1.
Pacific Alliance
–
The Pacific Alliance is a Latin American trade bloc, with some features of further integration. It currently has four member states — Chile, Colombia, Mexico and Peru, on 28 April 2011, former president of Peru Alan García organized a meeting with the presidents of Chile, Colombia and Mexico. This group of political leaders issued the Declaración de Lima, a statement of intent to establish the Pacific Alliance, the initial goal of the alliance was to further free trade with a clear orientation toward Asia, and economic integration. The four founding nations of the Pacific Alliance represent nearly 36% of Latin American GDP, if counted as a single country this group of nations would be the sixth largest economy in the world with a PPP GDP of more than US$3 trillion. Individually and collectively, the countries of the Pacific Alliance have been deemed The Pacific Pumas by political scientists, for their model of economic. Costa Rica is finishing up the process so it can be incorporated as the Alliances fifth member. At the same summit seven observers were admitted, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, France, Honduras, Paraguay, and Portugal. The Mercado Integrado Latinoamericano originally integrated the stock markets of Colombia, Chile, and Peru, the Mexican Stock Exchange began the process of incorporation into MILA and its full incorporation was expected by the year 2014. The Mexican Stock Exchange took the step of acquiring a total of 3.79 million shares of the Lima Stock Exchange, the Mexican Stock Exchange met the timeframe and announced the first trade made as part of MILA on 2 December 2014. The trade on MIILA was a $1,415 purchase of 200 shares in Chilean retailer Falabella, the joint capitalization of the four bourses tops US$1.25 trillion, making it larger than the US$1.22 trillion BM&F Bovespa. Among the more important agreements that have reached is the creation of joint diplomatic missions that will provide citizens of Pacific Alliance member states with needed diplomatic services. The Declaration of Cali encourages these countries to move forward on these initiatives, in November 2014 Mexico opened its first trade office in Africa, located in Casablanca and shared with the other Pacific Alliance members. As of October 2016, there are 49 observer states and 2 candidate countries, in process of full membership, canada has also been mentioned as a candidate to join the alliance, and called a natural fit by Mexicos vice-minister of foreign affairs, Sergio Alcocer. It has free-trade agreements with the four founding members, and has been encouraged by leaders to join the alliance. However the Canadian government has yet to upgrade its status to observer-candidate as it is still determining whether or not to become a member. The country has since postponed its incorporation into the alliance indefinitely, guatemala has expressed concrete interest in joining the Pacific Alliance and is pursuing trade deals with current members as a precursor to a possible membership application. Panama has expressed interest in joining the Alliance, and is an official observer-candidate according to the website, Panama has already signed trade deals with Colombia, Peru and Chile, and reached an agreement with Mexico to sign a free-trade deal in March 2014. While fulfilling most of the criteria to enter in the alliance, Paraguay, a founding member of Mercosur and observer of the Pacific Alliance, has begun pursuing free-trade deals with current members as a precursor to a possible membership application
2.
United Nationalist Democratic Organization
–
It was formed in January 1980, and was originally known as the United Democratic Opposition from 1980 to 1982. It was initially a union of eight major and minor political parties, in April 1982, the coalition changed its name to United Nationalist Democratic Organization, and increased its members to twelve parties. Shortly after the assassination of popular oppositionist Senator Benigno Aquino, Jr. the party was led by Senator Salvador Laurel of Batangas, UNIDO gained momentum in the last week of November 1985, when President Ferdinand Marcos called for a presidential election due to mounted political pressures. At first, UNIDO supported Senator Salvador Laurel of Batangas as its standard bearer, Roces argued that Corazon Aquino, the widow of assassinated Senator Aquino, should be the candidate for president. Roces initiated the Cory Aquino for President Movement to gather one million signatures in one week to urge Aquino to run as president, Aquino was made the presidential bet of the Partido Demokratiko Pilipino-Lakas ng Bayan party. However, Laurel did not give way to Aquino for the nomination as President until he was convinced by Cardinal Jaime Sin to run as her running-mate. Laurel had also previously offered Aquino the Vice Presidential nomination for UNIDO, in any case, Aquino ran for president under the UNIDO banner, with PDP-LABAN endorsing UNIDO coalition. The campaign was made in the month of January 1986, for the February elections, although she was officially reported to have lost the election to Marcos, the elections were widely believed to be fraudulent. UNIDO was dissolved after the 1987 Legislative and General elections, when new parties were formed, among the parties formed from UNIDO, the Laban ng Demokratikong Pilipino became the dominant party of the Philippines until 1992. The PDP-LABAN was split into Pimentel and Cojuangco Wings, the Lakas ng Bansa headed by Ramon Mitra and PDP-LABAN-Cojuangco Wing joined forces to found a new party that will support Corys programs Laban ng Demokratikong Pilipino or LDP. Thus shaked the anti-Aquino alliance into confusion, after 29 years, UNIDO returned to the Philippine political scene as an accredited party-list group that will participate in the 2016 national elections
3.
Specialized agency
–
At present the UN has in total 15 specialized agencies that carry out various functions on behalf of the UN. The specialized agencies are listed below, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations leads international efforts to defeat hunger. Serving both developed and developing countries, FAO acts as a forum where all nations meet as equals to negotiate agreements. FAOs mandate is to raise levels of nutrition, improve productivity, better the lives of rural populations. FAO is the largest of UN agencies and its headquarters is in Rome, the International Civil Aviation Organization was founded in 1947. It codifies the principles and techniques of international air navigation and fosters the planning and development of air transport to ensure safe. Its headquarters are located in the Quartier international de Montréal of Montreal and it also solves disputes between two countries. IFAD is dedicated to eradicating poverty in developing countries. Its headquarters are in Rome, Italy, the International Labour Organization deals with labour issues. Its headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland, founded in 1919, it was formed through the negotiations of the Treaty of Versailles and was initially an agency of the League of Nations. It became a member of the UN system after the demise of the League and its Constitution, as amended to date, includes the Declaration of Philadelphia on the aims and purposes of the Organization. Its secretariat is known as the International Labor Office, however the IMO did not enter into full force until 1958. Headquartered in London, United Kingdom, the IMO promotes cooperation among government, IMO is governed by an Assembly of members and is financially administered by a Council of members elected from the Assembly. The work of IMO is conducted through five committees and these are supported by technical sub-committees, Member organizations of the UN organizational family may observe the proceedings of the IMO. Observer status may be granted to qualified non-governmental organizations, the IMO is supported by a permanent secretariat of employees who are representative of its members. International Monetary Fund is sometimes considered to be a specialized agency and it is part of the United Nations system and has a formal relationship agreement with the UN, but retains its independence. The IMF provides monetary cooperation and financial stability and acts as a forum for advice, negotiation and it is headquartered in Washington, D. C. The International Telecommunication Union was established to standardize and regulate international radio and it was founded as the International Telegraph Union in Paris on 17 May 1865
4.
Vienna
–
Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
5.
Li Yong (politician)
–
Li Yong is the former Vice-Minister of the Ministry of Finance of China and current Director General of the United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Li was born at Longquan, 龙泉, Zhejiang province to Han parents and he joined the Communist Party of China in 1973. Li received a degree in economics following his graduation from the Research Institute for Fiscal Science of the Ministry of Finance later that year. From 1985 to 1988 he served as first and second secretary to the United Nations Mission from China and he served at this post for a year Following that, he became an advisor to the World Bank and served under this post until 1996. Li was thus promoted to Director-General, and to Executive Director in 1996 and he filled this position until 1998. In 1999, he became the Secretary-General at the Chinese Institute of Certified Public Accountants and he quit his Assistant Ministership to be promoted Vice Minister in 2003. On May 7,2006, Li presented his prediction of a 25 percent drop in the value of the U. S. dollar. This caused debate on the creation of an Asian Currency Unit, one of his highest priorities as Vice Minister was to fight inflation by promoting production in agriculture. On 24 June,2013, Li was elected by UNIDOs Industrial Development Board to succeed Kandeh Yumkella as Director General of UNIDO and he was appointed Director General by a special session of the Organizations General Conference on 28 June,2013
6.
Developing country
–
Also, the general term less-developed country should not be confused with the specific least developed country. The term developing describes a currently observed situation and not a dynamic or expected direction of progress, since the late 1990s developing countries tended to demonstrate higher growth rates than the developed ones. There is criticism of the use of the developing country. The term implies inferiority of a country or undeveloped country compared with a developed country. It assumes a desire to develop along the traditional Western model of development which a few countries, such as Cuba and Bhutan. An alternative measurement that has suggested is that of gross national happiness. Countries on the boundary between developed and developing are often categorized under the newly industrialized countries. In the 2016 edition of its World Development Indicators, the World Bank made a decision to no longer distinguish between “developed” and “developing” countries in the presentation of its data, nobody has ever agreed on a definition for these terms in the first place. Various terms are used for whatever is not a developed country, terms used include less developed country or less economically developed country, and for the more extreme, least developed country or least economically developed country. But according to the United Nations Statistics Division, There is no established convention for the designation of developed, the World Bank classifies countries into four income groups. These are set each year on July 1, economies were divided according to 2016 GNI per capita using the following ranges of income, Low income countries had GNI per capita of US$1,025 or less. Lower middle income countries had GNI per capita between US$1,026 and US$4,035, upper middle income countries had GNI per capita between US$4,036 and US$12,475. High income countries had GNI per capita above US$12,476 and this may be by absolute numbers or country ranking. The UN has developed the Human Development Index, an indicator of the above statistics. The UN sets Millennium Development Goals from a blueprint developed by all of the countries and leading development institutions. There is an association between low income and high population growth. The terms utilized when discussing developing countries refer to the intent, other terms sometimes used are less developed countries, least economically developed countries, underdeveloped nations or Third World nations, and non-industrialized nations. Conversely, developed countries, most economically developed countries, First World nations and that is, LEDCs are the poorest subset of LDCs
7.
United Nations Development Group
–
Currently, the UNDG is one of the main UN actors involved in the development of the Post-2015 Development Agenda. UNDG brings together 32 UN agencies and groups, plus five observers working on development issues. This was especially so with the Delivering as One initiative, an initial proposal was to merge the UNICEF, the World Food Programme and the UNFPA into the UNDP. Finally, then Secretary General Kofi Annan worked to form the UNDG, the CEB brings the executive heads of UN organizations together on a regular basis under the chairmanship of the Secretary-General. The Administrator of the UN Development Programme chairs the UNDG, the UNDG Chair reports to the Secretary-General and the CEB on progress in implementing the group’s work plan, and on the management of the Resident Coordinator System. The United Nations Economic and Social Council and the United Nations General Assembly provide oversight, the UNDG is overseen by the Economic and Financial Committee of the General Assembly. The UNDGs chairperson is the UNDPs Administrator, in 2009, the non-rotational members of the advisory group were, the FAO, ILO, UNDP, UNESCO, UNFPA, UNICEF, UNHCR, WFP, WHO and UNIDO. The rotational members are, the UNCTAD and the Economic and Social Commission for Western Africa, the UN Development Operations Coordination Office is a key component within the UNDG, promoting social and economic progress by providing support. It was key part of UNDGs formation in 1997, uniting the UN system, at present is the Secretariat and technical and advisory support unit of the UNDG. It brings together the UN development system to change and innovation to deliver together on sustainable development. DOCO works under the leadership of the UNDG Chair and guidance of the UNDG, the team provides field evidence to inform policy, facilitates the achievement of shared results, and promotes excellence in UN leadership and coordination. The core objective is a relevant and impactful UN contribution to development
8.
Millennium Development Goals
–
Critics of the MDGs complained of a lack of analysis and justification behind the chosen objectives, and the difficulty or lack of measurements for some goals and uneven progress, among others. As of 2013, progress towards the goals was uneven, some countries achieved many goals, while others were not on track to realize any. A UN conference in September 2010 reviewed progress to date and adopted a plan to achieve the eight goals by their target date. New commitments targeted womens and childrens health, and new initiatives in the battle against poverty, hunger. The Sustainable Development Goals replaced the MDGs in 2016, preparations for the 2000 Millennium Summit launched with the report of the Secretary-General entitled, We the people, The Role of the United Nations in the Twenty-First Century. Additional input was prepared by the Millennium Forum, which brought together representatives of over 1,000 non-governmental, the Forum met in May to conclude a two-year consultation process covering issues such as poverty eradication, environmental protection, human rights and protection of the vulnerable. MDGs derive from earlier development targets, where world leaders adopted the United Nations Millennium Declaration, the approval of the Millennium Declaration was the main outcome of the Millennium Summit. The MDGs originated from the United Nations Millennium Declaration, the MDGs set concrete targets and indicators for poverty reduction in order to achieve the rights set forth in the Declaration. The Brahimi Report provided the basis of the goals in the area of peace, the Millennium Summit Declaration was, however, only part of the origins of the MDGs. More ideas came from Adam Figueroa, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the World Bank, a series of UN‑led conferences in the 1990s focused on issues such as children, nutrition, human rights and women. The OECD criticized major donors for reducing their levels of Official Development Assistance, UN Secretary General Kofi Annan signed a report titled, We the Peoples, The Role of the United Nations in the 21st Century. The OECD had formed its International Development Goals, the two efforts were combined for the World Banks 2001 meeting to form the MDGs. The MDGs emphasized three areas, human capital, infrastructure and human rights, with the intent of increasing living standards, human capital objectives include nutrition, healthcare and education. Human rights objectives include empowering women, reducing violence, increasing political voice, ensuring access to public services. The goals were intended to increase an individual’s human capabilities and advance the means to a productive life, the MDGs emphasize that each nations policies should be tailored to that countrys needs, therefore most policy suggestions are general. Thus developing nations ostensibly became partners with developed nations in the struggle to reduce world poverty, the MDGs were developed out of several commitments set forth in the Millennium Declaration, signed in September 2000. There are eight goals with 21 targets, and a series of health indicators. Target 1A, Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of living on less than $1
9.
Sustainable energy
–
Sustainable energy is energy that is consumed at insignificant rates compared to its supply and with manageable collateral effects, especially environmental effects. Another common definition of energy is an energy system that serves the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. The organizing principle for sustainability is sustainable development, which includes the four interconnected domains, ecology, economics, politics, sustainability science is the study of sustainable development and environmental science. Costs have fallen dramatically in recent years, and continue to fall, most of these technologies are either economically competitive or close to being so. Increasingly, effective government policies support investor confidence and these markets are expanding, considerable progress is being made in the energy transition from fossil fuels to ecologically sustainable systems, to the point where many studies support 100% renewable energy. Energy efficiency and renewable energy are said to be the pillars of sustainable energy. In the broader context of development, there are three pillars, ecology, economy and society. Sustainable Energy has two key components, renewable energy and energy efficiency. And, The solution will lie in finding sustainable energy sources, – Sustainable Energy by J. W. Tester, et al. from MIT Press. – Invest, a green technology non-profit organization, Energy which is replenishable within a human lifetime and causes no long-term damage to the environment. Sustainable energy can produce some pollution of the environment, as long as it is not sufficient to prohibit use of the source for an indefinite amount of time. Sustainable energy is also distinct from low-carbon energy, which is only in the sense that it does not add to the CO2 in the atmosphere. Green Energy is energy that can be extracted, generated, and/or consumed without any significant negative impact to the environment, the planet has a natural capability to recover which means pollution that does not go beyond that capability can still be termed green. Green power is a subset of renewable energy and represents those renewable energy resources and technologies that provide the highest environmental benefit. The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency defines green power as electricity produced from solar, wind, geothermal, biogas, biomass, customers often buy green power for avoided environmental impacts and its greenhouse gas reduction benefits. The International Energy Agency states that, Conceptually, one can define three generations of technologies, reaching back more than 100 years. First-generation technologies emerged from the revolution at the end of the 19th century and include hydropower, biomass combustion and geothermal power. Some of these technologies are still in widespread use, second-generation technologies include solar heating and cooling, wind power, modern forms of bioenergy and solar photovoltaics. These are now entering markets as a result of research, development, many of the technologies reflect significant advancements in materials
10.
Climate change
–
Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time. Climate change may refer to a change in weather conditions. Climate change is caused by such as biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics. Certain human activities have also identified as significant causes of recent climate change. Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations, more recent data are provided by the instrumental record. The most general definition of change is a change in the statistical properties of the climate system when considered over long periods of time. Accordingly, fluctuations over periods shorter than a few decades, such as El Niño, the term climate change is often used to refer specifically to anthropogenic climate change. Anthropogenic climate change is caused by activity, as opposed to changes in climate that may have resulted as part of Earths natural processes. In this sense, especially in the context of environmental policy, within scientific journals, global warming refers to surface temperature increases while climate change includes global warming and everything else that increasing greenhouse gas levels affect. A related term is climatic change, in 1966, the World Meteorological Organization proposed the term climatic change to encompass all forms of climatic variability on time-scales longer than 10 years, regardless of cause. Change was a given and climatic was used as an adjective to describe this kind of change, when it was realized that human activities had a potential to drastically alter the climate, the term climate change replaced climatic change as the dominant term to reflect an anthropogenic cause. Climate change was incorporated in the title of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate change, used as a noun, became an issue rather than the technical description of changing weather. On the broadest scale, the rate at which energy is received from the Sun and this energy is distributed around the globe by winds, ocean currents, and other mechanisms to affect the climates of different regions. Factors that can shape climate are called climate forcings or forcing mechanisms, there are a variety of climate change feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish the initial forcing. Some parts of the system, such as the oceans and ice caps, respond more slowly in reaction to climate forcings. There are also key factors which when exceeded can produce rapid change. Forcing mechanisms can be internal or external. Internal forcing mechanisms are natural processes within the system itself
11.
Montreal Protocol
–
It was agreed on 26 August 1987, and entered into force on 26 August 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has undergone eight revisions, in 1990,1991,1992,1993,1995,1997,1998,1999 and 2016, as a result of the international agreement, the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly recovering. Climate projections indicate that the layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070. In this case of the ozone depletion challenge, there was global regulation already being installed before a consensus was established. Also, overall public opinion was convinced of possible imminent risks, the two ozone treaties have been ratified by 197 parties, which includes 196 states and the European Union, making them the first universally ratified treaties in United Nations history. The treaty is structured around groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that deplete stratospheric ozone. All of the ozone depleting substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol contain either chlorine or bromine, from 1996 its calculated level of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of Annex A does not exceed zero. There was a faster phase-out of halon-1211, -2402, -1301, There was a slower phase-out of other substances, the phasing-out of the less damaging HCFCs only began in 1996 and will go on until a complete phasing-out is achieved by 2030. There were a few exceptions for essential uses, where no acceptable substitutes were found or Halon fire suppression systems used in submarines. They also agreed to start reducing its consumption and production in 2015, the time of freezing and reducing HCFCs is then known as 2013-2015. The HCFCs are transitional CFCs replacements, used as refrigerants, solvents, blowing agents for plastic foam manufacture, in terms of ozone depletion potential, in comparison to CFCs that have ODP0.6 –1.0, these HCFCs have lower ODPs. In terms of global warming potential, in comparison to CFCs that have GWP4,680 –10,720, produced mostly in developed countries, hydrofluorocarbons replaced CFCs and HCFCs. HFCs pose no harm to the ozone layer because, unlike CFCs and HCFCs and they are however greenhouse gases, with a high global warming potential, comparable to that of CFCs and HCFCs. Developed countries following the Kyoto Protocol report their HFC emission data to the UNFCCC, a group of developing countries including China, Brazil and South Africa are mandated to reduce their HFC use by 85 per cent of their average value in 2020-22 by the year 2045. In 1973, the chemists Frank Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina, Rowland and Molina then proposed that these chlorine atoms might be expected to cause the breakdown of large amounts of ozone in the stratosphere. Their argument was based upon an analogy to contemporary work by Paul J. Crutzen and Harold Johnston, Crutzen, Molina and Rowland were awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for their work on this problem. But the Rowland-Molina hypothesis was disputed by representatives of the aerosol. The chair of the board of DuPont was quoted as saying that ozone depletion theory is a fiction tale. a load of rubbish. utter nonsense. S
12.
Environmental resource management
–
Environmental resource management is the management of the interaction and impact of human societies on the environment. It is not, as the phrase might suggest, the management of the environment itself, Environmental resource management tries to identify factors affected by conflicts that rise between meeting needs and protecting resources. It is thus linked to protection, sustainability and integrated landscape management. The environment determines the nature of people, animals, plants, Environmental resource management can be viewed from a variety of perspectives. It involves the management of all components of the biophysical environment, the environment also involves the relationships of the human environment, such as the social, cultural and economic environment, with the biophysical environment. The essential aspects of resource management are ethical, economical, social. These underlie principles and help make decisions, the concept of environmental determinism, probabilism and possibilism are significant in the concept of environmental resource management. Environmental resource management covers many areas in science, including geography, biology, physics, chemistry, sociology, psychology, Environmental resource management strategies are intrinsically driven by conceptions of human-nature relationships. Ethical aspects involve the cultural and social issues relating to the environment and these styles perceive. different evidence, imperatives, and problems, and prescribe different solutions, strategies, technologies, roles for economic sectors, culture, governments, and ethics, etc. Anthropocentrism looks at nature as existing solely for the benefit of humans, ecocentrists believe in the intrinsic value of nature while maintaining that human beings must use and even exploit nature to survive and live. It is this fine line that ecocentrists navigate between fair use and abuse. At an extreme of the scale, ecocentrism includes philosophies such as ecofeminism and deep ecology. The economy functions within, and is dependent upon goods and services provided by natural ecosystems, economic models influence environmental resource management, in that management policies reflect beliefs about natural capital scarcity. For someone who believes natural capital is infinite and easily substituted and this approach has often been termed Command-and-control. Colby has identified trends in the development of economic paradigms, among them, scientific analysis of the environment deals with several dimensions of ecological uncertainty. Adaptive management is considered a framework for dealing with situations of high levels of uncertainty though it is not without its detractors. A common scientific concept and impetus behind environmental resource management is carrying capacity, simply put, carrying capacity refers to the maximum number of organisms a particular resource can sustain. The concept of carrying capacity, whilst understood by many cultures over history, has its roots in Malthusian theory, an example is visible in the EU Water Framework Directive
13.
Egypt
–
Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
14.
Algeria
–
Algeria, officially the Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a sovereign state in North Africa on the Mediterranean coast. Its capital and most populous city is Algiers, located in the far north. With an area of 2,381,741 square kilometres, Algeria is the tenth-largest country in the world, the country is a semi-presidential republic consisting of 48 provinces and 1,541 communes. Abdelaziz Bouteflika has been President since 1999, Berbers are the indigenous inhabitants of Algeria. Algeria is a regional and middle power, the North African country supplies large amounts of natural gas to Europe, and energy exports are the backbone of the economy. According to OPEC Algeria has the 16th largest oil reserves in the world, Sonatrach, the national oil company, is the largest company in Africa. Algeria has one of the largest militaries in Africa and the largest defence budget on the continent, most of Algerias weapons are imported from Russia, with whom they are a close ally. Algeria is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, OPEC, the countrys name derives from the city of Algiers. The citys name in turn derives from the Arabic al-Jazāir, a form of the older Jazāir Banī Mazghanna. In the region of Ain Hanech, early remnants of hominid occupation in North Africa were found, neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the Levalloisian and Mousterian styles similar to those in the Levant. Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of Middle Paleolithic Flake tool techniques, tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called Aterian. The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called Iberomaurusian and this industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the Maghreb between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neolithic civilization developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11,000 BC or as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC and this life, richly depicted in the Tassili nAjjer paintings, predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The amalgam of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a native population that came to be called Berbers. These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages, as Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilization was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, by the early 4th century BC, Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the Revolt of the Mercenaries, Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthages North African territory, the Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars
15.
Philippines
–
The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos
16.
Mexico
–
Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
17.
Argentina
–
Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
18.
Kandeh Yumkella
–
He was also the chief executive officer of the Sustainable Energy for All Initiative. Yumkella is a former Chairman of UN-Energy and a two-term former Director-General of the United Nations Industrial Development Organization and he was re-appointed for a second four-year term in office in December 2009. Prior to working for UNIDO, Yumkella was the Minister for Trade, from 1987-1996, he held various academic positions at Michigan State University and the University of Illinois in the United States. In recognition of his leadership and his passion for energy and environment-related causes, Yumkella is a prominent public speaker, who addresses global issues, including poverty reduction, climate change, the Millennium Development Goals, and green industry and renewable energy. Dr. Yumkellas opinion pieces have appeared in international newspapers, including The New York Times, the International Herald Tribune. He has also appeared on several international broadcast networks, including CNNs Amanpour programme, BBC, Sky News, Aljazeera, Yumkella is a Muslim and a member of the Susu ethnic group. Yumkella is married to Philomena Yumkella, Kandeh Kolleh Yumkella was born on July 5,1959 in the small rural town of Kychom in Samu Chiefdom, Kambia District in the Northern Province of Sierra Leone. His father paramount chief Alhaji Bai Shebora Yumkella II was an ethnic Susu and was a member of the Sierra Leone Peoples Party. His mother Haja Binta Yumkella is an ethnic Fula from Tambamka Chiefdom, Kandeh Yumkelas mother Haja Binta Yumkella is the daughter of paramount chief Kandeh Kolleh, the first paramount chief of Tambamka Chiefdom in Bombali District. Kandeh Yumkela was born to very religious parents in Kambia District. Yemkela attended the Christ The King College secondary school in Bo and he was re-appointed for a second four-year term in office in December 2009. Prior to working for UNIDO, Yumkella was the Minister for Trade, from 1987-1996, he held various academic positions at Michigan State University and the University of Illinois. In recognition of his leadership and his passion for energy and environment-related causes, UN-Energy brings together all the UN organizations dealing with energy issues. As its Chairman, Yumkella brought a renewed and vital focus to global energy issues, in September 2011, Yumkella was appointed by the UN Secretary-General as Co-Chair of the High-level Group on Sustainable Energy for All. This followed a decision by the UN General Assembly to designate 2012 as the International Year for Sustainable Energy for All, Yumkella was a Member of the Rio+20 Principals Group, which played a crucial role in the preparations for the 2012 UN Conference on Sustainable Development. Since 2008, he has also been a member of the UN Development Group. Under his leadership as Director-General, UNIDO has maintained a role as the largest provider of trade-related technical assistance to developing countries in the UN system, in September 2012, Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon appointed Yumkella as Special Representative for the Sustainable Energy for All Initiative. Agricultural Economics, University of Illinois 1986 - M. Sc, agricultural Economics, Cornell University 1982 - B. Sc
19.
Sierra Leone
–
Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Guinea to the north-east, Liberia to the south-east, Sierra Leone has a tropical climate, with a diverse environment ranging from savannah to rainforests. Sierra Leone has an area of 71,740 km2. Sierra Leone is divided into four regions, the Northern Province, Eastern Province, Southern Province and the Western Area. Freetown is the capital, largest city and its economic and political centre, Bo is the second largest city. The other major cities are Kenema, Makeni and Koidu Town, Sierra Leone is a constitutional republic with a directly elected president and a unicameral legislature. Sir Milton Margai built his government based on democratic principles. Throughout his time in power, Sir Milton Margai was very popular across Sierra Leone, the main opposition APC, led by its leader Siaka Stevens, narowly defeated the ruling SLPP under the leadership of Albert Margai in the 1964 general elections. Stevens ruled for eighteen years in a government, in which his critics. Soldiers and politicians convicted of plotting a coup to topple Stevens were executed, under president Stevens, the APC was made the only legal political party in Sierra Leone, and all other political parties were banned, including the main opposition. Stevens handpicked successor, retired major general Joseph Saidu Momoh, lacked the political dominance of Stevens, Momoh reestablished the country as a multi party democracy in 1991. The current constitution of Sierra Leone was adopted in 1991 during the presidency of Joseph Saidu Momoh, the rebels started the civil war in 1991 in the eastern part of the country during Momohs presidency. Momoh was very unpopular, and Public anger against the Momoh government increasingly grew due to corruption, poor economy. In 1992 a group of officers in the army led by a 25-year-old captain, Valentine Strasser. In 1996 during the war, another military coup of soldiers within Strassers inner circle, led by a 32 year old Brigadier General Julius Maada Bio, toppled Strasser. Since independent to present, Sierra Leones politics has been dominated by two political parties, the Sierra Leone Peoples Party and the All Peoples congress. From 1991 to 2002, the Sierra Leone civil war was fought and this proxy war left more than 50,000 people dead, much of the countrys infrastructure destroyed, and over two million people displaced as refugees in neighbouring countries. In January 2002, then Sierra Leones president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, fulfilled his promise by ending the civil war, with help by the British Government, ECOWAS
20.
China
–
China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
21.
Vienna International Centre
–
The Vienna International Centre is the campus and building complex hosting the United Nations Office at Vienna. It is colloquially known as UNO City. The VIC, designed by Austrian architect Johann Staber, was built between 1973 and 1979 just north of the river Danube, the initial idea of setting up an international organization in Vienna came from the Chancellor of Austria Dr. Bruno Kreisky. Six Y-shaped office towers surround a cylindrical conference building for a floor area of 230,000 square metres. The highest tower stands 127 metres tall, enclosing 28 floors, about 5,000 people work at the VIC, which also offers catering and shopping facilities and a post office. Two banks, travel agents and other services have offices on the premises. The VIC is an area, exempt from the jurisdiction of local law. The M building hosted all conferences during the renovation of the C building from 2009-2013, both M and C buildings are now being used for meetings. The ACV has a link to the VIC buildings. It is guarded by United Nations security personnel, since the VIC has exterritorial status, the Vienna International Centre offers shopping opportunities to its staff, and the staff of Permanent Missions and other international organizations based in Vienna. The Commissary, so named after similar facilities for U. S, the store is run by the IAEA on a non-profit basis. ^ The official name uses British spelling, following UN conventions, ^ In contrast to the VIC, the ACV officially uses American spelling. Visitors Service UNIS at the VIC Additional conference building to be completed in 2008 Austria Center Vienna United Nations Office at Vienna
22.
International Atomic Energy Agency
–
The IAEA was established as an autonomous organisation on 29 July 1957. Though established independently of the United Nations through its own treaty, the IAEA Statute. The IAEA has its headquarters in Vienna, the IAEA has two Regional Safeguards Offices which are located in Toronto, Canada, and in Tokyo, Japan. The IAEA also has two liaison offices which are located in New York City, United States, and in Geneva, in addition, the IAEA has three laboratories located in Vienna and Seibersdorf, Austria, and in Monaco. The IAEA serves as a forum for scientific and technical co-operation in the peaceful use of nuclear technology. The IAEA and its former Director General, Mohamed ElBaradei, were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize on 7 October 2005. The IAEAs current Director General is Yukiya Amano and this agency would establish a kind of nuclear bank. The United States also called for a scientific conference on all of the peaceful aspects of nuclear power. By November 1954, it had become clear that the Soviet Union would reject any international custody of fissile material, from 8 to 20 August 1955, the United Nations held the International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy in Geneva, Switzerland. The Statute of the IAEA was approved on 23 October 1956, former US Congressman W. Sterling Cole served as the IAEAs first Director General from 1957 to 1961. Blix was succeeded as Director General by Mohamed ElBaradei of Egypt, beginning in 1986, in response to the nuclear reactor explosion and disaster near Chernobyl, Ukraine, the IAEA increased its efforts in the field of nuclear safety. The same happened after the 2011 Fukushima disaster in Fukushima, Japan, both the IAEA and its then Director General, ElBaradei, were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2005. On 2 July 2009, Yukiya Amano of Japan was elected as the Director General for the IAEA, defeating Abdul Samad Minty of South Africa and Luis E. Echávarri of Spain. On 3 July 2009, the Board of Governors voted to appoint Yukiya Amano by acclamation and he took office on 1 December 2009. The IAEAs mission is guided by the interests and needs of Member States, strategic plans, unlike most other specialised international agencies, the IAEA does much of its work with the Security Council, and not with the United Nations Economic and Social Council. The structure and functions of the IAEA are defined by its founding document, the IAEA has three main bodies, the Board of Governors, the General Conference, and the Secretariat. The IAEA exists to pursue the safe, secure and peaceful uses of nuclear sciences, the IAEA recognises knowledge as the nuclear energy industry’s most valuable asset and resource, without which the industry cannot operate safely and economically. Following the IAEA General Conference since 2002 resolutions the Nuclear Knowledge Management, in 2004, the IAEA developed a Programme of Action for Cancer Therapy
23.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
–
It is a member of the United Nations Development Group and was renamed the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime in 2002. In 2016 -2017 it has a biannual budget of US$700 million. The agency, employing between 1,500 and 2,000 people worldwide, has its headquarters in Vienna, with 21 field offices, the United Nations Secretary-General appoints the agencys Executive Director. Approximately 90% of the Offices funding comes from contributions, mainly from governments. UNODC incorporates the secretariat of the International Narcotics Control Board, the World Drug Report is a yearly publication that presents a comprehensive assessment of the international drug problem, with detailed information on the illicit drug situation. It provides estimates and information on trends in the production, trafficking and use of opium/heroin, coca/cocaine, cannabis and amphetamine-type stimulants. The Report, based on data and estimates collected or prepared by Governments, UNODC and other international institutions, United Nations Conventions and their related Protocols underpin all the operational work of UNODC. Another objective of the protocol is to protect the victims of trafficking in persons with full respect, the Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air is concerned with the aggravating problem of organized crime groups for smuggling persons. The protocol aims to combat and prevent transnational smuggling as well as to promote cooperative measures for enhancing protective measures for victims. By adopting the protocol, the member states commit to adopt domestic criminal offences for illegal manufacturing, providing governmental licensing ammunition, the text of the Convention was negotiated during seven sessions held between 21 January 2002 and 1 October 2003. The Convention was adopted by the General Assembly on 31 October 2003, in 2003, the United Nations adopted the UN Convention against Corruption. The Convention came into force in December 2005, as of 9 November 2012,140 countries had signed and 164 countries had ratified the UNCAC. UNODC serves as the Secretariat for the Conference of the States Parties to the UNCAC, there are three drug related treaties that guide UNODCs drug related programs. These three major drug control treaties are mutually supportive and complementary. They also include provisions on trafficking and drug abuse. UNODC launches campaigns to raise awareness of drugs and crime problems, on 26 June every year, UNODC marks the International Day against Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking. On 9 December every year, UNODC commemorates the International Anti-Corruption Day, the goal of the campaign is to mobilize support and to inspire people to act against drug abuse and trafficking. The campaign encourages people to put their health first and not to take drugs
24.
Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization
–
Its seat will be Vienna, Austria. The organization will be tasked with verifying the ban on tests and will operate therefore a worldwide monitoring system. The Preparatory Commission for the CTBTO, and its Provisional Technical Secretariat, were established in 1997 and are headquartered in Vienna, as of March 2015,41 of these Annex 2 states have signed the treaty and 36 have ratified. India, North Korea and Pakistan have not signed or ratified the treaty, China, Egypt, Iran, Israel, the Preparatory Commission was established in 1997 and is tasked with making preparations for effective implementation of the Treaty, in particular by establishing its verification regime. The main task is establishing and provisionally operating the 337-facility International Monitoring System, including its International Data Centre, the Commission is tasked also with the development of operational manuals, including a manual to guide conduct of on-site inspections. The IMS, when completed, will consist of 50 primary and 120 auxiliary seismic monitoring stations,11 hydro-acoustic stations detecting acoustic waves in the oceans. 60 infra-sound stations using microbarographs to detect very low-frequency sound waves,80 radionuclide stations using air samplers to detect radioactive particles released from atmospheric explosions and/or vented from underground or under-water explosions. 16 radionuclide laboratories for analysis of samples from the radionuclide stations, Data from all stations are transmitted to the CTBTO International Data Centre in Vienna through a global private data network known as GCI, which is largely based on satellite links. States Parties will have equal and direct access to all IMS data, raw or processed, the Preparatory Commission has started the building and verification of the system of which as of April 2011 about 80% was operational. States Parties to the Treaty are encouraged to conduct a Consultation and Clarification process before requesting an on-site inspection. If an event detected by the IMS raises concerns about violation of the obligations of the CTBT. Such an inspection could take place only after entry into force of the Treaty, an inspection area of up to 1000 square kilometres would be searched by a team of inspectors. Only State Parties to the Treaty may submit a request for an OSI, when conducting an OSI, a number of detection techniques can be used. Argon-37 field measurement is a unique technology specially developed for the purpose of OSI, drilling to obtain radioactive samples from a suspected underground explosion site is also allowed. Data collected from various methods have to be fused and interpreted for decision making purposes, an important task of the CTBTO is to explore how recent scientific and technical advances in these technologies can be applied to an OSI. In addition to the IMS, C&C and OSI, the regime of the CTBT includes also the fourth element of Confidence-Building Measures. This is required in order to contribute to the resolution of any compliance concerns. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organisation Preparatory Commission Global Security Institute Official website
25.
Industry
–
Industry is the production of goods or related services within an economy. The major source of revenue of a group or company is the indicator of its relevant industry, when a large group has multiple sources of revenue generation, it is considered to be working in different industries. Manufacturing industry became a key sector of production and labour in European and North American countries during the Industrial Revolution, upsetting previous mercantile and this came through many successive rapid advances in technology, such as the production of steel and coal. Following the Industrial Revolution, possibly a third of the economic output are derived that is from manufacturing industries. Many developed countries and many developing/semi-developed countries depend significantly on manufacturing industry, Industries, the countries they reside in, and the economies of those countries are interlinked in a complex web of interdependence. Industries can be classified in a variety of ways, at the top level, industry is often classified according to the three-sector theory into sectors, primary, secondary, and tertiary. Some authors add quaternary or even quinary sectors, over time, the fraction of a societys industry within each sector changes. Below the economic sectors there are other more detailed industry classifications. These classification systems commonly divide industries according to functions and markets. Market-based classification systems such as the Global Industry Classification Standard and the Industry Classification Benchmark are used in finance, the International Standard Industrial Classification of all economic activities is the most complete and systematic industrial classification made by the United Nations Statistics Division. ISIC is a classification of economic activities arranged so that entities can be classified according to the activity they carry out. The Industrial Revolution led to the development of factories for large-scale production, originally the factories were steam-powered, but later transitioned to electricity once an electrical grid was developed. The mechanized assembly line was introduced to parts in a repeatable fashion. This led to significant increases in efficiency, lowering the cost of the end process, later automation was increasingly used to replace human operators. This process has accelerated with the development of the computer and the robot, historically certain manufacturing industries have gone into a decline due to various economic factors, including the development of replacement technology or the loss of competitive advantage. An example of the former is the decline in manufacturing when the automobile was mass-produced. A recent trend has been the migration of prosperous, industrialized nations towards a post-industrial society and this is manifested by an increase in the service sector at the expense of manufacturing, and the development of an information-based economy, the so-called informational revolution. In a post-industrial society, manufacturing is relocated to more favourable locations through a process of off-shoring
26.
International standard
–
International standards are standards developed by international standards organizations. International standards are available for consideration and use worldwide, the most prominent organization is the International Organization for Standardization. International standards may be used either by application or by a process of modifying an international standard to suit local conditions. Technical barriers arise when different groups together, each with a large user base. Establishing international standards is one way of preventing or overcoming this problem, the implementation of standards in industry and commerce became highly important with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the need for high-precision machine tools and interchangeable parts. Henry Maudslay developed the first industrially practical screw-cutting lathe in 1800, maudslays work, as well as the contributions of other engineers, accomplished a modest amount of industry standardization, some companies in-house standards spread a bit within their industries. Joseph Whitworths screw thread measurements were adopted as the first national standard by companies around the country in 1841 and it came to be known as the British Standard Whitworth, and was widely adopted in other countries. By the end of the 19th century differences in standards between companies were making trade increasingly difficult and strained, the Engineering Standards Committee was established in London in 1901 as the worlds first national standards body. After the First World War, similar national bodies were established in other countries, by the mid to late 19th century, efforts were being made to standardize electrical measurement. An important figure was R. E. B, Crompton, who became concerned by the large range of different standards and systems used by electrical engineering companies and scientists in the early 20th century. Many companies had entered the market in the 1890s and all chose their own settings for voltage, frequency, current, adjacent buildings would have totally incompatible electrical systems simply because they had been fitted out by different companies. Crompton could see the lack of efficiency in this system and began to consider proposals for a standard for electric engineering. In 1904, Crompton represented Britain at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in Saint Louis as part of a delegation by the Institute of Electrical Engineers. He presented a paper on standardisation, which was so well received that he was asked to look into the formation of a commission to oversee the process. By 1906 his work was complete and he drew up a permanent constitution for the first international standards organization, the body held its first meeting that year in London, with representatives from 14 countries. In honour of his contribution to electrical standardisation, Lord Kelvin was elected as the bodys first President, the International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations was founded in 1926 with a broader remit to enhance international cooperation for all technical standards and specifications. The body was suspended in 1942 during World War II, after the war, ISA was approached by the recently formed United Nations Standards Coordinating Committee with a proposal to form a new global standards body. List of international common standards List of technical standard organisations Global Frameworks and standards organized along function lines, accessed 2014 ^ Cordova
27.
International trade
–
International trade is the exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories. It is the exchange of goods and services among nations of the world, in most countries, such trade represents a significant share of gross domestic product. While international trade has existed throughout history, its economic, social, trading globally gives consumers and countries the opportunity to be exposed to new markets and products. Almost every kind of product can be found on the market, food, clothes, spare parts, oil, jewellery, wine, stocks, currencies. Services are also traded, tourism, banking, consulting and transportation, a product that is sold to the global market is an export, and a product that is bought from the global market is an import. Imports and exports are accounted for in a current account in the balance of payments. Industrialization, advanced technology, including transportation, globalization, multinational corporations, increasing international trade is crucial to the continuance of globalization. Without international trade, nations would be limited to the goods, the main difference is that international trade is typically more costly than domestic trade. Another difference between domestic and international trade is that factors of such as capital and labor are typically more mobile within a country than across countries. Thus international trade is restricted to trade in goods and services. Trade in goods and services can serve as a substitute for trade in factors of production, instead of importing a factor of production, a country can import goods that make intensive use of that factor of production and thus embody it. An example is the import of goods by the United States from China. Instead of importing Chinese labor, the United States imports goods that were produced with Chinese labor, International trade is also a branch of economics, which, together with international finance, forms the larger branch called international economics. The history of international trade chronicles notable events that have affected the trade between various economies, there are several models which seek to explain the factors behind international trade, the welfare consequences of trade and the pattern of trade. </ref></ref>==Largest countries by total international trade== Source, International Trade Centre President George W. Bush observed World Trade Week on May 18,2001, mcKenzie, Lionel W. Specialization and Efficiency in World Production. A Ricardo-Sraffa Paradigm Comparing the Gains from Trade in Inputs and Finished Goods, the definitions and methodological concepts applied for the various statistical collections on international trade often differ in terms of definition and coverage. Metadata providing information on definitions and methods are published along with the data. Ptas. mcgill. ca Historical documents on international trade available on FRASER
28.
Lanzhou
–
Lanzhou is the capital and largest city of Gansu Province in Northwest China. The prefecture-level city, located on the banks of the Yellow River, is a key transportation hub. Historically, it has been a link on the Northern Silk Road. The city is also a center for industry and petrochemical industry. Lanzhou was previously ranked as one of the cities with the worst air quality in the world, due to industrial pollution, however, as of 2015 it was awarded Chinas climate progress title. Lanzhou is home to 3,616,163 inhabitants at the 2010 census and 2,177,130 in the area of 1,088 square kilometres. Originally in the territory of the Western Qiang peoples, Lanzhou became part of the territory of the State of Qin in the 6th century BC. In 81 BC, under the Han dynasty, it was taken from the Huns Huandi Chanyu and made the seat of Jincheng commandery, to protect the city, the Great Wall of China was extended as far as Yumen. Parts of the Great Wall still exist within the built-up area, after the fall of the Han dynasty, Lanzhou became the capital of a succession of tribal states. In the 4th century it was briefly the capital of the independent state of Liang, the Northern Wei dynasty reestablished Jincheng commandery, renaming the county Zicheng. Mixed with different cultural heritages, the area at present-day Gansu province, from the 5th to the 11th century, under the Sui Dynasty the city became the seat of Lanzhou prefecture for the first time, retaining this name under the Tang dynasty. In 763 the area was overrun by the Tibetan Empire and in 843 was conquered by the Tang, later it fell into the hands of the Western Xia dynasty and was subsequently absorbed by the Song dynasty in 1041. The name Lanzhou was reestablished, and the county renamed Lanzhuan, after 1127 it fell into the hands of the Jin dynasty, and after 1235 it came into the possession of the Mongol Empire. Under the Ming dynasty the prefecture was demoted to a county and placed under the administration of Lintao superior prefecture, the city acquired its current name in 1656, during the Qing dynasty. When Gansu was made a province in 1666, Lanzhou became its capital. In 1739 the seat of Lintao was transferred to Lanzhou, which was made a superior prefecture called Lanzhou. Lanzhou was badly damaged during the Dungan revolt in 1864–1875, in the 1920s and 1930s it became a center of Soviet influence in northwestern China. This highway remained the primary route of northwestern China until the completion of the railway from Lanzhou to Ürümqi
29.
United Nations Secretariat
–
The Secretariat is the United Nations executive arm. The Secretariat has an important role in setting the agenda for the UNs deliberative and decision making bodies of the UN, Secretary-General, who is appointed by the General Assembly, is the head of the secretariat. The mandate of the secretariat is a wide one and it can, in proper forms, take initiatives. It can put before member governments findings which will influence their actions, the United Nations Department of Political Affairs, which has a role analogous to a ministry of foreign affairs, is a part of the secretariat. So is the department of United Nations Peace Keeping Operations, the Secretariat has 44,000 international civil servants. Eligibility for civil service is based on a UN-administered examination offered worldwide, qualifications for membership include the highest standards of efficiency, competence, and integrity, according to the UN Charter. Staff-members are appointed by the Secretary-General alone and are assigned to the organs of the United Nations, staff members are appointed on a temporary or permanent basis, under the discretion of the Secretary-General. During staff recruitment, geographical variety is an especially prominent selection factor in order to reflect the scope of member states present in the UN. Headquartered in New York, the Secretariat functions through duty stations in Addis Ababa, Bangkok, Beirut, Geneva, Nairobi, Santiago and Vienna, the most overrepresented states in the Secretariat are small, rich democracies. The Nordic states stand out, in particular, when it comes to overrepresentation, since 1984, the UN Secretariat, in order to achieve early Gender Equality, issued several five year “Action Plans, including Strategic Plans, to improve the status of women in the Secretariat. These plans, however, did not have the desired impact, in Feb 2004, gender Parity target for the secretariat was once again revised to 2015. In 2009, despite the plans, and GA resolutions, the representation of women in the UN Secretariat remained well below parity at 29.2 percent, the representation of Womens in the UN secretariat, at the D1 level, in 2000, was 30.3 percent. At the current rate of progress, it is estimated that gender parity at the D-1 to higher levels will be achieved after 102 years. At D2 level The representation of women in 2011 was 24. and that Special measures would remain in effect until the “goal of gender parity is achieved, key Secretariat offices in this area include the Office of the Coordinator of Humanitarian Affairs and the Department of Peacekeeping Operations. The Secretary-General may bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter that, in his or her opinion, may threaten international peace, the Secretariat is divided into offices and departments. On 21 March 2005, Secretary-General Kofi Annan proposed several reforms for the Secretariat and he announced his intentions to appoint a Scientific Adviser, create a peacebuilding support office, establish a cabinet-style decision-making mechanism, and strengthen the mediation function. United States Department of State – UN Division The Four Nations Initiative
30.
United Nations Economic and Social Council
–
The ECOSOC serves as the central forum for discussing international economic and social issues, and for formulating policy recommendations addressed to member states and the United Nations system. A number of organisations have been granted consultative status to the Council to participate in the work of the United Nations. The president is elected for a term and chosen from the small or mid-sized powers represented on the ECOSOC. His Excellency Frederick Musiiwa Makamure Shava was elected seventy-second President of the Economic, Ambassador Shava is currently the Ambassador and Permanent Representative of the Republic of Zimbabwe to the United Nations in New York. The Council has 54 member states out of the 193 UN member states, UN secretary-general Ban Ki-moon added, Rather than viewing growth and sustainability as competing goals on a collision course, we must see them as complementary and mutually supportive imperatives. The report concluded that Business as usual is not an option, governance of the multilateral system has historically been complex and fragmented. This has limited the capacity of the ECOSOC to influence policies in trade, finance. Reform proposals aim to enhance the relevance and contribution of the council, a major reform was approved by the 2005 World Summit on the basis of proposals submitted by secretary-general Kofi Annan. At the Summit it was decided to hold annual ministerial-level substantive reviews to assess progress in achieving internationally agreed development goals. These Annual Ministeral Reviews will be replaced by the High Level Political Forum from 2016 onwards after the new post-MDG/Post-2015 Sustainable Development Goals are agreed. Subsequent proposals by the High-Level Panel Report on System-Wide Coherence in November 2006 aimed to establish a forum within the ECOSOC as a counter-model to the clubs of the G8. The Forum was to comprise 27 heads of state to meet annually and this proposal, however, was not approved by the General Assembly. The Economic and Social Council Chamber in the United Nations Conference Building was a gift from Sweden and it was conceived by Swedish architect Sven Markelius, one of the 11 architects in the international team that designed the UN headquarters. Wood from Swedish pine trees was used in the area for the railings
31.
Secretary-General of the United Nations
–
The Secretary-General of the United Nations is the head of the United Nations Secretariat, one of the principal organs of the United Nations. The Secretary-General serves as the administrative officer of the United Nations. The role of the United Nations Secretariat, and of the Secretary-General in particular, is out by Chapter XV of the United Nations Charter. As of 2017, the Secretary-General is António Guterres, appointed by the General Assembly on 13 October 2016, according to the UN website, their roles are further defined as diplomat and advocate, civil servant, and CEO. Nevertheless, this more abstract description has not prevented the office holders from speaking out, responsibilities of the Secretary-General are further outlined in Articles 98 through 100. They are also responsible for making a report to the General Assembly. According to Article 99, they may notify the Security Council on matters which in their opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace, other than these few guidelines, little else is dictated by the Charter. Interpretation of the Charter has varied between Secretaries-General, with some being more active than others. The Secretary-General is highly dependent upon the support of the states of the UN. The personal skills of the Secretary-General and their staff are crucial to their function, the central position of the UN headquarters in the international diplomatic network is also an important asset. The Secretary-General has the right to place any dispute on the agenda of the Security Council. However, they work mostly behind the scenes if the members of the council are unwilling to discuss a dispute. Most of their time is spent on good offices missions and mediation, sometimes at the request of deliberative organs of the UN and their function may be replaced or supplemented by mediation efforts by the major powers. UN peacekeeping missions are often linked to mediation. The recent improvement in relations between the permanent members of the Security Council has strengthened the role of the Secretary-General as the worlds most reputable intermediary, in the early 1960s, Soviet First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev led an effort to abolish the Secretary-General position. Khrushchev proposed to replace the Secretary-General with a three-person leading council, one member from the West, one from the Eastern Bloc and this idea failed because the neutral powers failed to back the Soviet proposal. Article 97 of the United Nations Charter determines that the Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council, as the recommendation must come from the Security Council, any of the five permanent members of the Council can veto a nomination. Most Secretaries-General are compromise candidates from middle powers and have little prior fame, unofficial qualifications for the job have been set by precedent in previous selections
32.
United Nations General Assembly
–
The United Nations General Assembly is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations and the only one in which all member nations have equal representation. The General Assembly is the deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the UN. It has also established a number of subsidiary organs. It can also reconvene for special and emergency special sessions and its composition, functions, powers, voting, and procedures are set out in Chapter IV of the United Nations Charter. The first session was convened on 10 January 1946 in the Methodist Central Hall in London, other questions are decided by a straightforward majority. Each member country has one vote, apart from approval of budgetary matters, including adoption of a scale of assessment, Assembly resolutions are not binding on the members. The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN, except matters of peace, the one state, one vote power structure potentially allows states comprising just five percent of the world population to pass a resolution by a two-thirds vote. During the 1980s, the Assembly became a forum for the North-South dialogue and these issues came to the fore because of the phenomenal growth and changing makeup of the UN membership. In 1945, the UN had 51 members and it now has 193, of which more than two-thirds are developing countries. Because of their numbers, developing countries are able to determine the agenda of the Assembly, the character of its debates. For many developing countries, the UN is the source of much of their diplomatic influence, the Assembly can consider the matter immediately with a view to making recommendations to Members for collective measures to maintain or restore international peace and security. The first session of the UN General Assembly was convened on 10 January 1946 in the Methodist Central Hall in London, the next few annual sessions were held in different cities, the second session in New York, and the third session was in Paris. It moved to the permanent United Nations Headquarters in New York at the start of its seventh regular annual session, on 14 October 1952. In December 1988, in order to hear Yasser Arafat, the General Assembly organised its 29th session in the Palace of Nations, all 193 members states of the United Nations are members of the General Assembly. The agenda for each session is planned up to seven months in advance and this is refined into a provisional agenda 60 days before the opening of the session. Items on the agenda are numbered, the General Assembly votes on many resolutions brought forth by sponsoring states. These are generally statements symbolizing the sense of the community about an array of world issues. Most General Assembly resolutions are not enforceable as a legal or practical matter, the General Assembly has authority to make final decisions in some areas such as the United Nations budget
33.
Group of 77
–
There were 77 founding members of the organization, but by November 2013 the organization had since expanded to 134 member countries. Ecuador holds the Chairmanship for 2017, the group was founded on 15 June 1964, by the Joint Declaration of the Seventy-Seven Countries issued at the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. The first major meeting was in Algiers in 1967, where the Charter of Algiers was adopted, there are Chapters of the Group of 77 in Geneva, Rome, Vienna, Paris, Nairobi and the Group of 24 in Washington, D. C. The group has been credited with common stance against apartheid and for supporting global disarmament and it has been supportive of the New International Economic Order. On the map, members as of 2013 are shown in green, the years in parenthesis represent the year/s a country has presided. Countries listed in bold are members of the G-24. See the official list of G-77 members, New Zealand signed the original Joint Declaration of the Developing Countries in October 1963, but pulled out of the group before the formation of the G77 in 1964. Mexico was a member, but left the Group after joining the OECD in 1994. It had presided over the group in 1973–1974, 1983–1984, however, south Korea was a founding member, but left the Group after joining the OECD in 1996. Yugoslavia was a member, by the late 1990s it was still listed on the membership list. It was removed from the list in late 2003 and it had presided over the group in 1985–1986. Bosnia and Herzegovina is the part of former Yugoslavia that is currently in G77. Cyprus was a member, but was no longer listed on the official membership list after its accession to the EU in 2004. Malta was admitted to the Group in 1976, but was no longer listed on the membership list after its accession to the EU in 2004. Palau joined the Group in 2002, but withdrew in 2004, romania was admitted to the Group in 1976, but was no longer listed on the official membership list after its accession to the EU in 2007. China has never joined the G77 but provides consistent political support. Its meetings usually take place twice a year, prior to the IMFC and Development Committee meetings, although membership in the G-24 is strictly limited to 24 countries, any member of the G-77 can join discussions. China has been a special invitee since the Gabon meetings of 1981, naglaa El-Ehwany, Minister of International Cooperation, Egypt, is the current chairman of the G-24
34.
Lima
–
Lima is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, in the coastal part of the country. Together with the seaport of Callao, it forms an urban area known as the Lima Metropolitan Area. With a population of almost 10 million, Lima is the most populous area of Peru. Lima was founded by Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro on January 18,1535 and it became the capital and most important city in the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru. Following the Peruvian War of Independence, it became the capital of the Republic of Peru, around one-third of the national population lives in the metropolitan area. Lima is home to one of the oldest higher-learning institutions in the New World, the National University of San Marcos, founded on May 12,1551 during the Spanish colonial regime, is the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas. In October 2013 Lima was chosen to host the 2019 Pan American Games and it also hosted the December 2014 United Nations Climate Change Conference and the Miss Universe 1982 pageant. In October 2015 Lima hosted the 2015 Annual Meetings of the World Bank Group, according to early Spanish articles the Lima area was once called Itchyma, after its original inhabitants. However, even before the Inca occupation of the area in the 15th century and this oracle was eventually destroyed by the Spanish and replaced with a church, but the name persisted, the chronicles show Límac replacing Ychma as the common name for the area. Modern scholars speculate that the word Lima originated as the Spanish pronunciation of the native name Limaq, linguistic evidence seems to support this theory as spoken Spanish consistently rejects stop consonants in word-final position. Non-Peruvian Spanish speakers may mistakenly define the city name as the direct Spanish translation of lime, the city was founded in 1535 under the name City of the Kings because its foundation was decided on January 6, date of the feast of the Epiphany. This name quickly fell into disuse and Lima became the name of choice, on the oldest Spanish maps of Peru. The river that feeds Lima is called Rímac and many people assume that this is because its original Inca name is Talking River. However, the inhabitants of the valley were not Incas. This name is an innovation arising from an effort by the Cuzco nobility in colonial times to standardize the toponym so that it would conform to the phonology of Cuzco Quechua, later, as the original inhabitants died out and the local Quechua became extinct, the Cuzco pronunciation prevailed. Nowadays, Spanish-speaking locals do not see the connection between the name of their city and the name of the river runs through it. They often assume that the valley is named after the river, however, historically, the Flag of Lima has been known as the «Banner of Perus Kings City»
35.
Peru
–
Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
36.
1997 Asian financial crisis
–
At the time, Thailand had acquired a burden of foreign debt that made the country effectively bankrupt even before the collapse of its currency. As the crisis spread, most of Southeast Asia and Japan saw slumping currencies, devalued stock markets and other asset prices, Indonesia, South Korea and Thailand were the countries most affected by the crisis. Hong Kong, Laos, Malaysia and the Philippines were also hurt by the slump, brunei, China, Singapore, Taiwan and Vietnam were less affected, although all suffered from a loss of demand and confidence throughout the region. Foreign debt-to-GDP ratios rose from 100% to 167% in the four large Association of Southeast Asian Nations economies in 1993–96, in South Korea, the ratios rose from 13% to 21% and then as high as 40%, while the other northern newly industrialized countries fared much better. Only in Thailand and South Korea did debt service-to-exports ratios rise, the efforts to stem a global economic crisis did little to stabilize the domestic situation in Indonesia, however. After 30 years in power, President Suharto was forced to step down on 21 May 1998 in the wake of rioting that followed sharp price increases caused by a drastic devaluation of the rupiah. The effects of the crisis lingered through 1998, in 1998 the Philippines growth dropped to virtually zero. By 1999, however, analysts saw signs that the economies of Asia were beginning to recover, after the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, economies in the region are working toward financial stability on financial supervision. Until 1999, Asia attracted almost half of the capital inflow into developing countries. The economies of Southeast Asia in particular maintained high interest rates attractive to investors looking for a high rate of return. As a result, the regions received a large inflow of money. At the same time, the economies of Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore. This achievement was widely acclaimed by financial institutions including IMF and World Bank, the causes of the debacle are many and disputed. Thailands economy developed into an economic bubble fueled by hot money, more and more was required as the size of the bubble grew. The same type of situation happened in Malaysia, and Indonesia, the short-term capital flow was expensive and often highly conditioned for quick profit. Development money went in an uncontrolled manner to certain people only, not particularly the best suited or most efficient. As the U. S. economy recovered from a recession in the early 1990s, the U. S. Federal Reserve Bank under Alan Greenspan began to raise U. S. interest rates to head off inflation. S. dollar. For the Southeast Asian nations which had pegged to the U. S. dollar
37.
United Nations Regional Groups
–
The United Nations Regional Groups are the geopolitical regional groups of member states of the United Nations. Originally, UN member states were grouped into five geopolitical regional groups. What began as a means of sharing the distribution of posts for General Assembly committees has taken on a much more expansive role. The groupings have changed over time, from the founding of the United Nations until 1966, the regional groups were, British Commonwealth, Eastern Europe and Asia, Latin America, Middle East and Western Europe. In 2011, the Asia Group was renamed Asia-Pacific, Kiribati is not included in the above numbers. According to convention, the non-permanent membership seats of the United Nations Security Council is apportioned between regional groups according to a set formula. Other bodies, such as the United Nations Economic and Social Council, the position of the President of the UN General Assembly rotates amongst the groups on a ten-year cycle. The African Group has 54 members, and is thus the largest regional group by number of member states and it is the only regional group that has a territory that coincides with the traditional continent of which its name originates. The African Group has 3 seats on the Security Council, all non-permanent, currently occupied by Ethiopia, Egypt, the Group also has 14 seats on the United Nations Economic and Social Council and 13 seats on the United Nations Human Rights Council. Member states of the African Group, as of July 2011 and its territory is composed of much of the continents of Asia and Oceania. However, Russia and the Caucasian states are members of the Eastern European Group and Australia, New Zealand, Israel, the Asia-Pacific Group has three seats on the Security Council, the permanent seat of China, and two non-permanent seats, currently occupied by Japan and Kazakhstan. The Group also has 11 seats on the United Nations Economic, member states of the Asia-Pacific Group, as of 2011, Until 2011, the Asia-Pacific Group was called the Asian Group. The name change was adopted as a result of pressure from the island countries that compose approximately one-fifth of the groups membership. The Eastern European Group has 23 members, and as such is the group with the fewest member states. The Eastern European Group has 2 seats on the Security Council, the Group also has 6 seats on the United Nations Economic and Social Council and 6 seats on the United Nations Human Rights Council. Members of the Eastern European Group as of 2010, The Latin American and Caribbean Group has 33 members and its territory is almost exactly that of South and Central America and the Caribbean, the differences arise from the presence of dependent territories of European countries. GRULAC has 2 non-permanent seats on the Security Council, currently occupied by Venezuela, the Group also has 10 seats on the United Nations Economic and Social Council and 8 seats on the United Nations Human Rights Council. Member states of the Latin American and Caribbean Group, as of 2010, The Western European and it has a territory dispersed on all of the continents, but mostly centred in Western Europe and North America
38.
Cyprus
–
Cyprus, officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the Eastern Mediterranean and the third largest and third most populous island in the Mediterranean. It is located south of Turkey, west of Syria and Lebanon, northwest of Israel and Palestine, north of Egypt, the earliest known human activity on the island dates to around the 10th millennium BC. Archaeological remains from this include the well-preserved Neolithic village of Khirokitia. Cyprus was settled by Mycenaean Greeks in two waves in the 2nd millennium BC, Cyprus was placed under British administration based on Cyprus Convention in 1878 and formally annexed by Britain in 1914. While Turkish Cypriots made up 18% of the population, the partition of Cyprus and creation of a Turkish state in the north became a policy of Turkish Cypriot leaders, following nationalist violence in the 1950s, Cyprus was granted independence in 1960. On 15 July 1974, a coup détat was staged by Greek Cypriot nationalists and elements of the Greek military junta in an attempt at enosis and these events and the resulting political situation are matters of a continuing dispute. The Cyprus Republic has de jure sovereignty over the island of Cyprus, as well as its territorial sea and exclusive economic area, another nearly 4% of the islands area is covered by the UN buffer zone. The international community considers the part of the island as territory of the Republic of Cyprus occupied by Turkish forces. The occupation is viewed as illegal under law, amounting to illegal occupation of EU territory since Cyprus became a member of the European Union. Cyprus is a major tourist destination in the Mediterranean, on 1 January 2008, the Republic of Cyprus joined the eurozone. The earliest attested reference to Cyprus is the 15th century BC Mycenaean Greek
Egypt)
Algeria)
Philippines)
Mexico)
Argentina)
Sierra Leone)
China)
