1.
Via et veritas et vita
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Via et veritas et vita is a Latin phrase meaning the way and the truth and the life. The words are taken from John 14,6, and are said to have been spoken by Jesus Christ in reference to himself and these words, and sometimes the asyndetic variant via veritas vita, have been used as the motto of various educational institutions and governments. The phrase is found in verse 6 of chapter 14 of the Gospel of John, as part of Jesus Farewell Discourse during the Last Supper,5 Thomas said to him, ‘Lord, we do not know where you are going. How can we know the way. ’6 Jesus said to him, ‘I am the way, and the truth, no one comes to the Father except through me. 7 If you know me, you know my Father also. From now on you do know him and have seen him. ’ In the Latin Vulgate, the phrase The Way is also found in Acts 9,2 and 19,23 as a term to describe the early church. Arad, the capital of Arad County, Romania, the variation Veritas, Via, Vitae, appears on the seal of the Province of Negros Oriental, the Philippines. Thomas High School in Pointe-Claire, Quebec, Canada, founded 1960 St. Francis Xavier College in Beaconsfield, Berwick, Officer, Victoria, Australia, founded 1978 St
2.
Ancient university
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The ancient universities are seven extant British and Irish medieval universities and early modern universities founded before the year 1600. Four of these are located in Scotland, two in England, and one in Ireland, the ancient universities in Britain and Ireland are amongst the oldest extant universities in the world. The ancient universities of Scotland also share several features and are governed by arrangements laid down by the Universities Acts. The ancient universities are distinctive in awarding the Magister Artium/Master of Arts as an academic degree. This is commonly known as the Oxbridge MA, Trinity MA, some confusion can arise as to whether such degrees are taught degrees or the most established two-year research degrees, although this is often specified. As mentioned above, the Universities Acts created a system of governance for the ancient universities in Scotland. Despite not being founded until after the first in series of Acts. As a result of these Acts, each of these universities is governed by a system of General Council, University Court. The chief executive and chief academic is the University Principal who also holds the title of Vice-Chancellor as an honorific, each also has a Students Representative Council as required by statute, although at the University of Aberdeen this has recently been renamed the Students Association Council. Following the creation of the ancient universities, no universities were created in Britain. Precisely which of these 19th-century institutions was the earliest post-ancient university is a matter of debate, in addition the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow traces its origins back to the Andersonian Institute of 1796, but did not receive a Royal Charter until 1964. The more recent red brick universities of the later 19th century, thereafter in the 1950s and 60s the plate glass universities were formed and after the Further and Higher Education Act 1992, polytechnics were granted university status
3.
Public university
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A public university is a university that is predominantly funded by public means through a national or subnational government, as opposed to private universities. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country to another, in Egypt, Al-Azhar University opened in 975 AD as the second oldest university in the world. In Nigeria Public Universities can be established by both the Federal Government and by State Governments, students are enrolled after completing the 8-4-4 system of education and attaining a mark of C+ or above. They are also eligible for a low interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board and they are expected to pay back the loan after completing higher education. South Africa has 23 public tertiary institutions, either categorised as a traditional university or a comprehensive university. Almost entire national universities in Brunei are public universities and these are major universities in Brunei, University of Brunei Darussalam Brunei Technological University Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University There are 40 public universities in Bangladesh. The University Grant Commission is the body for all the public universities in Bangladesh. The universities do not deal directly with the government, but with the University Grants Commission, recently many private universities are established under the Private University Act of 1992. In mainland China, nearly all universities and research institutions are public and currently, the public universities are usually run by the provincial governments, there are also circumstances where the municipal governments administer the universities. Some public universities are national, which are administered by the central government. Private undergraduate colleges do exist, which are vocational colleges sponsored by private enterprises. The majority of universities are not entitled to award bachelors degrees. Public universities usually enjoy higher reputation domestically, eight institutions are funded by the University Grants Committee. The Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government, the Open University of Hong Kong is also a public university, but it is largely self-financed. The Shue Yan University is the private institution with the status of a university. There are public and private institutes in Indonesia. The government provide public universities, institutes, high schools and academies in each province, the private educational institution usually provided by religious organizations, public organizations, and some big companies. In India, most universities and nearly all research institutions are public, There are some private undergraduate colleges, mostly engineering schools, but a majority of these are affiliated to public universities
4.
Research university
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Such universities can be recognized by their strong focus on innovative research and the prestige of their brand names. From the late 20th century to the present, U. S. research universities have dominated most international college and university rankings
5.
Financial endowment
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A financial endowment is a donation of money or property to a nonprofit organization for the ongoing support of that organization. An endowment may come with stipulations regarding its usage, the total value of an institutions investments is often referred to as the institutions endowment and is typically organized as a public charity, private foundation, or trust. Among the institutions that commonly manage endowments are academic institutions, cultural institutions, service organizations, the earliest endowed chairs were those established by the Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius in Athens in AD176. Aurelius created one endowed chair for each of the schools of philosophy, Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism. Later, similar endowments were set up in other major cities of the Empire. Today, the University of Glasgow has fifteen Regius Professorships, private individuals soon adopted the practice of endowing professorships. Isaac Newton held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge beginning in 1669, unrestricted endowment can be used in any way the recipient chooses to carry out its mission. Term endowment funds stipulate that all or part of the principal may be expended only after the expiration of a period of time or occurrence of a specified event. Quasi endowment funds must retain the purpose and intent as specified by the donor or source of the original funds, Endowment revenue can be restricted by donors to serve many purposes. Endowed professorships or scholarships restricted to a subject are common. Ignoring the restriction is called invading the endowment, but change of circumstance or financial duress like bankruptcy can preclude carrying out the donors intent. A court can alter the use of restricted endowment under a doctrine called cy-près meaning to find an alternative as near as possible to the donors intent, the restricted/unrestricted distinction focuses on the use of the funds, see quasi-endowment below for a distinction about whether principal can be spent. Academic institutions, such as colleges and universities, will control a endowment fund that finances a portion of the operating or capital requirements of the institution. In addition to an endowment fund, each university may also control a number of restricted endowments that are intended to fund specific areas within the institution. The most common examples are endowed professorships, and endowed scholarships or fellowships, in the United States, the endowment is often integral to the financial health of educational institutions. Alumni or friends of institutions sometimes contribute capital to the endowment, the endowment funding culture is strong in the United States and Canada but less pronounced overseas, with the exceptions of Cambridge and Oxford universities. Endowment funds have also created to support secondary and elementary school districts in several states in the United States. An endowed professorship is a position permanently paid for with the revenue from an endowment fund set up for that purpose
6.
Pound sterling
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It is subdivided into 100 pence. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have called the pound. At various times, the sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold. The pound sterling is the worlds oldest currency still in use, the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey produce their own local issues of sterling, the Guernsey pound and the Jersey pound. The pound sterling is also used in the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, the Bank of England is the central bank for the pound sterling, issuing its own coins and banknotes, and regulating issuance of banknotes by private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sterling is the fourth most-traded currency in the exchange market, after the United States dollar, the euro. Together with those three currencies it forms the basket of currencies which calculate the value of IMF special drawing rights, Sterling is also the third most-held reserve currency in global reserves. The full, official name, pound sterling, is used mainly in formal contexts, otherwise the term pound is normally used. The abbreviations ster. or stg. are sometimes used, the term British pound is commonly used in less formal contexts, although it is not an official name of the currency. The pound sterling is also referred to as cable amongst forex traders, the origins of this term are attributed to the fact that in the 1800s, the dollar/pound sterling exchange rate was transmitted via transatlantic cable. Forex brokers are sometimes referred to as cable dealers, as another established source notes, the compound expression was then derived, silver coins known as sterlings were issued in the Saxon kingdoms,240 of them being minted from a pound of silver. Hence, large payments came to be reckoned in pounds of sterlings, in 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. And because the Leagues money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, and land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. For further discussion of the etymology of sterling, see sterling silver, the currency sign for the pound sign is £, which is usually written with a single cross-bar, though a version with a double cross-bar is also sometimes seen. The ISO4217 currency code is GBP, occasionally, the abbreviation UKP is used but this is non-standard because the ISO3166 country code for the United Kingdom is GB. The Crown dependencies use their own codes, GGP, JEP, stocks are often traded in pence, so traders may refer to pence sterling, GBX, when listing stock prices. A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is quid, since decimalisation in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence. The symbol for the penny is p, hence an amount such as 50p properly pronounced fifty pence is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced fifty pee /fɪfti, pi and this also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system
7.
Kenneth Calman
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Sir Kenneth Charles Calman, KCB DL FRCP FRCS FRSE FRCGP is a Scottish cancer researcher and former Chief Medical Officer of Scotland, and then England and Wales. He was Warden and Vice-Chancellor of Durham University from 1998 to 2006 and he has held the position of Chair of National Cancer Research Institute since April 2008. From 2008 to 2009, he was convener of the Calman Commission on Scottish devolution, Kenneth Calman was born on Christmas Day 1941 to Grace Douglas Don and Arthur McIntosh Calman. He was educated at Allan Glens School and the University of Glasgow and he began medical training, and took an intercalated BSc in biochemistry, whilst studying for his MB ChB, the general medical degree. He undertook a PhD in dermatology and also received an MD, in 1974, he was appointed to the Chair of Clinical Oncology, and became Dean of Postgraduate Medicine in 1984. Calman was appointed Chief Medical Officer for Scotland, at the Scottish Office in 1989 and he was then appointed Chief Medical Officer for England and Wales, by the United Kingdom government, at the Department of Health in 1991–98, a period that included the BSE crisis. In 1998, he was appointed Vice-Chancellor and Warden of Durham University, a new college was also opened in 2006, Josephine Butler College. His time as vice-chancellor also saw the closure of the Department of Applied Linguistics in 2003, Professor Calman retired as Warden in 2006 and was succeeded by Professor Christopher Higgins. Calman was a member of the Nuffield Council on Bioethics from 2000–2008 and he chaired its inquiry on the Ethics of research related to healthcare in developing countries from 2000–2002, and was a member of the Working Party on Public health from 2006–2007. Calman was Chair of the Board of Trustees of the National Trust for Scotland from 2010 to 2015, on 1 October 2016 he took up the position of Chair of the Board of National Library of Scotland. Calman is the chair of a commission established by the Scottish Parliament in March 2008 to review Scottish devolution, other Commission members include former Lord Advocate Colin Boyd, former Deputy First Minister Jim Wallace, and Mona Siddiqui, Professor of Islamic Studies at the University of Glasgow. The Commission published its first interim report in December 2008, and he has been President of The Boys Brigade since September 2007, and addressed his first Council meeting as President at Tulliallan Castle in September 2008. He married Anne Wilkie in 1967, and has a son and he enjoys collecting cartoons and sundials, and has a dog. Sheard, Sally, The Nations Doctor, London, The Nuffield Trust Kenneth Calman, The cautious doctor BBC News, Devolution Review Body Launched Appointment as Deputy Lieutenant
8.
Rector (academia)
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A rector is a term used in non-English-speaking countries for a university chancellor. In the sphere of academia, it is the highest academic official of universities and in certain other institutions of higher education. The term and office of a rector are called a rectorate, the title is used widely in universities in Europe. And is very common in Latin American countries and it is also used in Brunei, Turkey, Russia, Pakistan, the Philippines, Indonesia, Israel and the Middle East. In some universities, the title is phrased in an even loftier manner and this term is generally not used in English-speaking countries. In England and elsewhere in Great Britain, the head of a university is referred to as a chancellor. This pattern has been followed in the Commonwealth, the United States, in Scotland, many universities are headed by a chancellor, with the Lord Rector designated as an elected representative of students at the head of the university court. The head of a university in Germany is called a president, rector magnificus or rectrix magnifica, in Dutch universities, the rector magnificus is the most publicly prominent member of the board, responsible for the scientific agenda of the university. In the Netherlands, the rector is, however, not the chair of the university board, the chair has, in practice, the most influence over the management of the University. In some countries, including Germany, the position of teacher in secondary schools is also designated as rector. In the Netherlands, the rector and conrector are used commonly for high school directors. This is also the case in some Maltese secondary schools, in the Scandinavian countries, the head of a university or a gymnasium is called a rektor. In Sweden and Norway, this term is used for the heads of primary schools. For example, in Portugal, the rector of the University of Coimbra, the heads of Czech universities are called the rektor. The rector acts in the name of the university and decides the universitys affairs unless prohibited by law, the rector is nominated by the University Academic Senate and appointed by the President of the Czech Republic. The nomination must be agreed by a majority of all senators. The vote to elect or repeal a rector is secret, the term of office is four years and a person may hold it for at most two consecutive terms. The rector appoints vice-rectors, who act as deputies to the extent the Rector determines, Rectors salaries are determined directly by the Minister of Education
9.
Anton Muscatelli
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Vito Antonio Anton Muscatelli FRSA FRSE FAcSS is the Principal of the University of Glasgow and one of the United Kingdoms top economists. Anton Muscatelli was born on 1 January 1962 in Italy to Ambrogio and his father, who was head of a shipping company, relocated the family first to Holland and then to Glasgow. Anton was educated at The High School of Glasgow and the University of Glasgow and he was a Lecturer and Senior Lecturer at the University of Glasgow from 1984 to 1992, and Daniel Jack Professor of Political Economy from 1992 until 2007. He was Dean of the Faculty of Social Sciences,2000 to 2004, 1980-84 - MA Political Economy, University of Glasgow. 1984-87 - PhD Political Economy, University of Glasgow, 1984-90 - Lecturer in the Department of Political Economy, University of Glasgow. 1990-92 - Senior Lecturer in the Department of Political Economy, University of Glasgow, 1992-94 - Professor in the Department of Political Economy, University of Glasgow. 1994-07 - Daniel Jack Professor of Political Economy, University of Glasgow, 1995-00 - Head of the Department of Political Economy, University of Glasgow. 2000-04 - Dean of the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Glasgow, 2004-07 - Vice-Principal, University of Glasgow. 2007-09 - Principal and Vice-Chancellor, Heriot Watt University, 2009–present - Principal and Vice-Chancellor, University of Glasgow. Muscatelli has been a consultant to the World Bank and the European Commission and this included experts from the UK, Europe, and North America. In 2015 he was appointed to the Council of Economic Advisers of the First Minister of Scotland and he chaired the Research and Commercialisation Committee of Universities Scotland in 2007-08 and from 2008 to 2010 was Convener of Universities Scotland and Vice-President of Universities UK. In 2012 he was awarded a doctorate from McGill University, Montreal. In April 2012 he was appointed to the Board of the Scottish Funding Council which provides funding, from 2014 he is Honorary President of the David Hume Institute, succeeding Lord Steel. He has held visiting appointments in many universities, including in 2014, Guest Professor of Nankai University, Tianjin, Muscatelli was appointed Principal of Heriot-Watt University on 10 October 2006, with effect from 1 February 2007. He replaced John Archer, who retired and his tenure as principal saw expansion in the University and rises in league tables. He was described by The Herald in 2008 as one of the lights in Scottish higher education. During his time here, he has led the university to a strategy which will be our foundation for the future. Muscatelli was succeeded as Principal of Heriot-Watt on 1 September 2009 by Steve Chapman, Muscatelli succeeded Sir Muir Russell as Principal and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Glasgow in October 2009
10.
Postgraduate education
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In North America, this level is generally referred to as graduate school. The organization and structure of education varies in different countries. This article outlines the types of courses and of teaching and examination methods. There are two types of degrees studied for at the postgraduate level, academic and vocational degrees. The term degree in this means the moving from one stage or level to another. University studies took six years for a degree and up to twelve additional years for a masters degree or doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, the main emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained, the student could choose one of three faculties—law, medicine, or theology—in which to pursue masters or doctors degrees. Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects, the main significance of the higher, postgraduate degrees was that they licensed the holder to teach. In most countries, the hierarchy of postgraduate degrees is as follows, in Scottish Universities, the Master of Philosophy degree tends to be by research or higher masters degree and the Master of Letters degree tends to be the taught or lower masters degree. In many fields such as social work, or library science in North America. Professional degrees such as the Master of Architecture degree can last to three and a years to satisfy professional requirement to be an architect. Professional degrees such as the Master of Business Administration degree can last up to two years to satisfy the requirement to become a business leader. These are often divided into academic and professional doctorates. An academic doctorate can be awarded as a Doctor of Philosophy degree or as a Doctor of Science degree, a doctorate is the terminal degree in most fields. In the United States, there is distinction between a Doctor of Philosophy degree and a Doctor of Science degree. In the second half of the 19th century, however, US universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates, in the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the NVQ5 or QCF8. Most universities award degrees, usually at the postgraduate level
11.
Glasgow
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Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland, and third largest in the United Kingdom. Historically part of Lanarkshire, it is now one of the 32 council areas of Scotland and it is situated on the River Clyde in the countrys West Central Lowlands. Inhabitants of the city are referred to as Glaswegians, Glasgow grew from a small rural settlement on the River Clyde to become the largest seaport in Britain. From the 18th century the city grew as one of Great Britains main hubs of transatlantic trade with North America. Glasgow was the Second City of the British Empire for much of the Victorian era and Edwardian period, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries Glasgow grew in population, reaching a peak of 1,128,473 in 1939. The entire region surrounding the conurbation covers about 2.3 million people, at the 2011 census, Glasgow had a population density of 8, 790/sq mi, the highest of any Scottish city. Glasgow hosted the 2014 Commonwealth Games and is well known in the sporting world for the football rivalry of the Old Firm between Celtic and Rangers. Glasgow is also known for Glasgow patter, a dialect that is noted for being difficult to understand by those from outside the city. Glasgow is the form of the ancient Cumbric name Glas Cau. Possibly referring to the area of Molendinar Burn where Glasgow Cathedral now stands, the later Gaelic name Baile Glas Chu, town of the grey dog, is purely a folk-etymology. The present site of Glasgow has been settled since prehistoric times, it is for settlement, being the furthest downstream fording point of the River Clyde, the origins of Glasgow as an established city derive ultimately from its medieval position as Scotlands second largest bishopric. Glasgow increased in importance during the 10th and 11th centuries as the site of this bishopric, reorganised by King David I of Scotland and John, there had been an earlier religious site established by Saint Mungo in the 6th century. The bishopric became one of the largest and wealthiest in the Kingdom of Scotland, bringing wealth, sometime between 1189 and 1195 this status was supplemented by an annual fair, which survives as the Glasgow Fair. Glasgow grew over the following centuries, the first bridge over the River Clyde at Glasgow was recorded from around 1285, giving its name to the Briggait area of the city, forming the main North-South route over the river via Glasgow Cross. The founding of the University of Glasgow in 1451 and elevation of the bishopric to become the Archdiocese of Glasgow in 1492 increased the towns religious and educational status and landed wealth. Its early trade was in agriculture, brewing and fishing, with cured salmon and herring being exported to Europe, Glasgow was subsequently raised to the status of Royal Burgh in 1611. The citys Tobacco Lords created a water port at Port Glasgow on the Firth of Clyde. By the late 18th century more than half of the British tobacco trade was concentrated on Glasgows River Clyde, at the time, Glasgow held a commercial importance as the city participated in the trade of sugar, tobacco and later cotton
12.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
13.
Glasgow Dental Hospital and School
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The Glasgow Dental Hospital and School is a dental teaching hospital, situated in the Garnethill area of the city centre of Glasgow, Scotland. Dental students have been educated in Glasgow since 1879, and the Dental School began issuing the Bachelor of Dental Surgery Degree of the University of Glasgow in 1948, the current hospital is based in a 1931 Art Deco building on Renfrew Street. Designed by Wylie, Wright, and Wylie, is protected as a category B listed building, there is also a larger extension fronting Sauchiehall Street built in the brutalist style by Melville Dundas & Whitson in 1970. The West of Scotland Postgraduate Dental Centre is located adjacent to the Dental School and provides post-graduate and distance dental education
14.
University of Glasgow School of Law
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There are forty-nine full-time academic staff and over one thousand students. The current Head of the School of Law is Professor Iain MacNeil, at the Universitys foundation in 1451, there were four original faculties, Arts, Divinity, Law and Medicine. Both Canon and Civil Law were taught, however by the sixteenth Century and it was during this time that James Dalrymple of Stair came to Glasgow to study for an M. A. and then became a regent teaching philosophy. He went on to become Lord President of the Court of Session in 1671, and published his Institutions of the Law of Scotland in 1681, the Stair Building, where the School of Law is housed, is named in his honour. In 1713, Queen Anne endowed the Regius Chair of Law at the University, the first occupant of the Chair was William Forbes, and subsequent notable Professors have included John Millar, William Gloag, David Walker and Joe Thomson. In 1984, the Faculty of Law became the Faculty of Law and Financial Studies, and in 1992, in 2005, the Faculty merged with the Faculty of Social Sciences, becoming the Faculty of Law, Business and Social Sciences. The School of Law is housed in the Stair Building, a row of internally connected terraced houses on The Square opposite the University Chapel, CREATe CREATe is the RCUK research centre for copyright and new business models in the creative economy. CREATe is supported by £5m of funding over four years from the Arts and Humanities Research Council, Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, Law with European Legal Studies LL. B. Law with Joint Honours Applicants for all courses, except the two-year accelerated LL. B. are required to sit the Law National Admissions Test. Research Degrees The School of Law awards the degrees of LL. M. by Research and Ph. D. the School of Law has fostered links with universities all around the world to provide exchange and study abroad programmes. Students have 37 European and international partnerships including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Hong Kong, approximately 65% of the third year student cohort study abroad. In addition to being a part of the Law with Languages programme it is open to all honours students in the School of Law. The Schools International Officer is Professor Jim Murdoch, Students in the School of Law elect class representatives from each of their classes to represent them at meetings of committees within the School of Law. The School comes within the College of Social Science constituency on the Students Representative Council, the Glasgow University Law Society organises social activities for students at the School of Law, including the annual Law Ball, held every February. The Society co-ordinate various different events, focusing around being either social, academic or charity, membership is open to all students of the School of Law, and the Society is affiliated to the SRC. The Society publishes the Glasgow University Law Review, a publication containing legal articles written by members of the Society. The Editor-in-Chief of the Law Review sits on the Society committee, the School of Law has a student-run Mooting Society, which runs an internal competition, The Deans Cup, as well as organising the Alexander Stone National Legal Debate. All Scottish universities offering the LL. B. are entitled to enter this, the final is held in February or March each year in the Alexander Stone Court Room on the ground floor of the Stair Building
15.
University of Glasgow Medical School
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The University of Glasgow School of Medicine is the medical school of the University of Glasgow, Scotland, and is one of the largest in Europe, offering a 5-year MBChB degree course. It is ranked 6th in the UK for medicine by the Complete University Guide 2015, the School of Medicine uses lecture-based learning, problem-based learning and Glasgows case-based learning. The University of Glasgow School of Medicine has a history dating back to its seventeenth-century beginnings, achievements in medical science include contributions from renowned physicians such as Joseph Lister, George Beatson, John Macintyre, William Hunter and Ian Donald. In addition to achievements in science, the school has produced distinguished literary figures such as Tobias Smollett. Robert Mayne was appointed the Professor of Medicine in 1637 and held this post until 1645, after a lapse of almost 70 years, John Johnstoun MD was appointed in 1714. However, the modern School of Medicine did not come into being until 1751, the School of Medicine moved from their original location in High Street, to Gilmorehill in the citys west end in 1870. In 1996, the School of Medicine introduced a new curriculum, in response to the GMC document Tomorrows Doctors, the new course was integrated and delivered by Problem-based learning. In 2002, the School of Medicine moved into the purpose built Wolfson Medical School Building located at the bottom of University Avenue, designed by Reiach, in 2005, it was included in the Prospect 100 best modern Scottish buildings rankings. In 2009 the school received an award for Excellence in Learning, as a result, the most formidable change was the introduction of a course which incorporated all current forms of teaching, moving away from a Problem-based Learning core of teaching. Students are introduced to clinical scenarios from the beginning of their education, facilities include areas for developing clinical skills and a fully equipped ward housed in the award-winning Wolfson Medical School Building. The School of Medicine is one of three schools in the University of Glasgow’s Biomedical Territory, which includes the School of Biological & Life Sciences. The Biomedical Territory is home to more than 485 academic staff, the Territory’s research awards since 2001 have exceeded £638M, including investment of over £77M in capital infrastructure. The MBChB programme in Glasgow is based on integration of clinical and preclinical subjects, the programme is based around vertical themes that comprise the basic disciplines of medicine, such as anatomy and physiology, pathology and microbiology, clinical medicine and clinical surgery. Teaching methods include lectures, tutorials, problem-based learning, practical laboratory sessions, Phase 1 Phase 1 takes up most of the first semester. This is a sweep of biomedical subjects, and early clinical and vocational skills. During this phase the student acquires the fundamentals of science. The themes covered in this section include homeostasis, basic anatomy, physiology and biochemistry, Phase 2 Phase 2 takes up the second half of first year and all of second year. It is a system-based, integrated approach to biomedical sciences and basic clinical problems relating to individual systems, Phase 3 Phase 3 takes up the first half of third year, during which time the student learns the basics of pathology, covering a speciality a week
16.
Russell Group
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The Russell Group is a self-selected association of twenty-four public research universities in the United Kingdom. In 2010, Russell Group members received approximately two-thirds of all university research grant, the group is widely perceived as representing the best universities in the country. Russell Group members award 60% of all doctorates gained in the United Kingdom, in the 2014 Research Excellence Framework, 68% of world-leading research and 68% of research with an outstanding impact was carried out in Russell Group universities. The Russell Group is so named because the first informal meetings of the Group took place at the Hotel Russell in Russell Square, in 1998 Cardiff University and Kings College London joined the group. In November 2006 Queens University Belfast was admitted as the member of the group. In the same month Wendy Piatt, the deputy director in the Prime Ministers strategy unit, was announced as the groups new Director General. In March 2012 it was announced that four universities – Durham, Exeter, Queen Mary University of London, all of the new members had previously been members of the 1994 Group of British universities. In January 2013 it was announced that the Russell Group would establish a board to advise the English exams watchdog Ofqual on the content of A-Levels. The Russell Group is led by acting Director Dr Tim Bradshaw following the departure of Wendy Piatt and it is chaired by Prof Sir David Greenaway, Vice-Chancellor of the University of Nottingham. The Russell Group currently has twenty four members, of twenty are from England. Four Russell Group members are constituent colleges of the University of London, the table below gives the members of the group, along with when they joined, their total number of students, and their income. Notes, † Includes Cambridge Assessment and Cambridge University Press, excludes colleges, the only English Russell Group institution to receive an allocation below £20M was the LSE, which ranked 22nd behind the Universities of Leicester and Lancaster. In 2010/11,19 of the 20 UK universities with the highest income from grants and contracts were members of the Russell Group. In terms of research funding allocations from the Higher Education Funding Council for England in 2007/8. LSE was 21st, due to its focus on less costly social sciences research, Queens University Belfast, Cardiff, Glasgow and Edinburgh, were not included in this table, as they are not English institutions. The Russell Group institutions received 82% of the total HEFCE research funding allocation, the research funding figures depend on factors other than the quality of research, in particular there are variations due to institutional size and subject spread. In 2008,18 of the then 20 members were positioned in the top 20 of Research Fortnights Research Assessment Exercise Power Table, the other two places were occupied by Durham University and Queen Mary University of London, which were not then Russell Group members but have since joined. The two Russell Group institutions outside the top 20 were QUB and the LSE, while the two universities to have since joined were York and Exeter
17.
Universitas 21
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Founded in 1997, Universitas 21 is an international network of universities, established as an international reference point and resource for strategic thinking on issues of global significance. It currently has twenty-six member universities in seventeen different countries and territories, together, there are 1. 3M students and 210,000 academics and researchers associated with these universities. In 2001, in association with Thomson Learning, Universitas 21 formed a university called Universitas 21 Global. The program is administered by U21pedagogica Ltd. which is chartered in Guernsey and headquartered in Charlottesville, Thomson Learning became Cengage Learning, then sold its entire 50% in U21Global share to Mauritius-based Manipal Universal Learning International for an undisclosed sum in 2007. Since 2012, Universitas 21 has commissioned the U21 Ranking of National Higher Education Systems and it evaluates the standing of national higher education systems by providing rankings in four broad areas, resources, environment, connectivity and output. The rankings are then combined to provide an overall ranking, Universitas 21 is a United Nations Academic Impact Partner
18.
Association of Commonwealth Universities
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The Association of Commonwealth Universities represents 535 universities from 37 Commonwealth countries. It is the worlds first and oldest international university network, established in 1913, a UK-registered charity, the ACU has over 500 member institutions in developed and developing countries across the Commonwealth. Drawing on the experience and expertise, the ACU seeks to address issues in international higher education through a range of projects, networks. The Association of Commonwealth Universities is governed by its member institutions through an elected Council, as the ACU is a UK-registered charity, Council members also act as its Trustees. The ACU Council comprises up to 23 members,20 elected Council members, in 1912, the University of London took the initiative to assemble 53 representatives of universities in London to hold a Congress of Universities of the Empire. They decided they needed a bureau of information and its affairs would be handled by a committee representing universities at home and abroad. In 1913 the office opened as the Universities Bureau of the British Empire, in 1948 the name was changed to Association of Universities of the British Commonwealth, and in 1963 it changed to its current name. Dr Anastasios Christodoulou was the Secretary General of the Association of Commonwealth Universities from 1980 to 1996, in 1986, Queen Elizabeth II became patron of the Association of Commonwealth Universities. Currently 37 countries from the Commonwealth are represented in the Association
19.
Scottish Gaelic
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Scottish Gaelic or Scots Gaelic, sometimes also referred to as Gaelic, is a Celtic language native to Scotland. A member of the Goidelic branch of the Celtic languages, Scottish Gaelic, like Modern Irish and Manx, developed out of Middle Irish. The 2011 census of Scotland showed that a total of 57,375 people in Scotland could speak Gaelic at that time, the census results indicate a decline of 1,275 Gaelic speakers from 2001. A total of 87,056 people in 2011 reported having some facility with Gaelic compared to 93,282 people in 2001, only about half of speakers were fully literate in the language. Nevertheless, revival efforts exist and the number of speakers of the language under age 20 has increased, Scottish Gaelic is neither an official language of the European Union nor the United Kingdom. Outside Scotland, a group of dialects collectively known as Canadian Gaelic are spoken in parts of Atlantic Canada, mainly Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. In the 2011 census, there were 7,195 total speakers of Gaelic languages in Canada, with 1,365 in Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island where the responses mainly refer to Scottish Gaelic. About 2,320 Canadians in 2011 also claimed Gaelic languages as their mother tongue, with over 300 in Nova Scotia, aside from Scottish Gaelic, the language may also be referred to simply as Gaelic. In Scotland, the word Gaelic in reference to Scottish Gaelic specifically is pronounced, outside Ireland and Great Britain, Gaelic may refer to the Irish language. Scottish Gaelic should not be confused with Scots, the Middle English-derived language varieties which had come to be spoken in most of the Lowlands of Scotland by the modern era. Prior to the 15th century, these dialects were known as Inglis by its own speakers, from the late 15th century, however, it became increasingly common for such speakers to refer to Scottish Gaelic as Erse and the Lowland vernacular as Scottis. Today, Scottish Gaelic is recognised as a language from Irish. Gaelic in Scotland was mostly confined to Dál Riata until the 8th century, when it began expanding into Pictish areas north of the Firth of Forth, by 900, Pictish appears to have become extinct, completely replaced by Gaelic. An exception might be made for the Northern Isles, however, however, though the Pictish language did not disappear suddenly, a process of Gaelicisation was clearly underway during the reigns of Caustantín and his successors. By a certain point, probably during the 11th century, all the inhabitants of Alba had become fully Gaelicised Scots, by the 10th century, Gaelic had become the dominant language throughout northern and western Scotland, the Gaelo-Pictic Kingdom of Alba. Its spread to southern Scotland, was even and totalizing. Place name analysis suggests dense usage of Gaelic in Galloway and adjoining areas to the north and west as well as in West Lothian, less dense usage is suggested for north Ayrshire, Renfrewshire, the Clyde Valley and eastern Dumfriesshire. In south-eastern Scotland, there is no evidence that Gaelic was ever widely spoken, the area shifted from Cumbric to Old English during its long incorporation into the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria
20.
English-speaking world
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Approximately 330 to 360 million people speak English as their first language. More than half of live in the United States, followed by some 55 million in England. English is the third largest language by number of speakers, after Mandarin. Estimates that include second language speakers vary greatly, from 470 million to more than 1 billion, david Crystal calculates that non-native speakers as of 2003 outnumbered native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1. When combining native and non-native speakers, English is the most widely spoken language worldwide, there are six large countries with a majority of native English speakers that are sometimes grouped under the term Anglosphere. They are, in descending order of English speakers, the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Ireland, other substantial communities of native speakers are found in South Africa, and Nigeria. Also there are countries where in a part of the territory English became a language, e. g. Colombias San Andrés y Providencia. This was a result of the influence of British colonization in the area, English is one of the eleven official languages that are given equal status in South Africa. It is also the language in current dependent territories of Australia and of the United States. Although the United States federal government has no official languages, English has been official status by 32 of the 50 state governments. It is, by treaty, the official language for aeronautical. English is one of the languages of the United Nations and many other international organizations. In 2012, excluding native speakers,38 percent of Europeans consider that they can speak English, in publishing, English literature predominates considerably with 28 percent of all books published in the world and 30 percent of web content in 2011. This increasing use of the English language globally has had a impact on many other languages, leading to language shift and even language death. English itself has more open to language shift as multiple regional varieties feed back into the language as a whole. Variation in Nonnative Varieties of English, Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. Census 2011, Key Statistics for Northern Ireland December 2012, language in England and Wales,2011. Language Use in the United States,2011, Population by mother tongue and age groups,2011 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories
21.
University of Edinburgh
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The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582, is the sixth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands ancient universities. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city of Edinburgh, the University of Edinburgh was ranked 17th and 21st in the world by the 2014–15 and 2015-16 QS rankings. It is now ranked 19th in the according to 2016-17 QS Rankings. It is ranked 16th in the world in arts and humanities by the 2015–16 Times Higher Education Ranking and it is ranked the 23rd most employable university in the world by the 2015 Global Employability University Ranking. It is ranked as the 6th best university in Europe by the U. S. News Best Global Universities Ranking and it is a member of both the Russell Group, and the League of European Research Universities, a consortium of 21 research universities in Europe. It has the third largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom, after the universities of Cambridge and it continues to have links to the British Royal Family, having had the Duke of Edinburgh as its Chancellor from 1953 to 2010 and Princess Anne since 2011. Edinburgh receives approximately 50,000 applications every year, making it the fourth most popular university in the UK by volume of applicants, after St Andrews, it is the most difficult university to gain admission into in Scotland, and 9th overall in the UK. This was a move at the time, as most universities were established through Papal bulls. Established as the Tounis College, it opened its doors to students in October 1583, instruction began under the charge of another St Andrews graduate Robert Rollock. It was the fourth Scottish university in a period when the more populous. It was renamed King Jamess College in 1617, by the 18th century, the university was a leading centre of the Scottish Enlightenment. The universitys first custom-built building was the Old College, now Edinburgh Law School and its first forte in teaching was anatomy and the developing science of surgery, from which it expanded into many other subjects. From the basement of a nearby house ran the anatomy tunnel corridor and it went under what was then North College Street, and under the university buildings until it reached the universitys anatomy lecture theatre, delivering bodies for dissection. It was from this tunnel the body of William Burke was taken after he had been hanged, towards the end of the 19th century, Old College was becoming overcrowded and Robert Rowand Anderson was commissioned to design new Medical School premises in 1875. The medical school was more or less built to his design and was completed by the addition of the McEwan Hall in the 1880s. The building now known as New College was originally built as a Free Church college in the 1840s and has been the home of divinity at the university since the 1920s. The two oldest schools – law and divinity – are both well-esteemed, with law being based in Old College and divinity in New College on the Mound and they are also represented by the Edinburgh University Sports Union which was founded in 1866. The medical school is renowned throughout the world and it was widely considered the best medical school in the English-speaking world throughout the 18th century and first half of the 19th century
22.
Scottish Enlightenment
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The Scottish Enlightenment was the period in 18th and early 19th century Scotland characterised by an outpouring of intellectual and scientific accomplishments. By the eighteenth century, Scotland had a network of schools in the Lowlands. Among the fields that rapidly advanced were philosophy, political economy, engineering, architecture, medicine, geology, archaeology, law, agriculture, chemistry, the Scottish Enlightenment of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was a natural development of this earlier engagement and advancement of knowledge. Union with England in 1707 meant the end of the Scottish Parliament, the parliamentarians, politicians, aristocrats, and placemen moved to London. Scottish law, however, was separate from English law, so the civil law courts, lawyers. The headquarters and leadership of the Church of Scotland also remained, as did the universities, at the union of 1707, England had about five times the population of Scotland and about 36 times as much wealth. Scotland experienced the beginnings of economic expansion that allowed it to close this gap, contacts with England led to a conscious attempt to improve agriculture among the gentry and nobility. Although some estate holders improved the quality of life of their workers, enclosures led to unemployment. The major change in trade was the rapid expansion of the Americas as a market. Glasgow particularly benefited from this new trade, initially supplying the colonies with manufactured goods, it emerged as the focus of the tobacco trade, the merchants dealing in this lucrative business became the wealthy tobacco lords, who dominated the city for most of the eighteenth century. Banking also developed in this period, the Bank of Scotland, founded in 1695 was suspected of Jacobite sympathies, and so a rival Royal Bank of Scotland was founded in 1727. Local banks began to be established in burghs like Glasgow and Ayr and these made capital available for business, and the improvement of roads and trade. By the late 17th century there was a complete network of parish schools in the Lowlands. By the 17th century, Scotland had five universities, compared with Englands two, all saw the establishment or re-establishment of chairs of mathematics. Observatories were built at St. Andrews and at Kings and Marischal colleges in Aberdeen, Robert Sibbald was appointed as the first Professor of Medicine at Edinburgh, and he co-founded the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh in 1681. These developments helped the universities to major centres of medical education. By the 18th century, access to Scottish universities was probably more open than in contemporary England, attendance was less expensive and the student body more socially representative. In the eighteenth century Scotland reaped the benefits of this system
23.
High Street, Glasgow
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High Street is the oldest, and one of the most historically significant, streets in Glasgow, Scotland. Originally the citys main street in medieval times, it formed a direct north-south artery between the Cathedral of St. Mungo in the north, to Glasgow Cross and the banks of the River Clyde. The High Street now stops at Glasgow Cross, with the southern continuation being the Saltmarket, from 1451 to 1870, the original buildings of the University of Glasgow were located at the junction of High Street and Duke Street, before moving to the West End. The site was turned into the College Goods yard by the City of Glasgow Union Railway before it was closed in 1968 in the wake of the Beeching Axe. The original City Chambers at the foot of High Street was closed and moved to the present building stands overlooking George Square in the late 19th century. As the 20th century progressed, many areas of High Street fell into dereliction, however, in the early 21st Century, the fortunes of High Street have enjoyed a renaissance with Glasgows growing economy. Much of the land has been redeveloped into upmarket apartment buildings. The former railway lands next to High Street railway station are being developed into a science park, the railway station itself will be substantially remodelled if the Glasgow Crossrail scheme is approved by the Scottish Government
24.
Bearsden
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Bearsden is a town in East Dunbartonshire, Scotland. Bearsden was ranked the 7th-wealthiest area in Britain in a 2005 survey, the Roman Antonine Wall runs through the town and the remains of a military Bath House can be seen near the town centre. In 1649, the first New Kilpatrick parish church was built, the towns official Gaelic name Cille Phàdraig Ùr reflects the name of the parish. By the early 20th century, a town had grown up with large town houses, further development of more affordable housing has increased the population of the town to approximately 28,000 and the town remains affluent. Formerly a Burgh, local government of the town is now the responsibility of East Dunbartonshire Council which, the first known settlement on the site of present-day Bearsden was a 2.5 acres Roman fort in the second century AD. Between 142 and 144 AD, under Emperor Antoninus Pius, the Romans built a stone and turf fortification, called the Antonine Wall and they also built the Military Way, a road that ran parallel, to the south of the wall. The fort was positioned at the intersection of the Military Way, in 164 AD, after only 20 years, the Romans withdrew to Hadrians Wall. Little of the remains today. However, close to the fort was a Roman bath-house, built in approximately 142–143 AD, the bath-houses remains were discovered by builders digging foundations for a housing development in 1973. The site was donated to the government, and today the remains lie, two further stretches of the Antonine Walls stone base can be seen in the New Kilpatrick cemetery on Boclair Road. Prior to 1649, the formed part of a larger parish called Kilpatrick. One part was called West, or Old Kilpatrick, and covered Dumbarton and areas of west Dunbartonshire, the remaining part was named East or New Kilpatrick, covering a much greater area than Bearsden, from the River Clyde at Whiteinch and Yoker to Duntocher, Strathblane and Baldernock. Modern Bearsden began in an area as a small hamlet called New Kirk close to New Kilpatrick Parish Church. Close landmarks included Canniesburn Toll, and a mill at Garscube. The present-day church was built in 1807, the size and style of the community prior to urbanisation is recorded in Rambles Round Glasgow, first published in 1854. The author describes a route from Maryhill, crossing the River Kelvin at Garscube Mill to Canniesburn, at that point, the route takes the road to Drymen, rather than the alternative to Milngavie. Of particular note are the woods and gardens surrounding the houses of Killermont and Garscube. The kirk-toun is described as consisting of about a dozen cottages of idyllic rural beauty, isolated from the noise and dirt of Glasgow
25.
The Crichton
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The Crichton is an institutional campus in Dumfries in southwest Scotland. The site also includes a hotel and conference centre, and Crichton Memorial Church, the campus was established in the 19th century as the Crichton Royal Hospital, a psychiatric hospital. The last, and grandest, of Scotlands royal asylums was founded in Dumfries in 1838 by Elizabeth Crichton of Friars Carse and she persuaded the phrenologist William A. F. Browne to become medical superintendent and to implement his innovative ideas of occupational therapy and art therapy. Browne remained at the Crichton for almost twenty years and made a contribution to asylum psychiatry. He also hoarded a vast collection of patient art, after his appointment as Medical Commissioner in Lunacy, Browne was succeeded by Dr James Gilchrist, Dr Charles Easterbrook and Dr Alan Tait were later superintendents. The Crichton became widely known for its contributions to psychiatric research under the leadership of German Jewish émigrés. Elizabeth Crichtons initial intention to found a university in Dumfries was blocked by the existing Scottish universities, the Crichton was the subject of an unusually detailed and extensive asylum history - The Chronicle of Crichton Royal - written and edited by Charles Easterbrook, and published in 1940. Easterbrook wrote the book - in Edinburgh, at the Murrayfield private hotel - following his retirement as Physician Superintendent, psychotherapist Ursula Fleming was educated at the Crichton. Among the people to have been treated there are artist Charles Altamont Doyle, Lydia Miller, an unidentified female patient of Dr James Gilchrist featured as an illustration in Charles Darwins The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. The original hospital building, now Crichton Hall, was designed by William Burn, the hospital was expanded in the late 19th century, when Sydney Mitchell & Wilson added various buildings including the Crichton Memorial Church. Further villas were constructed in 1910–1914 by Mitchells assistant Ernest Auldo Jamieson, Crichton Hall and Crichton Memorial Church are category A listed buildings, with many of the other buildings listed at category B or category C. In 1995 the Crichton Development Company was established to regenerate the redundant hospital buildings, the redevelopment has seen several of the campus buildings reused as a business park, while the central area has been maintained as a public park. A golf course was developed to the west of the site, the Development Company acquired a 125-year lease on the site in 2004. Dumfries and Galloway College moved in 2008 from their previous site to a brand new purpose-built £40 million building within the grounds, with over 4000 students the campus has grown significantly following the relocation of Dumfries and Galloway College. Its previous student body was made up by around 250 Glasgow University students and 400 UWS students, collectively known as Crichton University Campus, the courses on offer include business, computing, teacher training and nursing courses. The Crichton Carbon Centre, housed in the Rutherford/McCowan building, is one of two places where the Carbon Management postgraduate degree is available in Scotland. The University of Glasgow offers an MA in Health and Social Policy, an MA Primary Education Programme with Teaching Qualification, Crichton F. C. took their name from playing on the sports fields at the campus Crichton Royal Hospital. Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland
26.
Dumfries
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Dumfries is a market town and former royal burgh within the Dumfries and Galloway council area of Scotland. It is near the mouth of the River Nith into the Solway Firth, Dumfries was a civil parish and became the county town of the former county of Dumfriesshire. Dumfries is nicknamed Queen of the South, people from Dumfries are known colloquially as Doonhamers. There are at least three theories on the etymology of the name, One is that the name Dumfries originates from the Scottish Gaelic name Dún Phris which means Fort of the Thicket. Another is that it comes from a Brythonic cognate of the alleged Gaelic derivation, No positive information has been obtained of the era and circumstances in which the town of Dumfries was founded. Some writers hold that Dumfries flourished as a place of distinction during the Roman occupation of North Great Britain. This is inferred from the etymology of the name, which, Dumfries was once within the borders of the Kingdom of Northumbria. The district around Dumfries was for centuries ruled over and deemed of much importance by the invading Romans. The Romanized natives received freedom as well as civilisation from their conquerors, late in the fourth century, the Romans bade farewell to the country. According to another theory, the name is a corruption of two words mean the Friars’ Hill, those who favour this idea allege that St. In the list of British towns given by the ancient historian Nennius, the name Caer Peris occurs, twelve of King Arthurs battles were recorded by Nennius in Historia Brittonum. The Battle of Tribruit, has suggested as having possibly been near Dumfries or near the mouth of the river Avon near Boness. It has been argued, the town thus characterised must have been Dumfries, however, against this argument is that the town is situated eight to nine miles distant from the sea, although the River Nith is tidal and navigable all the way into the town itself. Although at the time 1 mile upstream and on the bank of the Nith from Dumfries. The abbey ruins are on the site of the Bailey of the very early Lincluden Castle and this religious house was used for various purposes, until its abandonment around 1700. Lincluden Abbey and its grounds are now within the Dumfries urban conurbation boundary, William the Lion granted the charter to raise Dumfries to the rank of a Royal Burgh in 1186. Dumfries was very much on the frontier during its first 50 years as a burgh and it grew rapidly as a market town and port. Alexander III visited Dumfries in 1264 to plan an expedition against the Isle of Man, previously Scots, a royal castle, which no longer exists, was built in the 13th century on the site of the present Castledykes Park
27.
James Wilson
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James Wilson was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States and a signatory of the United States Declaration of Independence. Wilson was elected twice to the Continental Congress, where he represented Pennsylvania, a leading legal theorist, he was one of the six original justices appointed by George Washington to the Supreme Court of the United States. Wilson was one of seven children born into a Presbyterian farming family on September 14,1742 near St. Andrews, Scotland and he studied at the Universities of St. Andrews, Glasgow and Edinburgh, but never obtained a degree. While he was a student, he studied Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, including Francis Hutcheson, David Hume, imbued with the ideas of the Scottish Enlightenment he moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in British America in 1766, carrying valuable letters of introduction. These helped Wilson to begin tutoring and then teaching at The Academy and he petitioned there for a degree and was awarded an honorary Master of Arts several months later. Wilson began to read the law at the office of John Dickinson a short time later, after two years of study he attained the bar in Philadelphia, and in the following year, set up his own practice in Reading, Pennsylvania. His office was successful and he earned a small fortune in a few years. On November 5,1771, he married Rachel Bird, daughter of William Bird and Bridget Hulings, they had six children together, Mary, William, Bird, James, Emily and Charles. Rachel died in 1786, and in 1793 he married Hannah Gray, daughter of Ellis Gray and Sarah DOlbear, the marriage produced a son named Henry, after Wilsons death, Hannah married Thomas Bartlett, M. D. In 1774, Wilson published Considerations on the Nature and Extent of the Legislative Authority of the British Parliament, in this pamphlet, Wilson argued that the Parliament had no authority to pass laws for the American colonies because the colonies had no representation in Parliament. It presented his views that all power derived from the people, scholars considered his work on par with the seminal works of Thomas Jefferson and John Adams of the same year. However, it was penned in 1768, perhaps the first cogent argument to be formulated against British dominance. Some see Wilson as a leading revolutionary while others see him as another reluctant, in 1775 he was commissioned Colonel of the 4th Cumberland County Battalion and rose to the rank of Brigadier General of the Pennsylvania State Militia. As a member of the Continental Congress in 1776, James Wilson was an advocate for independence. Believing it was his duty to follow the wishes of his constituents, only after he received more feedback did he vote for independence. While serving in the Congress, Wilson was clearly among the leaders in the formation of French policy, Wilson also served from June 1776 on the Committee on Spies, along with John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, John Rutledge, and Robert R. Livingston. On October 4,1779, the Fort Wilson Riot began, after the British had abandoned Philadelphia, Wilson successfully defended at trial 23 people from property seizure and exile by the radical government of Pennsylvania. A mob whipped up by liquor and the writings and speeches of Joseph Reed, president of Pennsylvanias Supreme Executive Council, marched on Congressman Wilsons home at Third, Wilson and 35 of his colleagues barricaded themselves in his home, later nicknamed Fort Wilson
28.
Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)
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The Rev. Francis Hutcheson was an Irish philosopher born in Ulster to a family of Scottish Presbyterians who became known as founding fathers of the Scottish Enlightenment. Hutcheson took ideas from John Locke, and he was an important influence on the works of several significant Enlightenment thinkers, including David Hume and he is thought to have been born at Drumalig in the parish of Saintfield, County Down, Ireland. He was the son of a Presbyterian minister of Ulster Scottish stock, while a student, he worked as tutor to the Earl of Kilmarnock. He was induced to start an academy in Dublin, where he taught for 10 years, also studying philosophy and produced during 1725 Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty. This writing is written as two treatises, the subject of the first is aesthetics, and the second, morality, in Dublin his literary attainments gained him the friendship of many prominent inhabitants. Hon. and Most Rev. Dr William King, the Church of Ireland Lord Archbishop of Dublin, Hutchesons relations with the clergy of the established church, especially with Archbishop King and with The Rt. Hon. and Most Rev. probably refers to some offers of preferment, in 1725 Hutcheson married his cousin Mary, daughter of Francis Wilson of Longford. Her dowry included extensive property including the townlands of Drumnacross, Garrinch. They had seven children of whom one survived, also called Francis. The alterations and additions made in the edition of these essays were published in a separate form in 1726. At the end of the period occurred the controversy in the London Journal with Gilbert Burnet on the True Foundation of Virtue or Moral Goodness. All these letters were collected in one volume, in 1729, Hutcheson succeeded his old master, Gershom Carmichael, in the Chair of Moral Philosophy at the University of Glasgow, being the first professor there to lecture in English instead of Latin. It is curious that up to time all his essays and letters had been published anonymously. In 1730, he entered on the duties of his office, delivering an inaugural lecture and he appreciated having leisure for his favourite studies, non levi igitur laetitia commovebar cum almam matrem Academiam me, suum olim alumnum, in libertatem asseruisse audiveram. Yet the works on which Hutchesons reputation rests had already been published, during his time as a lecturer in Glasgow College he taught and influenced Adam Smith, the economist and philosopher. He order of topics discussed in the portion of Hutcheson’s System is repeated by Smith in his Glasgow Lectures. However, it was something other than Hutchesons written work that had such a great influence on Smith. His roots as a minister indeed shone through in his lectures, metaphysicae synopsis ontologiam et pneumatologiam campleciens
29.
James Watt
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While working as an instrument maker at the University of Glasgow, Watt became interested in the technology of steam engines. He realised that contemporary engine designs wasted a great deal of energy by repeatedly cooling and reheating the cylinder, Watt introduced a design enhancement, the separate condenser, which avoided this waste of energy and radically improved the power, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness of steam engines. Eventually he adapted his engine to produce rotary motion, greatly broadening its use beyond pumping water, Watt attempted to commercialise his invention, but experienced great financial difficulties until he entered a partnership with Matthew Boulton in 1775. The new firm of Boulton and Watt was eventually highly successful, in his retirement, Watt continued to develop new inventions though none was as significant as his steam engine work. He developed the concept of horsepower, and the SI unit of power, James Watt was born on 19 January 1736 in Greenock, Renfrewshire, a seaport on the Firth of Clyde. His father was a shipwright, ship owner and contractor, and served as the towns chief baillie, while his mother, Agnes Muirhead, both were Presbyterians and strong Covenanters. Watts grandfather, Thomas Watt, was a teacher and baillie to the Baron of Cartsburn. Despite being raised by parents, he later on became a deist. Watt did not attend regularly, initially he was mostly schooled at home by his mother but later he attended Greenock Grammar School. He exhibited great manual dexterity, engineering skills and an aptitude for mathematics, while Latin, when he was eighteen, his mother died and his fathers health began to fail. Watt travelled to London to study instrument-making for a year, then returned to Scotland and he made and repaired brass reflecting quadrants, parallel rulers, scales, parts for telescopes, and barometers, among other things. Because he had not served at least seven years as an apprentice, Watt was saved from this impasse by the arrival from Jamaica of astronomical instruments bequeathed by Alexander Macfarlane to the University of Glasgow, instruments that required expert attention. Watt restored them to working order and was remunerated and these instruments were eventually installed in the Macfarlane Observatory. Subsequently three professors offered him the opportunity to set up a workshop within the university. It was initiated in 1757 and two of the professors, the physicist and chemist Joseph Black as well as the famed Adam Smith, at first he worked on maintaining and repairing scientific instruments used in the university, helping with demonstrations, and expanding the production of quadrants. In 1759 he formed a partnership with John Craig, an architect and businessman, to manufacture and sell a line of products including musical instruments and this partnership lasted for the next six years, and employed up to sixteen workers. One employee, Alex Gardner, eventually took over the business, in 1764, Watt married his cousin Margaret Miller, with whom he had five children, two of whom lived to adulthood, James Jr. and Margaret. His wife died in childbirth in 1772, in 1777 he was married again, to Ann MacGregor, daughter of a Glasgow dye-maker, with whom he had two children, Gregory, who became a geologist and mineralogist, and Janet
30.
Adam Smith
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Adam Smith FRSA was a Scottish economist, philosopher, and author. He was a philosopher, a pioneer of political economy. He is best known for two works, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, and An Inquiry into the Nature. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Smith studied social philosophy at the University of Glasgow and at Balliol College, Oxford, after graduating, he delivered a successful series of public lectures at Edinburgh, leading him to collaborate with David Hume during the Scottish Enlightenment. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow teaching moral philosophy, and during this time he wrote, in his later life, he took a tutoring position that allowed him to travel throughout Europe, where he met other intellectual leaders of his day. Smith laid the foundations of free market economic theory. The Wealth of Nations was a precursor to the academic discipline of economics. In this and other works, he developed the concept of division of labour, Smith was controversial in his own day and his general approach and writing style were often satirised by Tory writers in the moralising tradition of William Hogarth and Jonathan Swift. In 2005, The Wealth of Nations was named among the 100 Best Scottish Books of all time, the minor planet 12838 Adamsmith was named in his memory. Smith was born in Kirkcaldy, in the County of Fife and his father, also Adam Smith, was a Scottish Writer to the Signet, advocate, and prosecutor and also served as comptroller of the Customs in Kirkcaldy. In 1720 he married Margaret Douglas, daughter of the landed Robert Douglas of Strathendry and his father died two months after he was born, leaving his mother a widow. The date of Smiths baptism into the Church of Scotland at Kirkcaldy was 5 June 1723, and this has often been treated as if it were also his date of birth, Smith was close to his mother, who probably encouraged him to pursue his scholarly ambitions. He attended the Burgh School of Kirkcaldy—characterised by Rae as one of the best secondary schools of Scotland at that period—from 1729 to 1737, he learned Latin, mathematics, history, Smith entered the University of Glasgow when he was fourteen and studied moral philosophy under Francis Hutcheson. Here, Smith developed his passion for liberty, reason, in 1740 Smith was the graduate scholar presented to undertake postgraduate studies at Balliol College, Oxford, under the Snell Exhibition. Adam Smith considered the teaching at Glasgow to be far superior to that at Oxford, according to William Robert Scott, The Oxford of time gave little if any help towards what was to be his lifework. Nevertheless, Smith took the opportunity while at Oxford to teach several subjects by reading many books from the shelves of the large Bodleian Library. When Smith was not studying on his own, his time at Oxford was not a happy one, near the end of his time there, Smith began suffering from shaking fits, probably the symptoms of a nervous breakdown
31.
William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin
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William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, OM, GCVO, PC, FRS, FRSE was a Scots-Irish mathematical physicist and engineer who was born in Belfast in 1824. He worked closely with mathematics professor Hugh Blackburn in his work and he also had a career as an electric telegraph engineer and inventor, which propelled him into the public eye and ensured his wealth, fame and honour. For his work on the telegraph project he was knighted in 1866 by Queen Victoria. He had extensive maritime interests and was most noted for his work on the mariners compass, absolute temperatures are stated in units of kelvin in his honour. He was ennobled in 1892 in recognition of his achievements in thermodynamics and he was the first British scientist to be elevated to the House of Lords. The title refers to the River Kelvin, which close by his laboratory at the University of Glasgow. His home was the red sandstone mansion Netherhall, in Largs. William Thomsons father, James Thomson, was a teacher of mathematics and engineering at Royal Belfast Academical Institution, James Thomson married Margaret Gardner in 1817 and, of their children, four boys and two girls survived infancy. Margaret Thomson died in 1830 when William was six years old, William and his elder brother James were tutored at home by their father while the younger boys were tutored by their elder sisters. James was intended to benefit from the share of his fathers encouragement, affection. In 1832, his father was appointed professor of mathematics at Glasgow, the Thomson children were introduced to a broader cosmopolitan experience than their fathers rural upbringing, spending mid-1839 in London and the boys were tutored in French in Paris. Mid-1840 was spent in Germany and the Netherlands, language study was given a high priority. His sister, Anna Thomson, was the mother of James Thomson Bottomley FRSE, Thomson had heart problems and nearly died when he was 9 years old. In school, Thomson showed a keen interest in the classics along with his natural interest in the sciences, at the age of 12 he won a prize for translating Lucian of Samosatas Dialogues of the Gods from Latin to English. In the academic year 1839/1840, Thomson won the prize in astronomy for his Essay on the figure of the Earth which showed an early facility for mathematical analysis. Throughout his life, he would work on the problems raised in the essay as a strategy during times of personal stress. On the title page of this essay Thomson wrote the lines from Alexander Popes Essay on Man. These lines inspired Thomson to understand the world using the power and method of science, Go
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Joseph Lister
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Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister, OM PC PRS, known between 1883 and 1897 as Sir Joseph Lister, Bt. was a British surgeon and a pioneer of antiseptic surgery. He promoted the idea of sterile portable ports while working at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary, Lister successfully introduced carbolic acid to sterilise surgical instruments and to clean wounds. Applying Louis Pasteurs advances in microbiology, Lister championed the use of acid as an antiseptic. He first suspected it would prove an adequate disinfectant because it was used to ease the stench from fields irrigated with sewage waste and he presumed it was safe because fields treated with carbolic acid produced no apparent ill-effects on the livestock that later grazed upon them. Listers work led to a reduction in post-operative infections and made safer for patients. Lister came from a prosperous Quaker home in West Ham, Essex, England, a son of Joseph Jackson Lister, at school, he became a fluent reader of French and German. A young Joseph Lister attended Benjamin Abbotts Isaac Brown Academy, a Quaker school in Hitchin, as a teenager, Lister attended Grove House School Tottenham, studying mathematics, natural science, and languages. He attended University College, London, one of only a few institutions which accepted Quakers at that time and he initially studied botany and obtained a bachelor of Arts degree in 1847. He registered as a student and graduated with honours as Bachelor of Medicine. In 1854, Lister became both first assistant to and friend of surgeon James Syme at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh Royal Infirmary in Scotland. There he joined the Royal Medical Society and presented two dissertations, in 1855 and 1871, which are still in the possession of the Society today and he subsequently left the Quakers, joined the Scottish Episcopal Church, and eventually married Symes daughter, Agnes. On their honeymoon, they spent 3 months visiting leading medical institutes in France, by this time, Agnes was enamoured of medical research and was Listers partner in the laboratory for the rest of her life. Before Listers studies of surgery, most people believed that damage from exposures to bad air was responsible for infections in wounds. Hospital wards were occasionally aired out at midday as a precaution against the spread of infection via miasma, a surgeon was not required to wash his hands before seeing a patient because such practices were not considered necessary to avoid infection. Despite the work of Ignaz Semmelweis and Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. hospitals practiced surgery under unsanitary conditions, Surgeons of the time referred to the good old surgical stink and took pride in the stains on their unwashed operating gowns as a display of their experience. Pasteur suggested three methods to eliminate the micro-organisms responsible, filtration, exposure to heat, or exposure to solution/chemical solutions, Lister confirmed Pasteurs conclusions with his own experiments and decided to use his findings to develop antiseptic techniques for wounds. As the first two suggested by Pasteur were dangerous and unsafe for the treatment of human tissue, Lister experimented with the third idea. In 1834, Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge discovered phenol, also known as carbolic acid, upon hearing that creosote had been used for treating sewage, Lister began to test the efficacy of carbolic acid when applied directly to wounds
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Nobel Prize
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The Nobel Prize is a set of annual international awards bestowed in a number of categories by Swedish and Norwegian institutions in recognition of academic, cultural, or scientific advances. The will of the Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel established the prizes in 1895, the prizes in Chemistry, Literature, Peace, Physics, and Physiology or Medicine were first awarded in 1901. Medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold, between 1901 and 2016, the Nobel Prizes and the Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 579 times to 911 people and organisations. With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 23 organisations, the prize ceremonies take place annually in Stockholm, Sweden. Each recipient, or laureate, receives a medal, a diploma. The Nobel Prize is widely regarded as the most prestigious award available in the fields of literature, medicine, physics, chemistry, peace, and economics. The prize is not awarded posthumously, however, if a person is awarded a prize and dies before receiving it, though the average number of laureates per prize increased substantially during the 20th century, a prize may not be shared among more than three people. Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden and he was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. In 1894, Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill and this invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives, especially the British smokeless powder cordite. As a consequence of his patent claims, Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite, Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime, with most of his wealth from his 355 inventions, of which dynamite is the most famous. In 1888, Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, as it was Alfreds brother Ludvig who had died, the obituary was eight years premature. The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered and this inspired him to change his will. On 10 December 1896, Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo, Italy, Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. He composed the last over a year before he died, signing it at the Swedish–Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895, Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets,31 million SEK, to establish the five Nobel Prizes. Because of skepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that it was approved by the Storting in Norway. The executors of Nobels will, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobels fortune, Nobels instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize, the members of whom were appointed shortly after the will was approved in April 1897. Soon thereafter, the other prize-awarding organisations were designated or established and these were Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded, and, in 1900, in 1905, the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved
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Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
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The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of Her Majestys Government in the United Kingdom. The prime minister and Cabinet are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Monarch, to Parliament, to their political party, the office is one of the Great Offices of State. The current prime minister, Theresa May, leader of the Conservative Party, was appointed by the Queen on 13 July 2016. The position of Prime Minister was not created, it evolved slowly and erratically over three hundred years due to acts of Parliament, political developments, and accidents of history. The office is therefore best understood from a historical perspective, the origins of the position are found in constitutional changes that occurred during the Revolutionary Settlement and the resulting shift of political power from the Sovereign to Parliament. The political position of Prime Minister was enhanced by the development of political parties, the introduction of mass communication. By the start of the 20th century the modern premiership had emerged, prior to 1902, the prime minister sometimes came from the House of Lords, provided that his government could form a majority in the Commons. However as the power of the aristocracy waned during the 19th century the convention developed that the Prime Minister should always sit in the lower house. As leader of the House of Commons, the Prime Ministers authority was further enhanced by the Parliament Act of 1911 which marginalised the influence of the House of Lords in the law-making process. The Prime Minister is ex officio also First Lord of the Treasury, certain privileges, such as residency of 10 Downing Street, are accorded to Prime Ministers by virtue of their position as First Lord of the Treasury. As the Head of Her Majestys Government the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet, in addition the Prime Minister leads a major political party and generally commands a majority in the House of Commons. As such the incumbent wields both legislative and executive powers, under the British system there is a unity of powers rather than separation. In the House of Commons, the Prime Minister guides the process with the goal of enacting the legislative agenda of their political party. The Prime Minister also acts as the face and voice of Her Majestys Government. The British system of government is based on an uncodified constitution, in 1928, Prime Minister H. H. Asquith described this characteristic of the British constitution in his memoirs, In this country we live. Our constitutional practices do not derive their validity and sanction from any Bill which has received the assent of the King, Lords. They rest on usage, custom, convention, often of slow growth in their early stages, not always uniform, the relationships between the Prime Minister and the Sovereign, Parliament and Cabinet are defined largely by these unwritten conventions of the constitution. Many of the Prime Ministers executive and legislative powers are actually royal prerogatives which are still vested in the Sovereign
35.
Papal bull
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A Papal bull is a specific kind of public decree, letters patent, or charter issued by a pope of the Roman Catholic Church. It is named after the seal that was traditionally appended to the end in order to authenticate it. Papal bulls have been in use at least since the 6th century, but the phrase was not used until around the end of the 13th century, and then only internally for unofficial administrative purposes. However, it had become official by the 15th century, when one of the offices of the Apostolic Chancery was named the register of bulls, by the accession of Pope Leo IX in 1048, a clear distinction developed between two classes of bulls of greater and less solemnity. The majority of the bulls now in existence are in the nature of confirmations of property or charters of protection accorded to monasteries. In an epoch when there was much fabrication of such documents, a Papal confirmation, under certain conditions, could be pleaded as itself constituting sufficient evidence of title in cases where the original deed had been lost or destroyed. Since the 12th century, Papal bulls have carried a seal with the heads of the Apostles Saint Peter and Saint Paul on one side. Papal bulls were issued by the Pope for many kinds of communication of a public nature. Papyrus seems to have used almost uniformly as the material for these documents until the early years of the eleventh century. Popularly, the name is used for any Papal document that contains a metal seal, today, the bull is the only written communication in which the Pope will refer to himself as Episcopus Servus Servorum Dei. For example, when Pope Benedict XVI issued a decree in bull form, while Papal bulls always used to bear a metal seal, they now do so only on the most solemn occasions. A Papal bull is today the most formal type of public decree or letters patent issued by the Vatican Chancery in the name of the Pope, the body of the text had no specific conventions for its formatting, it was often very simple in layout. For the most solemn bulls, the Pope signed the document himself, following the signature in this case would be an elaborate monogram, the signatures of any witnesses, and then the seal. Nowadays, a member of the Roman Curia signs the document on behalf of the Pope, usually the Cardinal Secretary of State, and thus the monogram is omitted. The most distinctive characteristic of a bull was the seal, which was usually made of lead. On the obverse it depicted, originally somewhat crudely, the early Fathers of the Church of Rome, the Apostles Saint Peter and Saint Paul, identified by the letters Sanctus PAulus and Sanctus PEtrus. Each head was surrounded by a circle of globetti, and the rim of the seal was surrounded by a ring of such beads. On the reverse was the name of the issuing Pope in the nominative Latin form, with the letters PP, for Pastor Pastorum
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Pope Nicholas V
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Pope Nicholas V, born Tommaso Parentucelli, was Pope from 6 March 1447 until his death. Pope Eugene made him a cardinal in 1446 after successful trips to Italy and Germany, and he took his name Nicholas in memory of his obligations to Niccolò Albergati. The Pontificate of Nicholas saw the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks, by the Concordat of Vienna he secured the recognition of papal rights over bishoprics and benefices. He also brought about the submission of the last of the antipopes, Felix V, a key figure in the Roman Renaissance, Nicholas sought to make Rome the home of literature and art. He strengthened fortifications, restored aqueducts, and rebuilt many churches, the glories of the Leonine City, the Vatican, and the Basilica of St. Peter must be considered part of his legacy. His mother, Andreola Bosi of Fivizzano, married Bartolomeo Parentucelli, a physician who practiced medicine in Sarzana, the Lunigiana region had long been fought over by competing Tuscan, Ligurian and Milanese forces. His father died while he was young, Parentucelli later became a tutor, in Florence, to the families of the Strozzi and Albizzi, where he met the leading humanist scholars. He studied at Bologna and Florence, gaining a degree in theology in 1422 and he was able to collect books, for which he had an intellectuals passion, wherever he went. Some of them survive with his marginal annotations and he attended the Council of Florence and in 1444, when his patron died, he was appointed Bishop of Bologna in his place. Civic disorders at Bologna were prolonged, so Pope Eugene IV soon named him as one of the legates sent to Frankfurt. He was to assist in negotiating an understanding between the Papal States and the Holy Roman Empire, regarding undercutting or at least containing the reforming decrees of the Council of Basel. His successful diplomacy gained him the reward, on his return to Rome, at the papal conclave of 1447 he was elected Pope in succession to Eugene IV on 6 March. He took the name Nicholas in honour of his early benefactor, the eight scant years of his pontificate were important in the political, scientific, and literary history of the world. In March 1452 he crowned Frederick III as Holy Roman Emperor in St. Peters, within the city of Rome, Nicholas introduced the fresh spirit of the Renaissance. His plans were of embellishing the city with new monuments worthy of the capital of the Christian world and his first care was practical, to reinforce the citys fortifications, cleaning and even paving some main streets and restoring the water supply. The end of ancient Rome is sometimes dated from the destruction of its magnificent array of aqueducts by 6th-century invaders, in the Middle Ages Romans depended for water on wells and cisterns, and the poor dipped their water from the yellow Tiber. The Aqua Virgo aqueduct, originally constructed by Agrippa, was restored by Nicholas and emptied into a basin that Leon Battista Alberti designed. But the works on which Nicholas especially set his heart were the rebuilding of the Vatican, the Borgo district, and St Peters Basilica, under the generous patronage of Nicholas, humanism made rapid strides as well
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James II of Scotland
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James II, who reigned as king of Scots from 1437 on, was the son of James I and Joan Beaufort. Nothing is known of his life, but by his first birthday his twin and only brother, Alexander. On 21 February 1437, James I was assassinated and the six-year-old Duke of Rothesay immediately succeeded him as James II, in 1449, nineteen-year-old James married fifteen-year-old Mary of Guelders, daughter of the Duke of Gelderland. She bore him seven children, six of whom survived into adulthood, subsequently, the relations between Flanders and Scotland improved. Jamess nickname, Fiery Face, referred to a conspicuous vermilion birthmark on his face appears to have been deemed by contemporaries an outward sign of a fiery temper. James was a politic, and singularly successful king and he was popular with the commoners, with whom, like most of the Stewarts, he socialised often, in times of peace and war. His legislation has a popular character. Salvators, the new college of Archbishop Kennedy at St Andrews and he possessed much of his fathers restless energy. However, his murder of the Earl of Douglas leaves a stain on his reign, James I was assassinated on 21 February 1437. The Queen, although hurt, managed to get to her six-year-old son, on 25 March 1437, the six-year-old was formally crowned King of Scots at Holyrood Abbey. The Parliament of Scotland revoked alienations of crown property and prohibited them, without the consent of the Estates and he lived along with his mother and five of his six sisters at Dunbar Castle until 1439. From 1437 to 1439 the Kings first cousin Archibald Douglas, 5th Earl of Douglas, taking advantage of these events, Livingston placed Queen Joan and her new husband, Sir John Stewart, under house arrest at Stirling Castle on 3 August 1439. In 1440, in the Kings name, an invitation is said to have sent to the young 6th Earl of Douglas and his brother, eleven-year-old David. They came, and were entertained at the table, from which they were treacherously hurried to their doom. Three days later Malcolm Fleming of Cumbernauld, their chief adherent and this infamous incident took the name of the Black Dinner. In 1449 James II reached adulthood, yet in many ways his active kingship differed little from his minority. The Douglases used his coming of age as a way to throw the Livingstons out of the shared government, Douglas and Crichton continued to dominate political power, and the kings ability to rule without them remained arguably limited. But James did not acquiesce with this situation without argument, the main account of Douglass murder comes from the Auchinleck Chronicle, a near contemporary but fragmentary source
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University of St Andrews
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The University of St Andrews is a British public research university in St Andrews, Fife, Scotland. It is the oldest of the four ancient universities of Scotland, St Andrews was founded between 1410 and 1413, when the Avignon Antipope Benedict XIII issued a papal bull to a small founding group of Augustinian clergy. St Andrews is made up from a variety of institutions, including three constituent colleges and 18 academic schools organised into four faculties, the university occupies historic and modern buildings located throughout the town. The academic year is divided into two terms, Martinmas and Candlemas, in term time, over one-third of the towns population is either a staff member or student of the university. It is ranked as the third best university in the United Kingdom in national league tables, the Times Higher Education World Universities Ranking names St Andrews among the worlds Top 50 universities for Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities. St Andrews has the highest student satisfaction amongst all multi-faculty universities in the United Kingdom, St Andrews has many notable alumni and affiliated faculty, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, theologians, philosophers, and politicians. Six Nobel Laureates are among St Andrews alumni and former staff, a charter of privilege was bestowed upon the society of masters and scholars by the Bishop of St Andrews, Henry Wardlaw, on 28 February 1411. Wardlaw then successfully petitioned the Avignon Pope Benedict XIII to grant the university status by issuing a series of papal bulls. King James I of Scotland confirmed the charter of the university in 1432, subsequent kings supported the university with King James V confirming privileges of the university in 1532. A college of theology and arts called St Johns College was founded in 1418 by Robert of Montrose, St Salvators College was established in 1450, by Bishop James Kennedy. St Leonards College was founded in 1511 by Archbishop Alexander Stewart, St Johns College was refounded by Cardinal James Beaton under the name St Marys College in 1538 for the study of divinity and law. Some university buildings that date from this period are still in use today, such as St Salvators Chapel, St Leonards College Chapel, at this time, the majority of the teaching was of a religious nature and was conducted by clerics associated with the cathedral. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the university had mixed fortunes and was beset by civil. He described it as pining in decay and struggling for life, in the second half of the 19th century, pressure was building upon universities to open up higher education to women. In 1876, the University Senate decided to allow women to receive an education at St Andrews at a roughly equal to the Master of Arts degree that men were able to take at the time. The scheme came to be known as the L. L. A and it required women to pass five subjects at an ordinary level and one at honours level and entitled them to hold a degree from the university. In 1889 the Universities Act made it possible to admit women to St Andrews. Agnes Forbes Blackadder became the first woman to graduate from St Andrews on the level as men in October 1894
