1.
Public university
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A public university is a university that is predominantly funded by public means through a national or subnational government, as opposed to private universities. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country to another, in Egypt, Al-Azhar University opened in 975 AD as the second oldest university in the world. In Nigeria Public Universities can be established by both the Federal Government and by State Governments, students are enrolled after completing the 8-4-4 system of education and attaining a mark of C+ or above. They are also eligible for a low interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board and they are expected to pay back the loan after completing higher education. South Africa has 23 public tertiary institutions, either categorised as a traditional university or a comprehensive university. Almost entire national universities in Brunei are public universities and these are major universities in Brunei, University of Brunei Darussalam Brunei Technological University Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University There are 40 public universities in Bangladesh. The University Grant Commission is the body for all the public universities in Bangladesh. The universities do not deal directly with the government, but with the University Grants Commission, recently many private universities are established under the Private University Act of 1992. In mainland China, nearly all universities and research institutions are public and currently, the public universities are usually run by the provincial governments, there are also circumstances where the municipal governments administer the universities. Some public universities are national, which are administered by the central government. Private undergraduate colleges do exist, which are vocational colleges sponsored by private enterprises. The majority of universities are not entitled to award bachelors degrees. Public universities usually enjoy higher reputation domestically, eight institutions are funded by the University Grants Committee. The Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government, the Open University of Hong Kong is also a public university, but it is largely self-financed. The Shue Yan University is the private institution with the status of a university. There are public and private institutes in Indonesia. The government provide public universities, institutes, high schools and academies in each province, the private educational institution usually provided by religious organizations, public organizations, and some big companies. In India, most universities and nearly all research institutions are public, There are some private undergraduate colleges, mostly engineering schools, but a majority of these are affiliated to public universities
2.
Alabama
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Alabama is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, Alabama is the 30th-most extensive and the 24th-most populous of the U. S. states. At nearly 1,500 miles, Alabama has one of the nations longest navigable inland waterways, Alabama is nicknamed the Yellowhammer State, after the state bird. Alabama is also known as the Heart of Dixie and the Cotton State, the state tree is the longleaf pine, and the state flower is the camellia. The largest city by population is Birmingham, which has long been the most industrialized city, the oldest city is Mobile, founded by French colonists in 1702 as the capital of French Louisiana. From the American Civil War until World War II, Alabama, like many states in the southern U. S. suffered economic hardship, like other southern states, Alabama legislators disenfranchised African Americans and many poor whites at the turn of the century. Following World War II, Alabama grew as the economy changed from one primarily based on agriculture to one with diversified interests. The state economy in the 21st century is based on management, automotive, finance, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, in the Alabama language, the word for a person of Alabama lineage is Albaamo. The word Alabama is believed to have come from the Alabama language, the words spelling varies significantly among historical sources. As early as 1702, the French called the tribe the Alibamon, other spellings of the name have included Alibamu, Alabamo, Albama, Alebamon, Alibama, Alibamou, Alabamu, Allibamou. Sources disagree on the words meaning, some scholars suggest the word comes from the Choctaw alba and amo. The meaning may have been clearers of the thicket or herb gatherers, the state has numerous place names of Native American origin. However, there are no correspondingly similar words in the Alabama language, an 1842 article in the Jacksonville Republican proposed it meant Here We Rest. This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of Alexander Beaufort Meek, experts in the Muskogean languages have not found any evidence to support such a translation. Indigenous peoples of varying cultures lived in the area for thousands of years before the advent of European colonization, trade with the northeastern tribes by the Ohio River began during the Burial Mound Period and continued until European contact. The agrarian Mississippian culture covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 AD, with one of its major centers built at what is now the Moundville Archaeological Site in Moundville, Alabama. This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after Cahokia in present-day Illinois, Analysis of artifacts from archaeological excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars formulating the characteristics of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. Contrary to popular belief, the SECC appears to have no links to Mesoamerican culture
3.
Birmingham, Alabama
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Birmingham is the most populous city in the U. S. state of Alabama and the county seat of Jefferson County. The citys population was 212,237 in the 2010 United States Census, the Birmingham-Hoover Metropolitan Statistical Area had a population of about 1,128,047 according to the 2010 Census, which is approximately one quarter of Alabamas population. Birmingham was founded in 1871, during the post-Civil War Reconstruction period and it was named for Birmingham, England, one of the UKs major industrial cities. The Alabama city annexed smaller neighbors and developed as an industrial and railroad center, based on mining, the new iron and steel industry. Most of the settlers who founded Birmingham were of English ancestry. From its founding through the end of the 1960s, Birmingham was an industrial center of the southern United States. Its growth from 1881 through 1920 earned its nicknames as The Magic City and its major industries were iron and steel production, plus a major component of the railroading industry. Rails and railroad cars were manufactured in Birmingham. The two primary hubs of railroading in the Deep South have been nearby Atlanta and Birmingham, since the 1860s, the economy has diversified since industrial restructuring in the latter half of the 20th century. Banking, telecommunications, transportation, electrical transmission, medical care, college education. Except for coal mining, the industry has declined in the Birmingham area, Birmingham ranks as one of the most important business centers in the Southeastern United States and as one of the largest banking centers in the nation. In higher education, Birmingham has been the location of the University of Alabama School of Medicine, since that time it has also gained the University of Alabama at Birmingham, one of three main campuses of the University of Alabama System. It is also home to three institutions, Samford University, Birmingham-Southern College, and Miles College. In total, the Birmingham area has major colleges of medicine, dentistry, optometry, physical therapy, pharmacy, law, engineering, the city has three of the states five law schools, Cumberland School of Law, Birmingham School of Law, and Miles Law School. Birmingham is also the headquarters of the Southwestern Athletic Conference, and Southeastern Conference, Birmingham was founded on June 1,1871, by the Elyton Land Company, whose investors included cotton planters, bankers and railroad entrepreneurs. It sold lots near the crossing of the Alabama & Chattanooga and South & North Alabama railroads. The first business at that crossroads was the trading post and country store operated by Marre, the site of the railroad crossing was notable for its proximity to nearby deposits of iron ore, coal, and limestone – the three main raw materials used in making steel. Birmingham is the only place worldwide where significant amounts of all three minerals can be found in close proximity, from the start the new city was planned as a center of industry
4.
University of Alabama at Birmingham
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The University of Alabama at Birmingham is a public university in Birmingham in the U. S. state of Alabama. The UAB Health System, one of the largest academic medical centers in the United States, is affiliated with the university, UAB Hospital sponsors residency programs in medical specialties, including internal medicine, neurology, surgery, radiology, and anesthesiology. UAB Hospital is the only ACS verified Level I trauma center in Alabama, UAB is the states largest employer, with more than 18,000 faculty and staff and over 53,000 jobs at the university and in the health system. An estimated 10 percent of the jobs in the Birmingham-Hoover Metropolitan Area and 1 in 33 jobs in the state of Alabama are directly or indirectly related to UAB, the universitys overall annual economic impact was estimated to be $4.6 billion in 2010. The center operated in an old house in downtown Birmingham at 2131 6th Avenue North, in 1945, UAs newly established four-year School of Medicine moved from Tuscaloosa to Birmingham and took over management of Jefferson and Hillman hospitals. In 1957 enrollment at the center stood at 1,856. By 1959, research grants, training grants, and fellowships exceeded $1,000,000, by the 1960s, it grew apparent that the extension center was becoming a university in its own right. An engineering building was close to the medical center in 1962, and in 1966, the Extension Center. An Advisory Board for UAB was created in 1967, dr. Joseph Volker was named the first president of UAB. In the 1970s, the university began a period of rapid growth, enrollment at the beginning of the decade stood at 6,629, including 2,724 women. To accommodate the student population, UAB acquired land in the Southside. UAB Mini Park was dedicated in 1977, the university created an intercollegiate athletic program, joined the NCAA and began fielding teams beginning with golf in 1970 and mens basketball in 1978. The universitys name was changed to the University of Alabama at Birmingham in 1984, by 1990, UAB had awarded its 50, 000th degree. In 1992, U. S. News and World Report named UAB as the #1 up-and-coming university in the United States, in 1993, UABs economic impact on the Birmingham region was estimated at more than $1.5 billion per year. Since 1994, UAB is the first and only Alabama university to achieve Research University I status in the Carnegie Foundation classification, UAB is located in the Southside neighborhood of downtown Birmingham. Spanning around 83 blocks, the UAB campus blends with the character of the Southside. The campus is rectangular in shape with University Boulevard serving as the axis of the rectangle. The campus can be divided into three sections, the medical center occupies most of the campus east of Campus Green
5.
Huntsville, Alabama
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Huntsville is a city located primarily in Madison County in the central part of the far northern region of Alabama. Huntsville is the county seat of Madison County, the city extends west into neighboring Limestone County. Huntsvilles population was 180,105 as of the 2010 census, the Huntsville Metropolitan Areas population was 417,593 in 2010 to become the 2nd largest in Alabama. Huntsville metros population reached 441,000 by 2014, the National Trust for Historic Preservation named Huntsville to its Americas Dozen Distinctive Destinations for 2010 list. The first settlers of the area were Muscogee-speaking people, the Chickasaw traditionally claim to have settled around 1300 after coming east across the Mississippi. The 1805 Treaty with the Chickasaws and the Cherokee Treaty of Washington of 1806 ceded native claims to the United States Government, the area was subsequently purchased by LeRoy Pope, who named the area Twickenham after the home village of his distant kinsman Alexander Pope. Twickenham was carefully planned, with streets laid out on the northeast to southwest direction based on the Big Spring. However, due to anti-British sentiment during this period, the name was changed to Huntsville to honor John Hunt, both John Hunt and LeRoy Pope were Freemasons and charter members of Helion Lodge #1, the oldest Lodge in Alabama. In 1811, Huntsville became the first incorporated town in Alabama, however, the recognized birth year of the city is 1805, the year of John Hunts arrival. The citys sesquicentennial anniversary was held in 1955, and the bicentennial was celebrated in 2005, Huntsvilles quick growth was from wealth generated by the cotton and railroad industries. Many wealthy planters moved into the area from Virginia, Georgia, in 1819, Huntsville hosted a constitutional convention in Walker Allens large cabinetmaking shop. The 44 delegates meeting there wrote a constitution for the new state of Alabama, in accordance with the new state constitution, Huntsville became Alabamas first capital when the state was admitted to the Union. This was a designation for one legislative session only, and the capital was then moved to Cahawba, then to Tuscaloosa. In 1855, the Memphis and Charleston Railroad was constructed through Huntsville, Huntsville initially opposed secession from the Union in 1861, but provided many men for the Confederacys efforts. The 4th Alabama Infantry Regiment, led by Col. Egbert J. Jones of Huntsville, distinguished itself at the Battle of Manassas/Bull Run, the first major encounter of the American Civil War. The Fourth Alabama Infantry, which contained two Huntsville companies, were the first Alabama troops to fight in the war and were present when Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox in April 1865. Eight generals of the war were born in or near Huntsville, Huntsville was the control point for the Western Division of the Memphis &Charleston, and by controlling this railroad the Union had a direct connection to Charleston South Carolina. During the first occupation, the Union officers occupied many of the homes in the city while the other men camped on the outskirts
6.
University of Alabama in Huntsville
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The University of Alabama in Huntsville is a state-supported, public, coeducational research university in Huntsville, Alabama, United States. UAH is one of three members of the University of Alabama System, which includes the University of Alabama at Birmingham, all three institutions operate independently, with only the president of each university reporting to the Board of Trustees of the system. The university enrollment is approximately 8,500, the genesis for a publicly funded institution of higher education in Huntsville was years in the making. Beginning in January 1950 as an extension of the University of Alabama and known as the University of Alabama Huntsville Center, even though Huntsville had been home to Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical College since 1875, and Oakwood University since 1896, this was still the era of segregation. UAHs first undergraduate degrees were awarded in May 1968 as part of the commencement ceremony at The University of Alabama. One year later, the University of Alabama System Board of Trustees voted to make UAH an independent and autonomous campus. Dr. Benjamin Graves, a graduate of the University of Mississippi in 1942 and he returned to faculty status in 1979 and retired in 1989. The first degree awarded for work completed entirely on the UAH campus was awarded to Julian Palmore in 1964, mr. Palmore was at the time a United States Navy ensign assigned to NASAs Research Projects Division. The first official on-campus graduation ceremony at UAH was in June 1970, the first woman to earn a PhD from UAH was Virginia Kobler in 1979, in Industrial Engineering. UAHs second president, Dr. John Wright, was Vice Chancellor of the West Virginia University, wrights term ended in 1988 and Dr. Louis Padulo, former Stanford professor and dean of engineering of Boston University, became UAHs third president. Huntsville leader Joseph Moquin took over the UAH presidency on a basis in 1990. Dr. Frank Franz, who was then provost at West Virginia University, was chosen as UAHs fourth president and his wife, Dr. Judy Franz, accompanied him and was granted full professorship in the physics faculty. Her renown in the community was reaffirmed when she was named executive officer of the American Physical Society in 1994. At the beginning of the 2006–2007 academic year, Frank Franz announced his plan to step down as president after that year, on July 1,2007, Dr. David B. Williams, formerly a professor of science and engineering and the vice provost for research at Lehigh University. He left in 2011 to join The Ohio State University as dean of engineering, robert Altenkirch was hired as the universitys sixth president in September 2011. Dr. Altenkirch served as president of the New Jersey Institute of Technology for nine years before joining UAH, Nursing is UAHs largest single major, although Engineering is the largest college. There is also an Honors College which offers an enriched academic, not surprisingly given Huntsvilles technology-based economy, UAH is known for engineering and science programs, including astrophysics, atmospheric science and aerospace engineering
7.
Tuscaloosa, Alabama
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Tuscaloosa is a city in and the seat of Tuscaloosa County in west central Alabama. Located on the Black Warrior River, it is the fifth-largest city in Alabama, Tuscaloosa is the regional center of industry, commerce, healthcare, and education for the area of west-central Alabama known as West Alabama. It is the city of the Tuscaloosa Metropolitan Statistical Area. Tuscaloosa is also the home of The University of Alabama, Stillman College, Tuscaloosa has been traditionally known as the Druid City because of the numerous water oaks planted in its downtown streets since the 1840s. The city has become well known nationally for the University of Alabamas success in sports. City leaders adopted the moniker The City of Champions after the Alabama Crimson Tide football team won the BCS National Championship in their 2009,2011, the Tide then went on to win the College Football Playoff in the 2015 season. In 2008, the City of Tuscaloosa hosted the USA Olympic Triathlon trials for the Beijing Games, nearly 12,000 years ago, Native Americans or Paleo-Indians arrived in what today is referred to as the Deep South. Paleo-Indians in the South were hunter-gatherers who pursued the megafauna that became extinct following the end of the Pleistocene age, after thousands of years, the Paleo-Indians developed a rich and complex agricultural society. Archaeologists called these people the Mississippians of the Mississippian culture, they were Mound Builders, descendant Native American tribes include the Creek. In 1828, Andrew Jackson was elected president of the United States and he had gained popularity when he defeated the Creek at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814, following victories in the War of 1812. He long proposed Indian removal to the Indian Territory west of the Mississippi, Jackson abandoned the policy of his predecessors of treating different Indian groups as separate nations. Instead, he pursued plans to move all Indian tribes living east of the Mississippi River. Most Muscogee-speaking peoples were removed to Indian Territory during the Trail of Tears in 1834, some Muscogee in Alabama live near Poarch Creek Reservation in Atmore. The pace of settlement in the Southeast increased greatly after the War of 1812. In 1817, Alabama became a territory, and on December 13,1819, from 1826 to 1846, Tuscaloosa was the capital of Alabama. During this period, in 1831, the University of Alabama was established, the towns population and economy grew rapidly until the departure of the capital to Montgomery caused a rapid decline in population. Establishment of the Bryce State Hospital for the Insane in Tuscaloosa in the 1850s helped restore the citys fortunes, during the Civil War following Alabamas secession from the Union, several thousand men from Tuscaloosa fought in the Confederate armies. During the last weeks of the War, a brigade of Union troops raiding the city burned the campus of the university, the larger town was also damaged in the battle and shared fully in the Souths economic sufferings which followed the defeat
8.
University of Alabama
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The University of Alabama is a public research university located in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, United States, and the flagship of the University of Alabama System. Founded in 1820, UA is the oldest and largest of the universities in Alabama. UA offers programs of study in 13 academic divisions leading to bachelors, masters, Education Specialist, the only publicly supported law school in the state is at UA. The school was a center of activity during the American Civil War, the University of Alabama varsity football program, which was inaugurated in 1892, ranks as one of 10 winningest programs in US history. In a 1913 speech then-president George H. Denny extolled the university as the capstone of the school system in the state, lending the university its current nickname. The University of Alabama has consistently ranked as one of the top 50 public universities in the nation by the U. S. News & World Report. In 1818, U. S. Congress authorized the newly created Alabama Territory to set aside a township for the establishment of a seminary of learning. When Alabama was admitted to the Union on December 14,1819, the board chose as the site of the campus a place which was then just outside the city limits of Tuscaloosa, the state capital at the time. The new campus was designed by William Nichols, also the architect of newly completed Alabama State Capitol building, the universitys charter was presented to the first university president in the nave of Christ Episcopal Church. UA opened its doors to students on April 18,1831, an academy-style institution during the Antebellum period, the university emphasized the classics and the social and natural sciences. There were around 100 students per year at UA in the 1830s, consequently, only a fraction of students who enrolled in the early years remained enrolled for long and even fewer graduated. Those who did graduate, however, often had distinguished careers in Alabama, early graduates included Benjamin F. Porter and Alexander Meek. As the state and university matured, a literary culture evolved on campus. UA had one of the largest libraries in the country on the eve of the Civil War with more than 7,000 volumes, campbell, novelist William Gilmore Simms, and Professor Frederick Barnard. The addresses to those societies reveal a vibrant intellectual culture in Tuscaloosa, they illustrate the proslavery ideas that were so central to the university. Discipline and student behavior was an issue at the university almost from the day it opened. Early presidents attempted to enforce strict rules regarding conduct, Students were prohibited from drinking, swearing, making unauthorized visits off-campus, or playing musical instruments outside a one-hour time frame. Yet riots and gunfights were not an uncommon occurrence, to combat the severe discipline problem, president Landon Garland lobbied and received approval from the legislature in 1860 to transform the university into a military school
9.
University of Alabama School of Medicine
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Residency programs are also located in Selma, Huntsville and Montgomery. The School of Medicine at UAB can trace its roots back to the 1859 founding of the Medical College of Alabama in Mobile, Alabama. By the early 1900s, the work of Abraham Flexner led to the move of the school to Tuscaloosa to become closer affiliated with the University of Alabama. That move of the college from Mobile to Tuscaloosa took effect in 1920, in 1936, the University of Alabama Extension Center was opened in Birmingham because of the recent population growth there. In 1943, Governor Chauncey Sparks created the four-year Medical College of Alabama with the passage of the Jones Bill, in 1944, Dr. Roy R. Kracke was named dean of the Medical College of Alabama and began assembling teaching staff. In 1945, the Medical College of Alabama was moved from Tuscaloosa to Birmingham, later, in November 1966, the Extension Center and the Medical Center were merged to form the University of Alabama in Birmingham, an organizational component of The University of Alabama. In 1969, UAB became an independent institution, one of three autonomous universities within the newly created University of Alabama System, the universitys name was changed in 1984 from the University of Alabama in Birmingham to the University of Alabama at Birmingham. Dr. Tinsley R. Harrison became dean of the new medical school, Dr. Harrison began a program of recruitment aimed at making the school a major research and health care center. In 1966, Dr. John W. Kirklin joined UAB as chairman of the Department of Surgery, Dr. Kirklin brought his knowledge and expertise from Mayo Clinic down to Alabama. He was most noted for revolutionizing cardiovascular surgery through his development and refinement of the heart-lung machine, from his legacy, the University of Alabama School of Medicine and the hospital have continued to be leaders in the healthcare industry. On Aug.15,2013, UAB announced Selwyn Vickers, M. D. would be the senior vice president for Medicine. Vickers,53, spent his years as a young faculty member at UAB, beginning in 1994. He is currently the Jay Phillips Professor and Chair of the Department of Surgery at the University of Minnesota Medical School, agarwal returned to his position as director of the Division of Nephrology and vice chair for research in the Department of Medicine on Oct.15,2013. The main campus of the School of Medicine at UAB is located in Birmingham, all students complete their first two years at the main campus in Birmingham. The remaining two years can be completed in Birmingham or at one of three campuses in Tuscaloosa, Montgomery or Huntsville. In 1974 the University of Alabama created the College of Community Health Sciences, the School of Medicine maintains a branch campus in Huntsville affiliated with Huntsville Hospital. The Huntsville campus was originally a part of the University of Alabama in Huntsville, UABs Montgomery campus is a collaborative effort among UAB, Baptist Health and the city of Montgomery. Beginning in May 2014,10 third-year medical students begin taking classes in Montgomery
10.
Alabama Crimson Tide
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The Alabama Crimson Tide refers to the 21 men and women varsity teams that represent the University of Alabama. The Crimson Tide teams compete in the National Collegiate Athletic Associations Division I as a member of the Southeastern Conference, in 2002, Sports Illustrated named Alabama the No.26 best collegiate sports program in America. The rivalry with the Auburn Tigers is especially heated, as the two compete annually in all sports. Later in the year, the school formed a team of 19 players, with Little as captain. Early newspaper accounts of Alabama football simply listed the team as the varsity or the Crimson White after the school colors, headline writers then made popular the nickname The Thin Red Line. It was not until 1907 that the name Crimson Tide was used to describe Alabama, the name was supposedly first used by Hugh Roberts, former sports editor of the Birmingham Age-Herald. Roberts coined the nickname to describe the 1907 Alabama-Auburn game, played in a sea of mud, although Auburn was favored to win, Alabama played well in the red mud and held Auburn to a 6-6 tie. Since then, the program has won 26 Southeastern Conference championships, in addition to the championships claimed by the university, Alabama has been recognized by the NCAA as National Champions for the 1945,1962,1966,1967, and 1977 college football seasons. However, those championships are not claimed by Alabama, on January 9,2012, Alabama finished the season ranked No.2 and beat No.1 LSU 21-0 in the BCS Championship game to take the BCS national title. On January 7,2013 Alabama Defeated the Notre Dame Fighting Irish 42-14 to claim their 15th National Championship. Although the NCAA only lists the Crimson Tide as having 14 national championships, on January 11,2016, Alabama defeated the Clemson Tigers 45-40 to claim their 16th national championship. The team has also made 58 bowl appearances throughout their history, Alabamas most recent bowl appearance was at the 2015 Sugar Bowl as part of the 2015 College Football Playoff. Alabama has a 34–24–3 bowl game record, since 1913, Alabama has had 98 players selected as first team All-Americans, with 29 of them being consensus selections. In 2009, Alabama also recorded their first Heisman Trophy winner, Mark Ingram, in 2015 Alabama had its second Heisman Trophy winner in Derrick Henry. Alabamas mens basketball program has a tradition with numerous SEC Championships and players becoming NBA stars. In the conference, it trails only Kentucky in basketball wins, SEC tournament titles, the mens basketball program has risen in stature nationally, achieving a No.1 national ranking briefly in 2002. The Crimson Tide has become a conference basketball contender much as it was in the 1980s under the direction of Coach Wimp Sanderson. In January 2009, Head Coach Mark Gottfried resigned after eleven years at Alabama, soon afterwards Anthony Grant was hired as the new head coach
11.
Southeastern Conference
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The Southeastern Conference is an American college athletic conference whose member institutions are located primarily in the Southern part of the United States. Its fourteen members include the public universities of ten states. The conference is headquartered in Birmingham, Alabama, the SEC participates in the National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I in sports competitions, for football, it is part of the Football Bowl Subdivision, formerly known as Division I-A. The SEC was also the first NCAA Division I conference to hold a game for college football and was one of the founding members of the Bowl Championship Series. The current SEC commissioner is Greg Sankey, the conference sponsors team championships in nine mens sports and twelve womens sports. The SEC consists of 14 member institutions located within the borders of 11 contiguous states and these divisional groupings are applied exclusively to football and baseball as well as their scheduling and standings. The other charter members were, The University of the South left the SEC on December 13,1940 and it is currently a member of the Division III Southern Athletic Association. Georgia Institute of Technology left the SEC in 1964, in 1975, it became a founding member of the Metro Conference, one of the predecessors to todays Conference USA. Georgia Tech competed in the Metro Conference in all sports except football, in 1978, Georgia Tech joined another Southern Conference offshoot, the Atlantic Coast Conference, for all sports, where it has remained ever since. Tulane University left the SEC in 1966, along with Georgia Tech, it was a charter member of the Metro Conference. Unlike Tech, however, Tulane remained in the Metro Conference until it merged with the Great Midwest Conference in 1995 to form Conference USA, Tulane remained an independent in football until C-USA began football competition in 1996. Tulane left C-USA in 2014 for the American Athletic Conference, in 1990, the SEC expanded from ten to twelve member universities with the addition of the Arkansas Razorbacks and the South Carolina Gamecocks. The two new members began SEC competition with the 1991–1992 basketball season, at the same time, the SEC organized competition for some sports into two divisions. Initially, the format was used in football, baseball. The divisional format was dropped for mens basketball following the 2011–2012 season, the 1992 and 1993 championship games were held at Legion Field in Birmingham, and all championship games from 1994 onward have been held at the Georgia Dome in Atlanta. On November 6,2011 the SEC commissioner announced that the University of Missouri would also join the SEC on July 1,2012, for football, Texas A&M was scheduled to compete in the Western Division, and Missouri in the Eastern Division. Texas A&M and Missouri both left the Big 12 Conference, the office of Commissioner was created in 1940. Under the leadership of Michael F, the SECU rebranded its mission to better serve as a means through which the collaborative academic endeavors and achievements of Southeastern Conference universities would be promoted and advanced
12.
UAB Blazers
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The UAB Blazers are the varsity intercollegiate athletic programs of the University of Alabama at Birmingham. The school is one of the fourteen member institutions of Conference USA, the schools mens basketball team plays in 8, 508-seat Bartow Arena. The Blazers colors are forest green and old gold, the mens basketball program has a long history of success spanning several decades. In addition to basketball, UAB also has programs in sports for baseball, golf, soccer. Womens sports programs include softball, basketball, golf, soccer, bowling, tennis, track and field, cross country, volleyball, however, the school announced on June 1,2015 that pledges of additional revenue had been made, allowing the terminated programs to be reinstated. Bowling and rifle were reinstated immediately, on June 4, Conference USA announced it would not take any action against UAB now that it has reinstated football, and the school would remain in the conference. The conference stated, At its fall meeting, the Board expects UAB to submit for review a plan addressing the key elements of UABs football program going forward. No additional action from the Board is expected until that time, the UAB Blazers, in effect, started their entire athletics program with the creation of a mens basketball team in 1978. Setting the standards high from the start, UAB hired former UCLA, known to many as the Father of UAB athletics, Bartow led the Blazers to almost instant success. In 2004, the once again gained national attention when it upset No. 1-seeded Kentucky in the round of the tournament and advanced to the Sweet Sixteen. Since their inaugural season, the Blazers have made 15 appearances in the NCAA Mens Basketball Tournament including 3 Sweet Sixteen appearances and 1 Elite Eight appearance, UAB has also appeared in the NIT a total of 11 times, including 2 appearances in the NIT Final Four. After only 34 years of basketball, UAB has had 31 winning seasons including memorable wins over Virginia, Kentucky, Louisville, Alabama, Florida, Villanova, Indiana, the Blazers have amassed one of the best all-time winning percentages in college basketball. The UAB mens basketball team has ranked in the Associated Press Top 25 Poll many times in school history. UAB has been ranked as high as #9 in the nation, UABs most recent conference championship occurred in the 2014-2015 season when they won the CUSA conference tournament championship. Until 1988, UAB played its games at the Birmingham–Jefferson Convention Complex. Since then, UAB has played its home games in Bartow Arena where the Blazers have won more than 80 percent of its games. Though largely overshadowed by the basketball program at UAB, the Blazers women have a strong history in their own right
13.
Conference USA
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Conference USA is a collegiate athletic conference whose member institutions are located within the Southern United States. The conference participates in the NCAAs Division I in all sports, C-USAs offices are located in the Las Colinas business district of the Dallas suburb of Irving, Texas. C-USA was founded in 1995 by the merger of the Metro Conference and Great Midwest Conference, two Division I conferences that did not sponsor football. To even out at 12 members the conference invited the University of Houston, the conference immediately started competition in all sports except for football, which did not launch until 1996. To even out at 12 members the conference invited the University of Houston, the conference immediately started competition in all sports, except football which started in 1996. The conference saw radical changes for the 2005–06 academic year, the stage for these changes was set in 2003, when the Atlantic Coast Conference successfully lured Miami and Virginia Tech to make a move from the Big East Conference in 2004. Boston College would later make the move, joining the ACC in 2005. In response to that series of moves, which depleted the Big East football conference, five C-USA members departed for the Big East, including three football-playing schools and two non-football schools. Another two schools left for the Atlantic 10, TCU joined the Mountain West, and a member, Army. With the loss of these teams, C-USA lured six teams from other conferences, UCF and Marshall from the MAC, as well as Rice, SMU, Tulsa, and later UTEP from the WAC. Note that UCF played in the MAC for football only, for all other sports, with C-USAs membership now consisting of 12 schools, all of which sponsor football, the conference has adopted a two-division alignment. In 2013, C-USA entered its next phase with the departure of four schools for the American Athletic Conference and this was again the result of Big East schools leaving for the ACC, this time being Syracuse and Pittsburgh. It was announced in early 2012 that Conference USA was in talks with the Mountain West Conference about forming either a football alliance or conference merger in the future, as a result, both C-USA and the MW backed away from a full merger. As of April 2012, the likeliest scenario was an alliance in which both conferences retain separate identities. However, after the MW added more members, the alliance was apparently abandoned. For mens soccer, there was a chance that the MW, SEC, and C-USA along with the one Sun Belt member, however, the only MW member school that ultimately moved to C-USA mens soccer was New Mexico. For the 2013–14 season C-USA invited five new members to join their conference, UTSA and Louisiana Tech joined from the WAC and North Texas and FIU, from the Sun Belt Conference. Old Dominion, which already housed five of its sports in C-USA, moved the rest of its program from the CAA
14.
Gulf South Conference
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The Gulf South Conference is a collegiate athletic conference affiliated at the National Collegiate Athletic Association Division II level which operates in the southeastern United States. Scheduling problems for the 1970–71 academic year limited the league to football, the following year, Mississippi College and Northwestern Louisiana were admitted. NWLA withdrew to go Division I two years later, followed by SLU and Nicholls State in 1979, the conference continued with seven teams until 1981, when the presidents admitted Valdosta State. Jacksonville State went Division I at the end of 1992–93, Mississippi College dropped to Division III at the end of 1995–96 and was replaced by Christian Brothers to keep the Conference at 16 schools. In July 2000, the GSC welcomed Harding University and Ouachita Baptist University, the Conference membership decreased to 17 when MUW dropped its athletics program at the end of the 2002–03 season. 2006–07 was another season of change for the GSC, Montevallo announced on June 27,2008 that they will be leaving for the Peach Belt Conference following the 2008–09 season due to issues between the Universitys President and the Commissioner. The GSC moved away from play after the 2010-11 season after its six Arkansas members broke away. Thanks to an expansion plan, the GSC sponsored the Division II applications of Union University and Shorter University. The next step in bolstering its membership came in 2012, backing the Division II application of Lee University which is on track to join the league officially in 2015-16, the league added its first-ever associate member, Florida Tech, in football only in 2013. The Conference hopes to add an old friend back into the fold when Mississippi College submitted its application to rejoin Division II and is on track for 2016-17 membership. Former Commissioner Jim McCullough brought the GSC office to Birmingham when he was hired in 1979, the Conference welcomed its seventh Commissioner in May,2014 when Matt Wilson was selected to follow Nate Salant who retired after a 22-year stint. In July 2011, Shorter University and Union University were accepted into the NCAA, both universities will begin GSC competition in the 2012–13 academic year but will not be eligible for NCAA national tournaments until the 2014–15 academic year. In August 2011, the GSC added the Florida Institute of Technology as a member for football beginning in the 2013 season. On October 11,2012, Mississippi College announced that it would petition the NCAA to leave Division III, in 2013, Lee University joined the GSC, bringing the membership to 11. Lee University moved to Division II provisional membership for the 2014-15 season and they will complete transition to Division II in the 2015-16 season. Mississippi College entered its second year with the 2014-15 season in its path to full Division II membership in 2016-17. North Alabama — will join the NCAA Division I Atlantic Sun Conference in 2018, Montevallo — lacrosse is an affiliate member from 2015–2017. Harding — soccer was a member in 2011–12
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Western Collegiate Hockey Association
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The Western Collegiate Hockey Association is a college athletic conference which operates over a wide area of the Midwestern, Western, and Southeastern United States. It participates in the NCAAs Division I as an ice hockey-only conference, WCHA member teams have won a record 36 mens NCAA hockey championships, most recently in 2011 by the Minnesota–Duluth Bulldogs. A WCHA team has finished as the national runner-up a total of 28 times. WCHA teams also won the first 13 NCAA womens titles, which were first awarded in 2001, the league was founded in 1951 as the Midwest Collegiate Hockey League, then was known as the Western Intercollegiate Hockey League until 1958. The 1958–59 season was one of independence for members as a result of recruiting techniques by some teams, the current Western Collegiate Hockey Association was founded for the 1959–60 season. The 2005 NCAA Frozen Four hockey tournament finals were noteworthy when all four came from the WCHA. WCHA teams also won the first 13 NCAA womens titles, which were first awarded in 2001, in 2006, WCHA member Wisconsin was the first school to capture both the mens and womens Division I ice hockey championships in the same season. The mens regular season champion is awarded the MacNaughton Cup. Facing membership at 4 teams for the 2013–14 season, the WCHA conference added one of its members, Northern Michigan of the CCHA. On August 25,2011, the WCHA announced that it had invited the University of Alaska Fairbanks, Bowling Green, Ferris State, and Lake Superior State to join beginning in the 2013–14 season. On August 26,2011, Alaska-Fairbanks, Ferris State, and Lake Superior State accepted their invitations, after much deliberation, on October 4,2011, Bowling Green decided to join the WCHA as well in 2013. On January 17,2013, the WCHA admitted Alabama–Huntsville to the league and this realignment activity only affected the mens side of the WCHA. Even after Penn State took the ice with both mens and womens teams, the Big Ten still had four members with varsity womens hockey. This meant that the side of the WCHA remained intact for the immediate future. The next change in the conference membership came shortly after the 2016–17 season, the WCHA has 16 member schools in all, the mens division operates with 10 members, while the womens division has 8. Only 2 schools, Bemidji State and Minnesota State, have both mens and womens teams in the conference, additionally they vote to award up to 5 individual trophies to an eligible player at the same time. The WCHA also awards a Most Valuable Player in Tournament, which is voted on at the conclusion of the conference tournament. Only the Coach of the Year award has been bestowed in each year of the WCHAs existence, official WCHA site College Hockey Historical Archives
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Flag of Alabama
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The bars forming the cross shall be not less than six inches broad, and must extend diagonally across the flag from side to side. – The cross of St. Patrick referred to in the law is a diagonal cross, because the bars must be at least six inches wide, small representations of the Alabama flag do not meet the legal definition. On January 11,1861, the Alabama Secession Convention passed a resolution designating an official flag, designed by several women from Montgomery, final touches were made by Francis Corra of that city. One side of the flag displayed the Goddess of Liberty holding a sword in her right hand. Above the gold star appears the text Alabama in all capital letters, in an arch above this figure were the words Independent Now and Forever. The reverse side of the flag had a plant with a coiled rattlesnake. The text Noli Me Tangere, was placed below the cotton plant and this flag was sent to the governors office on February 10,1861. Due to damage from weather, the flag was never flown again. Alabamas current flag was adopted in 1895, the legislation introduced by Representative John W. A. Sanford Jr. stipulates that he flag of the state of Alabama shall be a crimson cross of St. Andrew on a field of white. The bars forming the cross shall be not less than six inches broad, and must extend diagonally across the flag from side to side. Sanfords father, John W. A. Sanford, had commanded the 60th Alabama Infantry Regiment during the U. S. Civil War, the design of that regimental flag was a white saltire over a blue field with a circle of white stars surrounding the crossing. The regimental flag accompanied them through the end of the war and was surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse, the saltire of Alabamas flag most closely resembles the saltire of the flag of Florida, which has its heritage in the Spanish Cross of Burgundy. Southern Alabama was originally part of Spanish Florida and subsequently West Florida, Alabamas flag is officially a St. Andrews cross as described in its legislation, and so is the Cross of Burgundy, representing the cross on which St. Andrew was crucified. It is sometimes believed that the saltire of the current flag of Alabama was designed to resemble the blue saltire of the Confederate Battle Flag. Many battle flags were square, and the flag of Alabama is sometimes depicted as square. The legislation that created the flag did not specify that the flag was to be square. The authors of a 1917 article in National Geographic expressed their opinion that because the Alabama flag was based on the Battle Flag, another remote, but possible inspiration was the flag carried by Co. The regiment was the only Alabama regiment in Ruckers Brigade, commanded by Col. Edmund Rucker of Tennessee, the flag of Ruckers brigade utilized a white background with a red saltire charged with 13 blue/green stars
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State university system
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A state university system in the United States is a group of public universities supported by an individual state, or a similar entity such as the District of Columbia. These systems constitute the majority of public-funded universities in the country, each state supports at least one such system. State university systems should not be confused with federally funded colleges and universities, at which attendance is limited to military personnel, members of foreign militaries and governments also attend some schools. These schools include the United States service academies, Naval Postgraduate School, a state university system normally means a single legal entity and administration, but may consist of several institutions, each with its own identity as a university. Some states—such as California and Texas—support more than one such system, State universities get subsidies from their states. As more and more Americans attend college, and private tuition rates increase well beyond the rate of inflation, admission to universities is becoming more and more competitive. State university systems were a product of the demand for education in the newly formed United States. The tradition of publicly funded state colleges began primarily in the southern states, there remains significant debate about which institution or institutions are the oldest public universities in the United States. The University of Georgia is the countrys first chartered public university, however, the University of Georgia did not hold classes until 16 years later in the fall of 1801. The first collegiate-level classes conducted by an institution were at another Georgia institution. The school eventually dropped high school instruction, but remained a community college until becoming an institution in 1963. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, while chartered four years after Georgia in 1789, was the first state university to hold classes, classes began at UNC in 1795, and UNC is the only state university to have graduated students in the 18th century. The University of South Carolina was chartered in 1801 and held classes for the first time in 1805, determining which state university was the first is further complicated by the case of New Jerseys state university system. Rutgers University, which had previously been a school affiliated with the Dutch Reformed Church, was designated as a state university by acts of the legislature in 1945 and 1956. It became a System with the absorptions of Newark University in 1946 and The College of South Jersey in 1950, becoming Rutgers Newark and Camden campuses, respectively. Rutgers was chartered in 1766, nineteen years before the University of Georgia, castleton State College in Vermont is the oldest state university in New England, chartered in 1787. This was soon followed by the charter of The University of Vermont in 1791, however, neither institution was a state university in the modern sense of the term until many decades later. Castleton State began as the Rutland County Grammar School and it did not become a postsecondary institution until the campus became home to the State Normal School in 1867
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University
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A university is an institution of higher education and research which grants academic degrees in various academic disciplines. Universities typically provide undergraduate education and postgraduate education, the word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means community of teachers and scholars. Universities were created in Italy and evolved from Cathedral schools for the clergy during the High Middle Ages, the original Latin word universitas refers in general to a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation, etc. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members, an important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the first university, the University of Bologna adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita, in 1158 or 1155, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today this is claimed as the origin of academic freedom and this is now widely recognised internationally - on 18 September 1988,430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum, marking the 900th anniversary of Bolognas foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, the university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and it is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were founded by Kings or municipal administrations. In the early period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries, the first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and the University of Oxford. The students had all the power … and dominated the masters, princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts. The rediscovery of Aristotles works–more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated–fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotles works a turning point in the history of Western thought and this became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students. The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, while Hippocrates, Galen, outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter
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United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
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Birmingham metropolitan area, Alabama
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The Birmingham metropolitan area, sometimes known as Greater Birmingham, is a metropolitan area in central Alabama centered on Birmingham, Alabama. As of 2013, the government defines the Birmingham-Hoover, AL Metropolitan Statistical Area as consisting of seven counties centered on Birmingham. The population of metropolitan statistical area as of the 2010 census was 1,130,047. According to the United States Census 2013 estimate, the area has a population of 1,140,300. According to the United States Census 2013 estimate, the statistical area has a population of 1,313,105. It is the 42nd largest population sub-region in the United States, nearby counties Tuscaloosa, Etowah, and Calhoun, while not officially a part of Greater Birmingham, contribute significantly to the regions economy. Many of the major employers are located in Birmingham and Jefferson County. The economy of Birmingham ranges from service industries such as banking and finance to health-related technological research, the University of Alabama at Birmingham is Alabamas largest employer as well as the areas largest, with some 20,000 employees. The area is headquarters for Regions Financial, one of the nations top 10 banks, and Books-A-Million. Alabama Power AT&T Blue Cross/Blue Shield of Alabama Compass Bancshares Drummond Company EBSCO Industries Energen HealthSouth Hibbett Sports, Regions Financial Corporation Royal Cup Coffee, Inc. It includes the retail destination for the region, the Riverchase Galleria mall, along with several other shopping centers. Riverchase Galleria, a 1,570,000 square foot, anchors include Sears, Macys, J. C. Brookwood Village, a 816, 000-square-foot, enclosed mall in the suburbs of Homewood and it is anchored by Macys and Belk and also includes a 42, 000-square-foot grocery-anchored retail component. The Summit, a large, upscale lifestyle center near the Cahaba Heights neighborhood, the center contains Saks Fifth Avenue, Belk, Barnes & Noble, and local department store, Gus Mayer. Pinnacle at Tutwiler Farm, a center in the eastern suburb of Trussville that is anchored by Belk, Best Buy. The Shops At Grand River, a mall in the eastern suburb of Leeds. The development also containts a to-be-constructed residential area, Barber Motorsports Park, Greater Birmingham is at the convergence of four major interstate highways, Interstate 65, Interstate 20, Interstate 59, and Interstate 22. Interstate 459, completed in 1984, forms a bypass around Birmingham
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Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
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This agency accredits over 13,000 public and private educational institutions ranging from preschool to college level in the Southern United States. Its headquarters are in North Druid Hills, Georgia, near Decatur, there are a number of affiliate organizations within the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. One affiliate organization is the Southern Association of Community, Junior, the reports include specific public sanctions of schools and statements disclosing why those institutions have been placed on sanction. The Commission on Colleges accredits both public and private institutions of education in the United States, including some community colleges as well as four-year institutions. As a regional accreditor, SACSCOC accreditation extends to all of the programs offered at the accredited institution. The SACSCOC has also accredited the American University in Dubai, SACS CASI accredits over 13,000 primary, middle, and secondary schools, as well as school systems located in the SACS region. In 2006, AdvancED was established with the unification of SACS CASI, NCA CASI, today, SACS CASI acts as an accreditation division of AdvancED. List of recognized accreditation associations of higher learning Official website
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Bachelor's degree
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A bachelors degree or baccalaureate is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to seven years. In some institutions and educational systems, some bachelors degrees can only be taken as graduate or postgraduate degrees after a first degree has been completed. The term bachelor in the 12th century referred to a knight bachelor, by the end of the 13th century, it was also used by junior members of guilds or universities. By folk etymology or wordplay, the word came to be associated with bacca lauri in reference to laurels being awarded for academic success or honours. An honours degree generally requires an academic standard than a pass degree. In most African countries, the university systems follow the model of their former colonizing power, for example, the Nigerian university system is similar to the British system, while the Ivorian system is akin to the French. The degree is typically identical to the program of Frances universities, bachelors degree programs cover most of the fields in Algerian universities, except some fields, such as Medicine and Pharmaceutical Science. Bachelors degrees at the University of Botswana normally take four years, the system draws on both British and American models. Degrees are classified as First Class, Second Class Division One, Second Class Division Two and Third as in English degrees, but without being described as honours. The main degrees are named by British tradition, but in recent years there have been a numbers of degrees named after specific subjects, such as Bachelor of Library, in Morocco, a bachelors degree is referred to as al-ʾijāzah. The course of study takes three years, which are divided into two cycles. The first cycle comprises the first, or propaedeutic, year, after successfully completing their first two years, students can pursue either theoretical specialization or professional specialization. The second cycle is one long, after whose completion students receive the licence détudes fondamentales or the licence professionnelle. This academic degree system was introduced in September 2003, University admission is extremely competitive, with attendant advantages and disadvantages. Nonetheless, it takes four to five years to complete a bachelors degree, in cases of poor performance, the time limit is double the standard amount of time. For example, one may not study for more than 10 years for a five-year course, students are normally asked to leave if they must take longer. B. Arch. and other specialized undergraduate degrees, such as B. Eng, Science undergraduate degrees may require six months or a semester dedicated to SIWES but it is usually mandatory for all engineering degrees. A semester for project work/thesis is required, not excluding course work, the classifications of degrees, first-class, second-class, third-class and a pass
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Master's degree
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A masters degree normally requires previous study at the bachelors level, either as a separate degree or as part of an integrated course. The original meaning of the degree was thus that someone who had been admitted to the rank of master in one university should be admitted to the same rank in other universities. This gradually became formalised as the licentia docendi, initially, the Bachelor of Arts was awarded for the study of the trivium and the Master of Arts for the study of the quadrivium. The nineteenth century saw an expansion in the variety of masters degrees offered. By 1861 this had been adopted throughout Scotland as well as by Cambridge and Durham in England, when the Philadelphia College of Surgeons was established in 1870, it too conferred the Master of Surgery, the same as that in Europe. In the United States, the first masters degrees were awarded at Harvard University soon after its foundation, at Harvard the 1700 regulations required that candidates for the masters degree had to pass a public examination, but by 1835 this was awarded Oxbridge-style 3 years after the BA. In Scotland, Edinburgh maintained separate BA and MA degrees until the mid nineteenth century, in Scotland all the statutes of the Universities which enforced conditions on the grant of degrees were a dead letter. Probably the most important masters degree introduced in the 19th century was the Master of Science, at the University of Michigan this was introduced in two forms in 1858, in course, first awarded in 1859, and on examination, first awarded in 1862. The in course MS was last awarded in 1876, in Britain, however, the degree took a while longer to arrive. The same two degrees, again omitting the masters, were awarded at Edinburgh, despite the MA being the undergraduate degree for Arts in Scotland. In 1862, a Royal Commission suggested that Durham should award masters degrees in theology and science and this scheme would appear to have then been quietly dropped, with Oxford going on to award BAs and MAs in science. The Master of Science degree was introduced in Britain in 1878 at Durham. At the Victoria University both the MA and MSc followed the lead of Durhams MA in requiring an examination for those with an ordinary bachelors degree. The Bologna declaration in 1999 started the Bologna Process, leading to the creation of the European Higher Education Area, as the process continued, descriptors were introduced for all three levels in 2004, and ECTS credit guidelines were developed. This led to questions as to the status of the masters degrees. In 1903, the London Daily News criticised the practice of Oxford and Cambridge, calling their MAs the most stupendous of academic frauds, in 1900, Dartmouth College introduced the Master of Commercial Science, first awarded in 1902. This was the first masters degree in business, the forerunner of the modern MBA, the idea quickly crossed the Atlantic, with Manchester establishing a Faculty of Commerce, awarding Bachelor and Master of Commerce degrees, in 1903. Over the first half of the century the masters degrees for honours graduates vanished as honours degrees became the standard undergraduate qualification in the UK
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Doctorate
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There are a variety of doctoral degrees, with the most common being the Doctor of Philosophy, which is awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to the scientific disciplines. The term doctor derives from the Latin docere meaning to teach, the doctorate appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin at a university. Its roots can be traced to the church in which the term doctor referred to the Apostles, church fathers. The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved to the Catholic church, the Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access—at that time largely free of charge—of all able applicants. This right remained a bone of contention between the authorities and universities that were slowly distancing themselves from the Church. The right was granted by the pope to the University of Paris in 1213 where it became a universal license to teach, according to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150. The so-called professional, vocational, or technical curriculum of the Middle Ages included only theology, law, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany in the 17th century. The term philosophy does not refer solely to the field or academic discipline of philosophy, but is used in a sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning. In most of Europe, all fields were traditionally known as philosophy, the doctorate of philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though the degrees are not always for the study of philosophy. D. University doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild, the traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of Masters of Arts was seven years, matching the apprenticeship term for other occupations. Originally the terms master and doctor were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the masters degree, University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men. The use and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time, for instance, until the early 20th century few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders. After that time the German practice of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread, universities shift to research-oriented education increased the doctorates importance. Today, a doctorate or its equivalent is generally a prerequisite for an academic career. Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward, the first professional doctorate to be offered in the United States was the M. D. The MD became the standard first degree in medicine during the 19th century, the MD, as the standard qualifying degree in medicine, gave that profession the ability to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice. The modern research degree, in the shape of the German-style Ph. D. was first awarded in the U. S. in 1861, in the UK, research doctorates initially took the form of higher doctorates, introduced from 1882 onwards. The PhD spread to the UK from the US via Canada, following the MD, the next professional doctorate, the Juris Doctor, was established by Chicago University in 1902
25.
Nursing
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Nursing is a profession within the health care sector focused on the care of individuals, families, and communities so they may attain, maintain, or recover optimal health and quality of life. Nurses may be differentiated from other health care providers by their approach to patient care, training, Nurses practice in many specialisms with differing levels of prescriber authority. Many nurses provide care within the scope of physicians. However, nurses are permitted by most jurisdictions to practice independently in a variety of settings depending on training level, Nurses may help coordinate the patient care performed by other members of an interdisciplinary health care team such as therapists, medical practitioners and dietitians. Nurses provide care both interdependently, for example, with physicians, and independently as nursing professionals, Nursing historians face the challenge of determining whether care provided to the sick or injured in antiquity was nursing care. In the fifth century BC, for example, the Hippocratic Collection in places describes skilled care and observation of patients by male attendants, who may have been early nurses. Hence, any one desirous of acquiring a knowledge of anatomy should prepare a dead body and carefully, observe, by dissecting it. Before the foundation of modern nursing, members of religious orders such as nuns, examples exist in Christian, Islamic and Buddhist traditions amongst others. Phoebe, mentioned in Romans 16 has been described in sources as the first visiting nurse. These traditions were influential in the development of the ethos of modern nursing, the religious roots of modern nursing remain in evidence today in many countries. One example in the United Kingdom is the use of the sister to refer to a senior nurse. During the Reformation of the 16th century, Protestant reformers shut down the monasteries and convents and those nuns who had been serving as nurses were given pensions or told to get married and stay home. Nursing care went to the inexperienced as traditional caretakers, rooted in the Roman Catholic Church, were removed from their positions, the nursing profession suffered a major setback for approximately 200 years. Florence Nightingale laid the foundations of professional nursing during the Crimean War and her Notes on Nursing became popular. Agnes Jones, who established a training regime at the Brownlow Hill infirmary, Liverpool. In turn, the modern movement began in Germany in 1836. Within a half century, there were over 5,000 deaconesses in Europe, formal use of nurses in the modern military began in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Nurses saw active duty in the First Boer War, the Egyptian Campaign, hospital-based training came to the fore in the early 1900s, with an emphasis on practical experience
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Engineering
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The term Engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning cleverness and ingeniare, meaning to contrive, devise. Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel, each of these inventions is essentially consistent with the modern definition of engineering. The term engineering is derived from the engineer, which itself dates back to 1390 when an engineer originally referred to a constructor of military engines. In this context, now obsolete, a referred to a military machine. Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, the word engine itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium, meaning innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention. The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep, as one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC. Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains, the Antikythera mechanism, the first known mechanical computer, and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed, the first steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Savery. The development of this gave rise to the Industrial Revolution in the coming decades. With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering. The inventions of Thomas Newcomen and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to mechanical engineering. The development of specialized machines and machine tools during the revolution led to the rapid growth of mechanical engineering both in its birthplace Britain and abroad. John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is regarded as the father of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbours and he was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse where he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime and his lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled and partially rebuilt at Plymouth Hoe where it is known as Smeatons Tower. The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of engineer for the first time with a count of 2,000, there were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U. S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U. S. mechanical engineering graduates, in 1890 there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical. There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics established at Cambridge until 1875, the theoretical work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics
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Outline of physical science
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Physical science is a branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to life science. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a physical science, in natural science, hypotheses must be verified scientifically to be regarded as scientific theory. Validity, accuracy, and social mechanisms ensuring quality control, such as review and repeatability of findings, are amongst the criteria. Natural science can be broken into two branches, life science, for example biology and physical science. Each of these branches, and all of their sub-branches, are referred to as natural sciences, physics – natural and physical science that involves the study of matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves. Branches of astronomy Chemistry – studies the composition, structure, properties, branches of chemistry Earth science – all-embracing term referring to the fields of science dealing with planet Earth. Earth science is the study of how the natural environment works and it includes the study of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Branches of Earth science History of physical science – history of the branch of science that studies non-living systems. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a physical science, however, the term physical creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena. History of astrodynamics – history of the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the problems concerning the motion of rockets. History of astrometry – history of the branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars, History of cosmology – history of the discipline that deals with the nature of the Universe as a whole. History of physical cosmology – history of the study of the largest-scale structures, History of planetary science – history of the scientific study of planets, moons, and planetary systems, in particular those of the Solar System and the processes that form them. History of neurophysics – history of the branch of biophysics dealing with the nervous system, History of chemical physics – history of the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics. History of computational physics – history of the study and implementation of algorithms to solve problems in physics for which a quantitative theory already exists. History of condensed matter physics – history of the study of the properties of condensed phases of matter. History of cryogenics – history of the cryogenics is the study of the production of low temperature. History of biomechanics – history of the study of the structure and function of biological systems such as humans, animals, plants, organs, History of fluid mechanics – history of the study of fluids and the forces on them
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Geophysics
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Although geophysics was only recognized as a separate discipline in the 19th century, its origins date back to ancient times. The first magnetic compasses were made from lodestones, while more modern magnetic compasses played an important role in the history of navigation, the first seismic instrument was built in 132 BC. Geophysics is applied to societal needs, such as resources, mitigation of natural hazards. Geophysics is a highly interdisciplinary subject, and geophysicists contribute to area of the Earth sciences. To provide an idea of what constitutes geophysics, this section describes phenomena that are studied in physics and how they relate to the Earth. The gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun give rise to two high tides and two low tides every lunar day, or every 24 hours and 50 minutes, therefore, there is a gap of 12 hours and 25 minutes between every high tide and between every low tide. Gravitational forces make rocks press down on rocks, increasing their density as the depth increases. Measurements of gravitational acceleration and gravitational potential at the Earths surface, the surface gravitational field provides information on the dynamics of tectonic plates. The geopotential surface called the geoid is one definition of the shape of the Earth, the geoid would be the global mean sea level if the oceans were in equilibrium and could be extended through the continents. The Earth is cooling, and the heat flow generates the Earths magnetic field through the geodynamo. The main sources of heat are the heat and radioactivity. Some heat is carried up from the bottom of the mantle by mantle plumes, the heat flow at the Earths surface is about 4.2 ×1013 W, and it is a potential source of geothermal energy. Seismic waves are vibrations that travel through the Earths interior or along its surface, the entire Earth can also oscillate in forms that are called normal modes or free oscillations of the Earth. Ground motions from waves or normal modes are measured using seismographs, if the waves come from a localized source such as an earthquake or explosion, measurements at more than one location can be used to locate the source. The locations of earthquakes provide information on plate tectonics and mantle convection, measurements of seismic waves are a source of information on the region that the waves travel through. If the density or composition of the rock changes suddenly, some waves are reflected, reflections can provide information on near-surface structure. Changes in the direction, called refraction, can be used to infer the deep structure of the Earth. Earthquakes pose a risk to humans, understanding their mechanisms, which depend on the type of earthquake, can lead to better estimates of earthquake risk and improvements in earthquake engineering
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Magnetosphere
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A magnetosphere is the region of space surrounding an astronomical object in which charged particles are controlled by that objects magnetic field. The magnetic field near the surface of many astronomical objects resembles that of a dipole, the field lines farther away from the surface can be significantly distorted by the flow of electrically conducting plasma emitted from a nearby star. Study of Earths magnetosphere began in 1600, when William Gilbert discovered that the field on the surface of Earth resembled that on a terrella. In the 1940s, Walter M. Elsasser proposed the model of dynamo theory, through the use of magnetometers, scientists were able to study the variations in Earths magnetic field as functions of both time and latitude and longitude. Beginning in the late 1940s, rockets were used to study cosmic rays, in 1958, Explorer 1, the first of the Explorer series of space missions, was launched to study the intensity of cosmic rays above the atmosphere and measure the fluctuations in this activity. This mission observed the existence of the Van Allen radiation belt, also in 1958, Eugene Parker proposed the idea of the solar wind. The term magnetosphere was proposed by Thomas Gold in 1959, the Explorer 12 mission led to the observation by Cahill and Amazeen in 1963 of a sudden decrease in the strength of the magnetic field near the noon meridian, later named the magnetopause. In 1983, the International Cometary Explorer observed the magnetotail, or the distant magnetic field, the distance at which a planet can withstand the solar wind pressure is called the Chapman–Ferraro distance. Mercury, Earth, Jupiter, Ganymede, Saturn, Uranus, a magnetosphere is classified as induced when R C F ≪ R P, or when the solar wind is not opposed by the objects magnetic field. In this case, the solar wind interacts with the atmosphere or ionosphere of the planet, when R C F ≈ R P, the planet itself and its magnetic field both contribute. It is possible that Mars is of this type, the bow shock forms the outermost layer of the magnetosphere, the boundary between the magnetosphere and the ambient medium. For stars, this is usually the boundary between the wind and interstellar medium, for planets, the speed of the solar wind there decreases as it approaches the magnetopause. The magnetosheath is the region of the magnetosphere between the bow shock and the magnetopause and it is formed mainly from shocked solar wind, though it contains a small amount of plasma from the magnetosphere. It is an area exhibiting high particle flux, where the direction. This is caused by the collection of solar wind gas that has effectively undergone thermalization and it acts as a cushion that transmits the pressure from the flow of the solar wind and the barrier of the magnetic field from the object. The magnetopause is the area of the magnetosphere wherein the pressure from the magnetic field is balanced with the pressure from the solar wind. It is the convergence of the solar wind from the magnetosheath with the magnetic field of the object. Because both sides of this convergence contain magnetized plasma, the interactions between them are complex, the structure of the magnetopause depends upon the Mach number and beta of the plasma, as well as the magnetic field
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Interplanetary space
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Outer space or just space, is the void that exists between celestial bodies, including Earth. The baseline temperature, as set by the radiation from the Big Bang, is 2.7 kelvins. In most galaxies, observations provide evidence that 90% of the mass is in a form, called dark matter. Data indicates that the majority of the mass-energy in the universe is a poorly understood vacuum energy of space which astronomers label dark energy. Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the Universe, there is no firm boundary where outer space starts. However the Kármán line, at an altitude of 100 km above sea level, is used as the start of outer space in space treaties. The framework for international law was established by the Outer Space Treaty. This treaty precludes any claims of sovereignty and permits all states to freely explore outer space. Despite the drafting of UN resolutions for the uses of outer space. Humans began the exploration of space during the 20th century with the advent of high-altitude balloon flights. Earth orbit was first achieved by Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union in 1961, due to the high cost of getting into space, manned spaceflight has been limited to low Earth orbit and the Moon. Outer space represents an environment for human exploration because of the dual hazards of vacuum. Microgravity also has an effect on human physiology that causes both muscle atrophy and bone loss. In addition to health and environmental issues, the economic cost of putting objects, including humans. In 350 BCE, Greek philosopher Aristotle suggested that nature abhors a vacuum and this concept built upon a 5th-century BCE ontological argument by the Greek philosopher Parmenides, who denied the possible existence of a void in space. Based on this idea that a vacuum could not exist, in the West it was held for many centuries that space could not be empty. As late as the 17th century, the French philosopher René Descartes argued that the entirety of space must be filled, in ancient China, there were various schools of thought concerning the nature of the heavens, some of which bear a resemblance to the modern understanding. In the 2nd century, astronomer Zhang Heng became convinced that space must be infinite, extending well beyond the mechanism that supported the Sun, the surviving books of the Hsüan Yeh school said that the heavens were boundless, empty and void of substance
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NASA
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
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Marshall Space Flight Center
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The George C. Marshall Space Flight Center is the U. S. governments civilian rocketry and spacecraft propulsion research center. The largest NASA center, MSFCs first mission was developing the Saturn launch vehicles for the Apollo moon program, located on the Redstone Arsenal near Huntsville, Alabama, MSFC is named in honor of General of the Army George Marshall. The center also contains the Huntsville Operations Support Center, a facility that supports ISS launch, payload, the HOSC also monitors rocket launches from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station when a Marshall Center payload is on board. The largest and best-known activity was called Operation Paperclip, in August 1945,127 missile specialists led by Wernher von Braun signed work contracts with the U. S. Armys Ordnance Corps. Most of them had worked on the V-2 missile development under von Braun at Peenemünde, Von Braun and the other Germans were sent to Fort Bliss, Texas, joining the Armys newly formed Research and Development Division Sub-office. Von Braun had long had a great interest in rocketry for space science, toward this, he was allowed to use a WAC Corporal rocket as a second stage for a V-2, the combination, called Bumper, reached a record-breaking 250 miles altitude. During World War II, the production and storage of shells was conducted by three arsenals nearby to Huntsville, Alabama. After the war, these were closed, and the three areas were combined to form Redstone Arsenal, a year later, the Secretary of the Army approved the transfer of the rocket research and development activities from Fort Bliss to the new center at Redstone Arsenal. Beginning in April 1950, about 1,000 persons were involved in the transfer, at this time, R&D responsibility for guided missiles was added, and studies began on a medium-range guided missile that eventually became the Redstone rocket. Over the next decade, the development on Redstone Arsenal greatly expanded. Many small free-flight and guided rockets were developed, and work on the Redstone rocket got underway, although this rocket was primarily intended for military purposes, von Braun kept space firmly in his mind, and published a widely read article on this subject. In mid-1952, the Germans who had worked under individual contracts were converted to civil service employees. Von Braun was appointed Chief of the Guided Missile Development Division, in September 1954, von Braun proposed using the Redstone as the main booster of a multi-stage rocket for launching artificial satellites. A year later, a study for Project Orbiter was completed, detailing plans, the Armys official role in the U. S. space satellite program was delayed, however, after higher authorities elected to use the Vanguard rocket then being developed by the Naval Research Laboratory. In February 1956, the Army Ballistic Missile Agency was established, von Braun was the director of the Development Operations Division. One of the programs was a 1, 500-mile, single-stage missile that was started the previous year. The first Jupiter IRBM flight took place from Cape Canaveral in March 1957 with the first successful flight to full range on 31 May, Jupiter was eventually taken over by the U. S. Air Force. The ABMA developed Jupiter-C was composed of a Redstone rocket first stage, while the Jupiter C capability was such that it could have placed the fourth stage in orbit, that mission had been assigned to the NRL
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United States Army Aviation and Missile Command
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The United States Army Aviation and Missile Command is primarily responsible for life cycle management of army missile, helicopter, unmanned ground vehicle and unmanned aerial vehicle weapon system. The command is headquartered at Redstone Arsenal by Huntsville, Alabama, AMCOM also has access to several wind tunnels to test full-size helicopters, a vertical motion simulator for flight control evaluation and a crash-testing tower used to improve safety. AMCOMs Test, Measurement and Diagnostic Equipment Activity provides worldwide command and control over a broad metrology, AMCOM is also the leader in foreign military sales, accounting for over 50 percent of total army sales to Allied forces and friendly foreign nations. AMCOMs main organizations are organized into centers, Acquisition Center – responsible for contracting support, AMCOM Logistics Center – responsible for logistics support. The U. S. Army Missile Command was formally established on 23 May 1962 at Redstone Arsenal to manage the armys missile systems, October 1948, The Chief of Ordnance designates Redstone Arsenal as the center for ordnance research and development in the field of rockets. 1 June 1949, The Chief of Ordnance officially activates the arsenal as the site of the Ordnance Rocket Center,1 February 1956, The U. S. Army Ballistic Missile Agency established at Redstone Arsenal. 23 May 1963, U. S. Army Missile Command officially established, fully staffed,28 February 1964, The U. S. Army Aviation and Surface Material Command redesignated as the U. S. Army Aviation Materiel Command. 23 September 1968, AVCOM redesignated the U. S. Army Aviation Systems Command. 1 July 1977, AVSCOM discontinued and its readiness mission combined with that of the U. S. Army Troop Support Command to form the U. S. Army Troop Support and Aviation Materiel Readiness Command. AVSCOMs aviation research and development mission assigned to the newly established U. S. Army Aviation Research,1 October 1992, Army Aviation and Troop Command established, consolidating the existing missions of AVSCOM and TROSCOM less those missions and organizations transferred to other commands. 17 July 1997, Army Aviation and Missile Command is provisionally established. 1 October 1997, AMCOM formally established at Redstone Arsenal with the merger of the U. S. Army Missile Command at Redstone Arsenal and the U. S. Army Aviation and Troop Command at St. Louis, Missouri
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Congressional district
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A congressional district is an electoral constituency that elects a single member of a congress. Countries with congressional districts include the United States, the Philippines, a congressional district is based on population, which, in the United States, is taken using a census every ten years. There are 435 congressional districts in the United States House of Representatives, in addition to the 435 congressional districts, the five inhabited U. S. territories and the federal district of Washington, D. C. each send a non-voting delegate to the House of Representatives. The Census Bureau within the United States Department of Commerce conducts a decennial census whose figures are used to determine the number of districts within each state. The 2012 elections were the first to be based on the districts which were defined based on the 2010 Census data. List of electoral districts by nation House of Representatives House of Representatives of the Philippines United States House of Representatives
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Governor of Alabama
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The Governor of Alabama is the chief executive of the U. S. state of Alabama. The governor is the head of the branch of Alabamas state government and is charged with enforcing state laws. The governor has the power to approve or veto bills passed by the Alabama Legislature, to convene the legislature. The governor is also the commander-in-chief of the military forces. There have officially been 53 governors of the state of Alabama, the first governor, William Wyatt Bibb, served as the only governor of the Alabama Territory. Five people have served as acting governor, bringing the number of people serving as governor to 58. Four governors have served multiple terms, Bibb Graves, Jim Folsom. Officially, these terms are numbered only with the number of their first term. William D. Jelks also served non-consecutive terms, but his first term was in an acting capacity, the longest-serving governor was George Wallace, who served sixteen years over four terms. The shortest term for a governor was that of Hugh McVay, who served four. Lurleen Wallace, wife of George Wallace, was the first and so far only woman to serve as governor of Alabama, the current governor is Republican Robert J. Bentley, who took office on January 17,2011. For the period before Alabama Territory was formed, see the list of Governors of Mississippi Territory, Alabama Territory was formed on March 3,1817, from Mississippi Territory. It had only one appointed by the President of the United States before it became a state. Alabama was admitted to the Union on December 14,1819, following the end of the American Civil War, Alabama during Reconstruction was part of the Third Military District, which exerted some control over governor appointments and elections. Alabama was readmitted to the Union on July 14,1868, the first Alabama Constitution, ratified in 1819, provided that a governor be elected every two years, limited to serve no more than four out of every six years. This limit remained in place until the constitution of 1868, which simply allowed governors to serve terms of two years, the current constitution of 1901 increased terms to four years, but prohibited governors from succeeding themselves. Amendment 282 to the constitution, passed in 1968, allowed governors to succeed themselves once, the constitution had no set date for the commencement of a governors term until 1901, when it was set at the first Monday after the second Tuesday in the January following an election. The office of lieutenant governor was created in 1868, abolished in 1875, earlier constitutions said the powers of the governor devolved upon the successor, rather than them necessarily becoming governor, but the official listing includes these as full governors
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Alabama Senate
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The Alabama State Senate is the upper house of the Alabama Legislature, the state legislature of the U. S. state of Alabama. The body is composed of 35 members representing an amount of districts across the state. Similar to the house, the Alabama House of Representatives. Like other upper houses of state and territorial legislatures and the United States Senate, while the House of Representatives has exclusive power to originate revenue bills, such legislation can be amended and/or substituted by the Senate. Moreover, because the Senate is considered to be the deliberative body, like the United States Senate, the Alabama Senate has sole power of Confirmation of certain appointees designated by the Constitution and by statute. The legislative antecedent of this role is a power that was vested in the Roman Senate during the Roman Republic. Additional representation is authorized in the event of the creation of new counties, thus, the Alabama Senate is precisely one-third the size of the House of Representatives, and each state senator represents a district of approximately 125,000 Alabamians. Senators, like members of the House of Representatives, are elected for four-year terms, amendment 97 to the Constitution, provides that should a vacancy occur in either house of the Legislature, the governor is required to call a special election to fill the vacancy. The Lieutenant Governor of Alabama serves as the President of the Senate, in his or her absence, the President Pro Tempore presides over the Senate. The President Pro Tempore is elected by the full Senate by nominations taken from the floor, the President Pro Tempore is the chief leadership position in the Senate. The other Senate Majority and Minority leaders are elected by their party caucuses. The President of the Senate is Alabama Lieutenant Governor Kay Ivey, the President Pro Tempore is Republican Del Marsh. The Majority Leader is Republican Greg Reed and the Minority Leader is Democrat Quinton Ross, current committees include, The Senate Seal features an open book and torch, accompanied by the Latin phrase Libertas Per Lege, meaning Liberty Through Law
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Alabama's 7th congressional district
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Alabamas 7th congressional district is a United States congressional district in Alabama that elects a representative to the United States House of Representatives. The district encompasses Choctaw, Dallas, Greene, Hale, Lowndes, Marengo, Pickens, Perry, Sumter and Wilcox counties, the district encompasses portions of the Birmingham, Montgomery and Tuscaloosa/Northport urban areas. The largest city entirely within the district is Selma, the district has been majority-minority, with a majority of African-American residents, since the redistricting following the 1990 census. It is represented by Democrat Terri Sewell, who succeeded Artur Davis in 2010, alabamas 7th Congressional District was first defined in 1843, it has continued since then with the exception of the years 1867–1873 during the Reconstruction era. The geographic area represented by this district has changed over time, around the turn of the 20th century, the district included the city of Gadsden. Over time, the district was redefined to include the area around Tuscaloosa, the last two representatives for the district before its reconfiguration as a majority-minority area were Richard Shelby and Claude Harris, both Tuscaloosa residents. Most of Birminghams white residents remained in the 6th District, the three representatives elected from the district following reconfiguration—Earl F. Hilliard, Artur Davis and Terri Sewell—have all been residents of Birmingham. Mostly minor changes in the following two redistrictings have not substantially changed the shape of the district, but, western portions of Montgomery County have been restored to this district, including large swaths of inner-city Montgomery in the redistricting following the 2010 census. This area had earlier been removed after the 2000 census, the district contains urbanized areas of Birmingham, Montgomery and Tuscaloosa, and ten of the fourteen rural counties in the Black Belt. Three of the states largest colleges are located in the district, Alabama State University in Montgomery, the University of Alabama in Tuscaloosa, democrats have represented the 7th district in all but 6 years since 1843. A majority of voters in the district are African Americans who support the Democratic Party, as of April 2015, there are four former members of the U. S. House of Representatives from this district who are living. Alabamas congressional districts List of United States congressional districts Martis, Kenneth C, the Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts, Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present
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Alabama's 2nd congressional district
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Alabamas 2nd congressional district is a United States congressional district in Alabama that elects a representative to the United States House of Representatives. It includes most of the Montgomery metropolitan area, and stretches into the Wiregrass Region in the portion of the state. Other cities in the district include Andalusia, Dothan, Greenville, the district is represented by Republican Martha Roby, a former Montgomery city councilwoman, who defeated Bobby Bright, the Democratic incumbent, in the November 2010 election. The population of the district is fairly evenly distributed with a number of small-to-medium-sized cities spread throughout the district. The presence of Fort Rucker in Dale County and Maxwell-Gunter Air Force Base in Montgomery County imbibes the district with a heavy military leaning, the district is home of Troy University, one of the largest providers of education to active military members in the country. At the federal level, the district is strongly Republican, white voters here were among the first in Alabama to shift from the Democratic Party, the old-line Southern Democrats in this area began splitting their tickets as early as the 1950s. The district has supported a Democrat for president once since 1956. In 2008, the district elected a Democrat to Congress for the first time since 1964, at the state and local level, however, conservative Democrats continued to hold most offices as late as 2002. As of April 2015, there are two members of the U. S. House of Representatives from Alabamas 2nd congressional district that are currently living. The most recent representative to die was William Louis Dickinson on March 31,2008, Alabamas congressional districts List of United States congressional districts Martis, Kenneth C. The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, the Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts
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Alabama's 6th congressional district
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Alabamas 6th congressional district is a United States congressional district in Alabama that elects a representative to the United States House of Representatives. It is composed of the portions of Birmingham, nearly all of Jefferson County outside of Birmingham, and the entirety of Bibb, Blount, Chilton, Coosa. It is currently represented by Republican Gary Palmer, the Cook Partisan Voting Index rating lists the district as tied with Texass 13th congressional district as being the most Republican districts in the United States. John McCain swept the district in 2008, taking 75. 91% of the vote while Barack Obama received 23. 28%, the demography of the district consists mostly of middle and upper middle-class white-collar families who work in Birmingham. Once the vanguard district for steel production and metalworking in the South, socially the district remains conservative, however, fiscal conservatism is the most salient feature of this district. Alabamas 6th Congressional District was originally created in 1843 and it encompassed the northeastern portion of Alabama, approximately the modern counties of DeKalb, Jackson, Madison, Marshall, Etowah, St. Clair, Blount and Cullman. The district had a population of 66,111 as of the 1840 U. S. Census, neither Cullman County nor Etowah County existed at the time, so only the eastern portion of what today is Cullman County was in the district. In the case of St. Clair County, it appears that only half of St. Clair County in 1843 was in the district. The district was redrawn in 1855 and this was done in time for the election of representatives to the 34th Congress which was held August 6,1855. The new boundaries put Cherokee County in the 6th District and removed St. Clair County and these boundaries remained in place until the Civil War. When Alabama again elected representatives to the U. S. Congress in 1868 for the halfway completed 40th Congress, the only county remaining in the district from before was Blount County. It also encompassed Jefferson, Marion, Walker, Morgan, Limestone, Franklin, Lauderdale, colbert County did not exist at the time, but was part of Franklin County. This was one of the areas of Alabama where the Democrats soonest regained control after the Civil War, in 1876, the 6th District was redrawn again. The sixth-most northern counties were transferred to the new Alabama 8th Congressional District and this set of boundaries only existed for one election. By the time of the 1878 election, Cullman County had been formed and it was in the 6th District, but Blount County was moved to the 8th District. This process was continued in 1884 with the removal of Cullman County from the district, the year of 1892 saw more changes in the boundaries of the 6th District. Winston County was moved to the 7th District, at the same time Jefferson County was placed in the new 9th District. By this time the 6th District consisted of west central Alabama, in the 1892 election there were about 22,000 votes cast in the 6th District as opposed to 30,000 cast in the 9th District
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Alabama's 1st congressional district
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Alabamas 1st congressional district is a U. S. congressional district in Alabama, which elects a representative to the United States House of Representatives. It includes the counties of Washington, Mobile, Baldwin, Escambia and it also includes part of Clarke County. Mobile, Alabama is the focus of this district, which extends north along the Tombigee, timber production remains the biggest source of contributions to the local economy, however recently gulf coast condominium developments in Baldwin county represent new economic possibilities. Politically, this area was one of the first in Alabama to shake off its Democratic roots and it was one of five districts to swing Republican in 1964, when Barry Goldwater swept the state, the GOP has held the district in every House election since then. However, conservative Democrats continued to hold most state and local offices well into the 1990s and it supported George W. Bush with 64% in 2004, and 60% in 2000. In 2008, John McCain received 61. 01% of the vote in the district while 38. 38% supported Barack Obama, the 1st traditionally gives its congressmen very long tenures in Washington. Only six men have held it in the last century, primary elections were held on September 24. A runoff in the Republican primary took place on November 5, Republican Bradley Byrne won the election by a wide margin in the strongly conservative district. As of April 2015, there are three members of the U. S. House of Representatives from Alabamas 1st congressional district who are currently living at this time. The most recent representative to die was Frank W. Boykin on March 12,1969, Alabamas congressional districts List of United States congressional districts Martis, Kenneth C. The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, the Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts. Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present CNN converage of the 2004 election CNN converage of the 2002 election CNN converage of the 2000 election
