1.
Public university
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A public university is a university that is predominantly funded by public means through a national or subnational government, as opposed to private universities. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country to another, in Egypt, Al-Azhar University opened in 975 AD as the second oldest university in the world. In Nigeria Public Universities can be established by both the Federal Government and by State Governments, students are enrolled after completing the 8-4-4 system of education and attaining a mark of C+ or above. They are also eligible for a low interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board and they are expected to pay back the loan after completing higher education. South Africa has 23 public tertiary institutions, either categorised as a traditional university or a comprehensive university. Almost entire national universities in Brunei are public universities and these are major universities in Brunei, University of Brunei Darussalam Brunei Technological University Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University There are 40 public universities in Bangladesh. The University Grant Commission is the body for all the public universities in Bangladesh. The universities do not deal directly with the government, but with the University Grants Commission, recently many private universities are established under the Private University Act of 1992. In mainland China, nearly all universities and research institutions are public and currently, the public universities are usually run by the provincial governments, there are also circumstances where the municipal governments administer the universities. Some public universities are national, which are administered by the central government. Private undergraduate colleges do exist, which are vocational colleges sponsored by private enterprises. The majority of universities are not entitled to award bachelors degrees. Public universities usually enjoy higher reputation domestically, eight institutions are funded by the University Grants Committee. The Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government, the Open University of Hong Kong is also a public university, but it is largely self-financed. The Shue Yan University is the private institution with the status of a university. There are public and private institutes in Indonesia. The government provide public universities, institutes, high schools and academies in each province, the private educational institution usually provided by religious organizations, public organizations, and some big companies. In India, most universities and nearly all research institutions are public, There are some private undergraduate colleges, mostly engineering schools, but a majority of these are affiliated to public universities
2.
Emmerson Mnangagwa
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Emmerson Dambudzo Mnangagwa is a Zimbabwean politician who has been Vice-President of Zimbabwe since 2014. Mnangagwa is thought to be one of the most powerful figures in the ruling ZANU-PF party, head of the Joint Operations Command and he was ZANU-PFs Secretary of Administration from July 2000 to December 2004 and became its Secretary for Legal Affairs in December 2004. On 10 December 2014, President Mugabe appointed Mnangagwa as Vice-President of Zimbabwe, in that post, Mnangagwa also continued to serve as Minister of Justice. He successfully completed his standard 5 and 6 at Mumbwa Boarding School from 1956 to 1957, although it was a three-year course, he was selected to enter Hodgson Technical College. Since the college only accepted applicants with O Levels, he sat for an entry examination and this enabled him to enroll for a four-year City and Guilds Industrial Building Course. With others, he was expelled from college in 1960 for political activism which led to the burning of some property. He had joined the UNIP student movement at the college and had already been elected into the executive and he completed his O and A levels while in prison through correspondence following which he enrolled for a law degree. He wanted to register for a BSc Economics degree but instead took the Law degree and he successfully completed Part One of the Intermediate Exams at Khami prison and passed at his first seating. He sat for the exams and passed again. In 1975, he did his post-graduate LLB degree and another post programme in Advocacy, after successfully completing his law studies, he was admitted to the Bar of the High Court of Zambia in 1976. Mine Tech now has substantial UN and UK/EU contracts as well as its on-going Zimbabwe operations, in 1960, he was expelled from Hodgson Technical College for political activism which had resulted in the burning of some property. Following this incident, he joined hands with three others and started a company at Nampala which lasted for three months. He was asked by the United National Independence Party to help organise the party at Chililabombwe until the end of 1961, following this, he returned to Lusaka where he became Secretary for the UNIP Youth League while working for a private company. In 1962 he was recruited into Zimbabwe African Peoples Union by Willie Musarurwa, after joining ZAPU, he left for Tanzania where he stayed in Mbeya and then at the new ZAPU training camp with the likes of James Chikerema, Clement Muchachi and Danha. In April 1963, Mnangagwa, along with twelve other ZAPU cadre members, was sent to Dar es Salaam, in August 1963 he and ten of the thirteen cadre members decided to join the newly formed Zimbabwe African National Union. This led to their detention by Egyptian authorities who recognised ZAPU which had funds, Mugabe diverted Trynos Makombe, who was travelling from China, to come to Egypt to secure their release. Makombe provided them tickets to fly to Dar es Salaam. On arrival in Tanganyika, six of the eleven came back to Rhodesia while Mnangagwa, Mnangagwa was sent to China with other Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army cadre members, where they spent the first two months at the School of Ideology in Beijing
3.
President of Zimbabwe
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The President of Zimbabwe is the head of state of Zimbabwe, elected by popular majority vote. The office of President was held by Canaan Banana from the independence in 1980 until 1987 and then by the current incumbent. The President is also the head of government, as the office of Prime Minister was abolished in 1987, the office was restored as a result of the 2008–09 political negotiations, but abolished again following the 2013 constitutional referendum. Under the rules adopted by the referendum, the president serves a maximum of two five-year terms. The office of the President of Zimbabwe was established in 1980, a Methodist minister, Canaan Banana, became the first President and he served until 1987, in a mostly ceremonial role. The real power was vested in the Prime Minister, Robert Mugabe, in 1987, Mugabe succeeded Banana as President after he revised the Constitution to make himself Executive President. Political parties Prime Minister of Zimbabwe President of Rhodesia President of Zimbabwe Rhodesia
4.
Levi Nyagura
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Levi M. Nyagura is a Zimbabwean academic. He was appointed Vice Chancellor of the University of Zimbabwe in January 2003 and was reappointed for a second and third term. Levi Nyagura holds has a PhD in Education from an American university - Southern Illinois University, levi Nyagura controversially awarded a PhD degree to Grace Mugabe in 2014. Levi Nyagura reportedly boasts of his penchant for firing staff and not renewing contracts, levi Nyagura has published mainly on teacher and student performance in Zimbabwes schools, as well as overall school performance
5.
Lecturer
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Most lecturers typically hold permanent contracts at their academic institution. This is a tenure-track or tenured position, although UK tenure has eroded since 1988, in most research universities in the United States, the title of lecturer requires a doctorate or equivalent degree. In Australia, the term lecturer may be used informally to refer to anyone who conducts lectures at a university or elsewhere, the academic ranks in Australia are similar to those in the UK, with the rank of associate professor roughly equivalent to reader in UK universities. The academic levels in Australia are, A) associate lecturer, lecturer, senior lecturer, associate professor, in India, one can appear for interviews for a post of a lecturer after passing the competitive exam of National Eligibility Test conducted by the University Grants Commission. The position is equivalent to assistant professor in the US system, the term is not universally applied, with some universities preferring the lecturer/reader /professor titles, while others work with the assistant professor/associate professor/professor title. As such, most lecturers position can be considered tenure track, in many states of India, the term lecturer or Post Graduate Teacher is also used for the intermediate college teachers. The intermediate colleges are equivalent to secondary schools. Such lecturers are subject experts specifically engaged to teach a subject in higher classes, in the UK, the term lecturer is ambiguous and covers several academic ranks. The key distinction is between permanent/open-ended or temporary/fixed-term lectureships, a permanent lecturer in UK universities usually holds an open-ended position that covers teaching, research, and administrative responsibilities. Permanent lectureships are tenure-track or tenured positions that are equivalent to an assistant or associate professorship in North America, after a number of years, a lecturer may be promoted based on his or her research record to become a senior lecturer. This position is below reader and professor, research lecturers are the equivalent in rank of lecturers and senior lecturers, but reflect a research-intensive orientation. Research lecturers are common in such as medicine, engineering. In contrast, fixed-term or temporary lecturers are appointed for specific short-term teaching needs and these positions are often non-renewable and are common post-doctoral appointments. In North American terms, a fixed-term lecturer can hold an equivalent rank to assistant professor without tenure, typically, longer contracts denote greater seniority or higher rank. Some universities also refer to students or others, who undertake ad-hoc teaching for a department sessional lecturers. Like adjunct professors and sessional lecturers in North America, these non-permanent teaching staff are very poorly paid. These varying uses of the term lecturer cause confusion for non-UK academics, as a proportion of UK academic staff, the proportion of permanent lectureships has fallen considerably. This is one reason why permanent lectureships are usually secured only after years of post-doctoral experience
6.
Postgraduate education
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In North America, this level is generally referred to as graduate school. The organization and structure of education varies in different countries. This article outlines the types of courses and of teaching and examination methods. There are two types of degrees studied for at the postgraduate level, academic and vocational degrees. The term degree in this means the moving from one stage or level to another. University studies took six years for a degree and up to twelve additional years for a masters degree or doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, the main emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained, the student could choose one of three faculties—law, medicine, or theology—in which to pursue masters or doctors degrees. Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects, the main significance of the higher, postgraduate degrees was that they licensed the holder to teach. In most countries, the hierarchy of postgraduate degrees is as follows, in Scottish Universities, the Master of Philosophy degree tends to be by research or higher masters degree and the Master of Letters degree tends to be the taught or lower masters degree. In many fields such as social work, or library science in North America. Professional degrees such as the Master of Architecture degree can last to three and a years to satisfy professional requirement to be an architect. Professional degrees such as the Master of Business Administration degree can last up to two years to satisfy the requirement to become a business leader. These are often divided into academic and professional doctorates. An academic doctorate can be awarded as a Doctor of Philosophy degree or as a Doctor of Science degree, a doctorate is the terminal degree in most fields. In the United States, there is distinction between a Doctor of Philosophy degree and a Doctor of Science degree. In the second half of the 19th century, however, US universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates, in the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the NVQ5 or QCF8. Most universities award degrees, usually at the postgraduate level
7.
Harare
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Harare is the capital and most populous city of Zimbabwe. Situated in the north-east of the country in the heart of historic Mashonaland, administratively, Harare is a metropolitan province, which also incorporates Chitungwiza town and Epworth. It is situated at an elevation of 1,483 metres above sea level, company administrators demarcated the city and ran it until Southern Rhodesia achieved responsible government in 1923. Salisbury was thereafter the seat of the Southern Rhodesian government and and it retained the name Salisbury until 1982, when it was renamed Harare on the second anniversary of Zimbabwean independence. Harare is Zimbabwes leading financial, commercial, and communications centre, and a centre for tobacco, maize, cotton. Manufactured goods include textiles, steel and chemicals, and gold is mined in the area, the University of Zimbabwe, the countrys oldest university, is situated in Mount Pleasant, about 6 km north of the city centre. Harare is home to the countrys main Test cricket ground, Harare Sports Club, the Pioneer Column, a military volunteer force of settlers organised by Cecil Rhodes, founded the city on 12 September 1890 as a fort. They originally named the city Fort Salisbury after The 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, then British Prime Minister, the Salisbury Polo Club was formed in 1896. It was declared to be a municipality in 1897 and it became a city in 1935. The area at the time of founding of the city was poorly drained, the first area to be fully drained was near the head of the stream and was named Causeway as a result. Salisbury was the capital of the self-governing British colony of Southern Rhodesia from 1923, ian Smiths Rhodesian Front government declared Rhodesia independent from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965, and proclaimed the Republic of Rhodesia in 1970. Subsequently, the became the short-lived state of Zimbabwe Rhodesia. The capital city retained the name Salisbury until 1982, prior to independence, Harare was the name of the black residential area now known as Mbare. In May 2006 the Zimbabwean newspaper the Financial Gazette, described the city in an editorial as a sunshine city-turned-sewage farm, in 2009, Harare was voted to be the toughest city to live in according to the Economist Intelligence Units livability poll. The situation was unchanged in 2011, according to the poll, which is based on stability, healthcare, culture and environment, education. In May 2005 the Zimbabwean government demolished shanties and backyard cottages in Harare, the government claimed it was necessitated by a rise of criminality and disease. This was followed by Operation Garikayi/Hlalani Kuhle a year later which consisted of building housing of poor quality. In late March 2010, Harares Joina City Tower was finally opened after 14 years of on-off construction, initially, uptake of space in the tower was low, with office occupancy at only 3% in October 2011
8.
Zimbabwe
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Zimbabwe, officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a landlocked country located in southern Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers. It is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the west and southwest, Zambia to the northwest, although it does not border Namibia, less than 200 metres of the Zambezi River separates it from that country. The capital and largest city is Harare, a country of roughly 13 million people, Zimbabwe has 16 official languages, with English, Shona, and Ndebele the most commonly used. Since the 11th century, present-day Zimbabwe has been the site of several organised states and kingdoms as well as a route for migration. The British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes first demarcated the present territory during the 1890s, in 1965, the conservative white minority government unilaterally declared independence as Rhodesia. Zimbabwe then rejoined the Commonwealth of Nations—which it withdrew from in 2003 and it is a member of the United Nations, the Southern African Development Community, the African Union, and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa. Robert Mugabe became Prime Minister of Zimbabwe in 1980, when his ZANU-PF party won the following the end of white minority rule. Under Mugabes authoritarian regime, the security apparatus has dominated the country. Mugabe has maintained the revolutionary socialist rhetoric from the Cold War era, the name Zimbabwe stems from a Shona term for Great Zimbabwe, an ancient ruined city in the countrys south-east whose remains are now a protected site. Two different theories address the origin of the word, many sources hold that Zimbabwe derives from dzimba-dza-mabwe, translated from the Karanga dialect of Shona as large houses of stone. The Karanga-speaking Shona people live around Great Zimbabwe in the province of Masvingo. Zimbabwe was formerly known as Southern Rhodesia, Rhodesia, and Zimbabwe Rhodesia, a further alternative, put forward by nationalists in Matabeleland, had been Matopos, referring to the Matopos Hills to the south of Bulawayo. In a 2001 interview, black nationalist Edson Zvobgo recalled that Mawema mentioned the name during a rally, and it caught hold. The black nationalist factions subsequently used the name the during the Second Chimurenga campaigns against the Rhodesian government during the Rhodesian Bush War of 1964-1979, major factions in this camp included the Zimbabwe African National Union, and the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union. Proto-Shona-speaking societies first emerged in the middle Limpopo valley in the 9th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands, the Zimbabwean plateau eventually became the centre of subsequent Shona states, beginning around the 10th century. Around the early 10th century, trade developed with Arab merchants on the Indian Ocean coast, the main archaeological site uses a unique dry stone architecture. The Kingdom of Mapungubwe was the first in a series of sophisticated trade states developed in Zimbabwe by the time of the first European explorers from Portugal and they traded in gold, ivory, and copper for cloth and glass. From about 1300 until 1600, Mapungubwe was eclipsed by the Kingdom of Zimbabwe and this Shona state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwes stone architecture, which survives to this day at the ruins of the kingdoms capital of Great Zimbabwe
9.
University of London
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The University of London is a collegiate research university located in London, England, consisting of 18 constituent colleges, nine research institutes and a number of central bodies. The university moved to a structure in 1900. The specialist colleges of the university include the London Business School, Imperial College London was formerly a member before leaving the university in 2007. City is the most recent constituent college, having joined on 1 September 2016, in post-nominals, the University of London is commonly abbreviated as Lond. or, more rarely, Londin. From the Latin Universitas Londiniensis, after its degree abbreviations, University College London was founded under the name London University in 1826 as a secular alternative to the religious universities of Oxford and Cambridge. In response to the controversy surrounding such educational establishment, Kings College London was founded and was the first to be granted a royal charter. Yet to receive a charter, UCL in 1834 renewed its application for a royal charter as a university. In response to this, opposition to exclusive rights grew among the London medical schools, the idea of a general degree awarding body for the schools was discussed in the medical press. And in evidence taken by the Select Committee on Medical Education, in 1835, the government announced the response to UCLs petition for a charter. Following the issuing of its charter on 28 November 1836, the university started drawing up regulations for degrees in March 1837. The death of William IV in June, however, resulted in a problem – the charter had been granted during our Royal will and pleasure, queen Victoria issued a second charter on 5 December 1837, reincorporating the university. The university awarded its first degrees in 1839, all to students from UCL, the university established by the charters of 1836 and 1837 was essentially an examining board with the right to award degrees in arts, laws and medicine. However, the university did not have the authority to grant degrees in theology, in medicine, the university was given the right to determine which medical schools provided sufficient medical training. Beyond the right to students for examination, there was no other connection between the affiliated colleges and the university. In 1849 the university held its first graduation ceremony at Somerset House following a petition to the senate from the graduates, about 250 students graduated at this ceremony. The London academic robes of this period were distinguished by their rich velvet facings, the list of affiliated colleges grew by 1858 to include over 50 institutions, including all other British universities. In that year, a new charter effectively abolished the affiliated colleges system by opening up the examinations to everyone whether they attended a college or not. The expanded role meant the university needed more space, particularly with the number of students at the provincial university colleges
10.
Robert Mugabe
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Ideologically an African nationalist and socialist, he has led the Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front party since 1975. Mugabe was born to a poor Shona family in Kutama, Southern Rhodesia, following an education at Kutama College and the University of Fort Hare, he worked as a teacher in Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, and Ghana. Angered that Southern Rhodesia was a British colony governed by an elite, Mugabe embraced Marxism. After making anti-government comments he was convicted of sedition and imprisoned between 1964 and 1974, on release he fled to Mozambique, established his leadership of the Zimbabwe African National Union, and oversaw ZANUs role in the Rhodesian Bush War, fighting Ian Smiths white-minority government. He reluctantly took part in the peace negotiations brokered by the United Kingdom that resulted in the Lancaster House Agreement, the agreement dismantled white-minority rule and resulted in the 1980 general election, at which Mugabe led ZANU-PF to victory and became Prime Minister of the newly renamed Zimbabwe. Mugabes administration expanded healthcare and education, and—despite his Marxist rhetoric, Mugabes initial calls for racial reconciliation failed to stem deteriorating race relations and growing white flight. Mugabes government emphasised the redistribution of land controlled by farmers to landless blacks. Frustrated at the rate of redistribution, from 2000 Mugabe encouraged the violent seizure of white-owned land. The unrest severely impacted food production and brought international sanctions, heavily damaging Zimbabwes economy, having dominated Zimbabwes politics for nearly four decades, Mugabe has been a controversial and divisive figure. He has been praised as a hero of the African liberation struggle who helped to free Zimbabwe from British colonialism, imperialism. Robert Gabriel Mugabe was born on 21 February 1924 at the Kutama Mission village in Southern Rhodesias Zvimba District and his father, Gabriel, was a carpenter, while his mother Bona taught Christian catechism to the village children. They had been trained in their professions by the Jesuits, the Roman Catholic apostolic order which had established the mission, Bona and Gabriel had six children, Miteri, Raphael, Robert, Dhonandhe, Sabina, and Bridgette. They belonged to the Zezuru clan, one of the smallest branches of the Shona tribe, the Jesuits were strict disciplinarians and under their influence Mugabe developed an intense self-discipline, while also becoming a devout Catholic. Mugabe excelled at school, where he was a secretive and solitary child and he was taunted by many of the other children, who regarded him as a coward and a mothers boy. Circa 1930, Gabriel had an argument with one of the Jesuits, around the same time, Roberts older brother Raphael died, likely of diarrhoea. In early 1934, Roberts other older brother, Michael, also died, later that year, Gabriel left his family in search of employment at Bulawayo. He subsequently abandoned Bona and their six children and established a relationship with another woman, Loubiere died shortly after and was replaced by an Irishman, Father Jerome OHea, who welcomed the Mugabe family to return to Kutama. In contrast to the racism that permeated Southern Rhodesian society, under OHeas leadership the Kutama Mission preached an ethos of racial equality, OHea nurtured the young Mugabe, shortly before his death in 1970 he described the latter as having an exceptional mind and an exceptional heart
11.
Grace Mugabe
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Grace Mugabe is the wife of Zimbabwe President Robert Mugabe and the First Lady of Zimbabwe from her marriage to the leader in 1996. Grace was born in Benoni in South Africa, and her family lived in South Africa until 1970 and she was previously married to Stanley Goreraza, an air force pilot, who is defence attaché at the Zimbabwe embassy in China. As secretary to the president, she became his mistress while still married to Goreraza, the couple were married in an extravagant Catholic Mass, titled the Wedding of the Century by the Zimbabwe press, after the death of Mugabes first wife, Sally Hayfron. In 1997, Grace Mugabe gave birth to the third child. In 2014, Grace Mugabe was given a doctorate in sociology by the University of Zimbabwe only two months after registering at the university, although a dissertation does not exist, the degree was widely described as fraudulent. Grace Mugabe is under personal sanctions in the European Union and the United States for her role in the Mugabe regime, Grace Mugabe was designated as head of the ZANU-PF Womens wing in 2014. In late 2014, Grace Mugabe was fiercely critical of Vice-President Joice Mujuru, meanwhile, Grace Mugabes political prominence increased. She was nominated as head of the ZANU-PF Womens League, in becoming head of the womens league, she also became a member of the ZANU-PF Politburo. The United States instituted similar restrictions, during her tenure as first lady, Grace Mugabe has overseen the construction of two palaces. The first, referred to commonly as Gracelands, became controversial for its extravagance and it was later sold to Muammar Gaddafi of Libya. The second was completed in 2007, costing around $26 million, reportedly the construction was funded by the ZANU-PF party to thank Robert Mugabe for his political service. In 2002, Grace Mugabe toured farm properties in Zimbabwe, looking for a new location for herself and she chose the Iron Mask Estate, which had been previously owned by farmers John and Eva Matthews. The first family owns property in Malaysia, and in early 2008, the intention behind the move was to escape the stress of leadership and to address fears that the first family faces assassination. Grace Mugabe is currently suing a Zimbabwean newspaper over its reporting of claims released by Wikileaks she had made profits from the countrys diamond mines. The presidents wife is demanding $15m from the Standard newspaper, Grace Mugabe is known for her lavish lifestyle. In Zimbabwe she is known sarcastically as DR Amai in reference to her Doctorate degree which she was given by her husband and she faces similar sanctions in the United States. She then joined in the attack, punching Jones repeatedly in the face while wearing diamond encrusted rings, causing him cuts and she was subsequently granted immunity from prosecution under Chinese diplomatic rules because of her status as Mugabes wife. Early reports indicated Bona Mugabe was a student at the University of Hong Kong, Zimbabwe students were protesting to the P. R. Chinese embassy that Bona Mugabe should return home to Zimbabwe and study in the same conditions as her peers
12.
Walter Kamba
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Walter Kamba was a Zimbabwean lawyer and academic. One of the few black lawyers practicing in the then British colony of Rhodesia and he joined the Faculty of Law at the University of Dundee, Scotland, where he taught Jurisprudence and Comparative Law. He also served for years as Dean of the Faculty. He served as an advisor to the ZANU-PF and PF-ZAPU delegations at the Lancaster House Conference. After independence, he served as principal and vice-chancellor of the University of Zimbabwe from 1981 to 1992, under his tenure, the University expanded its overall size, its intake of black Zimbabwean and the range of academic disciplines offered. He resigned in a speech at the 1992 graduation, citing government interference
13.
University of Zimbabwe
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The University of Zimbabwe in Harare, is the oldest and formerly largest university in Zimbabwe. It was founded through a relationship with the University of London. The university has ten faculties offering a variety of degree programmes. The university is accredited through the National Council for Higher Education, under the Ministry of Higher, english is the language of instruction. Although once a successful university, UZ has been facing challenges since 2008. Major work is being done to uplift the status of the University, refurbishments are being carried out on the Main campus and many facilities are being upgraded to make the university an International Academic Brand. The university has faced criticism for awarding fraudulent degrees to members of the Mugabe regime particularly the obscure PhD given to Grace Mugabe. In 1945, Manfred Hodson formed the Rhodesia University Association, inspired by the promise of £20,000 by J. F. Kapnek for establishing such a university, the Governor of Southern Rhodesia established the Rhodesia University Foundation Fund in 1947. The Legislative Assembly accepted an offer of land in Mount Pleasant from the City of Salisbury for the construction of the campus in 1948, four years later a bill was enacted for the incorporation and constitution of the university. First classes began for some 68 students on a site at 147 Baker Avenue. In 1955 the British government formally adopted the institution, establishing the University College of Rhodesia, the college was admitted to the privilege of Special Relation with the University of London the following year and in 1957 all activities were transferred to the Mount Pleasant campus. The following year the college was granted pieces of land upon which the college farm, in 1963 the Medical School opened and was affiliated to the University of Birmingham. After the dissolution of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, the University College continued as an independent institution of education and research. In 1981, the first black Principal, Prof Walter Kamba was appointed, student numbers rose from 1,000 in 1980 to 2,000 by 1985. The University of Zimbabwe Act was controversially amended in 1990, giving the government more powers and, according to faculty, students and observers. The late 1980s and most of the 1990s saw a rise in student protest, resulting in several closures, despite the ongoing tensions, the university continued to grow and the student population had reached 8,000 by 1995 and 10,139 by 2001. As the 2000s began, the university struggled to meet lecturers and professors expectations on salary levels, many donors, including the Government of Sweden, which had previously been a major financer of UZ, cut or cancelled their aid. As the economic crisis grew in Zimbabwe, UZ began to fail to recruit lecturers and professors to fill vacancies, by 2007, the shortage of staff was preventing the teaching and examination of some programmes
14.
Southern Rhodesia
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The Colony of Southern Rhodesia was a self-governing British Crown colony in southern Africa from 1923 to 1980, the predecessor state of modern Zimbabwe. After a period of interim British control following the Lancaster House Agreement in December 1979, initially, the territory was referred to as South Zambezia, a reference to the River Zambezi, until the name Rhodesia came into use in 1895. This was in honour of Cecil Rhodes, the British empire-builder, Southern was first used in 1898 and dropped from normal usage in 1964, on the break-up of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Rhodesia then remained the name of the country until the creation of Zimbabwe Rhodesia in 1979, legally, from the British perspective, the name Southern Rhodesia continued to be used until 18 April 1980, when the Republic of Zimbabwe was promulgated. The British government agreed that Rhodes company, the British South Africa Company, queen Victoria signed the charter in 1889. A Legislative Council was created in 1899 to manage the companys affairs, with a minority of elected seats. Prior to about 1918, the opinion among the electorate supported continued BSAC rule but opinion changed because of the development of the country and increased settlement. In addition, a decision in the British courts that land not in private ownership belonged to the British Crown rather than the BSAC gave great impetus to the campaign for self-government. In the resulting treaty government self-government, Crown lands which were sold to settlers allowed those settlers the right to vote in the self-governing colony, the territory north of the Zambezi was the subject of separate treaties with African chiefs, today, it forms the country of Zambia. The first BSAC Administrator for the part was appointed for Barotseland in 1897. The first BSAC Administrator for the part, North-Eastern Rhodesia, was appointed in 1895. The whites in the south of the river paid it scant regard though. This resulted in the formation of new movements for expanding the self-government of the Rhodesian people which saw BSAC rule as an impediment to further expansion, in view of the outcome of the referendum, the territory was annexed by the United Kingdom on 12 September 1923. Shortly after annexation, on 1 October 1923, the first constitution for the new Colony of Southern Rhodesia came into force, under this constitution Sir Charles Coghlan became the first Premier of Southern Rhodesia and upon his death in 1927 he was succeeded by Howard Unwin Moffat. During World War II, Southern Rhodesian military units participated on the side of the United Kingdom, Southern Rhodesian forces were involved on many fronts including the East and North African Campaigns, Italy, Madagascar and Burma. Southern Rhodesian forces had the highest loss ratio of any constituent element, colony, additionally, the Rhodesian pilots earned the highest number of decorations and ace appellations of any group within the Empire. This resulted in the Royal Family paying a state visit to the colony at the end of the war to thank the Rhodesian people. Economically, Southern Rhodesia developed an economy that was based on production of a few primary products, notably, chrome
15.
Rhodesia
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Rhodesia, commonly known from 1970 onwards as the Republic of Rhodesia, was an unrecognised state in southern Africa from 1965 to 1979, equivalent in territorial terms to modern Zimbabwe. With its capital in Salisbury, Rhodesia was considered a de facto successor state to the former British colony of Southern Rhodesia, the UDI administration initially sought recognition as an autonomous realm within the Commonwealth of Nations, but reconstituted itself as a republic in 1970. Following a brutal guerrilla war fought with two African nationalist organisations, Rhodesian premier Ian Smith conceded to bi-racial democracy in 1978, however, a provisional government subsequently headed by Smith and his moderate colleague Abel Muzorewa failed in appeasing international critics or halting the bloodshed. It finally achieved internationally recognised independence in April 1980, the nation was renamed the Republic of Zimbabwe. A wholly landlocked area, Rhodesia was bordered by South Africa to the south, Bechuanaland to the southwest, Zambia to the northwest, the state was named after Cecil Rhodes, whose British South Africa Company acquired the land in the late 19th century. The official name of the country, according to the constitution adopted concurrently with the Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1965, was Rhodesia and this naming dispute dated back to October 1964, when Northern Rhodesia became independent from Britain and concurrently changed its name to Zambia. The Southern Rhodesian colonial government in Salisbury felt that in the absence of a Northern Rhodesia, Salisbury went on using the shortened name in an official manner nevertheless, while the British government continued referring to the country as Southern Rhodesia. This situation continued throughout the UDI period, the shortened name was used by many people including the British government in the House of Commons. Southern Rhodesia subsequently gained international recognition of its independence in April 1980, in 1922, faced with the decision to join the Union of South Africa as a fifth province or accept nearly full internal autonomy, the electorate cast its vote against South African integration. In view of the outcome of the referendum, the territory was annexed by the United Kingdom on 12 September 1923, shortly after annexation, on 1 October 1923, the first constitution for the new Colony of Southern Rhodesia came into force. By colonial standards, public services were well-organised and praised for their efficiency, as it began to appear that decolonisation was inevitable and indigenous black populations were pressing heavily for change, the federation was dissolved in 1963. Rhodesian colonials initially balked at the suggestion, some felt they had a right to political control, at least for the time being. The authorities were also disturbed by the chaos which was plaguing other African nations at the time. Harold Wilson and his incoming Labour government took a harder line on demanding that these points be legitimately addressed before an independence agenda could be set. By 1964, growing dissatisfaction with the ongoing negotiations ousted Salisburys incumbent Winston Field, replacing him with Ian Smith, Smith, the colonys first Rhodesian-born leader, soon came to personify resistance to liberals in British government and those agitating for change at home. Emboldened by the results of referendum and the subsequent general election. Harold Wilson countered by warning that such a procedure would be considered treasonous, although he specifically rejected using armed force against the English kith. Wilsons refusal to consider a military option encouraged Smith to proceed with his plans, on 11 November 1965, following a brief but solemn consensus, Rhodesias leading statesmen issued their countrys unilateral declaration of independence
16.
Alexander Carr-Saunders
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Sir Alexander Morris Carr-Saunders, KBE, FBA was an English biologist, sociologist, academic, and academic administrator. He was Director of the London School of Economics from 1937 to 1957, Carr-Saunders was born on 14 January 1886 in Reigate, Surrey, England. He was educated at Eton College, a public school in Eton. He then studied biology at Magdalen College, specialising in zoology and he graduated from the University of Oxford with a first class honours Bachelor of Arts degree in 1908. Carr-Saunders remained a year at the University of Oxford as a demonstrator in comparative anatomy and he left in 1910 to join the University College London where he studied biometrics under Karl Pearson. Deciding against natural science, he read for the Bar of the Inner Temple. Concerned about all kinds of social ills and problems, he saw a solution in Eugenics for the engineering of society into a better condition and he became the secretary of the Eugenics Education Society and lived at Toynbee Hall. When World War I broke in 1914, he attempted to obtain a commission in the London Scottish Regiment and he spent the first year of the war in France on the Western Front. He was then posted to a depot at Suez, Egypt. He was promoted to lieutenant on 12 December 1914. After the Armistice he returned to the Zoology department of Oxford University, taking an interest in ecological issues and he participated in one of the firsts Oxford Expeditions to Spitsbergen in the Arctic in 1921 as main scientists, together with Julian Huxley. During the expedition he distilled his early ideas on population dynamics, the book used a neo-Malthusian argument plus Galtons eugenics as the theoretical framework for a quantitative analysis of population dynamics. The population problem arose -according to Carr-Saunders analysis- from the fact of having high rates among primitive people with low mental and physical qualities. Over-population of these lower races endangered the standard of living of races bearing higher qualities, unlike Malthus, he thought that industrial productivity and not food was the main limiting factor in human populations. The success of his magnum opus The Population Problem resulted in his appointment to the Charles Booth Chair of Social Science at the University of Liverpool in 1923. In 1937, he was appointed to succeed Sir William Beveridge as Director of the London School of Economics and he served on the Royal Commission on Population, in 1944–1949. On 12 March 1946, he was knighted by King George VI during a ceremony at Buckingham Palace, in 1946, he was also elected a Fellow of the British Academy, and awarded the first Galton medal by the Eugenics Society. In the 1957 New Year Honours, he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire for services as Director of the London School of Economics
17.
Government of the United Kingdom
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Her Majestys Government, commonly referred to as the UK government or British government, is the central government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The government is led by the Prime Minister, who all the remaining ministers. The prime minister and the other most senior ministers belong to the supreme decision-making committee, the government ministers all sit in Parliament, and are accountable to it. After an election, the monarch selects as prime minister the leader of the party most likely to command a majority of MPs in the House of Commons. Under the uncodified British constitution, executive authority lies with the monarch, although this authority is exercised only by, or on the advice of, the prime minister, the Cabinet members advise the monarch as members of the Privy Council. They also exercise power directly as leaders of the Government Departments, the current prime minister is Theresa May, who took office on 13 July 2016. She is the leader of the Conservative Party, which won a majority of seats in the House of Commons in the election on 7 May 2015. Prior to this, Cameron and the Conservatives led a government from 2010 to 2015 with the Liberal Democrats. A key principle of the British Constitution is that the government is responsible to Parliament, Britain is a constitutional monarchy in which the reigning monarch does not make any open political decisions. All political decisions are taken by the government and Parliament and this constitutional state of affairs is the result of a long history of constraining and reducing the political power of the monarch, beginning with the Magna Carta in 1215. Parliament is split into two houses, the House of Lords and the House of Commons, the House of Commons is the lower house and is the more powerful. The House of Lords is the house and although it can vote to amend proposed laws. Parliamentary time is essential for bills to be passed into law, Ministers of the Crown are responsible to the House in which they sit, they make statements in that House and take questions from members of that House. For most senior ministers this is usually the elected House of Commons rather than the House of Lords, since the start of Edward VIIs reign, in 1901, the prime minister has always been an elected member of Parliament and therefore directly accountable to the House of Commons. Under the British system the government is required by convention and for reasons to maintain the confidence of the House of Commons. It requires the support of the House of Commons for the maintenance of supply, by convention if a government loses the confidence of the House of Commons it must either resign or a General Election is held. The support of the Lords, while useful to the government in getting its legislation passed without delay, is not vital, a government is not required to resign even if it loses the confidence of the Lords and is defeated in key votes in that House. The House of Commons is thus the Responsible house, the prime minister is held to account during Prime Ministers Question Time which provides an opportunity for MPs from all parties to question the PM on any subject
18.
Anglo American plc
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Anglo American plc is a multinational mining company based in Johannesburg, South Africa and London, United Kingdom. It is the worlds largest producer of platinum, with around 40% of world output, as well as being a producer of diamonds, copper, nickel, iron ore. The company has operations in Africa, Asia, Australasia, Europe, North America, Anglo American has a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index. The company has a listing on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange. In December 2015 the company announced that after a US$3 billion loss in the first half of 2015, it would be undergoing a restructure and this fact is reflected in the name of the company. The AAC became the majority stakeholder in the De Beers company in 1926, during 1945, the AAC moved into the coal industry by acquiring Coal Estates. Twelve years later, Sir Ernest died in Johannesburg and the company was succeeded by his son, Harry Oppenheimer, in the late 1940s and 1950s, the AAC focused on the development of the Free State goldfields and the Vaal Reefs mine. The success of the mines enabled the company to become the world’s largest gold-mining group, in 1961, the AAC expanded outside of southern Africa for the first time and became a major investor in the Hudson Bay Mining and Smelting Company in Canada. In 1967, the moved into the steel industry by acquiring Scaw Metals. From 1967 to 1975, it continued to grow and established a number of ventures, including the Mondi Group, Amgold, in 1982, Harry Oppenheimer retired as chairman of the AAC and was succeeded by Gavin Relly. Two years later, Oppenheimer retired from De Beers and passed the chairmanship to Julian Ogilvie Thompson and its gold mining operations were spun off into the separate AngloGold corporation, which in 2004 merged with the Ashanti Goldfields Corporation to form AngloGold Ashanti. Anglo American reduced its stake in AngloGold Ashanti to 16.6 percent in 2008, in 2000, Julian Ogilvie Thompson retired as chief executive of Anglo American and was succeeded by Tony Trahar. Ogilvie Thompson also retired as chairman in 2002 and was replaced by Sir Mark Moody-Stuart, from 2002 to July 2008 Anglo American carried out black community economic empowerment transactions totalling R26 billion. Also, in 2002, Anglo Base Metals acquired the Disputada copper operations in Chile from Exxon Mobil Corporation and opened a office in Beijing. In 2003, Anglo American acquired a stake in iron ore producer Kumba Resources. In 2007, Cynthia Carroll succeeded Tony Trahar, becoming the first non-South African, the Mondi Group, a paper and packaging business, was also spun out in 2007. Opponents are also pointing to the use of cyanide, heavy metals, opponents of the Pebble Mine created Ballot Measure 4 to impose additional water quality standards on new large-scale mines in the state. However, in August 2007, Alaskans voted against the initiative, the Pebble Limited Partnership has not yet put forward a project proposal and is working to prepare a Prefeasibility Study for the project in the second half of 2009
19.
British South Africa Company
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The company received a Royal Charter in 1889 modelled on that of the British East India Company. Its first directors included the Duke of Abercorn, Rhodes himself, Rhodes hoped BSAC would promote colonisation and economic exploitation across much of south-central Africa, as part of the Scramble for Africa. The BSAC was created in the expectation that the fields of Mashonaland would provide funds for the development of other areas of Central Africa. BSAC regarded its lands north of the Zambezi as territory to be held as cheaply as possible for future, rather than immediate, the BSAC also created the Rhodesian railway system and owned the railways there until 1947. The Royal Charter of the British South Africa Company came into effect on 20 December 1889 and this was initially for a period of 25 years, later extended for a further 10 years, so it expired in 1924. The company had been incorporated in October 1888, and much of the time after Rhodes arrived in London in March 1889, in these discussions, Rhodes led the BSAC negotiators. These two groups had originally been in competition but united because of economic interests. Gifford and Cawstons interests were represented by the Bechuanaland Exploration Company and its offshoot, the British South Africa Company leased mineral rights from the Central Search Association, paying it half the net profits from mineral exploitation. From the start, Gifford disliked Rhodes, who he thought had acquired too much power in BSAC and had marginalised him, Cawston supported Rhodes only in those commercial activities likely to make a profit and not in any less commercial ventures. The four other directors were appointed to represent the other shareholders, the dukes of Abercorn and of Fife, respectively chairman and vice-chairman were appointed to give the company prestige but they took little part in running the company. Neither had previous interest in Africa and Fife had no business experience, albert Grey, later Earl Grey had an active role as a liaison between Rhodes in South Africa and government officials in London. He and Horace Farquhar, a prominent London banker, completed the first Board, lochs successor as High Commissioner from 1895, Sir Hercules Robinson inherited these plans, but none of Loch, Robinson or Ripon took any steps to promote such a rising. Joseph Chamberlain, who succeeded Ripon in 1895, was almost certainly aware that Rhodes was planning a rising, Rhodes and Jameson made plans to assist, and probably to promote, a Johannesburg rising. Earl Grey was the only London-based director to know about plans for the Jameson Raid, Grey communicated at least some of the plan to Joseph Chamberlain, who avoided specifically endorsing it. News of the Raid shocked the BSAC directors who, except for Beit and Grey, Rhodes at first denied responsibility for Jamesons actions but, in the face of further revelations, he assumed full responsibility for them. The BSAC Board recognised that the company would be attacked, and he offered to resign as managing director, but a decision on this was deferred despite the demands of Cawston and Gifford for its acceptance. However, after the trial of the Jameson raiders implicated Rhodes further and following pressure from Chamberlain, Rhodes, after his removal, Rhodes remained a major shareholder in the BSAC and he continued to be involved unofficially in its affairs. In 1898, the Duke of Fife and Lord Farquhar both resigned from the Board, Rhodes and Beit replaced them and another supporter of Rhodes also joined the Board, as Rhodes had recaptured full control over the company, Cawston decided to resign
20.
Alfred Beit
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Alfred Beit was a British gold and diamond magnate in South Africa, and a major donor and profiteer of infrastructure development on the African continent. Born and brought up in Hamburg, Germany, he was the eldest son and his younger siblings included Otto Beit. Alfred Beit was a scholar and was apprenticed to Jules Porgès & Cie. Beit made his first fortune in property speculation, responding to a demand for business premises, he bought a piece of land and built twelve corrugated iron sheds for offices and rented eleven out monthly and kept one for himself. Twelve years later he sold the land for a considerable profit, Beit was sent to Kimberley, South Africa in 1875 by his firm to buy diamonds—following the diamond strike at Kimberley. He became a friend of Cecil Rhodes through his role in the Kimberley Central Company. Beit was captivated by Rhodes talk of big schemes, together, they proceeded to buy out digging ventures and to eliminate opposition such as Barney Barnato. He rapidly became one of a group of financiers who gained control of the claims in the Central, Dutoitspan. Rhodes was the politician and Beit provided a lot of the planning. Beits diamond interests were mainly concentrated on Kimberley mine and he focused his main attention on the Kimberley Central Company aiming to expand its interests. He had a role in the rise of Kimberley Central Company. In 1886 Beit extended his interests to the newly discovered goldfields of the Witwatersrand, in his business ventures there he made use of financiers Hermann Eckstein and Sir Joseph Robinson. He founded the Robertson Syndicate and the firm of Wernher, Beit & Co and he imported mining engineers from the USA and was among the first to adopt deep-level mining. Rhodes purportedly was granted concessions by Lobengula, as a result of which Beit founded the British South Africa Company in 1888, Beit became life-governor of De Beers and also a director of numerous other companies such as Rand Mines, Rhodesia Railways and the Beira Railway Company. In 1888 Beit moved to London when he felt he was able to manage his financial empire. Beit moved into Tewin Water, near Welwyn, a large Regency house with Victorian additions and 7,000 acres, in the 1890s, he had a mansion built in Park Lane – Aldford House. As a result of this debacle, Rhodes resigned as Prime Minister, Beit was obliged to resign as director of the Charter Company, but was elected vice-president of the British South Africa Company a few years later. With the death of Rhodes in 1902, Beit, as one of the trustees, helped control the estate, currently being helped by the Oppenheimer family of De Beers
21.
Ford Foundation
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The Ford Foundation is a New York headquartered, globally oriented private foundation with the mission of advancing human welfare. Created in 1936 by Edsel Ford and Henry Ford, it was funded by a US$25,000 gift from Edsel Ford. By 1947, after the death of the two founders, the foundation owned 90 percent of the shares of the Ford Motor Company. Between 1955 and 1974, the foundation sold its Ford Motor Company holdings, the foundation makes grants through its headquarters and ten international field offices. For fiscal year 2014, it reported assets of US$12.4 billion, after the deaths of Edsel Ford in 1943 and Henry Ford in 1947, the presidency of the foundation fell to Edsels eldest son, Henry Ford II. It quickly became clear that the foundation would become the largest philanthropy in the world, the board of trustees then commissioned the Gaither Study Committee to chart the foundations future. The committee, headed by California attorney H, the board embraced the recommendations in 1949. The board of directors decided to diversify the foundations portfolio and gradually divested itself of its substantial Ford Motor Company stock between 1955 and 1974 and this divestiture allowed Ford Motor to become a public company. In 2012, stating that it is not a research library, in 1951, the foundation made its first grant to support the development of the public broadcasting system, then known as National Educational Television, which went on the air in 1952. These grants continued, and in 1969 the foundation gave US$1 million to the Childrens Television Workshop to help create, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting replaced NET with the Public Broadcasting Service on October 5,1970. The foundations first international office opened in 1952 in New Delhi. In 1961, Kofi Annan received a grant from the foundation to finish his studies at Macalester College in St. Paul. In 1968, the foundation began disbursing $12 million to persuade law schools to make law school clinics part of their curriculum, clinics were intended to give practical experience in law practice while providing pro bono representation to the poor. In 1967 and 1968, the provided financial support for decentralization. Decentralization in Ocean Hill–Brownsville led to the firing of some teachers and administrators. Beginning in the late 1960s and continuing through the 1970s, the foundation expanded into civil rights litigation, the Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund was incorporated in 1967 with a US$2.2 million grant from the foundation. In the same year, the foundation funded the establishment of the Southwest Council of La Raza. In 1972, the foundation provided a three-year US$1.2 million grant to the Native American Rights Fund, the same year, the Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund opened with funding from numerous organizations, including the foundation
22.
Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother
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Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon was the wife of King George VI and the mother of Queen Elizabeth II and Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon. She was the last Empress consort of India, born into a family of British nobility, she came to prominence in 1923 when she married Albert, Duke of York, the second son of King George V and Queen Mary. The couple and their daughters embodied traditional ideas of family and public service and she undertook a variety of public engagements and became known as the Smiling Duchess because of her consistent public expression. In 1936, her husband became king when his brother, Edward VIII. She accompanied her husband on diplomatic tours to France and North America before the start of World War II, during the war, her seemingly indomitable spirit provided moral support to the British public. In recognition of her role as an asset to British interests, after the war, her husbands health deteriorated and she was widowed at the age of 51. Her elder daughter, aged 25, became the new queen, on the death of Queen Mary in 1953, Elizabeth became the most senior member of the British royal family after the sovereign, and was viewed as the family matriarch. In her later years, she was a popular member of the family. She continued a public life until just a few months before her death at the age of 101, seven weeks after the death of her younger daughter. Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon was the youngest daughter and the ninth of ten children of Claude Bowes-Lyon, Lord Glamis, other possible locations include Forbes House in Ham, London, the home of her maternal grandmother, Louisa Scott. Her birth was registered at Hitchin, Hertfordshire, near the Strathmores English country house, St Pauls Walden Bury, which was also given as her birthplace in the census the following year. She was christened there on 23 September 1900, in the parish church, All Saints. She spent much of her childhood at St Pauls Walden and at Glamis Castle and she was educated at home by a governess until the age of eight, and was fond of field sports, ponies and dogs. When she started school in London, she astonished her teachers by precociously beginning an essay with two Greek words from Xenophons Anabasis and her best subjects were literature and scripture. After returning to education under a German Jewish governess, Käthe Kübler. On her fourteenth birthday, Britain declared war on Germany, four of her brothers served in the army. Her elder brother, Fergus, an officer in the Black Watch Regiment, was killed in action at the Battle of Loos in 1915, another brother, Michael, was reported missing in action on 28 April 1917. Three weeks later, the family discovered he had captured after being wounded
23.
Royal charter
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A royal charter is a formal document issued by a monarch as letters patent, granting a right or power to an individual or a body corporate. They were, and are still, used to establish significant organisations such as cities or universities, Charters should be distinguished from warrants and letters of appointment, as they have perpetual effect. Typically, a Royal Charter is produced as a high-quality work of calligraphy on vellum, the British monarchy has issued over 980 royal charters. Of these about 750 remain in existence, the earliest was to the town of Tain in 1066, making it the oldest Royal Burgh in Scotland, followed by the University of Cambridge in 1231. Charters continue to be issued by the British Crown, a recent example being that awarded to the Chartered Institute for the Management of Sport and Physical Activity, Charters have been used in Europe since medieval times to create cities. The date that such a charter is granted is considered to be when a city is founded, at one time, a royal charter was the sole means by which an incorporated body could be formed, but other means are generally used nowadays instead. In the period before 1958,32 higher education institutes had been created by royal charter and these were typically engineering or technical institutions rather than universities. Royal decrees can therefore no longer grant higher education status or university status. A Royal Charter is granted by Order in Council, either creating an incorporated body and this is an exercise of the Royal Prerogative, and, in Canada, there are hundreds of organisations under Royal Charters. Such organisations include charities, businesses, colleges, universities, today, it is mostly charities and professional institutions who receive Royal Charters. Application for a charter is a petition to the Queen-in-Council, however, meeting these benchmarks does not guarantee the issuance of a Royal Charter. Companies, corporations, and societies in Canada founded under or augmented by a Royal Charter include, Royal Charter was issued in August 1826 to purchase and develop lands. Purchased the Crown Reserve of 1,384,413 acres, cities under Royal Charter are not subject to municipal Acts of Parliament applied generally to other municipalities, and instead are governed by legislation applicable to each city individually. The Royal Charter codifies the laws applied to the particular city, the Universitys Pontifical Charter was granted by Pope Leo XIII in 1889. Several Canadian private schools were founded or reconstituted under Royal Charter, the Royal Gibraltar Post Office was granted Royal Charter in 2005. The Royal Hong Kong Jockey Club obtained Royal Charter in 1959 and it is one of the three banknote-issuing banks in Hong Kong. The Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch Chartered originally in 1847, disbanded 1859, the Institution of Engineers was incorporated by royal charter in 1935. A number of Irish institutions retain the Royal prefix, even though Republic of Ireland severed all remaining connections between the state and the British monarch in 1949, the University of South Africa received a Royal Charter in 1877
24.
University of Birmingham
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The University of Birmingham is a public research university located in Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom. It is a member of both the Russell Group of British research universities and the international network of research universities, Universitas 21. The university was ranked 15th in the UK and 82nd in the world in the QS World University Rankings for 2016-17, in 2013, Birmingham was named University of the Year 2014 in the Times Higher Education awards. The 2016 Global Employability University Ranking places Birmingham at 90th world-wide, Birmingham is also ranked 9th in the UK for Graduate Prospects in The Times and The Sunday Times Good University Guide 2017. The student population includes 21,495 undergraduate and 12,335 postgraduate students, the annual income of the institution for 2015–16 was £625.6 million of which £135.5 million was from research grants and contracts, with an expenditure of £562.1 million. Academics and alumni of the university include former British Prime Ministers Neville Chamberlain, and Stanley Baldwin and these classes were the first ever held outside London or south of the Scottish border in the winter of 1767–68. The first clinical teaching was undertaken by medical and surgical apprentices at the General Hospital, the medical school which grew out of the Birmingham Workhouse Infirmary was founded in 1828 but Cox began teaching in December 1825. Queen Victoria granted her patronage to the Clinical Hospital in Birmingham and it was the first provincial teaching hospital in England. In 1843, the college became known as Queens College. The college was founded in 1875 and it was this institution that would eventually form the nucleus of the University of Birmingham. In 1882, the Departments of Chemistry, Botany and Physiology were transferred to Mason Science College, soon followed by the Departments of Physics and Comparative Anatomy. The transfer of the Medical School to Mason Science College gave considerable impetus to the importance of that college. As the result of the Mason University College Act 1897 it became incorporated as Mason University College on 1 January 1898 and it was largely due to Chamberlains enthusiasm that the university was granted a royal charter by Queen Victoria on 24 March 1900. The Calthorpe family offered twenty-five acres of land on the Bournbrook side of their estate in July, the Court of Governors received the Birmingham University Act 1900, which put the royal charter into effect on 31 May. Birmingham was therefore arguably the first so-called red brick university, although several other universities claim this title, the transfer of Mason University College to the new University of Birmingham, with Chamberlain as its first chancellor and Sir Oliver Lodge as the first principal, was complete. All that remained of Josiah Masons legacy was his Mermaid in the chief of the university shield and of his college. It became the first civic and campus university in England, consequently, the faculty, the first of its kind in Britain, was founded by Sir William Ashley in 1901, who from 1902 until 1923 served as first Professor of Commerce and Dean of the Faculty. From 1905 to 1908, Edward Elgar held the position of Peyton Professor of Music at the university and he was succeeded by his friend Granville Bantock
25.
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
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The Federation was established on 1 August 1953. The Federation was established with a Governor-General as the Queens representative at the centre, the rulers of the new black African states were united in wanting to end colonialism in Africa. These groups supported the aspirations of the black African nationalists and accepted their claims to speak on behalf of the people, the federation officially ended on 31 December 1963. In 1964, shortly after the dissolution, Northern Rhodesia became an independent republic under the name Zambia, in 1965, Southern Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence from the United Kingdom as the state of Rhodesia. It was commonly understood that Southern Rhodesia would be the dominant territory in the federation – economically, electorally, how much so defined much of the lengthy constitutional negotiations and modifications that followed. African political opposition and nationalist aspirations, for the time, were mute, compounding this was the significant growth in Southern Rhodesias European settler population, unlike in the Northern Protectorates. This was to shape future developments in the Federation. Nyasaland showed the least European and greatest African population growth, rather than a federation, Huggins favoured an amalgamation, creating a single state. However, after World War II, Britain opposed this because Southern Rhodesia would dominate the property, a federation was intended to curtail this. The CO ruled the territories of Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia. The Northern Territories opposed a Southern Rhodesian hegemony, one that the CRO promoted, significantly, the CO tended to be more sympathetic to African rights than the CRO, which tended to promote the interests of the Southern Rhodesian European settler populations. It was convenient to have all three territories colonised by Cecil Rhodes under one constitution, but, for Huggins and the Rhodesian establishment, the central economic motive behind the CAF had always been the abundant copper deposits of Northern Rhodesia. Unlike the Rhodesias, Nyasaland had no sizeable deposits of minerals and its community of Europeans. Its inclusion in the Federation was always more a symbolic gesture than a practical necessity, ironically, it was to be largely Nyasaland and its African population where the impetus for destabilisation of the CAF arose, leading to its dissolution. On 8 November 1950, the first negotiations for a state for the Rhodesias. While many points of contention were worked out in the conferences that followed, several proved to be acute, the negotiations and conferences were arduous. Southern Rhodesia and the Northern Territories had very different traditions for the Native Question, an agreement would likely not have been reached without Sir Andrew Cohen, CO Assistant Undersecretary for African Affairs. Cohen, who was Jewish and traumatised by the Holocaust, was an anti-racialist, Lord Blake, the Oxford-based historian, wrote, In that sense, Apartheid can be regarded as the father of Federation
26.
Rhodesian Bush War
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The Rhodesian Bush War—also known as the Second Chimurenga or the Zimbabwe War of Liberation—was a civil war that took place from July 1964 to December 1979 in the unrecognised country of Rhodesia. However, this new order failed to win recognition and the war continued. The country returned temporarily to British control and new elections were held under British, ZANU won the election and Mugabe became the first Prime Minister of Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980, when the country achieved internationally recognised independence. Rhodesia was settled by Britons and South Africans beginning in the 1890s and while it was never accorded full dominion status, many white Rhodesians were concerned that decolonisation and majority rule would bring chaos as had resulted in the former Belgian Congo after its independence in 1960. Britains unwillingness to compromise on its policy of No independence before majority rule led to Rhodesias unilateral declaration of independence on 11 November 1965, though Rhodesia had the unofficial support of neighbouring South Africa and Portugal, which governed Mozambique, it never gained formal diplomatic recognition from any country. Many white Rhodesians viewed the war as one of survival in the context of atrocities committed against the population during the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya. Many whites viewed their lifestyle as being under attack, which both had considered safer and with a standard of living than many other African countries. Although the vote in Rhodesia was technically open to all, regardless of race, the 1969 constitution provided for Non-Europeans to elect representatives for eight of the seats in the 66 seat parliament. A further eight seats were reserved for tribal chiefs, amidst this backdrop, African nationalists advocated armed struggle to bring about independence in Rhodesia under black majority rule. Resistance also stemmed from the economic inequality between blacks and whites. In Rhodesia, whites owned most of the land whilst many blacks were crowded on barren land. ZANU and its military wing ZANLA were headed initially by the Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole, ZAPU and its military wing ZIPRA consisted mainly of Ndebele ethnic groups under Joshua Nkomo. Cold War politics played into the conflict also, with the Soviet Union supporting ZIPRA, each group subsequently fought a separate war against the Rhodesian security forces, and the two groups sometimes fought against each other as well. In June 1979, the governments of Cuba and Mozambique offered direct military assistance to the Patriotic Front, other foreign nations also contributed to the conflict, for instance North Korean military officials taught Zimbabwean militants how to use explosives and arms in a camp near Pyongyang. By April 197912,000 ZANLA guerrillas were training in Tanzania, Ethiopia, on the other side of the conflict South Africa clandestinely provided both material and military support to the Rhodesian government. Inevitably the Bush War occurred within the context of regional Cold War in Africa, the conflict was seen by the nationalist groups and the British government of the time as a war of national and racial liberation. The Nationalists saw their country as having been occupied and dominated by a power, namely Britain. Ian Smiths Rhodesian Front party was elected to power in 1962, however, unsatisfied with this and spurred on by Britains refusal to recognise the new order, the nationalist forces persisted
27.
Academic freedom
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Academic freedom is a contested issue and, therefore, has limitations in practice. For instance, in the Soviet Union, scientific research was brought under strict control in the 1930s. A number of areas were declared bourgeois pseudoscience and forbidden, notably genetics. Demands in Britain for centrally planned scientific research led Polanyi, together with John Baker, the Society promoted a liberal conception of science as free enquiry against the instrumental view that science should exist primarily to serve the needs of society. Just as consumers in a free market determine the value of products, such self-co-ordination of independent initiatives leads to a joint result which is unpremeditated by any of those who bring it about. Any attempt to organize the group, under a single authority would eliminate their independent initiatives, and thus reduce their joint effectiveness to that of the single person directing them from the centre. It would, in effect, paralyse their co-operation, proponents of academic freedom believe that the freedom of inquiry by students and faculty members is essential to the mission of the academy. They argue that communities are repeatedly targeted for repression due to their ability to shape. For example, in North Africa, a professor of public health discovered that his countrys infant mortality rate was higher than government figures indicated and he lost his job and was imprisoned. The fate of biology in the Soviet Union is also cited as a reason why society has an interest in protecting academic freedom. Lysenkos ideas proved appealing to the Soviet leadership, in part because of their value as propaganda, subsequently, Lysenko directed a purge of scientists who professed harmful ideas, resulting in the expulsion, imprisonment, or death of hundreds of Soviet scientists. Lysenkos ideas were implemented on collectivised farms in the Soviet Union. Famines that resulted partly from Lysenkos influence are believed to have killed 30 million people in China alone, AFAF of the United Kingdom is a campaign for lecturers, academic staff and researchers who want to make a public statement in favour of free enquiry and free expression. AFAF and those who agree with its principles believe that it is important for academics to be not only to express their opinions. They are against the idea of telling the public Platonic noble lies, the concept of academic freedom as a right of faculty members is an established part of most legal systems. The nomination and promotion of professors is largely done through a process of peer review rather than through normal administrative procedures, the German Constitution specifically grants academic freedom, Art and science, research and teaching are free. Freedom of teaching does not absolve from loyalty to the constitution, lehrfreiheit embraces the right of professors to determine the content of their lectures and to publish the results of their research without prior approval. Since professors through their Habilitation receive the right to teach in an academic field
28.
Student protest
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Protest forms include but are not limited to, sit-ins, occupations of university offices or buildings, strikes etc. A common tactic of student protest is to go on strike and it is meant to resemble strike action by organized labour. This can cause an overload of students in one academic term, in more recent times, significant walkouts occurred in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the French May 1968 uprisings began as a series of student strikes. An estimated four million students at more than 450 universities, colleges, the term student strike has been criticized as inaccurate by some unions and commentators in the news media. These groups have indicated that they believe the boycott is more accurate
29.
Strike action
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Strike action, also called labor strike, labour strike, or simply strike, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal of employees to work. A strike usually takes place in response to employee grievances, Strikes became common during the Industrial Revolution, when mass labor became important in factories and mines. In most countries, strike actions were made illegal, as factory owners had far more power than workers. Most Western countries partially legalized striking in the late 19th or early 20th centuries, Strikes are sometimes used to pressure governments to change policies. Notable examples are the 1980 Gdańsk Shipyard or 1981 Warning Strike, official publications have typically used the more neutral words work stoppage or industrial dispute. The first historically certain account of action was towards the end of the 20th dynasty. The artisans of the Royal Necropolis at Deir el-Medina walked off their jobs because they had not been paid, the Egyptian authorities raised the wages. An early predecessor of the strike may have been the secessio plebis in ancient Rome. In the Outline Of History, H. G. Wells characterized this event as the strike of the plebeians, the plebeians seem to have invented the strike. The strike action became a feature of the political landscape with the onset of the Industrial Revolution. For the first time in history, large numbers of people were members of the working class, they lived in cities. By the 1830s, when the Chartist movement was at its peak, in 1842 the demands for fairer wages and conditions across many different industries finally exploded into the first modern general strike. Instead of being a spontaneous uprising of the masses, the strike was politically motivated and was driven by an agenda to win concessions. Probably as much as half of the industrial work force were on strike at its peak – over 500,000 men. The local leadership marshalled a growing working class tradition to organize their followers to mount an articulate challenge to the capitalist. Friedrich Engels, an observer in London at the time, wrote, by its numbers, this class has become the most powerful in England, the English proletarian is only just becoming aware of his power, and the fruits of this awareness were the disturbances of last summer. Karl Marx has condemned the theory of Proudhon criminalizing strike action in his work The Poverty of Philosophy, in 1937 there were 4,740 strikes in the United States. This was the greatest strike wave in American labor history, the number of major strikes and lockouts in the U. S. fell by 97% from 381 in 1970 to 187 in 1980 to only 11 in 2010
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Government of Sweden
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The Government of the Kingdom of Sweden is the national cabinet and the supreme executive authority in Sweden. The short-form name Regeringen is used both in the Fundamental Laws of the Realm and in the vernacular, while the long-form is only used in international treaties, the Government is responsible for its actions to the Riksdag. Instrument of Government, Chapter 12, Article 1, the Instrument of Government —one of the Fundamental Laws of the Realm—sets out the main responsibilities and duties of the Government and how it relates to other organs of the State. Instrument of Government, Chapter 12, Article 1, most state administrative authorities, as opposed to local authorities, sorts under the Government, including the Armed Forces, Coast Guard, Customs Service and the Swedish police. While the Judiciary technically sort under the Government in the fiscal sense, the Government of Sweden is the high contracting party when entering treaties with foreign sovereign states and international organisations, as per 10,1 of the Instrument of Government. In most other systems this formal function is usually vested in the head of state. Chapter 6, Article 7 prescribes that laws and ordinances are promulgated by the Government, the nomination is then put to a vote in the chamber. Unless an absolute majority of the members votes no, the nomination is confirmed, the Speaker must then find a new nominee. This means the Riksdag can consent to a Prime Minister without casting any yes votes, after being elected the Prime Minister appoints the cabinet ministers and announces them to the Riksdag. The Riksdag can cast a vote of no confidence against any single cabinet minister, to succeed a vote of no confidence must be supported by an absolute majority or it has failed. If a vote of no confidence is cast against the Prime Minister this means the government is rejected. A losing government has one week to call for an election or else the procedure of nominating a new Prime Minister starts anew. Each appointment of a new Prime Minister is considered to result in a new cabinet, however, there is no automatic resignation following a defeat in a general election, so an election does not always result in a new cabinet. Previously known as the Royal Chancery, the name was changed to the Government Offices on 1 January 1975 with the current Instrument of Government entering into effect. The Instrument of Government briefly mentions in Chapter 7, Article 1 that there is an organization supporting the Government known as the Government Offices. The present organizational charter for the Government Offices is found in the ordinance named Förordning med instruktion för Regeringskansliet, since the issuance of the beforementiond ordinance in 1996, all the ministries are entities within the Government Offices, rather than as separate organisations. Below follows a summary of the current structure. Government of Sweden - Official site Organization and Ministerial Bios - Official site
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Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe
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During the height of inflation from 2008 to 2009, it was difficult to measure Zimbabwes hyperinflation because the government of Zimbabwe stopped filing official inflation statistics. However, Zimbabwes peak month of inflation is estimated at 79.6 billion percent in mid-November 2008, in 2009, Zimbabwe stopped printing its currency, with currencies from other countries being used. In mid-2015, Zimbabwe announced plans to have switched to the United States dollar by the end of 2015. On 18 April 1980, the Republic of Zimbabwe was born from the former British colony of Southern Rhodesia, the Rhodesian Dollar was replaced by the Zimbabwe dollar at par value. In its early years, Zimbabwe experienced strong growth and development, wheat production for non-drought years was proportionally higher than in the past. The tobacco industry was thriving as well, economic indicators for the country were strong. In the late 1990s, the government instituted land reforms intended to evict white landowners, however, many of these farmers had no experience or training in farming. From 1999 to 2009, the experienced a sharp drop in food production. The banking sector also collapsed, with farmers unable to obtain loans for capital development, food output capacity fell 45%, manufacturing output 29% in 2005, 26% in 2006 and 28% in 2007, and unemployment rose to 80%. The Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe blamed the hyperinflation on economic sanctions imposed by the United States of America, the IMF and these sanctions affect the government of Zimbabwe, and asset freezes and visa denials targeted at 200 specific Zimbabweans closely tied to the Mugabe regime. There are also placed on trade with Zimbabwe, by both individual businesses and the US Treasury Departments Office of Foreign Asset Control. A monetarist view is that an increase in the prices of things is less a commentary on the worth of those things than on the worth of the money. This has objective and subjective components, Objectively, that the money has no basis to give it a value. Subjectively, that the holding the money lack confidence in its ability to retain its value. Crucial to both components is discipline over the creation of additional money, Zimbabwe was under-reporting its war spending to the International Monetary Fund by perhaps $23 million a month. Another motive for excessive money creation has been self-dealing, transparency International ranks Zimbabwes government 157th of 177 in terms of institutionalised corruption. The resulting lack of confidence in government undermines confidence in the future, economic mis-steps by government can create shortages and occupy people with workarounds rather than productivity. Though this harms the economy, it not necessarily undermine the value of the currency
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Geology
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Geology is an earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also refer generally to the study of the features of any terrestrial planet. Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth by providing the evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life. Geology also plays a role in engineering and is a major academic discipline. The majority of data comes from research on solid Earth materials. These typically fall into one of two categories, rock and unconsolidated material, the majority of research in geology is associated with the study of rock, as rock provides the primary record of the majority of the geologic history of the Earth. There are three types of rock, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The rock cycle is an important concept in geology which illustrates the relationships between three types of rock, and magma. When a rock crystallizes from melt, it is an igneous rock, the sedimentary rock can then be subsequently turned into a metamorphic rock due to heat and pressure and is then weathered, eroded, deposited, and lithified, ultimately becoming a sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock may also be re-eroded and redeposited, and metamorphic rock may also undergo additional metamorphism, all three types of rocks may be re-melted, when this happens, a new magma is formed, from which an igneous rock may once again crystallize. Geologists also study unlithified material which typically comes from more recent deposits and these materials are superficial deposits which lie above the bedrock. Because of this, the study of material is often known as Quaternary geology. This includes the study of sediment and soils, including studies in geomorphology, sedimentology and this theory is supported by several types of observations, including seafloor spreading, and the global distribution of mountain terrain and seismicity. This coupling between rigid plates moving on the surface of the Earth and the mantle is called plate tectonics. The development of plate tectonics provided a basis for many observations of the solid Earth. Long linear regions of geologic features could be explained as plate boundaries, mid-ocean ridges, high regions on the seafloor where hydrothermal vents and volcanoes exist, were explained as divergent boundaries, where two plates move apart. Arcs of volcanoes and earthquakes were explained as convergent boundaries, where one plate subducts under another, transform boundaries, such as the San Andreas Fault system, resulted in widespread powerful earthquakes. Plate tectonics also provided a mechanism for Alfred Wegeners theory of continental drift and they also provided a driving force for crustal deformation, and a new setting for the observations of structural geology
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Field research
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Field research or fieldwork is the collection of information outside a laboratory, library or workplace setting. The approaches and methods used in field research vary across disciplines, although the method generally is characterized as qualitative research, it may include quantitative dimensions. Field research has a long history, cultural anthropologists have long used field research to study other cultures. In Fields that is, circumscribed areas of study which have been the subject of social research, Fields could be education, industrial settings, or Amazonian rain forests. Field research may be conducted by zoologists such as Jane Goodall, radcliff-Brown and Malinowski were early cultural anthropologists who set the models for future work. Business use of Field research is a form of anthropology and is as likely to be advised by sociologists or statisticians in the case of surveys. Consumer marketing field research is the marketing technique used by businesses to research their target market. The quality of results obtained from field research depends on the data gathered in the field. The data in turn, depend upon the worker, his or her level of involvement. The more open researchers are to new ideas, concepts, and things which they may not have seen in their own culture, the better will be the absorption of those ideas. Better grasping of such material means better understanding of the forces of culture operating in the area, Social scientists have always been taught to be free from ethnocentrism, when conducting any type of field research. Participant observation, data collection, and survey research are examples of research methods. When conducting field research, keeping a record is essential to the process. Field notes are a key part of the ethnographic record, the process of field notes begin as the researcher participates in local scenes and experiences in order to make observations that will later be written up. The field researcher tries first to take notes of certain details in order that they be written down later. Field Note Chart The first writing that is done typically consists of jotted or condensed notes, thus, key words or phrases are written down while the researcher is in or very close to the field. Some researchers jot field notes openly in the presence of those being studied, adopting this practice early on enables some researchers to find that they can establish a note-taker role that will be accepted or at least tolerated by those being studied. However, some find that people develop expectations of what should be recorded and what should not
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Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
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Lecture
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A lecture is an oral presentation intended to present information or teach people about a particular subject, for example by a university or college teacher. Lectures are used to critical information, history, background, theories. A politicians speech, a sermon, or even a businessmans sales presentation may be similar in form to a lecture. Usually the lecturer will stand at the front of the room, though lectures are much criticised as a teaching method, universities have not yet found practical alternative teaching methods for the large majority of their courses. Critics point out that lecturing is mainly a one-way method of communication that does not involve significant audience participation, therefore, lecturing is often contrasted to active learning. Lectures have a significant role outside the classroom, as well, academic and scientific awards routinely include a lecture as part of the honor, and academic conferences often center around keynote addresses, i. e. lectures. The public lecture has a history in the sciences and in social movements. Union halls, for instance, historically have hosted numerous free, similarly, churches, community centers, libraries, museums, and other organizations have hosted lectures in furtherance of their missions or their constituents interests. Lectures represent a continuation of tradition in contrast to textual communication in books. Lectures may be considered a type of grey literature, the noun lecture dates from 14th century, meaning action of reading, that which is read, from the Latin lectus, pp. of legere to read. Its subsequent meaning as oral discourse on a subject before an audience for purposes of instruction is from the 16th century. The verb to lecture is attested from 1590, the noun lectern refers to the reading desk used by lecturers. The practice in the university was for the instructor to read from an original source to a class of students who took notes on the lecture. The reading from original sources evolved into the reading of glosses on an original, throughout much of history, the diffusion of knowledge via handwritten lecture notes was an essential element of academic life. Even in the century, the lecture notes taken by students. Many lecturers were, and still are, accustomed to reading their own notes from the lectern for exactly that purpose. Nevertheless, modern lectures generally incorporate additional activities, e. g. writing on a chalk-board, exercises, class questions and discussions, or student presentations. The use of presentation software such as Microsoft PowerPoint has changed the form of lectures, e. g. video, graphics, websites
