1.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
2.
Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette
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A close friend of George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and Thomas Jefferson, Lafayette was a key figure in the French Revolution of 1789 and the July Revolution of 1830. Born in Chavaniac, in the province of Auvergne in south central France and he followed its martial tradition, and was commissioned an officer at age 13. He became convinced that the American cause in its war was noble. There, he was made a general, however, the 19-year-old was initially not given troops to command. Wounded during the Battle of Brandywine, he managed to organize an orderly retreat. He served with distinction in the Battle of Rhode Island, in the middle of the war, he returned home to lobby for an increase in French support. He again sailed to America in 1780, and was given positions in the Continental Army. In 1781, troops in Virginia under his command blocked forces led by Cornwallis until other American, Lafayette returned to France and, in 1787, was appointed to the Assembly of Notables, which was convened in response to the fiscal crisis. He was elected a member of the Estates-General of 1789, where representatives met from the three orders of French society—the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. He helped write the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, after the storming of the Bastille, Lafayette was appointed commander-in-chief of the National Guard and tried to steer a middle course through the French Revolution. In August 1792, the radical factions ordered his arrest, fleeing through the Austrian Netherlands, he was captured by Austrian troops and spent more than five years in prison. Lafayette returned to France after Napoleon Bonaparte secured his release in 1797, after the Bourbon Restoration of 1814, he became a liberal member of the Chamber of Deputies, a position he held for most of the remainder of his life. During Frances July Revolution of 1830, Lafayette declined an offer to become the French dictator, instead, he supported Louis-Philippe as king, but turned against him when the monarch became autocratic. Lafayette died on 20 May 1834, and is buried in Picpus Cemetery in Paris, for his accomplishments in the service of both France and the United States, he is sometimes known as The Hero of the Two Worlds. Lafayettes lineage was likely one of the oldest and most distinguished in Auvergne and, perhaps, males of the Lafayette family enjoyed a reputation for courage and chivalry and were noted for their contempt for danger. One of Lafayettes early ancestors, Gilbert de Lafayette III, a Marshal of France, had been a companion-at-arms of Joan of Arcs army during the Siege of Orléans in 1429, according to legend, another ancestor acquired the crown of thorns during the Sixth Crusade. Lafayettes father likewise died on the battlefield, on 1 August 1759, Michel de Lafayette was struck by a cannonball while fighting a British-led coalition at the Battle of Minden in Westphalia. Lafayette became marquis and Lord of Chavaniac, but the estate went to his mother, in 1768, when Lafayette was 11, he was summoned to Paris to live with his mother and great-grandfather at the comtes apartments in Luxembourg Palace
3.
Valley Forge, Pennsylvania
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The remaining village is in Schuylkill Township of Chester County, but once spanned Valley Creek into Montgomery County. There is a partial re-creation of the village from the time of the American Revolution that is located next door. Valley Forge is known by travelers in the Philadelphia area as the control city on Interstate 76. This remains, despite no exit being designated for Valley Forge, Valley Forge is mostly known for its lending its name to the encampment of George Washingtons Continental Army during the winter of 1777 to 1778. The climate in this area is characterized by warm summers and generally cool to cold winters, gabriel Weinberg, founder and CEO of DuckDuckGo. Washington Memorial Chapel Old Train station
4.
Philadelphia campaign
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The Philadelphia campaign was a British initiative in the American Revolutionary War to gain control of Philadelphia, which was then the seat of the Second Continental Congress. From there, he advanced northward toward Philadelphia, Washington prepared defenses against Howes movements at Brandywine Creek, but was flanked and beaten back in the Battle of Brandywine on September 11,1777. After further skirmishes and maneuvers, Howe was able to enter, Washington then unsuccessfully attacked one of Howes garrisons at Germantown before retreating to Valley Forge for the winter. General Howe resigned during the occupation of Philadelphia and was replaced by his second-in-command, Clinton evacuated the troops from Philadelphia back to New York City in 1778 in order to increase that citys defenses against a possible Franco-American attack. Washington harried the British army all the way across New Jersey, at the end of the campaign the two armies were roughly in the same positions they were at its beginning. While this time was punctuated by numerous skirmishes, the British army continued to occupy outposts at New Brunswick and Perth Amboy, Germain approved his plan, although with fewer troops than Howe requested. He also approved plans by John Burgoyne for an expedition to force his way to Albany from Montreal, Washington realized that Howe certainly ought in good policy to endeavor to Cooperate with Genl. Burgoyne and was baffled why he did not do so, historians agree that Lord Germain did a poor job in coordinating the two campaigns. Following Howes capture of New York and Washingtons retreat across the Delaware, Howe on December 20,1776 wrote to Germain, proposing an elaborate set of campaigns for 1777. These included operations to control of the Hudson River, expand operations from the base at Newport, Rhode Island. The latter Howe saw as attractive, since Washington was then just north of the city, Howe wrote that he was persuaded the Principal Army should act offensively, where the enemys chief strength lies. Germain acknowledged that this plan was well digested, but it called for more men than Germain was prepared to provide. However, by mid-May Howe had apparently abandoned the idea of an overland expedition and we must probably abandon the Jersies. Along the same lines Don Higginbotham concludes that in Howes view, was Burgoynes whole show, with regard to Burgoynes army, he would do only what was required of him. He sailed from New York not long after, Washingtons Continental Army had been encamped primarily at Morristown, New Jersey, although there was a forward base at Bound Brook, only a few miles from the nearest British outposts. In response to this raid, Washington moved his army forward to a fortified position at Middlebrook in the Watchung Mountains that commanded likely British land routes toward Philadelphia. For reasons that are not entirely clear, General Howe moved an army to Somerset Court House. If he performed this move as a feint to draw Washington out from his position, it failed
5.
Battle of Bound Brook
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The Battle of Bound Brook was a surprise attack conducted by British and Hessian forces against a Continental Army outpost at Bound Brook, New Jersey during the American Revolutionary War. The British objective of capturing the garrison was not met. The American commander, Major General Benjamin Lincoln, left in haste, abandoning papers. Late on the evening of April 12,1777, four thousand British, all but one detachment reached positions surrounding the outpost before the battle began near daybreak the next morning. During the battle, most of the 500-man garrison escaped by the unblocked route, American reinforcements arrived in the afternoon, but not before the British plundered the outpost and began the return march to New Brunswick. One of the bases used for these operations was at Bound Brook, located on the Raritan River upriver from New Brunswick. The post was responsible for patrolling three bridges across the Raritan likely to be used by the British in moves against the camp at Morristown. In February 1777, the Bound Brook outpost consisted of 1,000 men under the command of Major General Benjamin Lincoln, on the night of April 12, the plan was put into action. Under the overall command of Cornwallis,4,000 British, the right flank, under the command of Major General James Grant, consisted of the Hessian jäger corps, grenadiers from the English Brigade of Guards, and a detachment of British light dragoons. Ewald and a few of his jägers were in the vanguard of Grants column, unaware that this was supposed to be a feint, Ewald drove the sentries back nearly to the main redoubt where the outposts cannons were located. By sunrise he was surrounded, the timely arrival of von Donops column just over the river. The surprise was nearly complete, the Pennsylvania artillery company. Colonel von Donop reported that General Lincoln must have retired en Profond Négligé, the British plan was marred by the early skirmishing involving Ewald, and the too-late arrival of the companies sent to cut off the road to Morristown, Many Americans escaped via this route. The British captured also cannons, ammunition, and supplies, and looted Bound Brook, the Continental Army response was immediate, Washington sent a large force under Major General Nathanael Greene to reoccupy Bound Brook. The British had already left by the time arrived, Greene sent a detachment to harass their rear guard. This detachment caught up with the British near Raritan Landing, where they killed 8, General Howe reported that about 30 Americans were killed and 80 to 90 were captured, while General Lincoln reported that 60 of his men were killed or wounded. Howe claimed no deaths and seven wounded among the British and Hessians, Washington reported that he enemy lost the post at Eleven OClock the same day, & our people took possession of it again, and that the armys losses were trifling and not worth mentioning. He did, however, also report that between 35 and 40 killed or captured, and the loss of three field cannons, in a report to the Board of War, Washington admitted the capture of two cannons, two officers and 20 men from Colonel Proctors Regiment
6.
Battle of Short Hills
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The Battle of Short Hills was a conflict between a Continental Army force commanded by Brigadier General William Alexander, and an opposing British force commanded by Lieutenant General William Howe. The battle took place on June 26,1777, at Scotch Plains and Metuchen, New Jersey, despite the name, no fighting occurred in modern-day Short Hills, a section of Millburn. When Washington refused to abandon his position Howe returned to Amboy on June 22, Washingtons forward divisions, including that of Lord Stirling, shadowed this British movement, and Washington moved his main army out of the hills. Howe seized this opportunity, and on June 26 marched two columns of troops out in an attempt to cut Washington off from the high ground and these troops skirmished with Lord Stirlings troops, and eventually engaged in a pitched battle in Scotch Plains. Stirlings outnumbered force retreated, but Washington, alerted to the British movement, had by then retreated back into the hills, in March 1776 the British forces of Lieutenant General William Howe withdrew from Boston after Major General George Washington fortified high ground threatening the city and its harbor. With this army augmented by reinforcements from Europe, General Howe captured New York City, at the end of 1776, Washington crossed the Delaware River and surprised German troops at Trenton, New Jersey, and eventually regained control of most of the state. The two armies settled into winter quarters, and engaged in a war of skirmishes during the winter months. General Howe spent the winter planning a campaign to capture the seat of the rebel Congress, historians who mention this battle only occasionally give it a name. It is often called Short Hills, even though the battle took place primarily in present-day Edison and Scotch Plains, historians also give the battle other names, David Martin calls it Flat Hills or Metuchen Meeting House, one British regimental history refers to it by Westfield. On June 9, Howe began moving troops from Staten Island to Perth Amboy, on June 11, almost his entire army moved up the roads along the Raritan River to New Brunswick. On June 14, Howes army marched again, its destination Somerset Court House, apparently seeking to draw Washington into battle on open terrain, Howe remained there five days. Washington refused to out of the hills, and on June 19, Howe began the march back to Perth Amboy. Stirlings command, numbering about 2,500, comprised William Maxwells New Jersey brigade, Thomas Conways Pennsylvania brigade, Daniel Morgans Corps of Riflemen and Ottendorfs Corps. Maxwells brigade consisted of the 1st through 4th New Jersey Continentals and Oliver Spencers Additional Regiment, while Conways consisted of the 3rd, 6th, 9th, at 1,00 am on the morning on June 26 Howe marched two columns of troops out of Perth Amboy. The second column was under the command of Major General John Vaughan and it consisted of jäger companies from Hesse-Kassel and Ansbach-Bayreuth, and battalions of British light infantry and grenadiers. The column of General Cornwallis marched for Woodbridge, while Vaughans marched toward Bonhamton, the retreating Americans lead both of the armies into the Ash Swamp and Scotch Plains areas, where Stirling prepared a defensive position. Severe cannon fire and strength of British numbers forced Stirling, as determined as he was to stand against them, to even further back. There the British, suffering under the heat of the day, ended the pursuit
7.
Battle of Staten Island
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The Battle of Staten Island was a raid by Continental Army troops under Major General John Sullivan against British forces on Staten Island on August 22,1777, during the American Revolutionary War. As a result, Sullivan did not take as many prisoners as expected, although Sullivan was accused of mismanaging the raid, a court martial held later in 1777 exonerated Sullivan of all charges. In March 1776 the British forces of General William Howe withdrew from Boston after Major General George Washington fortified high ground threatening the city, with this army augmented by reinforcements from Europe, General Howe captured New York City, forcing Washington to retreat all the way across New Jersey. At the end of 1776, Washington crossed the Delaware River and surprised German troops at Trenton, New Jersey, the two armies then settled into winter quarters, although there was much skirmishing before the 1777 campaign got underway. General Washington, although he was notified promptly of the departure, was unaware of its destination. He heard on August 10 that the fleet appeared to be moving south of Philadelphia, possibly heading for Charleston, as a result, he prepared to move north to assist General Horatio Gates defend the Hudson River against Lieutenant General John Burgoynes march south from Quebec. On August 21 he was alerted that the fleet had been spotted one week earlier at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay, realizing the danger to Philadelphia, he immediately issued orders to move the entire army south with all speed. His orders to Major General John Sullivan, who commanded the front line defenses in eastern New Jersey, were to rejoin the army with all convenient speed. Sullivan, in the meantime, had learned that the departure of Howes army had left Staten Island vulnerable and his plan was to cross two groups onto the island from points in Elizabethtown, capture prisoners from the isolated militia outposts, and destroy supplies. They would then go to the Old Blazing Star Ferry to return to the mainland, Campbells men numbered about 900, and were stationed near the northeastern tip of the island. Skinners men, numbering about 400 according to Campbells report, were stationed at outposts along the shore between Dexters Ferry and Wards Point. General Sullivan, at his base in Hanover, New Jersey, sources do not describe the precise composition of the troops chosen, but most of them were drawn from Sullivans division, which consisted of the First and Second Maryland Brigades. These brigades comprised the regiments of the Maryland Line, additional troops chosen for the operation included companies from the 2nd Canadian Regiment, on the afternoon of August 21 two columns numbering about 1,000 in all left the camp. After reaching Elizabethtown late that evening, they rested for a few hours, one detachment, led by Colonel Matthias Ogden, crossed opposite Fresh Kills and rowed partway up the kill, in order to approach their target, the militia brigade of Elisha Lawrence, from its rear. The remaining troops crossed near Palmers run on the side of the island. Smallwood and Sullivan led most of their columns away to attack specific targets, Ogden attacked Lawrences outpost at dawn, surprising and routing the militia company. After a few minutes of battle he had taken 80 prisoners, dongans men put up stiff resistance, even though he was felled with a mortal wound. This prompted Ogden to retreat toward the Old Blazing Star, after waiting there as long as he thought prudent, Ogden crossed his men back to the mainland before Sullivan and Smallwood arrived
8.
Battle of Cooch's Bridge
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It was the only significant military action during the war on the soil of Delaware, and it took place about a week before the major Battle of Brandywine. Reportedly, the saw the first flying of the American flag. Their advance was monitored by an infantry corps of Continental Army and militia forces that had based itself at Coochs Bridge, near Newark. On September 3, German troops leading the British advance were met by fire from the American light infantry in the woods on either side of the road leading toward Coochs Bridge. Calling up reinforcements, they flushed the Americans out and drove them across the bridge, after having successfully captured New York City in 1776, British military planners organized two expeditions to divide the Thirteen Colonies and, they hoped, decisively end the rebellion. One expedition was to control of the Hudson River by a descent from Quebec, while the other was targeted at the colonial capital. In pursuit of the objective, Lieutenant General William Howe embarked an army numbering about 18,000 onto transports in late July 1777. The Continental Army of Major General George Washington remained near New York until Howes objective became clear, Howes plan was gauged to the south, intending to move against Philadelphia via the Chesapeake. Washington marched his army, numbering about 16,000, through Philadelphia, riding further south and west to perform reconnaissance on August 26, Washington learned that the British had landed. On August 25, Howes army disembarked below a small town called Head of Elk in Maryland, due to the relatively poor quality of the landing area, his troops moved immediately to the north, reaching Head of Elk itself on August 28. The bridge was named for Thomas Cooch, a landowner whose house was near the bridge. These troops occupied Iron Hill and Coochs Bridge, Maxwells men were encamped on either side of the road leading south from Coochs Bridge toward Aikens Tavern in a series of small camps designed to facilitate ambushes. Those of our officers who know Washington well, maintained that the man in the coat was Washington. On September 2, Howes right wing, under the command of the Hessian general, Wilhelm von Knyphausen, left Cecil County Court House and headed north, hampered by rain and bad roads. Early the next morning, Howes left wing, headed by troops under the command of Charles Cornwallis, left Head of Elk, expecting to join with Knyphausens division at Aikens Tavern, about 5 miles east. Cornwallis reached the tavern first, and Howe, traveling with Cornwallis, a small company of Hessian dragoons led by Captain Johann Ewald headed up the road from the tavern toward Coochs Bridge as Cornwalliss advance guard. These were struck by a volley of fire from an American ambush, Ewald did not, and he quickly alerted the Hessian and Ansbach jägers, who rushed forward to meet the Americans. This began a running skirmish that Major John André described as follows, Howe rode to the front lines, and seeing Iron Hill crawling with enemy soldiers, ordered his troops to clear it
9.
Battle of Brandywine
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The British Army defeated the American Army and forced them to withdraw toward the American capital of Philadelphia. The engagement occurred near Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania during Howes campaign to take Philadelphia, more troops fought at Brandywine than any other battle of the American Revolution. It was also the longest single-day battle of the war, with fighting for 11 hours. Howes army departed from Sandy Hook, New Jersey, on July 23,1777, marching north, the British Army brushed aside American light forces in a few skirmishes. Washington offered battle with his army posted behind Brandywine Creek, while part of his army demonstrated in front of Chadds Ford, Howe took the bulk of his troops on a long march that crossed the Brandywine beyond Washingtons right flank. Due to poor scouting, the Americans did not detect Howes column until it reached a position in rear of their right flank, belatedly, three divisions were shifted to block the British flanking force near a Quaker meeting house. After a stiff fight, Howes wing broke through the newly formed American right wing which was deployed on several hills, at this point Lieutenant General Wilhelm von Knyphausen attacked Chadds Ford and crumpled the American left wing. As Washingtons army streamed away in retreat, he brought up elements of Nathanael Greenes division which held off Howes column long enough for his army to escape to the northeast, polish General Casimir Pulaski defended Washingtons rear assisting in his escape. The defeat and subsequent maneuvers left Philadelphia vulnerable, the British captured the city on September 26, beginning an occupation that would last until June 1778. Unloading the ships proved to be a problem because the narrow river neck was shallow. General George Washington had situated the American forces, about 20, 300-strong and his forces were able to reconnoiter the British landing from Iron Hill near Newark, Delaware, about nine miles to the northeast. Because of the delay disembarking from the ships, Howe did not set up a typical camp, as a result, Washington was not able to accurately gauge the strength of the opposing forces. This site was important as it was the most direct passage across the Brandywine River on the road from Baltimore to Philadelphia, on September 9, Washington positioned detachments to guard other fords above and below Chadds Ford, hoping to force the battle there. Further upstream was a brigade under Colonel Moses Hazen covering Buffingtons Ford, Washington was confident that the area was secure. The British grouped forces at nearby Kennett Square, Howe, who had better information about the area than Washington, had no intention of mounting a full-scale frontal attack against the prepared American defenses. He instead employed a flanking maneuver, similar to that used in the Battle of Long Island, about 6,800 men under the command of Wilhelm von Knyphausen advanced to meet Washingtons troops at Chadds Ford. September 11 began with a fog, which provided cover for the British troops. Washington received contradictory reports about the British troop movements and continued to believe that the force was moving to attack at Chadds Ford
10.
Battle of the Clouds
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The Battle of the Clouds was an aborted engagement of the Philadelphia campaign of the American Revolutionary War on September 16,1777, in the area surrounding present day Malvern, Pennsylvania. After the American defeat at the Battle of Brandywine, the British Army remained encamped near Chadds Ford, when British commander William Howe was informed that the weakened American force was less than ten miles away, he decided to press for another decisive victory. George Washington learned of Howes plans, and prepared for battle, before the two armies could fully engage, a torrential downpour ensued. Significantly outnumbered, and with tens of thousands of cartridges ruined by the rain, bogged down by rain and mud, the British allowed Washington and his army to withdraw. After Washingtons defeat at the Battle of Brandywine, he was intent on accomplishing two tasks and he wanted to protect Philadelphia from British forces under the command of Howe, and he needed to replenish the rapidly dwindling supplies and munitions which were stored in Reading, Pennsylvania. Washington withdrew across the Schuylkill River, marched through Philadelphia, since the Schuylkill was fordable only far upstream starting at Matsons Ford, Washington could protect both the capital and the vital supply areas to the west from behind the river barrier. Yet he reconsidered, and recrossed the river to face the British, the going was difficult because the weather had been rainy and windy, and the troops and wagons turned the roads into muddy quagmires. The next morning, Washingtons 10,000 man army was moving west through the Great Valley and he learned from his cavalry, led by General Pulaski, that the British were advancing on him from the south just a few miles away. The position was three miles long and was strong, especially in the center, Washington sent an advance force under General Anthony Wayne to slow the British progress. At about 2,00 pm, his men encountered the advance units of the Hessian column on one road. These forces began skirmishing, and the Americans very nearly captured Colonel Carl von Donop when he separated from his main column with a small company of jägers. The main British column, led by General Charles Cornwallis, met with Waynes Pennsylvania militia on another road at around 3,00, who gave way in a panicked retreat, suffering 10 killed or wounded. While this went on, Washington, who was trying to organize the line of battle, had a change of heart about the position and this withdrawal was just getting underway when it began pouring rain. Hessian jäger captain Johann Ewald described it as an extraordinary thunderstorm, the British army halted its advance, although General Wilhelm von Knyphausen ordered the jägers to engage the enemy. Ewald and his men rushed forward, swords drawn since their muskets were inoperable due to wet powder, Ewald reported losing 5 killed,7 wounded, and 3 captured in this action. The storm, which historian Thomas McGuire describes as a classic noreaster, the British were forced to construct a makeshift camp, and Washington managed to form a battle line, but a great deal of his ammunition was spoiled by the rain and poorly constructed cartridge boxes. Howes army found it impossible to follow Washington over the rutted. The decision was made to wait out the storm, then move toward their objective, Wayne was to be joined by militia, and together they were to strike at the enemy baggage train as the British advanced on Washingtons main army
11.
Battle of Paoli
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The Battle of Paoli was a battle in the Philadelphia campaign of the American Revolutionary War fought on September 20,1777, in the area surrounding present-day Malvern, Pennsylvania. On the evening of September 20, British forces under Major General Charles Grey led an attack on Waynes encampment near the Paoli Tavern. Although there were relatively few American casualties, claims were made that the British took no prisoners and granted no quarter, after the American defeat at the Battle of Brandywine, American Major General George Washington was intent on accomplishing two tasks. Washington withdrew across the Schuylkill River, marched through Philadelphia, since the Schuylkill was fordable only far upstream starting at Matsons Ford, Washington could protect both the capital and the vital supply areas to the west from behind the river barrier. Washington reconsidered, and recrossed the river to face the British, when the British columns passed by, Wayne followed, under orders from Washington to harass the British and attempt to capture all or part of their baggage train. Wayne assumed that his presence was undetected and camped close to the British lines in Paoli, Pennsylvania. His division consisted of the 1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th, 7th, 8th, 10th and 11th Pennsylvania Regiments, Hartleys Regiment, an artillery company. All told, it was about 1,500 strong, camped about 1 mile away was William Smallwoods Maryland militia, about 2,100 relatively inexperienced troops. The British heard rumors that Wayne was in the area, since his position was just 4 miles from the British camp at Tredyffrin, Pennsylvania, Howe immediately planned an attack on Waynes relatively exposed camp. At 10 p. m. Greys troops consisted of the 2nd Light Infantry, altogether, his brigade comprised some 1,200 men. To ensure that the Americans were not alerted, Grey had the flints removed from his troops muskets, the British, led by a local blacksmith forced to act as guide, approached the camp from a wood and were able to achieve complete surprise. They stormed the camp in three waves—the 2nd Light Infantry in the lead followed by the 44th and the 42nd, completely unprepared, Waynes troops fled from the camp and were pursued. Near the White Horse Tavern the British encountered Smallwoods force and routed it as well, with casualties of only 4 killed and 7 wounded, the British had routed an entire American division. Historian Thomas J. McGuire says that 53 Americans were buried on the battlefield, local tradition says that 8 more Americans killed in the battle were buried at the nearby Anglican church of St. Peter-in-the-Great Valley. 71 prisoners were taken by the British,40 of whom were so badly wounded that they had to be left behind in nearby houses, a total of 272 men were killed, wounded or missing from Waynes division after the battle. An official inquiry found that Wayne was not guilty of misconduct, Wayne was enraged and demanded a full court-martial. On November 1, a board of 13 officers declared that Wayne had acted with honor, the incident gained notoriety partly because of accounts by eyewitnesses who stated that the British had stabbed or mutilated Americans who tried to surrender. Among them were the following, I with my own Eyes, see them, cut & hack some of our poor Men to pieces after they had fallen in their hands, - Lt. Col. Adam Hubley, 10th PA Regiment
12.
Battle of Germantown
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The Battle of Germantown was a major engagement in the Philadelphia campaign of the American Revolutionary War. Howe left a garrison of some 3,000 troops in Philadelphia, while moving the bulk of his force to Germantown, learning of the division, Washington determined to engage the British. His plan called for four columns to converge on the British position at Germantown. The ambition behind the plan was to surprise and destroy the British force, much in the way as Washington had surprised. In Germantown, Howe had his infantry and the 40th Foot spread across his front as pickets. In the main camp, Wilhelm von Knyphausen commanded the British left, a heavy fog caused a great deal of confusion among the approaching Americans. After a sharp contest, Sullivans column routed the British pickets, unseen in the fog, around 120 men of the British 40th Foot barricaded the Chew Mansion. When the American reserve moved forward, Washington made the decision to launch repeated assaults on the position. Penetrating several hundred yards beyond the mansion, Sullivans wing became dispirited, running low on ammunition, as they withdrew, Anthony Waynes division collided with part of Greenes late-arriving wing in the fog. Mistaking each other for the enemy, they opened fire, meanwhile, Greenes left-centre column threw back the British right. With Sullivans column repulsed, the British left outflanked Greenes column, the two militia columns had only succeeded in diverting the attention of the British, and had made no progress before they withdrew. Despite the defeat, France, already impressed by the American success at Saratoga, Howe did not vigorously pursue the defeated Americans, instead turning his attention to clearing the Delaware River of obstacles at Red Bank and Fort Mifflin. After unsuccessfully attempting to draw Washington into combat at White Marsh, Washington, his army intact, withdrew to Valley Forge, where he wintered and re-trained his forces. The Philadelphia campaign had begun badly for the Americans, the Continental Army had suffered a string of defeats at Brandywine, and at Paoli, leaving the city of Philadelphia defenceless. Charles Cornwallis subsequently seized Philadelphia for the British on September 26,1777, Howe left a garrison of 3,462 men to defend the city, moving the bulk of his force north, some 9,728 men, to the outlying community of Germantown. With the campaigning season drawing to a close, Howe determined to locate, Howe established his headquarters at the Stenton Mansion, the former country home of James Logan. Despite having suffered successive defeats, Washington saw an opportunity to entrap and he resolved to attack the Germantown garrison, as the last effort of the year before entering winter quarters. His plan called for a complex, ambitious assault, four columns of troops were to assail the British garrison from different directions, at night, Washingtons hope was that the British would be surprised and overwhelmed much how the Hessians were at Trenton
13.
Battle of Red Bank
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To that end, two forts were constructed commanding the river. One was Fort Mercer on the New Jersey side at the Red Bank Plantation in what was part of Deptford Township. The other was Fort Mifflin on Mud Island, in the Delaware River just south of the confluence of the Schuylkill River, so long as the Americans held both forts, British navy ships could not reach Philadelphia to resupply the army. On October 18, General Sir William Howe, the commander of the British Army, evacuated his camp at Germantown and he sent a part of his force to capture the two American forts denying him use of the Delaware River. Earlier, Howe had sent a group of men via Webbs Ferry, at the mouth of the Schuylkill River, the first bombardment of Fort Mifflin came on October 11. This was merely a desultory attack which convinced the British to expand, von Donop, whose attack had been repulsed at the Second Battle of Trenton, was eager to avenge what he considered to be a humiliation. He declared to his men, Either the fort will be called Fort Donop, von Donop divided his force into two groups totaling 1,200 men for a two-pronged attack upon the fort on the morning of October 22. With six British men-of-war in the river to support the attack, after a cannonade by the Hessian artillery, Linsing moved against the nine-foot-high southern parapet, and his men were cut down by devastating cannon and musket fire and were forced to retreat. On the north, Minnigerodes grenadiers managed to scale the ramparts of a section of the fort. But when they moved on they were confronted by a mass of felled trees with pointed branches. With little in the way of tools, they were soon spotted trying to claw their way through the barricade and were fired upon by the Americans waiting for them on the other side. Suffering heavy casualties, the Hessians began to retreat, falling back to their camp ten miles away in the village of Haddonfield which they had taken after landing at nearby Coopers Ferry. Von Donop was wounded in the thigh during the attack and was left on the battlefield by his retreating troops. Mortally wounded, von Donop died three days later in the Whitall House, a farmhouse just outside the works of the fort between the fort and Woodbury Creek. To make matters worse for the British and Hessians, the six British men-of-war were engaged by smaller American gunboats, overnight attempts to free the ships were unsuccessful. Fort Mifflin and the Pennsylvania Navy engaged the stranded ships the next morning, with cannons and fire ships, the Augusta caught fire and within an hour the fire reached the magazine and the ship exploded. The loss of the Augusta was attributed to accidental ignition by the British, soon after, the crew of Merlin was ordered to abandon the ship and destroy it also. The Hessian army reported casualties of 377 killed and wounded with 20 missing or captured, frustrated by the failure to capture Fort Mercer, Howe ordered the Hessian regiments withdrawn from New Jersey while he made plans to attack Fort Mifflin by a massive artillery bombardment
14.
Siege of Fort Mifflin
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The operation finally succeeded when the wounded Smiths successor, Major Simeon Thayer, evacuated the fort on the night of November 15 and the British occupied the place the following morning. Owing to a shift of the river, Fort Mifflin is currently located on the bank of the Delaware adjacent to Philadelphia International Airport. After General Sir William Howes British-Hessian army occupied Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on September 26,1777, with Philadelphia effectively blockaded by the Americans, the Howe brothers were forced to lay siege to Fort Mifflin in order to clear the river. A Hessian attempt to storm Fort Mercer failed with heavy losses on October 22 in the Battle of Red Bank, two British warships which had run aground near Mud Island were destroyed the next day. General George Washington reinforced Fort Mifflin throughout the siege, but the garrison never numbered more than 500 men, after a few setbacks, the British finally assembled enough artillery and warships to bring Fort Mifflin under an intense bombardment beginning on November 10. No longer able to reply to the British bombardment, Thayer ordered the survivors to row across to New Jersey in the night, Fort Mercer was abandoned soon afterward, opening the Delaware and permitting the British to hold Philadelphia until June 1778. After the British defeated the American army at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11,1777, Howe failed to follow up Washingtons withdrawal to Chester, from that town on the Delaware, the Americans marched northeast through Darby to cross the Schuylkill River at the Middle Ferry. From the ferry, the army moved north to present-day East Falls, for the next ten days, the two armies sparred while the British won the Battle of Paoli and several skirmishes. On the night of September 22, Howe outmaneuvered Washington and won an unopposed crossing of the Schuylkill near Valley Forge, on September 26, the British army occupied the rebel capital of Philadelphia. In the face of the British advance the Second Continental Congress fled first to Lancaster then to York, during the summer of 1777, Philippe Charles Tronson du Coudray, a French artillery expert, arrived from France. Congress appointed him a general and inspector general of ordnance. His aristocratic airs soon irritated people and he began to quarrel with another French military engineer, Louis Lebègue Duportail, about how the defenses were to be prepared and even managed to anger Gilbert Motier, marquis de La Fayette. To the relief of many, Coudray drowned on September 16 after he rode his horse onto a Schuylkill ferry. The Mud Island Fort was designed and begun by British engineer Captain John Montresor in 1771, the river front was shielded by a stone face, but then the work stopped due to a shortage of money. After the outbreak of war with Britain, the rest of the defenses were completed with wooden palisades and earthen ramparts. There were wooden barracks for the men along the west. Nearby was a building to accommodate officers. According to one of the soldiers, a battery of 18-pound artillery pieces stood at the southeast end of Mud Island
15.
Battle of White Marsh
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The battle, which took the form of a series of skirmish actions, was the last major engagement of 1777 between British and American forces. From here, Washington monitored British troop movements in Philadelphia and evaluated his options, after a series of skirmishes, Howe called off the attack and returned to Philadelphia without engaging Washington in a decisive conflict. With the British back in Philadelphia, Washington was able to march his troops to winter quarters at Valley Forge. They then marched east on Skippack Pike, turned left on Forty-Foot Road, and marched to Sumneytown Pike, while there, Brig. Gen. Francis Nash died of wounds incurred at Germantown and was buried in the Mennonite Meeting Cemetery. Washington remained at Towamencin for one week, gathering supplies and waiting to see if Howe would move against him, on October 16, Washington moved his forces to Methacton Hill in Worcester Township. After learning of Howes withdrawal from Germantown to Philadelphia, Washington moved his army to Whitpain,5 miles closer to Philadelphia, on October 20. On October 29, Washingtons army numbered 8,313 Continentals and 2,717 militia, although the terms of enlistment of many soldiers from Maryland and Virginia were due to expire. With his ranks reinforced, Washington dispatched a brigade to assist with the defense of Forts Mifflin and Mercer, on November 2, at the recommendation of his council of war, Washington marched his forces to White Marsh, approximately 13 miles northwest of Philadelphia. At White Marsh, the army began to build redoubts and defensive works, after the surrender of British Lt. Gen. Maj. Gen. Horatio Gates sent Col. Daniel Morgans rifle corps, and the brigades of Paterson and Glover. With these additional forces, and the onset of winter. A quarter of the troops were barefooted, and there were very few blankets or warm clothing, Washington became so desperate that he even offered a reward of $10 to the person who could supply the best substitute for shoes, made of raw hides. Morale was so low and desertion so common that Washington offered a pardon on October 24 to all deserters who returned by January 1, Washingtons loss of Philadelphia and inactivity brought criticism from Congress, who pressured him to attack the city. He therefore called a council of war on November 24 which voted against an attack 11 to 4, nonetheless, Washington rode out the next day to view the British defenses, which turned to be stronger than he had expected. On October 19, Howe withdrew the British forces from Germantown, Howe took advantage of his time in Philadelphia to raise additional forces from the loyalist population in the region. Newly-promoted Maj. John Graves Simcoe reinforced his unit, the Queens Rangers, William Allen, Jr. the son of notable loyalist William Allen, raised the 1st Battalion of Pennsylvania Loyalists, and was made its lieutenant colonel. Loyalist James Chalmers raised the 1st Battalion of Maryland Loyalists, and was given its command, recruitment also took place among the citys Irish Catholic population, with the formation of the Irish Catholic Volunteers, and in the counties immediately surrounding Philadelphia. The weeks with two major armies sitting within miles of each other were not without conflict, and a petite guerre ensued in the no mans land between White Marsh and Northern Liberties. Minor skirmishes between light troops increased in intensity throughout November, with almost daily losses being incurred by both the British and the Americans, eleven houses in all were burned to the ground, and residents of Philadelphia climbed onto rooftops and church steeples to watch the spectacle
16.
Battle of Matson's Ford
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The Battle of Matsons Ford was a battle in the Philadelphia campaign of the American Revolutionary War fought on December 11,1777 in the area surrounding Matsons Ford. In this series of skirmish actions, advance patrols of Pennsylvania militia encountered a British foraging expedition and were overrun. The British pushed ahead to Matsons Ford, where units of the Continental Army were making their way across the Schuylkill River, the Americans retreated to the far side, destroying their temporary bridge across the Schuylkill. The British left the area the day to continue foraging elsewhere, the Continentals crossed the river at Swedes Ford. In July 1777 he embarked about 18,000 troops on transports in New York, in early December 1777, General Howe led a sizable contingent of troops out of British-occupied Philadelphia in one last attempt to destroy Washingtons army before the onset of winter. At the Battle of White Marsh, Washington successfully repelled the British attacks, after the battle, Washington and his troops remained encamped at White Marsh. On December 10, George Washingtons council determined that the Continental Army would move to winter quarters somewhere west of the Schuylkill River. The army struck camp the morning of December 11, and proceeded to march through Plymouth Meeting, across Ridge Road, unbeknownst to the Americans, General Charles Cornwallis led a sizable British force out of the city on a foraging expedition early that morning. Cornwallis was also unaware of the Continental Army movement, and had planned to forage in the area just south of Matsons Ford. Employing a local resident named John Roberts as a guide, Cornwallis crossed the Schuylkill at Middle Ferry, Cornwallis then proceeded up the road toward Matsons Ford. His force consisted of brigades of British light infantry and grenadiers, one brigade of regular infantry, the force took with them six 6-pound cannons. Soon after, the militia stationed at the Black Horse Inn exchanged fire with the British troops, outnumbered and flanked, the militia began to fall back in some confusion, taking casualties along the way. Reports were delivered to Potter, who was with the contingent located at Harriton House, indicating that the British were advancing in force up Gulph Road, Potter stationed five regiments of militia between the British forces and Harriton House. However, the militia were quickly overrun and they retreated back through Gulph Mills to Swedes Ford. The retreat was so chaotic that militiamen literally threw away their muskets, with the militia in retreat, Cornwallis discontinued pursuit and took up a strong position on the heights overlooking Matsons Ford. General Potter estimated his casualties at 5 or killed,20 wounded and he believed the British casualties to be higher than his. Jäger Captain Johann Ewald recorded that the British captured about 160 men in the battle after a stubborn resistance and those divisions had almost completed crossing the river when the British position on the heights was spotted. Sullivan quickly ordered a retreat back across the river, and destroyed the bridge behind him
17.
Conway Cabal
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It was named after Brigadier General Thomas Conway, whose letters criticizing Washington were forwarded to the Second Continental Congress. When these suggestions were made public, supporters of Washington mobilized to assist him politically, Conway ended up resigning from the army, and General Horatio Gates, a leading candidate to replace Washington, issued an apology for his role in events. No formal requests were ever made asking for Washingtons removal as commander in chief, there was no sign of any formal conspiracy amongst the various malcontents, although Washington was concerned that there might be one. It was the major political threat to Washingtons command during the war. In the fall of 1777 forces of the British Army successfully captured Philadelphia, the seat of the Second Continental Congress, the series of military setbacks caused many in the Continental Army and Congress to question George Washingtons leadership of the war effort. In contrast, the army of General Horatio Gates had won a signal victory over John Burgoynes forces. In addition to claiming credit for the victory at Saratoga, Gates was politically connected to Congress. Conspiracy is perhaps too strong a term to use in describing varied actions taken by disaffected officers, most of those involved shared the view only that Washington was a less than perfect commander in chief, and very few of their activities were coordinated. His view of Washington as an amateur was supported by Richard Henry Lee, Benjamin Rush. A number of French officers who had commissioned into the Continental Army were also critical of Washington. These notably included Johann de Kalb, Louis Lebègue Duportail, Thomas Conway was an Irishman who was educated in France and had served in its military. General Conway had been appointed as Inspector General of the Army, in October 1777 Conway began lobbying Congress for a promotion to major general, including in his writings criticisms of Washington. Washington opposed Conways promotion, as he felt there were many American-born officers more deserving of promotion who would be upset by such a move, General William Alexander received a letter from Gates adjutant, James Wilkinson, that contained this quotation. He forwarded the letter to Washington, who received it on November 8,1777 and this led Washington to consider the possibility that his subordinates were scheming behind his back to replace him. He was already aware that Gates in particular was well connected. Washington wrote Conway a brief letter, Sir, a letter which I received last Night contained the following paragraph, in a letter from Genl Conway to Genl Gates he says, and then quotes the above passage. Conway immediately acknowledged having written to Gates, but denied having written the quoted passage, Washington never saw the actual letter Conway sent to Gates. Henry Laurens did however, and sent Washington an excerpt, What pity there is, but the more I see of this Army the less I think it fit for general Action under its actual Chiefs I speak you sincerely & wish I could serve under you
18.
Battle of Crooked Billet
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The Battle of Crooked Billet was a battle in the Philadelphia campaign of the American Revolutionary War fought on May 1,1778 near the Crooked Billet Tavern. The British inflicted significant damage, and Lacey and his forces were forced to retreat into neighboring Bucks County, the British Army, led by General William Howe, had captured New York City in 1776 and Philadelphia in 1777. British troops also regularly foraged for supplies in the countryside around the city, since December, Washington and the Continental Army were in winter quarters at Valley Forge, northwest of Philadelphia. John Lacey, was tasked by Washington with patrolling the region north of Philadelphia, Washington was highly critical of both Pennsylvanias militia recruitment and Laceys performance. Pennsylvania, despite promising 1,000 militia to patrol area, had been unable to raise that many. Washington wrote that militia stipulated by the state had never been above half kept up, Lacey had not been as effective as Brigadier General James Potter at interdicting trade with the British, and Washington hoped Potter, off on leave, would soon return. In late April Lacey began a series of maneuvers and patrols across the area ended with his arrival on April 27 at the Crooked Billet Tavern in present-day Hatboro. One of his companies was attacked by a British patrol. In Philadelphia, General Howe ordered Simcoe, to secure the country, during the winter of 1778, British and Loyalist troops repeatedly led raids into Bucks County, despite the presence of Lacey and the militia. In April, Simcoe secured permission from Howe to launch an attack on Lacey, on the afternoon of April 30, he and Lieutenant Colonel Robert Abercromby led their contingent of troops out of Philadelphia and towards the Crooked Billet. By then Laceys troops numbered about 400, including fresh arrivals from Cumberland and that night Lacey ordered Lieutenant William Neilsen to begin a patrol between 2,00 and 3,00 am, and ordered the brigade of Thomas Downey to stand on alert. Neilsen failed to follow his orders, and his patrol only left camp shortly before daybreak on May 1 and they had not gone far when they spotted the advancing British. The British troops arrived at Crooked Billet at daybreak on May 1, Simcoe had planned a pincer-type attack, with his troops attacking from the north and east, and Abercrombys troops from the south and west. Laceys pickets, in place to warn against any type of threat, noticed the British troops, Neilsen sent a runner back to the camp to raise the alarm, but he never arrived. Surprised and outnumbered, the militia were soon routed and forced to retreat into Warminster, losing their supplies, hOVEDENs Pennsylvania, and Capt. JAMESs Chester dragoons, left the city about eleven oclock, and proceeded up the Old York road. Besides the above waggons,3 were burnt after taking out the horses, also all the huts, the royal party did not lose a single man on this occasion, and have only 7 men wounded, and 2 horses killed. As a result of this engagement, the American forces lost ten wagons full of much-needed supplies, Lieutenant Nielson, the officer in charge of the pickets, was court-martialed and cashiered from the militia for disobeying orders. On May 11, Potter returned from his leave of absence, Washington requested that Lacey remain with the militia for a short time in order to familiarize Potter with the region
19.
Battle of Barren Hill
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The Battle of Barren Hill was a minor engagement during the American Revolution. On May 20,1778, a British force attempted to encircle a smaller Continental force under the Marquis de Lafayette, the maneuver failed, with the Continentals escaping the trap, but the British took the field. On May 18, Lafayette left the Valley Forge camp with 2,100 troops, after crossing the Schuylkill River and turning south, he took up position at Barren Hill, which was close to Matsons Ford. A brigade and the guns were posted on the ground, near a church. Another posting was at the Ridge Road to the south, the British quickly discovered that the American force was nearby and decided to attack and seek its destruction. On May 19, around 10,30 p. m, maj. Gen. James Grant and a 5, 000-man British force, including 15 guns, was sent toward Barren Hill. The plan was to take a route leading to the junction of White Marsh Road. This would cut off any avenue of retreat for the Americans, a body of 2,000 grenadiers and dragoons would then move along Lafayettes left flank while another group would move into position on the American right. The plan would result in the American position being encircled from 3 positions, the British force was to wait until morning to attack and destroy or capture the entire American force. On May 20, the British launched their attack, the militia scattered at the sight of the British troops, not offering any resistance and failing to notify Lafayette of the attack. On Ridge Road, the American group learned of the British attack, a small group was sent to fight a delaying action against the British while their commander sent word to Lafayette about the developments. After Lafayette learned of the attack, another patriot came up, Lafayette knew of another small road that led back to Matsons Ford that would bypass the British force. It ran along some low ground that would conceal the Americans from the British, the British did not know about this road. Lafayette ordered his men to retreat down this road while ordering a rear guard to delay the British at the church, a few small patrols were sent to engage the British, skirmishing including the Oneida, making them think that the American force intended to stay and fight. Lafayette calmed his retreating force and slipped away with few casualties. The British, having failed to bag Lafayette, resumed their retreat from Philadelphia to New York, washingtons army shadowed Clinton on his withdrawal and forced a battle at Monmouth on June 28,1778, the last major battle in the North. Historians have questioned the decision of Washington for dispatching a force under the command of such a young general in the vicinity of the British Army. d. C
20.
Carlisle Peace Commission
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The Carlisle Peace Commission was a group of British negotiators who were sent to North America in 1778, during the American War of Independence. The commission carried an offer of self-rule to the rebellious colonies, the Second Continental Congress, aware that British troops were about to be withdrawn from Philadelphia, insisted on demanding full independence, which the commission was not authorised to grant. The Peace Commission marked the first time the British government formally agreed to negotiate with Congress, the limited authority given to both Howe and the American negotiators made it a virtual certainty that nothing would come of the meeting. The commission was empowered to offer a type of self-rule that Thomas Pownall had first proposed a decade earlier, historian David Wilson is of the opinion that the war could have been avoided if the terms it proposed had been offered in 1775. Historian Peter Whiteley, however, notes that King George was unlikely to agree to such an offer then. William Eden organized and served on the commission, but it was headed by the Earl of Carlisle, richard Jackson declined to serve after it became known that the United States and France had signed a Treaty of Alliance. The commissioners also learned of the Franco-American alliance before they set out in April, Carlisle was of the opinion that the administration had done this intentionally, since they might not otherwise have gone at all. Carlisle wrote to his wife of the situation, We all look grave, I fear nobody will think so when we return. I dont see what we have to do here, upon learning of the planned withdrawal, Carlisle appealed to Clinton to delay it, but, in rejecting the appeal, Clinton cited his orders to act without delay. This prompted Carlisle to observe that the administration wanted the commission to be a mixture of ridicule, nullity, Eden was upset that he wasnt told of Clintons orders, since the British intent to withdraw further stiffened American resolve. On June 13, the commissioners sent a package of proposals to Congress, Congress replied insisting that either American independence be recognised, or that all British forces first withdraw from the states, terms the commission was not authorised to accept. The commission attempted to appeal to public opinion, with warnings of widespread destruction, Johnstone tried to bribe some Congressmen, and the Marquis de Lafayette challenged Carlisle to a duel over some anti-French statements he had made. Gouverneur Morris wrote several essays against the proposals, the Commissioners circulated a Manifesto, which was printed in the Hartford Courant, October 10,1778. The Marquess of Rockingham, an opponent of the war, objected to the threats in the Manifesto. Johnstone sailed to Britain in August, and the commissioners returned in November 1778. The British, being unable to bring Washington to an engagement, resumed the military campaign. It was upon the failure of this effort that Benedict Arnold elected to switch over to the side of the British during the American Revolution. Portrait of a General, Sir Henry Clinton in the War of Independence, encyclopædia Britannica Blackwell The Real History of the American Revolution, Alan Axelrod
21.
Battle of Monmouth
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The Battle of Monmouth was an American Revolutionary War battle fought on June 28,1778 in Monmouth County, New Jersey. The Continental Army under General George Washington attacked the rear of the British Army column commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton as they left Monmouth Court House and it is also known as the Battle of Monmouth Courthouse. Sensing the opportunity to smash the Continentals, Cornwallis pressed his attack, finally, Washington tried to hit the exhausted British rear guard on both flanks, but darkness forced the end of the engagement. Both armies held the field, but the British commanding general Clinton withdrew undetected at midnight to resume his armys march to New York City. The battle improved the military reputations of Washington, Lafayette and Anthony Wayne but ended the career of Charles Lee, who would face court martial at Englishtown for his failures on the day. According to some accounts, an American soldiers wife, Mary Hays, brought water to thirsty soldiers in the June heat, British forces had captured Philadelphia in 1777. Clinton was ordered to dispatch units to West Florida and the West Indies which left him too few troops to continue occupying Philadelphia, Clinton was also ordered to abandon New York and withdraw to Quebec if he felt his position there was untenable. A French fleet under dEstaing had sailed from Toulon in April,1778 and it was originally intended that the withdrawing British army would travel directly to New York via the sea, escorted by the Royal Navy. A lack of transports forced Clinton to change his plans, while the stores, heavy equipment and Loyalist American civilians fleeing revenge attacks would be shipped by sea, the main army would march overland across New Jersey. On June 18, the British began to evacuate Philadelphia, the British force comprised 11,000 British and German regulars, a thousand Loyalists from Philadelphia, and a baggage train 12 miles long. As the British advanced, the Americans slowed their advance by burning bridges, muddying wells, with a high of over 100 °F, both sides lost almost as many men to heat stroke as to the enemy. Major General Charles Lee, Washingtons second-in-command, advised awaiting developments as he did not wish to commit the American force against the British regulars. However, Washington determined that the British column was vulnerable to attack as it traveled across New Jersey with its baggage train, Washington was still undecided how to attack the British column, and held a council of war. The council, however, was divided on the issue, with a group of officers including General Anthony Wayne urging a partial attack on the British column while it was strung out on the road. Lee was still cautious, advising only harassing attacks with light forces, Lee, as Washingtons senior subordinate, was initially appointed commander of the advance force, but turned it down because of his doubts about the plan. However, when the force was increased to 5,000, Lee met with his subordinates but failed to give them proper orders, resulting in a piecemeal and disorganized attack on June 28 against the British rear guard under General Charles Cornwallis. After several hours of fighting in the hot weather, several American brigades executed a tactical retreat, the British rear guard counterattacked and as his flanks rapidly became routed, Lee was forced to order a withdrawal. Washington, advancing with the force along the Monmouth road, encountered Lees fleeing troops and finally Lee himself
22.
Continental Army Encampment Site
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Continental Army Encampment Site is a historic site located at Wilmington, New Castle County, Delaware. The Continental Army troops camped on the east side of Brandywine Creek, an early mill race is still visible, on the site, a reminder of the extensive early milling industry on the Brandywine. The Continental Army camped at the site for a few days before the Battle of Brandywine in August 1777, on December 21,1777,1,500 Delaware and Maryland troops under the command of General William Smallwood returned to the campsite. These troops were stationed to prevent occupation of Wilmington by the British and it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973. American Revolutionary War List of American Revolutionary War battles
23.
General officer
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A general officer is an officer of high rank in the army, and in some nations air forces or marines. The term general is used in two ways, as the title for all grades of general officer and as a specific rank. It originates in the 16th century, as a shortening of captain general, the adjective general had been affixed to officer designations since the late medieval period to indicate relative superiority or an extended jurisdiction. Today, the title of General is known in countries as a four-star rank. However different countries use different systems of stars for senior ranks and it has a NATO code of OF-9 and is the highest rank currently in use in a number of armies. The various grades of general officer are at the top of the rank structure. Lower-ranking officers in military forces are typically known as field officers or field-grade officers. There are two systems of general ranks used worldwide. In addition there is a system, the Arab system of ranks. Variations of one form, the old European system, were used throughout Europe. It is used in the United Kingdom, from which it spread to the Commonwealth. The other is derived from the French Revolution, where ranks are named according to the unit they command. The system used either a general or a colonel general rank. The rank of marshal was used by some countries as the highest rank. Many countries actually used two brigade command ranks, which is why some countries now use two stars as their brigade general insignia, mexico and Argentina still use two brigade command ranks. As a lieutenant outranks a sergeant major, confusion arises because a lieutenant is outranked by a major. Originally the serjeant major was, exclusively, the commander of the infantry, junior only to the captain general, the distinction of serjeant major general only applied after serjeant majors were introduced as a rank of field officer. Serjeant was eventually dropped from both titles, creating the modern rank titles
24.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
25.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
26.
Valley Forge National Historical Park
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Valley Forge National Historical Park is the site of the third winter encampment of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, taking place from December 19,1777 to June 19,1778. The National Historical Park preserves the site and interprets the history of the Valley Forge encampment, originally Valley Forge State Park, it became a national historical park in 1976. The Park contains historical buildings, recreated encampment structures, memorials, museums, the park encompasses 3,500 acres and is visited by over 1.2 million people each year. Visitors can see restored historic structures, reconstructed structures such as the iconic log huts, Visitor facilities include a visitor center and museum featuring original artifacts, providing a concise introduction to the American Revolution and the Valley Forge encampment. Ranger programs, tours, and activities are available year-round, the park also provides 26 miles of hiking and biking trails, which are connected to a robust regional trails system. Wildlife watching, fishing, and boating on the nearby Schuylkill River also are popular, from December 19,1777 to June 19,1778, the main body of the Continental Army was encamped at Valley Forge. This was a time of suffering for the army, but it was also a time of retraining. The area around Washingtons Headquarters was chosen as the park site, in 1923, the VFPC was brought under the Department of Forests and Waters and later incorporated into the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission in 1971. The park served as the location of the National Scout Jamboree in 1950,1957, Valley Forge was designated a U. S. National Historic Landmark in 1961 and was listed in the initial National Register of Historic Places in 1966. The area covered by these listings goes outside what was the Valley Forge State Park boundaries to include four houses where the Marquis de Lafayette. In 1976, Pennsylvania gave the park as a gift to the nation for the Bicentennial. The U. S. Congress passed a law, signed by President Gerald Ford on July 4,1976, the park features a visitor center, which acts as orientation for visitors to the site. 90-minute Trolley tours of the park and bike rentals are available seasonally from this location, a short 18-minute film, Valley Forge, A Winter Encampment is shown in the parks theater next door. A key attraction of the park is the colonial home used by General George Washington as his headquarters during the encampment. Quarters of other Continental Army generals are also in the park, including those of Huntington, Varnum, Lord Stirling, Lafayette, varnums quarters is open on weekends during the summer. Throughout the park there are reconstructed log cabins of the thought to be used during the encampment. Earthworks, for the never needed defense of the encampment, are visible, including four redoubts, the ditch for the Inner Line Defenses, and a reconstructed abatis. The original redoubts and several redans on Route 23, Outer Line Drive, and Inner Line Drive were covered with sod to preserve them, the original forges, located on Valley Creek, were burned by the British three months prior to Washingtons occupation of the park area
27.
Schuylkill River
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The Schuylkill River is an important river running west to east in eastern Pennsylvania, which was improved by navigations into the Schuylkill Canal. Several of its tributaries drain parts of the center-southern and easternmost Coal Regions in the state. It flows for 135 miles before joining the Delaware River as one of its largest tributaries in Philadelphia, in 1682 William Penn chose the left bank of the confluence upon which he founded the planned city of Philadelphia on lands purchased from the native Delaware nation. It is a designated Pennsylvania Scenic River, and its length was once part of the Delaware peoples southern territories. The waters of its upper end rise in what are called the richest anthracite coal fields in the world. The West Branch starts near Minersville and joins the branch at the town of Schuylkill Haven. It then combines with the Little Schuylkill River downstream in the town of Port Clinton, the Tulpehocken Creek joins it at the western edge of Reading. Wissahickon Creek joins it in northwest Philadelphia, other major tributaries include, Maiden Creek, Manatawny Creek, French Creek, and Perkiomen Creek. The Schuylkill joins the Delaware at the site of the former Philadelphia Navy Yard, now the Philadelphia Naval Business Center, the Lenape or Delaware Indians were the original inhabitants of the area around this river, which they called Tool-pay Hanna or Tool-pay Hok Ing. The river was discovered by European explorers from the Netherlands, Sweden and it was through historical documents called various names, including Manayunk, Manajungh, Manaiunk, and Lenni Bikbi. The Swedish explorer called it Menejackse kill or alternately Skiar kill or the Linde River, the headwaters of the river, up near Reading, was later called Tulpehocken by the English. The river was given the Dutch name Schuylkill. Another explanation is that the name translates to hideout creek in one of the Algonquian languages spoken by a Delaware tribe in their confederation. The two then backed the flagging effort to improve navigation on the Schuylkill, which efforts date back to legislation measures as early as 1762. The success, along with the opening of the first operable sections of New Yorks Erie Canal spurred stockholders of the Schuylkill Canal to finally fund the works. In the 1830s railway technology and new railroads grew in leaps and bounds, from 1820 to the 1860s Iron works, foundries, manufacturing mills, blast furnaces, rolling mills, rail yards, rail roads, warehouses and train stations sprang up throughout the valley. Tiny farm villages grew into vibrant company towns then transitioned into small cities as an industry and supporting businesses transformed local economics. Restoration of the river has been funded by money left for that purpose in Benjamin Franklins will, silt and coal dust from upstream industries, particularly coal mining and washing operations in the headwaters, led to extensive silting of the river through the early 20th century
28.
Quakers
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Quakers are members of a historically Christian group of religious movements generally known as the Religious Society of Friends. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional Quaker understandings of Christianity, to differing extents, the different movements that make up the Religious Society of Friends/Friends Church avoid creeds and hierarchical structures. In 2007, there were about 359,000 adult Quakers, in 2012, there were 377,055 adult Quakers. Some meetings of both types have Recorded Ministers in their meetings—Friends recognised for their gift of vocal ministry, the first Quakers lived in mid-17th century England. The movement arose from the Legatine-Arians and other dissenting Protestant groups, some of these early Quaker ministers were women. They emphasized a personal and direct experience of Christ, acquired through both direct religious experience and the reading and studying of the Bible. Quakers focused their private life on developing behaviour and speech reflecting emotional purity, in the past, Quakers were known for their use of thee as an ordinary pronoun, refusal to participate in war, plain dress, refusal to swear oaths, opposition to slavery, and teetotalism. & J. Clark and the big three British confectionery makers Cadbury, Rowntree and Frys, and philanthropic efforts, including abolition of slavery, prison reform, during and after the English Civil War many dissenting Christian groups emerged, including the Seekers and others. A young man named George Fox was dissatisfied with the teachings of the Church of England and he had a vision on Pendle Hill in Lancashire, England, in which he believed that the Lord let me see in what places he had a great people to be gathered. Following this he travelled around England, the Netherlands, and Barbados preaching and teaching with the aim of converting new adherents to his faith, the central theme of his Gospel message was that Christ has come to teach his people himself. His followers considered themselves to be the restoration of the true Christian church, in 1650, Fox was brought before the magistrates Gervase Bennet and Nathaniel Barton, on a charge of religious blasphemy. According to George Foxs autobiography, Bennet was the first that called us Quakers and it is thought that George Fox was referring to Isaiah 66,2 or Ezra 9,4. Thus, the name Quaker began as a way of ridiculing George Foxs admonition, Quakerism gained a considerable following in England and Wales, and the numbers increased to a peak of 60,000 in England and Wales by 1680. This was relaxed after the Declaration of Indulgence and stopped under the Act of Toleration 1689, with the restructuring of the family and household came new roles for women, Fox and Fell viewed the Quaker mother as essential to developing holy conversation in her children and husband. Quaker women were responsible for the spirituality of the larger community, coming together in meetings that regulated marriage. The persecution of Quakers in North America began in 1656 when English Quaker missionaries Mary Fisher and they were considered heretics because of their insistence on individual obedience to the Inner Light. They were imprisoned and banished by the Massachusetts Bay Colony and their books were burned, and most of their property was confiscated. They were imprisoned in terrible conditions, then deported, in 1660, English Quaker Mary Dyer was hanged on Boston Common for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony
29.
Pottstown, Pennsylvania
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Pottstown is a borough in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, United States about 40 miles northwest of Philadelphia and 20 miles southeast of Reading, on the Schuylkill River. Pottstown was laid out in 1752–53 and named Pottsgrove in honor of its founder, the old name was abandoned at the time of the incorporation as a borough in 1815. In 1888, the limits of the borough were considerably extended, Pottstown is the center of a productive farming and dairying region. In the past, its iron and steel interests were very extensive, in 1900,13,696 people lived there, in 1910,15,599, in 1920,17,431, and in 1940,20,194 people lived there. The population was 22,377 at the 2010 census, Pottstown is not to be confused with Pottsville, a city in Schuylkill County well known for being the home of the Yuengling brewery. Modern-day Pottstown is established on land deeded to William Penn. Germans, Swedes and English were among the first European settlers in the area, after establishment of the first iron forge in 1714, Pottstowns fortunes became tied to the iron industry. Eventually, blast furnaces for production of iron and later opened in the area. Iron and steel production brought the Potts family, iron masters by trade and they established a forge in the area and built a large home just west of the Manatawny Creek. John Potts founded a town in 1761 on part of the 995 acres that he owned and it is the home of the nations oldest mills, Pottstown Roller Mill. Over time, Pottsgrove grew and in 1815, was incorporated under the name Pottstown becoming the borough in Pennsylvania after Norristown. The Philadelphia & Reading Railroad mainline between Reading and Philadelphia reached Pottstown in 1838, the extension of the railroad to Mount Carbon in 1842 facilitated the movement of raw materials and finished goods which helped Pottstowns economy to grow. In the few years following the extension of the railroad, the population grew from 600 to 1,850 residents, Pottstowns metal production grew and notably, steel from the borough was used in the Panama Canal and Golden Gate Bridge. In 1944, the adopted a city manager form of government. By 1964, the saw the need to re-organize the municipal government. At the time, it had one of the largest borough councils in the state and this was reduced to seven members in redrawn wards. Pottstown has a city form of government with a mayor. The mayor is Sharon Thomas and the manager is Mark Flanders, the borough is part of the Sixth Congressional District, the 146th State House District and the 44th State Senate District
30.
Ironworks
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An ironworks or iron works is a building or site where iron is smelted and where heavy iron and steel products are made. The term is both singular and plural, i. e. the singular of ironworks is ironworks, Ironworks succeed bloomeries when blast furnaces replaced former methods. An integrated ironworks in the 19th century usually included one or more blast furnaces, after the invention of the Bessemer process, converters became widespread, and the appellation steelworks replaced ironworks. The processes carried at ironworks are usually described as ferrous metallurgy and this is derived from the Greek words sideros - iron and ergon or ergos - work. This is a term in English, and it is best regarded as an anglicisation of a term used in French, Spanish. Ironworks is used as a term covering works undertaking one or more iron-producing processes. A thin film of metal oxide forms on the anode in the intense heat, the oxide forms a protective layer that prevents excess consumption of the base metal. It was usually necessary for there to be a preliminary refining process in a coke refinery, after puddling, the puddled ball needed shingling and then to be drawn out into bar iron in a rolling mill. The mills operating converters of any type are better called steelworks, ironworks referring to former processes, a tinplate works - where rolling mills made sheets of iron, which were coated with tin. A plating forge with a hammer, a lighter hammer with a rapid stroke rate, enabling the production of thinner iron, suitable for the manufacture of knives, other cutlery. A cementation furnace might be used to convert the bar iron into steel by the cementation process. Most of these processes did not produce finished goods, further processes were often manual, including Manufacturing by blacksmiths or more specialist kind of smith. It might be used in shipbuilding, in the context of the iron industry, the term manufacture is best reserved for this final stage. Ancient iron extraction site consisting of mines and three clay built furnaces, darkhill Ironworks, in the Forest of Dean, England
31.
Thomas Mifflin
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Thomas Mifflin was an American merchant and politician from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Several of these activities qualify him to be counted among the Founding Fathers and he served as Speaker of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives, President of the Pennsylvania Supreme Executive Council and the first Governor of Pennsylvania. Thomas Mifflin was born January 10,1744 in Philadelphia in the Province of Pennsylvania and he was the son of John Mifflin and Elizabeth Bagnall. His great-grandfather John Mifflin, Jr. was born in Warminster, Wiltshire, England, Thomas Mifflin graduated from the College of Philadelphia in 1760, and joined the mercantile business of William Biddle. After returning from a trip to Europe in 1765, he established a business partnership with his brother, George Mifflin. He was a member of the American Philosophical Society, early in the Revolutionary War, Mifflin left the Continental Congress to serve in the Continental Army. He was commissioned as a major, then became George Washingtons aide-de-camp and and his leadership in the battles Trenton and Princeton led to a promotion to major general. In Congress, there was debate regarding whether an army was more efficient or if individual states should maintain their own forces. As a result of this debate the Congressional Board of War was created and he then rejoined the army but took little active role, following criticism of his service as quartermaster general. He was accused of embezzlement and welcomed an inquiry, however and he resigned his commission—by then, as a major general—but Congress continued to ask his advice even after accepting his resignation. Prior to Independence, Thomas Mifflin was a member of the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly and he served two terms in the Continental Congress, including seven months as that bodys presiding officer. His most important duty as president was to accept on behalf of Congress the commission of General George Washington, who resigned in December 1783. Nonetheless, after the versions of the Treaty of Paris were exchanged in France on May 12,1784. Mifflin had just appointed Thomas Jefferson as a minister to France on May 7,1784, after serving as president, Thomas Mifflin was a delegate to the United States Constitutional Convention in 1787, as well as a signer of the Constitution. He served in the house of Pennsylvania General Assembly and he was a member of the Supreme Executive Council of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, and on November 5,1788, he was elected President of the Council, replacing Benjamin Franklin. He was unanimously reelected to the Presidency on November 11,1789 and he presided over the committee that wrote Pennsylvanias 1790 State Constitution. That document did away with the Executive Council, replacing it with a single Governor, on December 21,1790 Mifflin became the last President of Pennsylvania and the first Governor of the Commonwealth. He held the office until December 17,1799, when he was succeeded by Thomas McKean
32.
Magazine (artillery)
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Magazine is the name for an item or place within which ammunition or other explosive material is stored. It is taken originally from the Arabic word makhāzin, meaning magazine or storeroom, via Italian, the term is also used for a place where large quantities of ammunition are stored for later distribution, or an ammunition dump. In the early history of tube artillery drawn by horses, ammunition was carried in separate unarmored wagons or vehicles and these soft-skinned vehicles were extremely vulnerable to enemy fire and to explosions caused by a weapons malfunction. Therefore, as part of setting up a battery, a designated place would be used to shelter the ready ammunition. In the case of batteries of towed artillery the temporary magazine would be placed, if possible, in a pit, or natural declivity, circumstances might require the establishment of multiple field magazines so that one lucky hit or accident would not disable the entire battery. The ammunition storage area aboard a warship is referred to as a magazine or the magazine by sailors. An open flame was never allowed inside the magazine, more modern warships use semi-automated or automated ammunition hoists. The separation of shell and charge gave the storage of the former the name shell room, surface warships that have carried torpedoes, and ones that still do, have had torpedo magazines for carrying these dangerous antiship and antisubmarine weapons in well-defended compartments. For ships with both forward and aft surface-to-air missile launchers, there are at least two missile magazines, nearly every detail of nuclear weapons storage is classified, although many of the same principles of an ammunition dump would apply. The one consistent factor is the increased security compared to that afforded to the storage of other weapons. In naval usage, most nuclear weapons are stored fitted to vehicles in the launch position. Their vertical launching system tubes and missile tubes could technically be described as magazines, the United States employs the Weapons Storage and Security System for storing its tactical nuclear weapons in Europe. Ammunition dump Armory Arsenal Gunpowder magazine Colonial Williamsburg Magazine
33.
Elkton, Maryland
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The town of Elkton is the county seat of Cecil County, Maryland, United States. The population was 15,443 at the 2010 census and it was formerly called Head of Elk because it sits at the head of navigation on the Elk River, which flows into the nearby Chesapeake Bay. Elkton was once known as the Gretna Green of the West because of its popularity as a place for eloping couples to marry, however, a state law was passed in 1938 requiring a 48-hour waiting period. To this day, there are several wedding chapels in the town, the town was founded by Swedish mariners and fisherman from Fort Casimir who settled the area in 1694. They called their settlement Head of Elk, as it was the head of navigation of the Elk River, the town saw several actions during the American Revolutionary War. On Aug.25,1777, Sir William Howes Anglo-German army landed on the Elk River, howe soon advanced to the short and victorious campaign of the Brandywine, and thence to capture Philadelphia. On March 8,1781, the Marquis de Lafayette embarked his troops there to attempt a capture of Benedict Arnold, returning on April 9, he began his overland march to Virginia. George Washington and Rochambeau with their combined forces stopped in Elkton on September 6–7,1781, in 1787, the town was incorporated as Elkton. By 1880, the population was 1,800, the landmark historic home, Holly Hall was built by James Sewall in the 1810s and quickly became a regional seat for important dignitaries and local politics. When northern states began to more restrictive marriage laws in the early 20th century. As a result, a number of Maryland towns near borders with other states became known as places to get married quickly and without many restrictions, Elkton, being the northeasternmost county seat in Maryland, was particularly popular. It was a notorious Gretna Green for years, in its heyday, in the 1920s and 1930s, it was the elopement capital of the East Coast and thousands of marriages were performed there each year. While some of the obtained in Elkton were of celebrities or celebrities-to-be. A 48-hour waiting period was imposed in 1938, but Elkton continued to be a place to marry, in time, Las Vegas became the new American Gretna Green, although hundreds of people are still married in Elkton each year. On December 8,1963, Pan Am Flight 214 was struck by lightning, the crash was listed in the 2005 Guinness World Records as the Worst Lightning Strike Death Toll. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 8.61 square miles. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Elkton has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated Cfa on climate maps. As of the census of 2010, there were 15,443 people,5,580 households, the population density was 1,849.5 inhabitants per square mile
34.
Wilhelm von Knyphausen
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Reichsfreiherr Wilhelm von Innhausen und Knyphausen was a general officer of Hesse-Kassel. He fought in the American Revolutionary War, during which he commanded Hessian auxiliaries on behalf of Great Britain, Knyphausens father was the colonel of a Prussian regiment under the Duke of Marlborough. Educated in Berlin, the young Knyphausen entered the Prussian military service in 1734, in the army of Hesse-Cassel, he was a lieutenant general. In 1776, with 42 years of experience, he came to the Thirteen Colonies of British North America as second-in-command of an army of 12,000 men called “Hessians” under General Heister. Knyphausen led the Hessian troops in the Battles of White Plains, Fort Washington, Brandywine, Germantown, Springfield, in 1779 and 1780, he commanded British-held New York City. When Heister left for Germany, Knyphausen took command of the German troops serving under Sir William Howe, because of Knyphausens seniority, British officers held dormant commissions outranking him in case the British commander became disabled. Despite this, Knyphausen was trusted by his British superiors, Knyphausens regiment took part in the attack on Fort Washington and was in garrison at Trenton, New Jersey. Major von Dechow, who was in command in late 1776, warned Colonel Johann Rall to fortify the town, during the Battle of Trenton the regiment tried to escape across Assunpink Creek but was forced to surrender. Dechow was mortally wounded during the battle and he also commanded the vanguard of the army withdrawing from Philadelphia at the time of the Battle of Monmouth. For several years the body of Knyphausens force occupied the upper part of Manhattan Island. Knyphausens regiment served in the Americas from 1776 to 1783, Knyphausen left the North American theater in 1782 in part because of ill health, including blindness in one eye caused by a cataract. Friedrich Wilhelm von Lossberg succeeded to command of the Hessian troops in New York, Knyphausen returned to Europe, having, as he said, achieved neither glory nor advancement, but near the end of his life he became military governor of Cassel. He was a taciturn and discreet officer, who understood the temper of his troops and his was a hireling army of recruits gathered from work-houses and by impressment, drilled in the use of arms on shipboard. As he frequently declared, on such forces a judicious commander could place little reliance, in 1785, shortly after the end of the war, General Lafayette travelled to Cassel and met Knyphausen. He wrote to General Washington that they had reminisced about the war, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Wilson, James Grant, Fiske, John, eds. Eelking, Max von, Rosengarten, Joseph George, The German Allied Troops in the North American war of Independence 1776-1873, Baltimore Atwood, Rodney, The Hessians, Cambridge Knyphausen, Wilhelm von. Bernhard von Poten, Knyphausen, Wilhelm, Reichsfreiherr zu Innhausen und in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, vol
35.
Alexander Hamilton
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Alexander Hamilton was an American statesman and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. As the first Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton was the author of the economic policies of the George Washington administration. He took the lead in the funding of the debts by the Federal government, as well as the establishment of a national bank, a system of tariffs. His vision included a central government led by a vigorous executive branch. This was challenged by Virginia agrarians Thomas Jefferson and James Madison who formed a rival party and they favored strong states based in rural America and protected by state militias as opposed to a strong national army and navy. They denounced Hamilton as too friendly toward Britain and toward monarchy in general, Hamilton was born out of wedlock in Charlestown, to a married mother of British and French Huguenot ancestry and a Scottish father. His father, James A. Hamilton, was the son of laird Alexander Hamilton of Grange. Orphaned as a child by his mothers death and his fathers abandonment, Hamilton was taken in by an older cousin and he was recognized for his intelligence and talent, and sponsored by a group of wealthy local men to travel to New York City to pursue his education. Hamilton attended Kings College, choosing to stay in the Thirteen Colonies to seek his fortune, discontinuing his studies before graduating when the college closed its doors during British occupation of the city, Hamilton played a major role in the American Revolutionary War. At the start of the war in 1775, he joined a militia company, in early 1776, he raised a provincial artillery company, to which he was appointed captain. He soon became the aide to General Washington, the American forces commander-in-chief. Hamilton was dispatched by Washington on numerous missions to convey plans to his generals, after the war, Hamilton was elected as a representative to the Congress of the Confederation from New York. He resigned to practice law, and founded the Bank of New York, Hamilton was among those dissatisfied with the weak national government. He led the Annapolis Convention, which successfully influenced Congress to issue a call for the Philadelphia Convention in order to create a new constitution, Hamilton became the leading cabinet member in the new government under President Washington. These programs were funded primarily by a tariff on imports, to overcome localism, Hamilton mobilized a nationwide network of friends of the government, especially bankers and businessmen, which became the Federalist Party. A major issue in the emergence of the American two-party system was the Jay Treaty and it established friendly trade relations with Britain, to the chagrin of France and the supporters of the French Revolution. Hamilton played a role in the Federalist party, which dominated national. In 1795, he returned to the practice of law in New York and he tried to control the policies of President Adams
36.
Henry Lee III
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Lees service during the American Revolution as a cavalry officer in the Continental Army earned him the nickname by which he is best known, Light-Horse Harry. Lee was the father of Civil War-era Confederate general Robert E. Lee, Lee was born near Dumfries in the Colony of Virginia. He was the son of Col. Henry Lee II of Leesylvania and his father was the second cousin of Richard Henry Lee, twelfth President of the Continental Congress. His mother was an aunt of the wife of Virginia Governor Thomas Nelson and his great-grandmother Mary Bland was also a grand-aunt of President Thomas Jefferson. Lee was the grandson of Capt. Henry Lee I, a great-grandson of Richard Bland, and he was also a descendant of Theodorick Bland of Westover and Governor Richard Bennett. Lee graduated from the College of New Jersey in 1773, with the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, he instead became a captain in a Virginia dragoon detachment, which was attached to the 1st Continental Light Dragoons. In 1778, Lee was promoted to major and given the command of a corps of cavalry and infantry known as Lees Legion. In September of the year, Lee commanded a unit of dragoons which defeated a Hessian regiment at the Battle of Edgars Lane. It was during his time as commander of the Legion that Lee earned the sobriquet of Light-Horse Harry for his horsemanship, Lee was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel and was assigned with his Legion to the southern theater of war. They conducted a campaign of terror and intimidation against Loyalists in the region, Lee and his legion also served at the Battle of Guilford Court House, the Siege of Ninety-Six, and the Battle of Eutaw Springs. He was present at Charles Cornwalliss surrender at Yorktown, but left the Army shortly after claiming fatigue, in 1794, Lee was summoned by President George Washington to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion in western Pennsylvania. Lee commanded the 12,950 militiamen sent to quash the rebels, in 1798, Henry Lee was appointed a major general in the U. S. Army due to a possible war with France. In 1808, he was re-commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson as major-general since war with Great Britain was deemed to break out and he asked President James Madison for a commission at the onset of the War of 1812 but without success. In 1812 he published his Memoirs of the War in the Southern Department of the United States, from 1786 to 1788, Lee was a delegate to the Congress of the Confederation, and in 1788 at the Virginia convention, he favored the adoption of the United States Constitution. From 1789 to 1791, he served in the General Assembly and, from 1791 to 1794, was Governor of Virginia, from 1799 to 1801, he served in the United States House of Representatives of the Congress. He famously eulogized Washington to a crowd of 4,000 at the first Presidents funeral on December 26,1799 as, First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen. Between April 8 and 13,1782, at Stratford Hall, Lee married his cousin, Matilda Ludwell Lee. She was the daughter of Philip Ludwell Lee, Sr. on June 18,1793, Lee married the wealthy Anne Hill Carter at Shirley Plantation
37.
Continental Army
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The Continental Army was formed by the Second Continental Congress after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America. Established by a resolution of the Congress on June 14,1775, the Continental Army was supplemented by local militias and troops that remained under control of the individual states or were otherwise independent. General George Washington was the commander-in-chief of the army throughout the war, most of the Continental Army was disbanded in 1783 after the Treaty of Paris ended the war. The 1st and 2nd Regiments went on to form the nucleus of the Legion of the United States in 1792 under General Anthony Wayne and this became the foundation of the United States Army in 1796. The Continental Army consisted of soldiers from all 13 colonies, and after 1776, when the American Revolutionary War began at the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19,1775, the colonial revolutionaries did not have an army. As tensions with Great Britain increased in the leading to the war. Training of militiamen increased after the passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774, colonists such as Richard Henry Lee proposed forming a national militia force, but the First Continental Congress rejected the idea. On April 23,1775, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress authorized the raising of an army consisting of 26 company regiments. New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut soon raised similar, on July 18,1775, the Congress requested all colonies form militia companies from all able bodied effective men, between sixteen and fifty years of age. It was not uncommon for men younger than sixteen to enlist as most colonies had no requirement of consent for those under twenty-one. Four major-generals and eight brigadier-generals were appointed by the Second Continental Congress in the course of a few days, after Pomeroy did not accept, John Thomas was appointed in his place. As the Continental Congress increasingly adopted the responsibilities and posture of a legislature for a sovereign state, as a result, the army went through several distinct phases, characterized by official dissolution and reorganization of units. Soldiers in the Continental Army were citizens who had volunteered to serve in the army, early in the war the enlistment periods were short, as the Continental Congress feared the possibility of the Continental Army evolving into a permanent army. The army never numbered more than 17,000 men, turnover proved a constant problem, particularly in the winter of 1776–77, and longer enlistments were approved. Major General Philip Schuylers ten regiments in New York were sent to invade Canada, the Continental Army of 1776, reorganized after the initial enlistment period of the soldiers in the 1775 army had expired. Despite attempts to broaden the recruiting base beyond New England, the 1776 army remained skewed toward the Northeast both in terms of its composition and of its geographical focus. This army consisted of 36 regiments, most standardized to a battalion of 768 men strong and formed into eight companies. Enlistment terms extended to three years or to the length of the war to avoid the crises that depleted forces
38.
Lancaster, Pennsylvania
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Lancaster, is a city located in South Central Pennsylvania which serves as the seat of Pennsylvanias Lancaster County and one of the oldest inland towns in the United States. With a population of 59,322, it ranks eighth in population among Pennsylvanias cities, the Lancaster metropolitan area population is 507,766, making it the 101st largest metropolitan area in the US and 2nd largest in the South Central Pennsylvania area. Lancaster hosts more electronic public CCTV outdoor cameras per capita than such as Boston or San Francisco. Lancaster was home to James Buchanan, the nations 15th president, originally called Hickory Town, the city was renamed after the English city of Lancaster by native John Wright. Its symbol, the red rose, is from the House of Lancaster, Lancaster was part of the 1681 Penns Woods Charter of William Penn, and was laid out by James Hamilton in 1734. It was incorporated as a borough in 1742 and incorporated as a city in 1818, the revolutionary government then moved still farther away to York, Pennsylvania. Lancaster was capital of Pennsylvania from 1799 to 1812, after which the capital was moved to Harrisburg, in 1851, the current Lancaster County Prison was built in the city, styled after Lancaster Castle in England. The prison remains in use, and was used for public hangings until 1912 and it replaced a 1737 structure on a different site. The first paved road in the United States was the former Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike, opened in 1795, the Turnpike connected the cities of Lancaster and Philadelphia, and was designed by a Scottish engineer named John Loudon McAdam. Lancaster residents are known to use the word macadam in lieu of pavement or asphalt and this name is a reference to the paving process named for McAdam. The city of Lancaster was home to important figures in American history. Wheatland, the estate of James Buchanan, the fifteenth President of the United States, is one of Lancasters most popular attractions, Thaddeus Stevens, considered among the most powerful members of the United States House of Representatives, lived in Lancaster as an attorney. Stevens gained notoriety as a Radical Republican and for his abolitionism, the Fulton Opera House in the city was named for Lancaster native Robert Fulton, a renaissance man who created the first fully functional steamboat. All of these individuals have had schools named after them. After the American Revolution, the city of Lancaster became an iron-foundry center, two of the most common products needed by pioneers to settle the Frontier were manufactured in Lancaster, the Conestoga wagon and the Pennsylvania long rifle. The Conestoga wagon was named after the Conestoga River, which runs through the city, the innovative gunsmith William Henry lived in Lancaster and was a U. S. congressman and leader during and after the American Revolution. In 1803, Meriwether Lewis visited Lancaster to be educated in survey methods by the well-known surveyor Andrew Ellicott, during his visit, Lewis learned to plot latitude and longitude as part of his overall training needed to lead the Lewis and Clark Expedition. In 1879, Franklin Winfield Woolworth opened his first successful five and dime store in the city of Lancaster, Lancaster was one of the winning communities for the All-America City award in 2000
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Wilmington, Delaware
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Wilmington is the largest city in the state of Delaware, United States, built on the site of Fort Christina, the first Swedish settlement in North America. It is located at the confluence of the Christina River and Brandywine River and it is the county seat of New Castle County and one of the major cities in the Delaware Valley metropolitan area. Wilmington was named by Proprietor Thomas Penn after his friend Spencer Compton, Earl of Wilmington, as of the 2015 United States Census estimate, the population of the city is 71,948, reflecting an increase of 1. 5% from the 2010 Census. The Wilmington Metropolitan Division, comprising New Castle County, DE, Cecil County, MD and Salem County, Wilmington is built on the site of Fort Christina and the settlement Kristinehamn, the first Swedish settlement in North America. The area now known as Wilmington was settled by the Lenape band led by Sachem Mattahorn just before Henry Hudson sailed up the Len-api Hanna in 1609, the area was called Maax-waas Unk or Bear Place after the Maax-waas Hanna that flowed by. It was called the Bear River because it flowed west to the Bear People, the Dutch heard and spelled the river and the place as Minguannan. The area was known as The Rocks, and is located near the foot of present-day Seventh Street. Fort Christina served as the headquarters for the colony of New Sweden which consisted of, for the most part, the lower Delaware River region, dr. Timothy Stidham was a prominent citizen and doctor in Wilmington. He was born in 1610, probably in Hammel, Denmark and raised in Gothenburg and he arrived in New Sweden in 1654 and is recorded as the first physician in Delaware. The most important Swedish governor was Colonel Johan Printz, who ruled the colony under Swedish law from 1643 to 1653. He was succeeded by Johan Rising, who upon his arrival in 1654, seized the Dutch post Fort Casimir, located at the site of the present town of New Castle and this marked the end of Swedish rule in North America. Although during the American Revolutionary War only one small battle was fought in Delaware, the British remained in the town until they vacated Philadelphia in 1778. In 1800, Eleuthère Irénée du Pont, a French Huguenot, knowledgeable in the manufacture of gunpowder, by 1802 DuPont had begun making the explosive in a mill on the Brandywine River north of Brandywine Village and just outside the town of Wilmington. The DuPont company became a supplier to the U. S. military. Located on the banks of the Brandywine River, the village was annexed by Wilmington city. The greatest growth in the city occurred during the Civil War, Delaware, though officially remaining a member of the Union, was a border state and divided in its support of both the Confederate and the Union causes. The war created enormous demand for goods and materials supplied by Wilmington including ships, railroad cars, gunpowder, shoes, and other war-related goods. By 1868, Wilmington was producing more iron ships than the rest of the combined and it rated first in the production of gunpowder and second in carriages
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Trenton, New Jersey
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Trenton is the capital city of the U. S. state of New Jersey and the county seat of Mercer County. It was briefly the capital of the United States, as of the 2010 United States Census, Trenton had a population of 84,913, making it the states 10th-largest municipality. The Census Bureau estimated that the population was 84,034 in 2014. Trenton dates back at least to June 3,1719, when mention was made of a constable being appointed for Trenton, while the area was still part of Hunterdon County. Boundaries were recorded for Trenton Township as of March 2,1720, a courthouse and jail were constructed in Trenton around 1720, Trenton became New Jerseys capital as of November 25,1790, and the City of Trenton was formed within Trenton Township on November 13,1792. Trenton Township was incorporated as one of New Jerseys initial group of 104 townships by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on February 21,1798, on February 22,1834, portions of Trenton Township were taken to form Ewing Township. The remaining portion of Trenton Township was absorbed by the City of Trenton on April 10,1837, portions of Ewing Township and Hamilton Township were annexed to Trenton on March 23,1900. The first settlement which would become Trenton was established by Quakers in 1679, in the then called the Falls of the Delaware, led by Mahlon Stacy from Handsworth, Sheffield. Quakers were being persecuted in England at this time and North America provided an opportunity to exercise their religious freedom, by 1719, the town adopted the name Trent-towne, after William Trent, one of its leading landholders who purchased much of the surrounding land from Stacys family. This name later was shortened to Trenton, during the American Revolutionary War, the city was the site of the Battle of Trenton, George Washingtons first military victory. On December 26,1776, Washington and his army, after crossing the icy Delaware River to Trenton, after the war, the Confederation Congress briefly met in Trenton in November and December 1784. Trenton became the capital in 1790, but prior to that year the New Jersey Legislature often met here. The city was incorporated in 1792, during the War of 1812, the United States Armys primary hospital was at a site on Broad Street. Throughout the 19th century, Trenton grew steadily, as European immigrants came to work in its pottery, in 1837, with the population now too large for government by council, a new mayoral government was adopted, with by-laws that remain in operation to this day. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city had an area of 8.155 square miles. Trenton is located near the geographic center of the state. However, Mercer County constitutes its own metropolitan area, formally known as the Trenton-Ewing MSA. Locals consider Trenton to be a part of an area called Central Jersey
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Downingtown, Pennsylvania
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Downingtown is a borough in Chester County, Pennsylvania,33 miles west of Philadelphia. As of the 2010 census it had a population of 7,891, Downingtown was settled by English and European colonists in the early 18th century and has a number of historic buildings and structures. The town was originally named Milltown due to its number of mills along the East Branch Brandywine Creek, the Butter family also had paper mills in the area, and Frederick Bicking from Winterburg, Germany, was the patriarch of the Bicking paper families. The town was officially named Downingtown in 1812, the town is located along the Lincoln Highway which runs from the East Coast to the West Coast. It was an early road in the wagon days as the Philadelphia. The Lincoln Highway was the first paved road to cross the nation from the Atlantic to the Pacific, construction of the Pennsylvania Turnpike started in the early 1940s and was completed in the early 1950s, it runs north of US30, bypassing Downingtown. About 1705 Sami Warren built what has become known as the Downingtown Log House, in 1713 the next owner Hickman sold the 1½ story,21 9×25 structure to Thomas and Mary Moore. Thomas Moore moved from the Log House in 1729 and died in 1738, Thomas Downing acquired the Log House in 1739. It remained in the Downing family until 1940, when Thomas W. Downing died, the borough did some restoration work to the Downingtown Log House in 1947. It served as the home to the Downingtown Chamber of Commerce from 1950 until 1988, but the Log House was deteriorating as Route 30 had been built close to it. Located 18 inches below street level, the house suffered damage due to runoff from Route 30. From 1988 until 1990 the Downingtown Historical Society relocated the house and it now sits approximately 70 feet west of its original location,22 feet from the Route 30 sidewalk, and slightly above street level. Believing the North needed a school like the Tuskegee Institute, the men found land in Chester County and they both served as principals until their respective deaths in 1921 and 1921. Originally a private, non-denominational school, in 1907 DIAS began to be state supported, students were admitted from major northeastern cities. Among its trustees in the decades was Adam Clayton Powell, Sr. pastor of Abyssinian Baptist Church in Harlem. A new facility was constructed on the property and opened in 2002 as the Chester County campus of the Delaware County Community College, the city has initiated some widespread and continuing renovation in downtown, particularly to the streetscape, private owners have similarly renovated many commercial buildings. There has also been residential development on recovered industrial lands in the part of the borough. Downingtown is the location of large regional and national businesses, including DNB, First National Bank of Chester County
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Radnor Township, Delaware County, Pennsylvania
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Radnor Township is a township with home rule status in Delaware County, Pennsylvania, United States. As of the 2010 census, the population was 31,531. Radnor Township lies along the Main Line, a collection of affluent Philadelphia suburbs, Villanova University, Cabrini University, the Valley Forge Military Academy and College and Eastern University are all located within Radnor Township. Radnor Township was founded 1682 as a grant from William Penn. The township was part of the Welsh Tract and was named for Radnorshire in Wales, in 1717, the Welsh Friends erected a Quaker meetinghouse near what is now the intersection of Conestoga Road and Sproul Road at the geographic center of the township. The new town, Radnorville, later known as the community of Ithan after nearby Ithan Creek, the Welsh influence waned in the late 18th century as many left the area due to high taxation. Stone monuments were erected in locations throughout the township in the late 20th century to commemorate the townships Welsh heritage. Lancaster Pike, the first toll road in the United States, connected the cities of Philadelphia and Lancaster, Pennsylvania, passing through Radnor Township and that road is now part of the Lincoln Highway. The Columbia Railroad, later part of the Pennsylvania Railroad also passed through in 1832, thus, Radnor is one of the towns associated with the local moniker Main Line. A separate railroad passing through Radnor Township, the Philadelphia and Western Railroad, was opened in the early 20th century. The Main Line railroad facilities and a portion of the P&W facilities are used by SEPTA. The Radnor Friends Meetinghouse and Woodcrest are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, Radnor Township is located at 40°2′0″N 75°22′18″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has an area of 13.8 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 30,878 people,10,347 households, the population density was 2,244.3 inhabitants per square mile. There were 10,731 housing units at a density of 779.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the township was 89. 55% White,5. 67% Asian,3. 09% African American,0. 08% Native American,0. 02% Pacific Islander,0. 62% from other races, and 0. 98% from two or more races. 2. 03% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,31. 1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the family size was 3.08
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Patriot (American Revolution)
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Patriots were those colonists of the Thirteen Colonies who rebelled against British control during the American Revolution and in July 1776 declared the United States of America an independent nation. Their rebellion was based on the philosophy of republicanism, as expressed by spokesmen such as Thomas Jefferson, John Adams. They were opposed by the Loyalists who instead supported continued British rule, as a group, Patriots represented a wide array of social, economic and ethnic backgrounds. The critics of British rule called themselves Whigs after 1768, identifying members of the British Whig party. The Oxford English Dictionary third definition of Patriot is A person actively opposing enemy forces occupying his or her country, a member of a resistance movement, originally used of those who opposed and fought the British in the American War of Independence. The earliest citation is a 1773 letter by Benjamin Franklin, in Britain at the time, patriot had a negative connotation, and was used, says Samuel Johnson as a negative epithet for a factious disturber of the government. During the Revolution these persons became known primarily as Loyalists, afterward, many emigrated north to the remaining British territories in what is now modern Canada. There they called themselves the United Empire Loyalists, many Patriots were active before 1775 in groups such as the Sons of Liberty. The most prominent leaders of the Patriots are referred to today by Americans as the Founding Fathers, the Patriots came from many different backgrounds. Among the most active of the Patriots group were highly educated, however, without the support of the ordinary men and women, such as farmers, lawyers, merchants, seamstresses, homemakers, shopkeepers, and ministers, the struggle for independence would have failed. With a white population of about 2.5 million, that makes about 380,000 to 500,000 Loyalists, the great majority of them remained in America, since only about 80,000 Loyalists left the United States 1775–1783. They went to Canada, Britain, Florida or the West Indies, to understand how people made the choice between being a Patriot or a Loyalist, historians have compared the motivations and personalities of leading men on each side. Labaree has identified eight characteristics that differentiated the two groups, psychologically, Loyalists were older, better established, and more likely to resist innovation than the Patriots. Men who were alienated by physical attacks on Royal officials took the Loyalist position, most men who wanted to find a compromise solution wound up on the Loyalist side, while the proponents of immediate action became Patriots. Some Loyalists were procrastinators who believed that independence was bound to some day, but wanted to postpone the moment. Loyalists were cautious and afraid of anarchy or tyranny that might come from mob rule, Patriots made an effort to use. Finally, Labaree argues that Loyalists were pessimists who lacked the Patriots confidence that independence lay ahead, the Patriot faction came to reject taxes imposed by legislatures in which the tax-payer was not represented. No taxation without representation, was their slogan, referring to the lack of representation in the British Parliament, the British countered there was virtual representation, that is, all members of Parliament represented the interests of all the citizens of the British Empire
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