating that Arabs of Tihamah, Hejaz, the forbidden months were four months during which fighting is forbidden, listed as Rajab and the three months around the pilgrimage season, Dhu al-Qa‘dah, Dhu al-Hijjah, and Muharram
19.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
20.
Dallah (coffee pot)
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It is commonly used in the coffee tradition of the Arabian peninsula and of the Bedouins. Old Bedouins used the ritual of preparation, serving and drinking as a sign of hospitality, generosity. The most distinctive feature is a spout with a crescent-shaped beak. This beak may be covered with a flap to keep the coffee warmer. A dallah can be made of brass, steel, silver, the origins of the dallah are unclear. Among the earliest references to a dallah as a boiler in the modern shape date to the mid-17th century. The dallah plays such an important role in the identity of Persian Gulf countries that it is featured in public artworks, modern dallah are more typically practical vessels, and even automatic dallah and thermos dallah are available to the modern coffee drinker. Other traditional and regional recipes include saffron or other spices and it is also called a Baghdad boiler or Gulf pot. Cezve Jebena Arabic coffee Saudi cuisine Coffee portal
21.
Philippine peso
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The Philippine peso is the official currency of the Philippines. It is subdivided into 100 céntimos, as a former colony of the United States, the country used English on its currency, with the word peso appearing on notes and coinage until 1967. Since the adoption of Filipino language for banknotes and coins, the term piso is now used, the peso is usually denoted by the symbol ₱. Other ways of writing the Philippine peso sign are PHP, PhP, Php, P$, the ₱ symbol was added to the Unicode standard in version 3.2 and is assigned U+20B1. The symbol can be accessed through some word processors by typing in 20b1 and then pressing the Alt and this symbol is unique to the Philippines as the symbol used for the peso in countries like Mexico and other former colonies of Spain in Latin America is $. The Philippine coins and banknotes are minted and printed at the Security Plant Complex of the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas in Quezon City, the inconvenience of barter however later led to the use of some objects as a medium of exchange. The teston became the de facto unit of trade between Spaniards and Filipinos before the founding of Manila in 1574, the native Tagalog name for the coin was salapi. The monetary situation in the Philippine Islands was chaotic due to the circulation of many types of coins, with differing purity and weights, value equivalents of the different monetary systems were usually difficult to comprehend and hindered trade and commerce. An attempt to remedy the confusion was made in 1848. Overseeing the conversion was Fernándo Norzagaray y Escudero, governor general in the period 1857-60, conversion to the decimal system with the peso fuerte as the unit of account solved the accounting problem, but did little to remedy the confusion of differing circulating coinage. The mint was inaugurated on March 19,1861, despite the mintage of gold and silver coins, Mexican and South and Central American silver still circulated widely. The Isabelline peso, more known as the peso fuerte, was a unit of account divided into 100 céntimos. Its introduction led to the Philippines brief experiment with the gold standard, the peso fuerte was also a unit of exchange equivalent to 1.69 grams of gold,0.875 fine, equivalent to ₱1,390.87. Coin production at the Casa de Moneda de Manila began in 1861 with gold coins of three denominations,4 pesos,2 pesos, and 1 peso. On March 5,1862, Isabel II granted the mint permission to produce silver fractional coinage in denominations of 10,20, minting of these coins started in 1864, with designs similar to the Spanish silver escudo. The coin, which was to be known as the Spanish-Filipino peso, was minted in Madrid in 1897. The specifications of the coin was 25 grams of silver.900 fine and this configuration was also used in the creation of the Puerto Rican provincial peso in 1895 giving both coins the equivalency of 5 pesetas. The new monetary standard finally established the peso as 25 grams silver,0.900 fine, the Spanish-Filipino peso remained in circulation and were legal tender in the islands until 1904, when the American authorities demonetized them in favor of the new US-Philippine peso
22.
Pakistani rupee
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The Pakistani rupee is the currency of Pakistan. The issuance of the currency is controlled by the State Bank of Pakistan, the most commonly used symbol for the rupee is Rs, used on receipts when purchasing goods and services. In Pakistan, the rupee is also spelled as rupees, rupaya or rupaye, as standard in Pakistani English, large values of rupees are counted in terms of thousands, lakh and crore,1 Arab,1 Kharab. It is derived from the noun rūpa shape, likeness, image, rūpaya was used to denote the coin introduced by Sher Shah Suri during his reign from 1540 to 1545 CE. The Pakistani rupee was put into circulation in Pakistan after the dissolution of the British Raj in 1947, initially, Pakistan used British Indian coins and notes simply over-stamped with Pakistan. New coins and banknotes were issued in 1948, like the Indian rupee, it was originally divided into 16 annas, each of 4 pice or 12 pie. The currency was decimalised on 1 January 1961, with the rupee subdivided into 100 pice, however, coins denominated in paise have not been issued since 1994. = In 1948, coins were introduced in denominations of 1 pice, 1⁄2,1 and 2 annas, 1⁄4,1 pie coins were added in 1951. In 1961, coins for 1,5 and 10 pice were issued, followed later the year by 1 paisa,5 and 10 paise coins. In 1963,10 and 25 paise coins were introduced, followed by 2 paise the next year,1 rupee coins were reintroduced in 1979, followed by 2 rupees in 1998 and 5 rupees in 2002. 2 paise coins were last minted in 1976, with 1 paisa coins ceasing production in 1979, the 5,10,25 and 50 paise all ceased production in 1996. There are two variations of 2 rupee coins, most have clouds above the Badshahi Masjid but many dont, the one and two rupee coins were changed to aluminium in 2007. Paisa coins ceased to be legal tender in 2013, leaving Rs.1 coin as the legal tender.10 coin was introduced in circulation. Regular government issues commenced in 1948 in denominations of 1,5,10 and 100 rupees. The government continued to issue 1 rupee notes until the 1980s but other note issuing was taken over by the State Bank of Pakistan in 1953, only a few 2 rupees notes were issued. 50 rupees notes were added in 1957, with 2 rupees notes reintroduced in 1985, in 1986,500 rupees notes were introduced, followed by 1000 rupees the next year. 2 and 5 rupees notes were replaced by coins in 1998 and 2002,20 rupee notes were added in 2005, followed by 5000 rupees in 2006. Until 1971, Pakistani banknotes were bilingual, featuring Bengali translation of the Urdu text, all banknotes other than the 1 and 2 rupees feature a portrait of Muhammad Ali Jinnah on the obverse along with writing in Urdu
23.
Omani rial
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The rial is the currency of Oman. It is divided into 1000 baisa, maria Theresa Thaler were valued at 230 paisa, with 64 paisa equal to the rupee. In 1940, coins were introduced for use in Dhofar, followed, in 1946, both coinages were denominated in baisa, with 200 baisa to the rial. The Indian rupee and, from 1959, the Gulf rupee continued to circulate, in 1970, the rial Saidi was made the currency of Oman. It was equal to the British pound and replaced the Gulf rupee at a rate of approximately 21 rupees to the rial, the new rial was subdivided into 1000 baisa. The rial Omani replaced the rial Saidi at par in 1973, the currency name was altered due to the regime change in 1970 and the subsequent change of the countrys name. For a wider history surrounding currency in the region, see The History of British Currency in the Middle East, in the 1890s, coins for 1⁄12 and 1⁄4 anna were minted specifically for use in Muscat and Oman. In 1940, coins were issued for use in Dhofar in denominations of 10,20 and 50 baisa, 1⁄2 rial coins were added in 1948, followed by 3 baisa in 1959. In 1946,2,5 and 20 baisa coins were introduced for use in Oman and these were followed, between 1959 and 1960, by 3 baisa, 1⁄2 and 1 rial coins. In 1970, a coinage for all of Muscat and Oman was introduced, denominations were 2,5,10,25,50 and 100 baisa. In 1975, new coins were issued with the name given as Oman. 1⁄4 and 1⁄2 rial coins were introduced in 1980, coins currently circulating are 5 baisa 10 baisa 25 baisa 50 baisa 100 baisa, 1⁄4 rial, and 1⁄2 rial coins made of non-precious metal were also issued in the 1980s. On 7 May 1970, the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman issued banknotes in denominations of 100 baisa, 1⁄4 and these were followed by notes for 100 baisa, 1⁄4, 1⁄2,1,5 and 10 Omani rials issued by the Oman Currency Board on 18 November 1972. From 1977, the Central Bank of Oman has issued notes, with 20 and 50 rial notes introduced that, notes currently circulating are, A new 1 rial note is now in circulation alongside the 1970 note which is still accepted. The new 1 rial note is red, similar to the 5 rial note, a new Blue 20 rial note was issued in 2010 on the occasion of the 40th National Day. Both the old and the new notes are accepted, the 200 baisa note is now out of circulation. From 1973 to 1986, the rial was pegged to U. S. dollar at 1 rial = $2.895 USD, in 1986, the rate was changed to 1 rial = $2.6008 USD, which translates to approximately $1 USD =0.384497 rial. The Central Bank buys U. S. dollars at 0.384 rial and it is the third-highest-valued currency unit after the Kuwaiti dinar and the Bahraini dinar
24.
Moroccan dirham
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The dirham, plural, is the currency of Morocco. The plural form is pronounced darahim, although in French and English dirhams is commonly used and its ISO4217 code is MAD. It is subdivided into 100 santimat, the dirham is issued by the Bank Al-Maghrib, the central bank of Morocco. Before the introduction of a modern coinage in 1882, Morocco issued copper coins denominated in falus, from 1882, the dirham became a subdivision of the Moroccan rial, with 50 Mazunas =10 dirham =1 rial. When most of Morocco became a French protectorate in 1912 it switched to the Moroccan franc, the dirham was reintroduced on 16 October 1960. It replaced the franc as the unit of currency but, until 1974. In 1974, the replaced the franc. In 1960, silver 1 dirham coins were introduced and these were followed by nickel 1 dirham and silver 5 dirham coins in 1965. In 1974, with the introduction of the santim, a new coinage was introduced in denominations of 1,5,10,20 and 50 santimat and 1 dirham. The 1 santim coins were aluminium, the 5 up to 20 santimat were minted in brass, cupro-nickel 5 dirham coins were added in 1980 and changed to a bi-metal coin in 1987. The bi-metal coins bear two year designations for the issue date—1987 in the Gregorian calendar and the 1407 in the Islamic calendar, the 1 santim was only minted until 1987 when new designs were introduced, with a ½ dirham replacing the 50 santimat without changing the size or composition. The new 5 dirham coin was bimetallic, as was the 10 dirham coin introduced in 1995, cupro-nickel 2 dirham coins were introduced in 2002. In 2011, a new series of coins has been issued, the first notes denominated in dirham were overprints on earlier franc notes, in denominations of 50 dirhams and 100 dirhams. In 1965, new notes were issued for 5,10 and 50 dirhams,100 dirham notes were introduced in 1970, followed by 200 dirham notes in 1991 and 20 dirham notes in 1996. 5 dirham notes were replaced by coins in 1980, with the same happening to 10 dirham notes in 1995, in mid-October 2009, Bank Al-Maghrib issued four million 50-dirham banknotes to commemorate the banks 50th anniversary. The commemorative note measures 147 x 70 mm and features the portraits of Kings Mohammed VI, Hassan II, the back of the notes features the headquarters of Bank Al-Maghrib in Rabat. The speech delivered in 1959 by Mohammed V at the opening of Bank Al-Maghrib is microprinted on the back, in December 2012, Bank-Al Maghrib issued a 25-dirham banknote to commemorate the 25th anniversary of banknote production at the Moroccan State Printing Works, Dar As-Sikkah. It is the first banknote in the world to be printed on Durasafe, the front of the commemorative note features an intaglio vignette and a watermark of King Mohammed VI, and a magenta-green color shift security thread
25.
Arabic numerals
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In this numeral system, a sequence of digits such as 975 is read as a single number, using the position of the digit in the sequence to interpret its value. The symbol for zero is the key to the effectiveness of the system, the system was adopted by Arab mathematicians in Baghdad and passed on to the Arabs farther west. There is some evidence to suggest that the numerals in their current form developed from Arabic letters in the Maghreb, the current form of the numerals developed in North Africa, distinct in form from the Indian and eastern Arabic numerals. The use of Arabic numerals spread around the world through European trade, books, the term Arabic numerals is ambiguous. It most commonly refers to the widely used in Europe. Arabic numerals is also the name for the entire family of related numerals of Arabic. It may also be intended to mean the numerals used by Arabs and it would be more appropriate to refer to the Arabic numeral system, where the value of a digit in a number depends on its position. The decimal Hindu–Arabic numeral system was developed in India by AD700, the development was gradual, spanning several centuries, but the decisive step was probably provided by Brahmaguptas formulation of zero as a number in AD628. The system was revolutionary by including zero in positional notation, thereby limiting the number of digits to ten. It is considered an important milestone in the development of mathematics, one may distinguish between this positional system, which is identical throughout the family, and the precise glyphs used to write the numerals, which varied regionally. The glyphs most commonly used in conjunction with the Latin script since early modern times are 0123456789. The first universally accepted inscription containing the use of the 0 glyph in India is first recorded in the 9th century, in an inscription at Gwalior in Central India dated to 870. Numerous Indian documents on copper plates exist, with the symbol for zero in them, dated back as far as the 6th century AD. Inscriptions in Indonesia and Cambodia dating to AD683 have also been found and their work was principally responsible for the diffusion of the Indian system of numeration in the Middle East and the West. In the 10th century, Middle-Eastern mathematicians extended the decimal system to include fractions. The decimal point notation was introduced by Sind ibn Ali, who wrote the earliest treatise on Arabic numerals. Ghubar numerals themselves are probably of Roman origin, some popular myths have argued that the original forms of these symbols indicated their numeric value through the number of angles they contained, but no evidence exists of any such origin. In 825 Al-Khwārizmī wrote a treatise in Arabic, On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals, Algoritmi, the translators rendition of the authors name, gave rise to the word algorithm
26.
Souq
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A souq or souk is a marketplace or commercial quarter in Western Asian and North African cities. Suq, and sometimes monti, is used for a marketplace in Malta. The equivalent Persian term is bazaar, the spelling souk entered European languages probably through French during the French occupation of the Arab countries Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia in the 19th and 20th centuries. Thus, the word souk most likely refers to Arabic/North African traditional markets, in Modern Standard Arabic the term al-sooq refers to markets in both the physical sense and the abstract economic sense. As in markets generally, prices are set by bargaining between buyers and sellers. The term is used to designate the market in any Western Asian city. A souq was originally an open-air marketplace, historically, souqs were held outside cities at locations where incoming caravans stopped and merchants displayed their goods for sale. Souqs were formed whenever a caravan or caravans arrived, since this might be infrequent, souqs often extended beyond buying and selling goods to include major festivals involving various cultural and social activities. Any souq may serve a function as being a place for people to meet in, in addition to its commercial function. Later, due to the importance of marketplaces and the growth of cities, in tribal areas, neutrality from tribal conflicts was usually declared for the period of operation of a souk to permit the unhampered exchange of surplus goods. Souks A seasonal souq is held at a set time that might be yearly, monthly or weekly, the oldest souqs were set up annually, and were typically general festivals held outside cities. For example, Souq Ukadh was held yearly in pre-Islamic times in an area between Mecca and Ta’if during the month of Dhu al-Qidah. While a busy market, it was famous for its poetry competitions, judged by prominent poets such as Al-Khansa. An example of an Islamic annual souq is Al Mirbid just outside Basra, changes in political, economic and social styles have left only the small seasonal souqs outside villages and small towns, primarily selling livestock and agricultural products. Weekly markets have continued to function throughout the Arab world, most of them are named from the day of the week on which they are held. They usually have open spaces specifically designated for their use inside cities and these are more common but less famous as they focus on commercial activity, not entertainment. During the Umayyad era the governments started leasing, and then selling, merchants then built shops on their sites to store their goods at night. Finally, the area comprising a souq might be roofed over, with its long and narrow alleys, al-Madina Souq is the largest covered historic market in the world, with an approximate length of 13 kilometers
27.
Sharjah
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Sharjah is the third largest and third most populous city in the United Arab Emirates, forming part of the Dubai-Sharjah-Ajman metropolitan area. It is located along the southern coast of the Persian Gulf on the Arabian Peninsula, Sharjah is the capital of the emirate of Sharjah. Sharjah has been ruled by the Al Qasimi dynasty since the 18th century, the city is a centre for culture and industry, and alone contributes 7. 4% of the GDP of the United Arab Emirates. The city covers an area of 235 km² and has a population of over 800,000. This has helped Sharjah increase the number of Islamic tourists who visit the country, Sharjah has been officially named as a WHO healthy city. The 2016 edition of QS Best Student Cities ranked Sharjah as the 68th best city in the world to be a university student. Sharjah is regarded as the capital of the UAE, and was the Islamic culture capital in 2014 Sharjah is the third largest city in the United Arab Emirates after Dubai. The palace of the ruler of the Emirate of Sharjah, His Highness Sheikh Dr. Sultan bin Muhammad Al-Qasimi is located about 20 kilometres southeast of the city, the city of Sharjah overlooks the Persian Gulf and has a population of over 800,000. Distinctive landmarks include two major covered souks, reflecting Islamic design, and a number of areas and public parks such as Al Montazah Fun Park. The city is notable for its numerous elegant mosques. After the construction boom took place in Dubai in 2005, towering skyscrapers and modern buildings were constructed in areas like Al Khan. These modern tall buildings and the subsequent increase in population coupled with inadequate infrastructure made Sharjah suffer from traffic jams and this was also due to its location between the northeastern emirates and Dubai. Many Sharjah residents travel 15 km to visit Dubai on the weekend, Sharjah is bordered by the cities of Dubai and Ajmān and is about 170 km away from the capital city Abu Dhabi. In the early 18th century, the Qawasim clan established itself in Sharjah, on 8 January 1820, Sheikh Sultan I signed the General Maritime Treaty with Britain, accepting a protectorate to keep the Ottoman Turks out. Like four of its neighbours, Ajman, Dubai, Ras al-Khaimah, on 2 December 1971, Sharjah, together with Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Ajman, Umm Al Qawain and Fujairah joined in the Act of Union to form the United Arab Emirates. The seventh emirate, Ras Al Khaimah, joined the UAE on 10 February 1972, many of these items feature subjects unrelated to the emirates whose names they bear, and therefore many popular catalogues do not list them. Other researchers link the word Sharqah to the fact that the city is located to the Sharq, or east, of Dubai, hence the Arabic classical form of Sharjah is Al Shareqah. It is the form that is Al Sharjah
28.
Khanjar
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A khanjar is a traditional dagger originating from Oman. Worn by men for ceremonial occasions, it is a curved sword shaped like the letter J. It can be made from a variety of different materials, depending on the quality of its craftsmanship and it is a popular souvenir among tourists and is sold in souqs throughout the region. A national symbol of the sultanate, the khanjar is featured on the national emblem. It is also utilized in logos and commercial imagery by companies based in Oman, although it is not known when the Omani khanjar was first created, rock carvings epitomizing the dagger were found on gravestones located in the central part of the Ru’us al Jibal region. These are believed to have predated the Wahhabi revival, which occurred in the late 1700s and they were also mentioned in an account by Robert Padbrugge of the Dutch Republic, who journeyed to Muscat in June 1672. Historically, only men from the family could wear the khanjar. Depending on the quality of its craftsmanship, the Omani khanjar can be using a variety of different metals. Gold or silver would be used to make khanjar of the finest quality, while brass, for instance, a sheath adorned with gold was historically limited to the Omani upper class. Traditionally, the dagger is designed by its future owner himself, with the taking into account the specifications. The time it takes to manufacture a khanjar can range from three weeks to several months, the most elemental sections of the khanjar are its handle and blade, with the material utilized in the former playing a significant role influencing the final price of the dagger. Bone – specifically rhinoceros horn and elephant tusk – was once the common standard, however, with the international ban on the ivory trade, the usage of other materials – such as wood, plastic, and camel bone – has become more prevalent. Typically, the top of the hilt is flat, but the one designed for the family is in the shape of a cross. The Omani khanjar is tucked underneath a waist belt and is situated at the front, as a result, it is sometimes given by families to their sons when they reach adolescence, and is a common wedding gift to the groom. Although the khanjar was originally created as a weapon to attack and defend, the latter situation would occur in the desert, where it is used as a tool for hunting and skinning animals, as well as for slicing ropes. It can also be found and is sold in other Gulf Arab states, such as the Souq Waqif in Doha, the khanjar is a popular keepsake among tourists, and is the Sultanates best-selling memento. As the khanjar is a symbol of Oman, it is featured on the sultanates national emblem. It has been a symbol on the royal crest of the Al Said dynasty since the 18th century and it is also depicted on the Omani rial – the countrys currency – specifically on the one rial note, as well as on postage stamps issued by the sultanate
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Dhow
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Dhow is the generic name of a number of traditional sailing vessels with one or more masts with lateen sails used in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean region. Historians are divided as to whether the dhow was invented by Arabs or Indians, larger dhows have crews of approximately thirty, smaller ones typically around twelve. The exact origins of the dhow are lost to history, most scholars believe that it originated in India between 600 BC to 600 AD Some claim that the sambuk, a type of dhow, may be derived from the Portuguese caravel. The Yemeni Hadhrami people, as well as Omanis, for centuries came to Beypore, in Kerala and this was because of the good timber in the Kerala forests, the availability of good coir rope, and the skilled carpenters who specialized in ship building. In former times, the planks of a dhows hull were held together by coconut rope. Beypore dhows are known as Uru in Malayalam, the language of Kerala. Settlers from Yemen, known as Baramis, are active in making urus in Kerala. In the 1920s, British writers identified Al Hudaydah as the center for dhow building and those built in Al Hudaydah were smaller in size, and used for travel along the coasts. They were constructed of found in Yemen. Even to the present day, dhows make commercial journeys between the Persian Gulf and East Africa using sails as their means of propulsion. Their cargo is mostly dates and fish to East Africa and mangrove timber to the lands in the Persian Gulf and they often sail south with the monsoon in winter or early spring, and back again to Arabia in late spring or early summer. For celestial navigation, dhow sailors have used the kamal. The latter is a device that determines latitude by finding the angle of the Pole Star above the horizon. Baghlah – from the Arabic language word for mule, a heavy ship, the traditional deep-sea dhow. Baqarah or baggarah – from the Arabic word for cow, old type of small dhow similar to the Battil. Battil – featured long stems topped by large, club-shaped stem heads, badan – a smaller vessel requiring a shallow draft. Boum or dhangi – a large-sized dhow with a stern that is tapering in shape, the Arab boum has a very high prow, which is trimmed in the Indian version. Ghanjah or kotiya – a large vessel, similar to the Baghlah, with a curved stem, a fishing or trading dhow with a broad hull similar to the Jalibut, common in Lamu Island and the coast of Oman
30.
Oryx
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Oryx is a genus consisting of four large antelope species. Three of them are native to parts of Africa. Their fur is pale with contrasting dark markings in the face and on the legs, the exception is the scimitar oryx, which lacks dark markings on the legs, only has faint dark markings on the head, has an ochre neck, and horns that are clearly decurved. The Arabian oryx was only saved from extinction through a breeding program. The scimitar oryx, which is now listed as Extinct in the Wild, small populations of several oryx species, such as the scimitar oryx, exist in Texas and New Mexico in wild game ranches. Gemsboks were released at the White Sands Missile Range and have become a species of concern at the adjacent White Sands National Monument. The term oryx comes from the Greek word Ὂρυξ, óryx, the Greek plural form is óryges, although oryxes has been established in English. Herodotus mentions a type of gazelle in Libya called Orus, probably related to the verb ¨oruttoo or orussoo, White oryxes are known to dig holes in the sand for the sake of coolness. The Arabian oryx, the smallest species, became extinct in the wild in 1972 from the Arabian Peninsula and it was reintroduced in 1982 in Oman, but poaching has reduced their numbers there. One of the largest populations of Arabian oryx exists on Sir Bani Yas Island in the United Arab Emirates, additional populations have been reintroduced in Qatar, Bahrain, Israel, Jordan and Saudi Arabia. As of 2011, the wild population is over 1000. In 2011, the IUCN downgraded its threat category from Extinct in the Wild to Vulnerable, the scimitar oryx, also called scimitar-horned oryx, of North Africa, is now listed as possibly extinct in the wild. Several thousand are held in captivity around the world, the East African oryx inhabits eastern Africa, and the closely related gemsbok inhabits southern Africa. Neither is threatened, though the former is considered Near Threatened by the IUCN, the gemsbok is monotypic, and the East African oryx has two subspecies, East African oryx proper and the fringe-eared oryx. In the past, both were considered subspecies of the gemsbok, all Oryx species prefer near-desert conditions and can survive without water for long periods. They live in herds of up to 600 animals, newborn calves are able to run with the herd immediately after birth. Both males and females possess permanent horns, the horns are narrow, and straight except in the scimitar oryx, where they curve backwards like a scimitar. The horns are lethal — the oryx has been known to kill lions with them, the horns also make the animals a prized game trophy, which has led to the near-extinction of the two northern species
31.
Al Ain
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Al-Ain, also known as the Garden City due to its greenery, is the largest inland city in the United Arab Emirates, the fourth-largest overall, and the second-largest in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. With a population of 650,000, it is located approximately 160 kilometres east of the capital Abu Dhabi, Al-Ain is the birthplace of Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, the founder of the United Arab Emirates, and has the highest proportion of Emirati nationals. Al-Ain is located in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, inland on the border with Oman, the freeways connecting Al-Ain, Abu Dhabi, and Dubai form a geographic triangle in the country, each city being roughly 130 kilometres from the other two. Historically a part of Ṫawam or Al Buraimi Oasis, Al-Ain has been inhabited for over 4,000 years, with archaeological sites showing human settlement at Al-Hili and Jabel Ḥafeeṫ. These early cultures built beehive tombs for their dead and engaged in hunting and gathering in the area, the oasis provided water for early farms until the modern age. A companion of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, Kaab Bin Ahbar, was sent to the region to introduce Islam to the people. He settled and died in the oasis, the forts currently in Al-Ain were built in the late 19th or early 20th century to solidify Abu Dhabis control over the oasis. Wilfred Thesiger visited Al-Ain in the late 1940s during his travels across the Empty Quarter and he met Sheikh Zayed and stayed with him at Al-Muwaiji Fort. This network of fortresses protected the Oases and settlements from bandit attacks, in 1952 Saudi Arabia sent raiders to capture Al-Ains fortresses and incorporate the oasis into the Saudi kingdom. Forces from the Trucial Oman Scouts, as well as the army of Muscat-Oman, with British intervention, the Saudi forces surrendered, leaving the oasis back in the hands of Abu Dhabi and Muscat-Oman. In 1971 Queen Elizabeth II visited the Hilton Hotel in the area, still in use, following independence in 1971, Al-Ain experienced rapid growth and investment as part of the emirate of Abu Dhabi, quickly becoming larger and more successful than Omans Al-Buraimi. In 1972 Oman and Abu Dhabi agreed on the borders to divide Al-Buraimi. Until Sheikh Zayeds death in 2004, Al-Ains municipal code forbade construction of buildings over four storeys, with the exceptions of the Hilton, Danat Al Ain Resort, in the 1990s, a serious uprising occurred among the labourers of the industrial district of Al-Ain, Aṣ-Ṣanaiya. This uprising was suppressed by the UAE army and local police forces, all the labourers involved were interned and deported. Until 2006, Al-Buraimi and Al-Ain shared an open border and this border was closed in November 2006, and passport controls were imposed. Al-Ain is located in the region of Abu Dhabi Emirate just south of Dubai. The Eastern region covers an area of approximately 13,100 km², Oman lies to the east, Dubai and Sharjah to the north, Abu Dhabi to the west and the Empty Quarter desert and Saudi Arabia to the south. The topography of Al-Ain is unique and varies as one travel to the east, Jebel Hafeet is considered one of the monuments of Al-Ain, lying just to the southeast and rising to 1,300 m in elevation
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Al Fahidi Fort
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Dubai Museum is the main museum in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. It is located in the Al Fahidi Fort, built in 1787 and is the oldest existing building in Dubai, the museum was opened by the ruler of Dubai in 1971, with the aim of presenting the traditional way of life in the Emirate of Dubai. When entering, one can see the fort constructed and the displays that go along with it. From the fort, there is a path to the galleries and it includes local antiquities as well as artifacts from African and Asian countries that traded with Dubai. It also includes several dioramas showing life in the emirate before the advent of oil, in 2007, Dubai Museum welcomed 1,800 visitors daily, with a yearly total of 611,840. In March 2008, the Museum had 80,000 visitors, the most popular times are from August to April. The Museum received over 1 Million Visitors in the year 2013, Al Fahidi Fort was built in several phases. The oldest tower was built around 1787 and is believed to be the oldest building in Dubai that still exists today, the fort was used to guard the landward approaches to the town from the raids of neighbouring tribes. It has also served, at times throughout history as the rulers palace, a garrison. Al Fahidi Fort is square-shaped with towers occupying three of its corners and it was built of coral rock and mortar in several phases. Just off the southern wall lie the remains of the city walls, next to them stands a tall dhow in the middle of a large courtyard that covers the underground galleries. Two cannons guard the gate to the fort on the eastern wall, adorned by flags of Dubai. Internal halls line three of the fort walls, one hall is at the main gate and houses the ticket office, while the others contain a collection of old weapons and arms from different historical periods along with a model of the city in 1820 AD. Traditional musical instruments are displayed next to a video of folkloric music. The halls surround a central courtyard, here you will find a bronze cannon with cannonballs, a well, and various types of boats. In the corner stands a traditional summer house called Arish, the Arish is made entirely from weaved palm fronds. It comprises seating and sleeping areas as well as a kitchen, filled with household furnishings, the Arish features the distinct wind tower design, used for air conditioning in the pre-electricity days. Entrance to the galleries is located at the tower on the corner of the fort
33.
Dubai World Trade Centre
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The Dubai World Trade Centre, was inaugurated in 1979. It is a complex for events and exhibitions. The building is featured on the 100 Dirham bank note, with over 1.3 million square feet of covered exhibition and event space, comprising 21 halls and over 40 meeting rooms across 3 floors, Dubai World Trade Centre hosts over 500 events annually. In 2015, the venue held 396 trade events and welcomed over 2.74 million visitors, built in 1979, the Sheikh Rashid Tower, as it was known back then, was amongst the earliest skyscrapers to be constructed in Dubai. Renamed after the late Sheikh Rashid Bin Saeed Al Maktoum, the 39-storey Sheikh Rashid Tower no longer alone as it did when it was first built. In addition, commercial building have also added including the Convention Tower. Dubai World Trade Centre has grown and added several business divisions to its overall portfolio
34.
Zayed Sports City Stadium
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Zayed Sports City Stadium, is an iconic multi-purpose stadium located in Zayed Sports City, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. It is the largest stadium in the UAE with more than 43,000 seats and it has developed a great history and heritage and has cemented its place in the countrys history by being featured on the AED200 banknote. The stadium hosted the 1996 AFC Asian Cup including the final, the stadium also hosted the 2007 Gulf Cup of Nations final between the United Arab Emirates and Oman. The semi finals and finals of 2009 and 2010 FIFA Club World Cup were also held at the stadium, the stadium will also be hosting some of the 2017 and 2018 FIFA Club World Cup and 2019 AFC Asian Cup matches alongside five other stadiums. Zayed Sports City Stadium was the crux of the first project phase, and this phase also included perimeter fencing, utility services and an internal road network. It was completed in 1979 and the stadium was inaugurated in January 1980, the total cost of this phase was AED550 million. The stadium included gull size grass pitch surrounded facilities to host athletics competitions, an electronic board and a sound system were installed as well as a modern electronic irrigation system. The building was designed to host international sporting events and provided media personnel with sufficient facilities to cover, the external design of the stadium features iconic arches which are showcased in the venue’s logo as well as on the AED200 banknote. Throughout the years, the stadium has undergone significant renovations to ensure that it can accommodate the high-quality international events it was designed for, hospitality areas, including the Royal Box interior and exterior, VIP seating and media seating were created throughout the years. Two scoreboards at either end zone were added in 2003, renovations such as these have reduced the capacity to 43,791 public seats. London based construction company Isg did the project before 2009 FIFA Club World Cup. The stadium is a traditional, open-air stadium that is defined on its exterior by iconic arches, within the stadium is a full-size football pitch and a wide concrete apron surrounds it. There are 42,355 general entry seats on two levels plus 1,436 hospitality seats and 277 media seats, there is also a royal box with indoor and outdoor viewing areas and six media / hospitality sky boxes. On the concourses are concession kiosks, toilets and first aid facilities, back of house areas include space for media, hospitality, players, referees and storage. There are also offices located in the stadium. Three LED scoreboards are present in the venue as well as a system for spectators. The venue is fully lit to the standard required for HDTV broadcasts, surrounding the stadium is a pre-event plaza, then a series of fountains. Beyond this is the road, parking lots, training pitches
35.
Saker falcon
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The saker falcon is a large species of falcon. This species breeds from eastern Europe eastwards across Asia to Manchuria and it is mainly migratory except in the southernmost parts of its range, wintering in Ethiopia, the Arabian peninsula, northern Pakistan and western China. The specific part of the name, cherrug, comes from the Hindi name charg for a female saker. The common name comes from the meaning falcon. The saker falcon is a large hierofalcon, larger than the lanner falcon and its broad blunt wings give it a shadow similar to gyrfalcon, but its plumage is more similar to a lanner falcons. Saker falcons have brown upperbellies and contrasting grey flight feathers, the head and underparts are paler brown, with streaking from the breast down. Males and females are similar, as are birds, although these tend to be a duller brown. The call is a sharp kiy-ee, adults can be distinguished from the similar lanner falcon since the lanner is blue-grey above with a reddish back to the head. However, juveniles of the two species can be similar although the saker falcon always has a uniformly buff top of the head with dark streaks. A further complication is that some Asian birds have grey barred upperparts, these must be separated from lanner on size, structure, and a weaker moustache stripe. Saker falcons at the northeast edge of the range in the Altai Mountains are slightly larger and this species belongs to the close-knit hierofalcon complex. In captivity, lanners and sakers can interbreed, and gyrfalcon-saker hybrids are also available, a Hungarian mythological bird, the Turul, was probably a saker falcon. The saker falcon is a raptor of open grasslands preferably with some trees or cliffs and it often hunts by horizontal pursuit, rather than the peregrines stoop from a height, and feeds mainly on rodents and birds. In Europe, ground squirrels and feral pigeons are the most common prey items. This species usually builds no nest of its own, but lays its 3–6 eggs in an old stick nest in a tree which was used by other birds such as storks. It also often nests on cliffs, BirdLife International categorises this bird as endangered, due to a rapid population decline, particularly on the central Asian breeding grounds. Ever since the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United Arab Emirates have been the destination for thousands of falcons caught. Kazakhstan is estimated to lose up to 1,000 saker falcons per year, the species also faces pressure from habitat loss and destruction
36.
Jumeirah Mosque
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Jumeirah Mosque is a mosque in Dubai City. It is said that it is the most photographed mosque in all of Dubai, organized tours are available for non-Muslims. Construction began in 1976, the mosque is built in traditional Fatimid style, grand Mosque Islam in the United Arab Emirates Islam city mosques Dubai Photo Story Jumeirah Mosque Jumeirah Mosque Essay, Article, Images, Note
37.
Qasr al-Hosn
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The Qasr al-Hosn is the oldest stone building in the city of Abu Dhabi, the capital of the United Arab Emirates. It is located along the First Street and houses the Cultural Foundation within its grounds, Qasr al-Hosn, also known as the White Fort or Old Fort, was constructed in 1761 as a conical watchtower to defend the only freshwater well in Abu Dhabi island. The tower was expanded into a small fort in 1793 by the then ruler, Shakhbut bin Dhiyab Al Nahyan. The tower took its present shape after an extension in the late 1930s. It remained the emirs palace and seat of government until 1966, the fort has been developed several times and is now partially open to the public. The Qasr al-Hosn is currently the subject of historical, archaeological. The fort houses a museum displaying artifacts and pictures representing the history of the country and it also has a range of weapons, used through the regions history, on display. Qasr al-Hosn festival is an annual 11-day cultural event staged on the grounds of the fort, the fort is open to the public during the festival, including some of the restricted areas and features live music and dance performances showing the UAEs cultural heritage. From Trucial States to United Arab Emirates, Qasr al Husn, An Architectural Survey. Qasr al Hosn, The History of the Rulers of Abu Dhabi 1793–1966, national Center for Documentation and Research
38.
International Monetary Fund
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The International Monetary Fund is an international organization headquartered in Washington, D. C. It now plays a role in the management of balance of payments difficulties. Countries contribute funds to a pool through a system from which countries experiencing balance of payments problems can borrow money. As of 2016, the fund had SDR477 billion, the rationale for this is that private international capital markets function imperfectly and many countries have limited access to financial markets. The IMF provides alternate sources of financing and this assistance was meant to prevent the spread of international economic crises. The IMF was also intended to help mend the pieces of the economy after the Great Depression. As well, to provide investments for economic growth and projects such as infrastructure. The IMFs role was altered by the floating exchange rates post-1971. It shifted to examining the economic policies of countries with IMF loan agreements to determine if a shortage of capital was due to economic fluctuations or economic policy, the IMF also researched what types of government policy would ensure economic recovery. Rather than maintaining a position of oversight of only exchange rates and their role became a lot more active because the IMF now manages economic policy rather than just exchange rates. In addition, the IMF negotiates conditions on lending and loans under their policy of conditionality, nonconcessional loans, which include interest rates, are provided mainly through Stand-By Arrangements, the Flexible Credit Line, the Precautionary and Liquidity Line, and the Extended Fund Facility. The IMF provides emergency assistance via the Rapid Financing Instrument to members facing urgent balance-of-payments needs, the IMF is mandated to oversee the international monetary and financial system and monitor the economic and financial policies of its member countries. This activity is known as surveillance and facilitates international cooperation, the responsibilities changed from those of guardian to those of overseer of members’ policies. In 1995 the International Monetary Fund began work on data dissemination standards with the view of guiding IMF member countries to disseminate their economic and financial data to the public. The executive board approved the SDDS and GDDS in 1996 and 1997 respectively, the system is aimed primarily at statisticians and aims to improve many aspects of statistical systems in a country. It is also part of the World Bank Millennium Development Goals, some countries initially used the GDDS, but later upgraded to SDDS. The IMF does require collateral from countries for loans but also requires the government seeking assistance to correct its macroeconomic imbalances in the form of policy reform, if the conditions are not met, the funds are withheld. The concept of conditionality was introduced in a 1952 Executive Board decision, conditionality is associated with economic theory as well as an enforcement mechanism for repayment
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Gulf Cooperation Council
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Its member states are Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. The Charter of the Gulf Cooperation Council was signed on 25 May 1981, all current member states are monarchies, including three constitutional monarchies, two absolute monarchies, and one federal monarchy. There have been regarding the future membership of Jordan, Morocco. Objections have been raised against the proposal by other countries, in 2014, Bahrain prime minister Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa said that current events in the region highlighted the importance of the proposal. In order to reduce their dependence on oil in the future, the original union comprised the 1,032, 093-square-mile Persian Gulf states of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. The unified economic agreement between the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council was signed on 11 November 1981 in Abu Dhabi and these countries are often referred to as the GCC states. Following the announcement that the bank for the monetary union would be located in Riyadh and not in the UAE. The name Khaleeji has been proposed as a name for this currency, if realised, the GCC monetary union would be the second largest supranational monetary union in the world, measured by GDP of the common-currency area. In an effort to build a tax base and economic foundation before the run out. Other regional funds also have hundreds of billions of dollars of assets under management. The region is also a hotspot for events, including the 2006 Asian Games in Doha. Doha also submitted an application for the 2016 Summer Olympic Games. Qatar was later chosen to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, the logo of the GCC consists of two concentric circles. On the upper part of the circle, the Bismillah phrase is written in Arabic. The inner circle contains a hexagonal shape that represents the Councils six member countries. The inside of the hexagon is filled by a map encompassing the Arabian Peninsula, on which the areas of the countries are borderless. On the edge of the hexagon are colors representing the flags of the six member countries, a common market was launched on 1 January 2008 with plans to realise a fully integrated single market. It eased the movement of goods and services, however, implementation lagged behind after the 2009 financial crisis
40.
Economy of the United Arab Emirates
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The economy of the United Arab Emirates is the second largest in the Arab world, with a gross domestic product of $570 billion in 2014. The United Arab Emirates has been diversifying its economy. Although UAE has the most diversified economy in the GCC, the UAEs economy remains reliant on petroleum. With the exception of Dubai, most of the UAE is dependent on oil revenues, Petroleum and natural gas continue to play a central role in the economy, especially in Abu Dhabi. More than 85% of the UAEs economy was based on the oil exports in 2009, while Abu Dhabi and other UAE emirates have remained relatively conservative in their approach to diversification, Dubai, which has far smaller oil reserves, was bolder in its diversification policy. In 2011, oil accounted for 77% of the UAEs state budget. Dubai suffered from a significant economic crisis in 2007-2010 and was bailed out by Abu Dhabis oil wealth, dubais current prosperity has been attributed to Abu Dhabis petrodollars. Dubai is currently in extreme debt, tourism is one of the main sources of revenue in the UAE, with some of the worlds most luxurious hotels being based in the UAE. A massive construction boom, a manufacturing base, and a thriving services sector are helping the UAE diversify its economy. Nationwide, there is currently $350 billion worth of construction projects. The UAE is a member of the World Trade Organization and OPEC, prior to independence from the UK and unification in 1971, each emirate was responsible for its own economy. At the time, pearl diving, seafaring and fishing were together the mainstay of the economy, until the development of Japanese cultured pearls and the discovery of commercial quantities of oil. Likewise, former UAE vice-president Sheikh Rashid Bin Saeed Al Maktoum had a vision for the Emirate of Dubai and foresaw the future in not petroleum alone. UAE has the second-largest economy in the Arab world, with a domestic product of $377 billion in 2012. A third of the GDP is from oil revenues, the economy was expected to grow 4–4. 5% in 2013, compared to 2. 3–3. 5% over the previous five years. Since independence in 1971, UAEs economy has grown by nearly 231 times to AED1.45 trillion in 2013, the non-oil trade has grown to AED1.2 trillion, a growth of around 28 times from 1981 to 2012. The UAEs economy is one of the most open worldwide, and its history of history goes back to the times when ships sailed to India, along the Swahili coast. Current UAE’s GDP is $386.4 Billion while the share is almost 70 thousand dollars
41.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
42.
Trucial States
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The Trucial States were a group of sheikhdoms in the south-eastern Persian Gulf, previously known to the British as the Pirate Coast, which were signatories to treaties with the British government. Six were to form the United Arab Emirates on that day and this was an unclear status which fell short of a formal protectorate, but required Britain to defend them from external aggression in exchange for exclusive British rights in the states. In 1952, the Trucial States Council was established to encourage co-operation between the seven Rulers, the first in a long series of maritime skirmishes between the Al Qasimi and British vessels took place in 1797, when the British-flagged Bassein Snow was seized and released two days later. The cruiser Viper was subsequently attacked off Bushire and this version has been particularly well articulated by Sultan bin Muhammad Al-Qasimi, the current Ruler of Sharjah, in his 1986 book The Myth of Arab Piracy in the Gulf. The next year,1820, a treaty was signed to which all the sheikhs of the coast adhered. On 11 January 1820, again at Ras Al Khaimah, Shakhbut bin Diyab Al Nahyan signed on behalf of his son, Tahnoon, husain bin Ali of Rams signed on the 15th. The uncle of Muhammad bin Hazza of Dubai signed on the 28th in Sharjah, the Rulers of Ajman and Umm Al Qawain acceded to the full treaty on 15 March, signing on board the ship of the commander of the British expeditionary force, Sir William Grant-Keir. The treaty was signed, at Sharjah, by the emir of Bahrain. The Sheikh of Rams lost the support of his soon after. Separate treaties in 1847 and 1856 saw treaties undertaking the abolition of slave trading and, in 1873, the sheikhs agreed not to dispose of any territory except to the United Kingdom and not to enter into relationships with any foreign government other than the United Kingdom without its consent. In return, the British promised to protect the Trucial Coast from all aggression by sea and to help in case of land attack. This treaty, the Exclusive Agreement, was signed by the Rulers of Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Ras Al Khaimah and it was subsequently ratified by the Viceroy of India and the British Government in London. In 1968 the United Kingdom announced its intention to end its protectorate over the Trucial Coast, the other Trucial States had long been a British protectorate with the British taking care of foreign policy and defence, as well as arbitrating between the rulers of the Eastern Gulf. This changed with Harold Wilsons announcement, on 16 January 1968, the decision pitched the coastal emirates, together with Qatar and Bahrain, into fevered negotiations to fill the political vacuum that the British withdrawal would leave behind. The two agreed to work towards bringing the other emirates, including Qatar and Bahrain, into the union, over the next two years, negotiations and meetings of the rulers followed - often stormy - as a form of union was thrashed out. The nine-state union was never to recover from the October 1969 meeting where heavy-handed British intervention resulted in a walk-out by Qatar, Bahrain and Qatar were to drop out of talks, leaving only six emirates to agree on union on 18 July 1971. On 2 December 1971, Dubai, together with Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al Qawain, the seventh emirate, Ras Al Khaimah, joined the UAE on 10 February 1972 following Irans seizure of Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs from Ras Al Khaimah. Trucial Oman Scouts Qatar Digital Library - an online portal providing access to British Library archive materials relating to Gulf history and Arabic science
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Kazakhstani tenge
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The tenge is the currency of Kazakhstan. It is divided into 100 tïın, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, attempts were made by most republics to maintain a common currency. Some politicians were hoping to at least maintain special relations among former Soviet republics, other reasons were the economic considerations for maintaining the ruble zone. The wish to preserve strong trade relations between former Soviet republics was considered the most important goal, the break-up of the Soviet Union was not accompanied by any formal changes in monetary arrangements. The Central Bank of Russia was authorized to take over the State Bank of the USSR on 1 January 1992. It continued to ship USSR ruble notes and coins to the banks of the fourteen newly independent countries. The political situation, however, was not favorable for maintaining a common currency and these conditions were far from being met amidst the turbulent economic and political situation. During the first half of 1992, a union with 15 independent states all using the ruble existed. Since it was clear that the situation would not last, each of them was using its position as free-riders to issue huge amounts of money in the form of credit. As a result, some countries were issuing coupons in order to protect their markets from buyers from other states, the Russian central bank responded in July 1992 by setting up restrictions to the flow of credit between Russia and other states. The final collapse of the zone began when Russia pulled out with the exchange of banknotes by the Central bank of Russia on Russian territory at the end of July 1993. As a result, Kazakhstan and other still in the ruble zone were pushed out. On November 12,1993, a decree of the President of Kazakhstan, the tenge was introduced on 15 November 1993 to replace the Soviet ruble at a rate of 1 tenge =500 rubles. In 1991 a special group of designers was created, Mendybay Alin, Timur Suleymenov, Asimsaly Duzelkhanov, as such, November 15 is celebrated as the Day of National Currency of Republic of Kazakhstan. In 1995, a printing factory was opened in Kazakhstan. The first consignment of tenge was printed abroad, in the UK, the first coins were minted in Germany. The word tenge in the Kazakh and most other Turkic languages means a set of scales, the origin of the word is the Turkic teŋ- which means being equal, balance. The name of currency is thus similar to the lira, pound
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