1.
Ayurveda
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Ayurveda, or Ayurveda medicine, is a system of medicine with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. Globalized and modernized practices derived from Ayurveda traditions are a type of complementary or alternative medicine, in the Western world, Ayurveda therapies and practices have been integrated in general wellness applications and as well in some cases in medical use. The main classical Ayurveda texts begin with accounts of the transmission of knowledge from the Gods to sages. In Sushruta Samhita, Sushruta wrote that Dhanvantari, Hindu god of Ayurveda, incarnated himself as a king of Varanasi and taught medicine to a group of physicians, Ayurveda therapies have varied and evolved over more than two millennia. Therapies are typically based on complex compounds, minerals and metal substances. Ancient Ayurveda texts also taught surgical techniques, including rhinoplasty, kidney stone extractions, sutures, other researchers consider it a protoscience, or trans-science system instead. Close to 21% of Ayurveda U. S. and Indian-manufactured patent medicines sold through the Internet were found to contain levels of heavy metals, specifically lead, mercury. The public health implications of such metallic contaminants in India are unknown, some scholars assert that Ayurveda originated in prehistoric times, and that some of the concepts of Ayurveda have existed from the time of the Indus Valley Civilization or even earlier. Humoral balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges is considered unhealthy, Ayurveda names three elemental substances, the doshas, and states that a balance of the doshas results in health, while imbalance results in disease. Ayurveda has eight components, which are derived from classical Sanskrit literature. Ayurveda practitioners had developed various medicinal preparations and surgical procedures by the medieval period, the earliest classical Sanskrit works on Ayurveda describe medical science as being divided into eight components. This characterization of the art, the medicine that has eight components, is first found in the Sanskrit epic the Mahābhārata. The central theoretical ideas of Ayurveda developed in the mid-first millennium BCE, balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges is considered unhealthy and claimed to lead to illness. For example, to suppress sneezing is said to give rise to shoulder pain. However, people are also cautioned to stay within the limits of reasonable balance, for example, emphasis is placed on moderation of food intake, sleep, and sexual intercourse. Ayurveda names seven basic tissues, which are plasma, blood, muscles, fat, bone, marrow, like the medicine of classical antiquity, Ayurveda has historically divided bodily substances into five classical elements eliminates toxic elements from the body. Panchakarma includes Vamana, Virechana, Basti, Nasya and Raktamokshana and it is preceded by Poorvakarma as a preparatory step, and is followed by Paschatkarma and Peyadikarma. Based on the World Health Assembly resolution on traditional medicine, the WHO has established a traditional medicine strategy, the first previous global strategy was published in 2002 and dealt especially with herbal medicines
2.
Devanagari
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Devanagari, also called Nagari, is an abugida alphabet of India and Nepal. It is written left to right, has a strong preference for symmetrical rounded shapes within squared outlines. The Nagari script has roots in the ancient Brāhmī script family, the Nagari script was in regular use by the 7th century CE and it was fully developed by about the end of first millennium. Nagari has been the primus inter pares of the Indic scripts, the Devanagari script is also used for classical Sanskrit texts. The Devanagari script is closely related to the Nandinagari script commonly found in ancient manuscripts of South India. Devanagari script has forty-seven primary characters, of which fourteen are vowels, the ancient Nagari script for Sanskrit had two additional consonantal characters. The script has no distinction similar to the capital and small letters of the Latin alphabet, generally the orthography of the script reflects the pronunciation of the language. Devanagari is part of the Brahmic family of scripts of India, Nepal, Tibet and it is a descendant of the Gupta script, along with Siddham and Sharada. Medieval inscriptions suggest widespread diffusion of the Nagari-related scripts, with biscripts presenting local script along with the adoption of Nagari scripts, the 7th-century Tibetan king Srong-tsan-gambo ordered that all foreign books be transcribed into the Tibetan language. Other closely related scripts such as Siddham Matrka was in use in Indonesia, Vietnam, Japan, Sharada remained in parallel use in Kashmir. Nāgarī is the Sanskrit feminine of Nāgara relating or belonging to a town or city and it is a phrasing with lipi as nāgarī lipi script relating to a city, or spoken in city. The use of the name devanāgarī is relatively recent, and the older term nāgarī is still common, the rapid spread of the term devanāgarī may be related to the almost exclusive use of this script to publish Sanskrit texts in print since the 1870s. As a Brahmic abugida, the principle of Devanagari is that each letter represents a consonant. This is usually written in Latin as a, though it is represented as in the International Phonetic Alphabet, the letter क is read ka, the two letters कन are kana, the three कनय are kanaya, etc. This cancels the inherent vowel, so that from क्नय knaya is derived क्नय् knay, the halant is often used for consonant clusters when typesetting conjunct ligatures is not feasible. Consonant clusters are written with ligatures, for example, the three consonants क्, न्, and य्, when written consecutively without virāma form कनय, as shown above. Alternatively, they may be joined as clusters to form क्नय knaya, कन्य kanya and this system was originally created for use with the Middle Indo-Aryan languages, which have a very limited number of clusters. When applied to Sanskrit, however, it added a deal of complexity to the script
3.
Sanskrit
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Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
4.
Vaishnavism
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Vaishnavism is one of the major traditions within Hinduism along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism, its followers are called Vaishnavas, the tradition is notable for its avatar doctrine, wherein Vishnu is revered in one of many distinct incarnations. Of these, ten avatars of Vishnu are the most studied, Krishna, Rama, Narayana, Vāsudeva, Hari, Vithoba, Kesava, Madhava, Govinda and Jagannath are among the popular names used for the same supreme. The tradition has traceable roots to the 1st millennium BCE, as Bhagavatism, later developments led by Ramananda created a Rama-oriented movement, now the largest monastic group in Asia. The Vaishnava tradition has many sampradayas ranging from the medieval era Dvaita school of Madhvacharya to Vishishtadvaita school of Ramanuja, new Vaishnavism movements have been founded in the modern era such as the ISKCON of Prabhupada. The tradition is known for the devotion to an avatar of Vishnu. Key texts in Vaishnavism include the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, the Pancaratra texts, Krishnaism becomes associated with bhakti yoga in the medieval period. Although Vishnu was a Vedic solar deity, he is mentioned less often compared to Agni, Indra and other Vedic deities, other scholars state that there are other Vedic deities, such as water deity Nara, who together form the historical roots of Vaishnavism. The ancient emergence of Vaishnavism is unclear, the evidence inconsistent, according to Dalal, the origins may be in Vedic deity Bhaga, who gave rise to Bhagavatism. According to Preciado-Solís, the Vedic deities Nara and Narayana form one of the Vedic roots of Vaishnavism, according to Dandekar, Vaishnavism may have emerged from merger of several ancient theistic traditions, where the various deities were integrated as different avatars of the same god. In Dandekar theory, Vaishnavism emerged at the end of the Vedic period, closely before the urbanisation of northern India. This earliest phase was established the time of Pāṇini who, in his Astadhyayi and this was followed by a merger with the cult of Gopala-Krsna of the cowherd community of the Abhıras at the 4th century CE. The character of Gopala Krishna is often considered to be non-Vedic, according to Dandekar, such mergers consolidated the position of Krishnaism between the heterodox sramana movement and the orthodox Vedic religion. The Greater Krsnaism, states Dandekar, then merged with the Rigvedic Vishnu, syncretism of various traditions and Vedism resulted in Vaishnavism. At this stage that Vishnu of the Rig Veda was assimilated into non-Vedic Krishnaism, the appearance of Krishna as one of the Avatars of Vishnu dates to the period of the Sanskrit epics in the early centuries CE. The Bhagavad Gita was incorporated into the Mahabharata as a key text for Krishnaism, finally, the Narayana-cult was also included, which further brahmanized Vaishnavism. The Nara-Narayana cult may have originated in Badari, a ridge of the Hindu Kush. Purusa Narayana may have later turned into Arjuna and Krsna
5.
Avatar
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An avatar is a concept in Hinduism and it means descent, and refers to the appearance or incarnation of a deity on earth. The term also refers to alight, to make ones appearance. The word avatar does not appear in the Vedic literature, but appears in verb forms in post-Vedic literature, the Rigveda describes Indra as endowed with a mysterious power of assuming any form at will. The Bhagavad Gita expounds the doctrine of Avatara but with other than avatar. Theologically, the term is most often associated with the Hindu god Vishnu, the avatars of Vishnu are important in Vaishnavism theology. In the goddess-based Shaktism tradition of Hinduism, avatars of the Devi in different appearances such as Tripura Sundari, Durga, while avatars of other deities such as Ganesha and Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional. The incarnation doctrine is one of the important differences between Vaishnavism and Shaivism traditions of Hinduism, Incarnation concepts similar to avatar are also found in Buddhism, Christianity and others. The Sanskrit noun is derived from the Sanskrit roots ava and tṛī and these roots trace back, states Monier-Williams, to -taritum, -tarati, -rītum. Avatar literally means descent, alight, to ones appearance. The word also implies to overcome, to remove, to bring down, an avatar, states Justin Edwards Abbott, is a saguna embodiment of the nirguna Brahman or Atman. Neither the Vedas nor the Principal Upanishads ever mention the word avatar as a noun, the verb roots and form, such as avatarana, do appear in ancient post-Vedic Hindu texts, but as action of descending, but not as an incarnated person. The related verb avatarana is, states Paul Hacker, used with double meaning, one as action of the divine descending, the term is most commonly found in the context of the Hindu god Vishnu. It is in medieval era texts, those composed after the sixth century CE, that the version of avatar appears. The idea proliferates thereafter, in the Puranic stories for many deities, the term avatar, in colloquial use, is also an epithet or a word of reverence for any extraordinary human being who is revered for his or her ideas. In some contexts, the term avatara just means a place, site of sacred pilgrimage, or just achieve ones goals after effort. The term avatar is not unique to Hinduism and it is found in the Trikaya doctrine of Mahayana Buddhism, in descriptions for the Dalai Lama in Tibetan Buddhism, and many ancient cultures. The manifest embodiment is sometimes referred to as an incarnation, the translation of avatar as incarnation has been questioned by Christian theologists, who state that an incarnation is in flesh and imperfect, while avatar is mythical and perfect. The theological concept of Christ as an incarnation, as found in Christology, according to Oduyoye and Vroom, this is different from the Hindu concept of avatar because avatars in Hinduism are unreal and is similar to Docetism
6.
Vishnu
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Vishnu is one of the principal deities of Hinduism, and the Supreme Being in its Vaishnavism tradition. Along with Brahma and Shiva, Vishnu forms a Hindu trinity, however and his avatars most notably include Krishna in the Mahabharata and Rama in the Ramayana. He is also known as Narayana, Jagannath, Vasudeva, Vithoba and he is one of the five equivalent deities worshipped in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta Tradition of Hinduism. In Hindu inconography, Vishnu is usually depicted as having a dark, or pale blue complexion and having four arms. He holds a padma in his left hand, Kaumodaki gada in his lower right hand, Panchajanya shankha in his upper left hand. A traditional depiction is Lord Vishnu reclining on the coils of Ananta, accompanied by his consort devi Lakshmi, yaska, the mid 1st-millennium BCE Vedanga scholar, in his Nirukta, defines Vishnu as viṣṇur viṣvater vā vyaśnoter vā, one who enters everywhere. He also writes, atha yad viṣito bhavati tad viṣnurbhavati, that which is free from fetters, the medieval Indian scholar Medhātithi suggested that the word Vishnu has etymological roots in viś, meaning to pervade, thereby connoting that Vishnu is one who is everything and inside everything. Vishnu is a Vedic deity, but not a prominent one when compared to Indra, Agni, just 5 out of 1028 hymns of the Rigveda, a 2nd millennium BCE Hindu text, are dedicated to Vishnu, and he finds minor mention in the other hymns. Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas, he has important characteristics in various hymns of Rig Veda and he is also described in the Vedic literature as the one who supports heaven and earth. In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra and his distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in Mandala 7 refer to Vishnu, in section 7.99 of the Rgveda, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra. In the Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is Surya or Savitr, in hymn 7.99 of Rigveda, Indra-Vishnu are equivalent and produce the sun, with the verses asserting that this sun is the source of all energy and light for all. In other hymns of the Rigveda, Vishnu is a friend of Indra. In the Yajurveda, Taittiriya Aranyaka, Narayana sukta, Narayana is mentioned as the supreme being, the first verse of Narayana Suktam mentions the words paramam padam, which literally mean highest post and may be understood as the supreme abode for all souls. This is also known as Param Dhama, Paramapadam or Vaikuntha, Rig Veda 1.22.20 a also mentions the same paramam padam. In the Atharvaveda, the mythology of a boar who raises goddess earth from the depths of cosmic ocean appears, in post-Vedic mythology, this legend becomes one of the basis of many cosmogonic myth called the Varaha legend, with Varaha as an avatar of Vishnu. Several hymns of the Rigveda repeat the mighty deed of Vishnu called the Trivikrama and it is an inspiration for ancient artwork in numerous Hindu temples such as at the Ellora Caves, which depict the Trivikrama legend through the Vamana avatar of Vishnu. Trivikrama refers to the three steps or three strides of Vishnu
7.
Asura
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Asuras are mythological lord beings in Indian texts who compete for power with the more benevolent devas. Asuras are described in Indian texts as powerful superhuman demigods or demons with good or bad qualities, the good Asuras are called Adityas and are led by Varuna, while the malevolent ones are called Danavas and are led by Vritra. In the earliest layer of Vedic texts Agni, Indra and other gods are also called Asuras, in the sense of them being lords of their domains, knowledge. In later Vedic and post-Vedic texts, the benevolent gods are called Devas, Asuras are part of Indian mythology along with Devas, Yakshas and Rakshasas, and Asuras feature in one of many cosmological theories in Hinduism. Monier-Williams traces the roots of Asura to Asu, which means life of the spiritual world or departed spirits. In later verses of the Samhita layer of Vedic texts, Monier Williams states the Asuras are evil spirits, demons, Asuras connote the chaos-creating evil, in Hindu and Persian mythology about the battle between good and evil. In this, the form, asuryaa, is included twice. The word, asurya, has been used 19 times as a noun, while the abstract form asuratva occurs 24 times,22 times in each of the 22 times of one hymn. Asura is used as an adjective meaning powerful or mighty, in the Rigveda, two generous kings, as well as some priests, have been described as asuras. One hymn requests a son who is an asura, in nine hymns, Indra is described as asura. Five times, he is said to possess asurya, and once he is said to possess asuratva, Agni has total of 12 asura descriptions, Varuna has 10, Mitra has eight, and Rudra has six. Bhargava gives a count of the usage for every Vedic deity. The Book 1 of Rig Veda describes Savitr as an Asura who is a kind leader, in later texts, such as the Puranas and the Itihasas with the embedded Bhagavad Gita, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad. According to the Bhagavad Gita, all beings in the universe have both the qualities and the demonic qualities within each. Asko Parpola traces the etymological root of Asura to *asera- of Uralic languages, scholars have disagreed on the nature and evolution of the Asura concept in ancient Indian literature. Kuiper calls Asuras a special group of gods in one of major Vedic theories of creation of the universe and their role changes only during and after the earth, sky and living beings have been created. The sky world becomes that of Devas, the underworld becomes that of Asuras, deity Indra is the protagonist of the good and the Devas, while dragon Vrtra who is also one of asuras is the protagonist of the evil. This is the first major dualism to emerge in the nature of everything in the Universe, Hale, in his review, states that Kuiper theory on Asura is plausible but weak because the Vedas never call Vrtra an Asura as the texts describe many other powerful beings
8.
Hinduism
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Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life, found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE following the Vedic period, although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti and Smriti and these texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, karma, samsara, and the various Yogas. Hindu practices include such as puja and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals. Some Hindus leave their world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, Hinduism is the worlds third largest religion, with over one billion followers or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The majority of Hindus reside in India, Nepal, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term, the Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as an alternative name of India. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion defies our desire to define and categorize it, Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion, in India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion. Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma, the study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of Hinduism, has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents
9.
Rigveda
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The Rigveda is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns. It is one of the four sacred texts of Hinduism known as the Vedas. The text is a collection of 1,028 hymns and 10,600 verses, a good deal of the language is still obscure and many hymns as a consequence seem unintelligible. The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities, for each deity series the hymns progress from longer to shorter ones, and the number of hymns per book increases. In the eight books that were composed the earliest, the hymns predominantly discuss cosmology, Rigveda is one of the oldest extant texts in any Indo-European language. 1700–1100 BC has also been given, some of its verses continue to be recited during Hindu rites of passage celebrations such as weddings and religious prayers, making it probably the worlds oldest religious text in continued use. This redaction also included some additions and orthoepic changes to the Vedic Sanskrit such as the regularization of sandhi, the Padapatha and the Pratisakhya anchor the texts fidelity and meaning, and the fixed text was preserved with unparalleled fidelity for more than a millennium by oral tradition alone. In order to achieve this the oral tradition prescribed very structured enunciation, involving breaking down the Sanskrit compounds into stems and inflections and this interplay with sounds gave rise to a scholarly tradition of morphology and phonetics. The Rigveda was probably not written down until the Gupta period, the oral tradition still continued into recent times. The text is organized in 10 books, known as Mandalas, of varying age, the family books, mandalas 2–7, are the oldest part of the Rigveda and the shortest books, they are arranged by length and account for 38% of the text. Within each book, the hymns are arranged in collections each dealing with a deity, Agni comes first, Indra comes second. They are attributed and dedicated to a rishi and his family of students, within each collection, the hymns are arranged in descending order of the number of stanzas per hymn. If two hymns in the collection have equal numbers of stanzas then they are arranged so that the number of syllables in the metre are in descending order. The second to seventh mandalas have a uniform format, the eighth and ninth mandalas, comprising hymns of mixed age, account for 15% and 9%, respectively. The first and the tenth mandalas are the youngest, they are also the longest books, of 191 suktas each, however, adds Witzel, some hymns in Mandala 8,1 and 10 may be as old as the earlier Mandalas. The first mandala has an arrangement not found in the other nine mandalas. The ninth mandala is arranged by both its structure and hymn length, while the first eighty four hymns of the tenth mandala have a structure different than the remaining hymns in it. Each mandala consists of hymns called sūkta intended for various rituals, the sūktas in turn consist of individual stanzas called ṛc, which are further analysed into units of verse called pada
10.
Hindu temple
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A temple is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. It is typically used for such buildings belonging to all faiths where a specific term such as church. These include Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism among religions with many modern followers, the form and function of temples is thus very variable, though they are often considered by believers to be in some sense the house of one or more deities. Typically offerings of some sort are made to the deity, and other rituals enacted, the degree to which the whole population of believers can access the building varies significantly, often parts or even the whole main building can only be accessed by the clergy. Temples typically have a building and a larger precinct, which may contain many other buildings. The word comes from Ancient Rome, where a templum constituted a sacred precinct as defined by a priest and it has the same root as the word template, a plan in preparation of the building that was marked out on the ground by the augur. Templa also became associated with the places of a god or gods. Hindu temples are large and magnificent with a rich history, there is evidence of use of sacred ground as far back as the Bronze Age and later the Indus Valley Civilization. Hindu temples have been built in countries around the world, including Cambodia, Nepal, Mauritius, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Great Britain. They include the structures called stupa, wat and pagoda in different regions, Temples in Buddhism represent the pure land or pure environment of a Buddha. Traditional Buddhist temples are designed to inspire inner and outer peace, a Jain temple is the place of worship for Jains, the followers of Jainism. Some famous Jain temples are Shikharji, Palitana Jain Temples, Ranakpur Jain Temple, Shravan Belgola, Dilwara Temples, Jain temples are built with various architectural designs. Jain temples in North India are completely different from the Jain temples in South India, additionally, a Manastambha is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples. The temple of Mesopotamia derived from the cult of gods and deities in the Mesopotamian religion and it spanned several civilizations, from Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian. Ancient Egyptian temples were meant as places for the deities to reside on earth, indeed, the term the Egyptians most commonly used to describe the temple building, ḥwt-nṯr, means mansion of a god. A gods presence in the temple linked the human and divine realms and these rituals, it was believed, sustained the god and allowed it to continue to play its proper role in nature. They were therefore a key part of the maintenance of maat, maintaining maat was the entire purpose of Egyptian religion, and thus it was the purpose of a temple as well. Ancient Egyptian temples were also of significance to Egyptian society
11.
Puranas
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The word Puranas literally means ancient, old, and it is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore. Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in languages, several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva. The Puranas genre of literature is found in both Hinduism and Jainism, the content is highly inconsistent across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves inconsistent. The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of authors over the centuries, in contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated. There are 18 Maha Puranas and 18 Upa Puranas, with over 400,000 verses, the first versions of the various Puranas were likely composed between the 3rd- and 10th-century CE. The Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in Hinduism and they have been influential in the Hindu culture, inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism. The religious practices included in them are considered Vaidika, because they do not preach initiation into Tantra, the Bhagavata Purana has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre, and is of non-dualistic tenor. The Puranic literature wove with the Bhakti movement in India, vyasa, the narrator of the Mahabharata, is hagiographically credited as the compiler of the Puranas. The date of the production of the written texts does not define the date of origin of the Puranas and they existed in an oral form before being written down, and were incrementally modified well into the 16th century. An early occurrence of the term purana is found in the Chandogya Upanishad, translated by Patrick Olivelle as the corpus of histories, importantly, the most famous form of itihāsapurāṇaṃ is the Mahabharata. The term also appears in the Atharvaveda 11.7.24, the extant Puranas, states Coburn, are not identical to the original Puranas. In the 19th century, F. E. Pargiter believed the original Purana may date to the time of the redaction of the Vedas. Wendy Doniger, based on her study of indologists, assigns approximate dates to the various Puranas and she dates Markandeya Purana to c.250 CE, Matsya Purana to c. 250–500 CE, Vayu Purana to c.350 CE, Harivamsa and Vishnu Purana to c.450 CE, 350–950 CE, Vamana Purana to c. 450–900 CE, Kurma Purana to c, 550–850 CE, and Linga Purana to c. Of the many texts designated Puranas the most important are the Mahāpurāṇas or the major Puranas and these are said to be eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six, though they are not always counted in the same way. The difference between Upapuranas and Mahapuranas has been explained by Rajendra Hazra as, a Mahapurana is well known, the Upapuranas are eighteen in number, with disagreement as to which canonical titles belong in that list of eighteen. The Ganesha and Mudgala Puranas are devoted to Ganesha, the Devi-Bhagavata Purana, which extols the goddess Durga, has become a basic text for Devi worshipers
12.
Patala
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In Indian religions, Patala or Patal denotes the subterranean realms of the universe - which are located under the earth. Patala is often translated as underworld or netherworld, in Hindu cosmology, the universe is divided into the three worlds, Svarga, Prithvi and Patala. Patala is composed of seven regions or lokas, the seventh and lowest of them is also called Patala or Naga-loka, the Danavas, Daityas, Yakshas and the snake-people Nagas live in the realms of Patala. Surya Siddhanta, a text, refers to Southern Hemisphere of the earth as Patala whereas the northern hemisphere is referred to as Jambudvipa. The Vishnu Purana tells of a visit by the wandering sage Narada to Patala. Narada describes Patala as more beautiful than Svarga, Patala is described as filled with splendid jewels, beautiful groves and lakes and lovely demon maidens. Sweet fragrance is in the air and is fused with sweet music, the soil here is white, black, purple, sandy, yellow, stony and also of gold. The Bhagavata Purana calls the seven lower regions bila-svargas and they are regarded as planets or planetary systems below the earth and these regions are described as being more opulent than the upper regions of the universe, which include heaven. The life here is of pleasure, wealth and luxury, with no distress, the demon architect Maya has constructed palaces, temples, houses, yards and hotels for foreigners, with jewels. The natural beauty of Patala is said to surpass that of the upper realms, there is no sunlight in the lower realms, but the darkness is dissipated by the shining of the jewels that the residents of Patala wear. There is no old age, no sweat, no disease in Patala, the Vishnu Purana, states the seven realms of Patala, which are located one above the other, are seventy-thousand yojanas below the Earths surface. Each of them extends ten thousand Yojanas, in Vishnu Purana, they are named as from the highest to the lowest as, Atala, Vitala, Nitala, Garbhastimat, Mahatala, Sutala and Patala. In the Bhagavata Purana and the Padma Purana, they are called Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Talatala, Mahatala, Rasatala and Patala, the Shiva Purana, replaces Mahatala with Tala. The Vayu Purana calls them Rasatala, Sutala, Vitala, Gabhastala, Mahatala, Sritala and Patala, the seven Patalas as well as the earth above them is supported on the head of the tamasic form of Vishnu, the thousand-headed nāga Shesha. Sometimes, Shesha is described to reside in the lowest region of Patala instead of below it, below the regions of Patala lies Naraka, the Hindu Hell - the realm of death where sinners are punished. Different realms of Patala are ruled by different demons and Nagas, Vayu Purana records each realm of Patala has cities in it. Bali rules as the king of Patala. The Bhagavata Purana presents a description of the seven lower realms
13.
Aditi
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In the Vedas, Aditi is mother of the gods and all twelve zodiacal spirits from whose cosmic matrix, the heavenly bodies were born. As celestial mother of every existing form and being, the synthesis of all things, she is associated with space and she may be seen as a feminized form of Brahma and associated with the primal substance in Vedanta. In contrast, the Puranas, such as the Shiva Purana and the Bhagavata Purana, suggest that Aditi is wife of sage Kashyap and gave birth to the Adityas such as Indra, Surya, and also Vamana. The name is mentioned in Vedas as mother of Surya and other bodies or gods Adityas. The first mention of goddess Aditi is found in Rigveda, which is estimated to have been composed roughly during 1700-1100 BC, Aditi with sage Kashyapa had 33 sons, out of which twelve are called Aditya including Surya, eleven are called Rudras and eight are called Vasus. Aditi is said to be the mother of the great god Indra, the mother of kings, in the Vedas, Aditi is Devamata as from and in her cosmic matrix all the heavenly bodies were born. Accordingly, Vishnu was born as the son of Aditi in the month of Shravana under the star Shravana, many auspicious signs appeared in the heavens, foretelling the good fortune of this child. In the Rigveda, Aditi is one of the most important figures of all, as a mothering presence, Aditi is often asked to guard the one who petitions her or to provide him or her with wealth, safety, and abundance. Aditi is usually mentioned in the Rigveda along with other gods, there is no one hymn addressed exclusively to her, unlike other Vedic gods. She is perhaps not related to a natural phenomenon like other gods. Compared to Usha and Prithvi, Aditi can be defined as the cosmic creatrix, the name Aditi includes the root da and suggests another attribute of her character. As A-diti, she is un-bound, free one, and it is evident in the hymns to her that she is called to free the petitioner from different hindrances, especially sin. In one hymn, she is asked to free a petitioner who has tied up like a thief. As one who unbinds, her role is similar to her son Varunas as guardian of Rta and she is called the supporter of creatures. It also means one of its kind or unique, Aditi challenges the modern idea that the Vedic peoples were patriarchal. Aditi was regarded as both the sky goddess, and earth goddess, which is rare for a prehistoric civilization. Most prehistoric civilizations venerated a dual principle, Sky Father and Earth Mother, Aditi was attributed the status of first deity by the Vedic culture, although she is not the only one attributed this status in the Vedas. She is addressed, in the Rigveda as Mighty, like many other Hindu gods and goddesses, Aditi has a savari
14.
Kashyapa
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Kashyapa is a revered Vedic sage of Hinduism. He was one of the seven ancient sages considered as Saptarishis in Rigveda, numerous Sanskrit texts and he is the most ancient rishi listed in the colophon verse in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, and called a self-made scholar in the Atharvaveda. He was based in part of the Indian subcontinent. Kashyapa is an ancient name, referring to many different personalities in the ancient Hindu. Kaśyapa, alternatively kasiiapa, means turtle in Sanskrit, according to Michael Witzel, it is related to Sogdian kyšph, New Persian kašaf, kašp which mean tortoise, after which Kashaf Rūd or a river in Turkmenistan and Khorasan is named. According to Frits Staal, Kaśyapa means tortoise but it is a non-Indo-European word, Kashyapa is one of Saptarishi, the seven famed rishis considered to be author of many hymns and verses of the Rigveda. He and his family of students are, for example, the author of the verse of 10.137. He is mentioned in verse 2.2.4 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, along with Atri, Vashistha, Vishvamitra, Jamadagni, Bharadwaja and Gotama. Kashyapa is also mentioned as the earliest rishi in colophon verse 6.5.3 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Kashyapa is mentioned in other Vedas and numerous other Vedic texts. For example, in one of several cosmology-related hymns of Atharvaveda, Kashyapa is mentioned in the allegory-filled Book XIX and his name is very common in the Epic and Purana literature. In Buddhist Pali canonical texts such as Digha Nikaya, Tevijja Sutta describes a discussion between the Buddha and Vedic scholars of his time. The Buddha names ten rishis, calls them early sages and makers of ancient verses that have collected and chanted in his era. Kashmir, the northern Himalayan region of the Indian subcontinent got its name from Kashyapa Rishi, in ancient texts of Greece, linked to the expedition of Alexander the Great, this land has been called Kasperia, possibly a contraction of Kasyapamira. Kaspatyros may be same as Kaspa-pyrus or Kasyapa-pur in other texts, Kashyapa is revered in the Hindu tradition, and numerous legends and texts composed in medieval era are reverentially attributed to him in various Hindu traditions. The treatise is written as a tutorial between the medical sage Kashyapa and his student named Vriddhajivaka, and mostly related to caring for babies and diseases of children, Kashyapa Jnanakandah, or Kashyapas book of wisdom, is a 9th century text of the Vaishnavism tradition. Kasyapa dharmasutra, likely an ancient text, but now believed to be lost, the texts existence is inferred from quotes and citations by medieval Indian scholars. Kasyapa sangita, likely another ancient text, but now believed to be lost, a treatise on music, it is quoted by Shaivism and Advaita scholar Abhinavagupta, wherein he cites sage Kasyapa explanation on viniyoga of each rasa and bhava. Another Hindu music scholar named Hrdanyangama mentions Kashyapas contributions to the theory of alankara, kasyapasilpa, also called Amsumad agama, Kasypiya or Silpasastra of Kasyapa, is a Sanskrit treatise on architecture, iconography and the decorative arts, probably completed in the 11th century
15.
Bhagavata Purana
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The Bhāgavata Purāṇa is one of Hinduisms eighteen great Puranas. Composed in Sanskrit and available in almost all Indian languages, it promotes bhakti to Krishna integrating themes from the Advaita philosophy of Adi Shankara. The Bhagavata Purana, like other puranas, discusses a range of topics including cosmology, genealogy, geography, mythology, legend, music, dance, yoga. As it begins, the forces of evil have won a war between the benevolent devas and evil asuras and now rule the universe, the Bhagavata Purana is a revered text in Vaishnavism, a Hindu tradition that reveres Vishnu. The text presents a form of religion that competes with that of the Vedas, wherein bhakti ultimately leads to self-knowledge, liberation and bliss. However the Bhagavata Purana asserts that the nature and outer form of Krishna is identical to the Vedas. An oft-quoted verse is used by some Krishna sects to assert that the text itself is Krishna in literary form, the date of composition is probably between the eighth and the tenth century CE, but may be as early as the 6th century CE. Manuscripts survive in numerous inconsistent versions revised through the 18th century creating various recensions both in the languages and across different Indian languages. The text consists of twelve books totalling 332 chapters and between 16,000 and 18,000 verses depending on the recension, the tenth book, with about 4,000 verses, has been the most popular and widely studied. Bhagavata means devoted to, follower of Bhagavat – the sacred, an alternative interpretation of Bhagavata is devotees of the Adorable One. Bhagavata Purana therefore means Ancient Tales of Followers of the Lord, the Bhagavata is widely recognized as the best-known and most influential of the Puranas and, along with the Itihasa and other puranas, is sometimes referred to as the Fifth Veda. It is the source of popular stories of Krishnas childhood told for centuries on the Indian subcontinent. The Bhagavata declares itself the essence of all the Upanishads and derivative Smritis, One who has enjoyed the nectar of its rasa never has any desire for anything else. In northern and western India the Bhagavata Purana has influenced the Hari Bhakti Vilasa, the text complements the Pancharatra Agama texts of Vaishnavism. While the text focuses on Krishna Lord Narayana himself appears and explains how Brahma, the Bhagavata Purana is also significant in asserting that Yoga practice is a form of Bhakti. The Bhagavata Purana, in verse 2.9.32, modern scholarship dates its composition to between 500 CE to 1000 CE, but most likely between 800 and 1000 CE. A version of the text existed no later than 1030 CE, within this range, scholars such as R. C. Postmodern scholars have suggested alternate theories, the Puranas are a type of traditional Hindu texts that took form during the medieval period, often both informed by earlier material and undergoing later interpolations
16.
Indra
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Indra is a Vedic deity in Hinduism, a guardian deity in Buddhism, and the king of first heaven called Saudharmakalpa in Jainism. His mythologies and powers are similar, though not identical to those of the Indo-European deities such as Zeus, Jupiter, Perun, Thor, in the Vedas, Indra is the king of Svarga and the Devas. He is the god of lightning, thunder, storms, rains, Indra is the most referred to deity in the Rigveda. He is celebrated for his powers, and the one who kills the great symbolic evil named Vritra who obstructs human prosperity, Indra destroys Vritra and his deceiving forces, and thereby brings rains and the sunshine as the friend of mankind. In Buddhism, Indra has been a popular deity, referred by many names and he is featured in Buddhism somewhat differently than Hinduism, such as being shown as less war oriented and one paying homage to the Buddha. Indra rules over the much sought Devas realm of rebirth within the Samsara doctrine of Buddhist traditions, however, like the Hindu texts, Indra also is a subject of ridicule and reduced to a figurehead status in Buddhist texts, shown as a god that suffers rebirth and redeath. In the Jainism traditions, like Buddhism and Hinduism, Indra is the king of gods, Indras iconography shows him wielding a lightning thunderbolt known as Vajra, riding on a white elephant known as Airavata. In Buddhist iconography the elephant sometimes features three heads, while Jaina icons sometimes show the elephant with five heads, sometimes a single elephant is shown with four symbolic tusks. Indras heavenly home is on or near Mount Meru, the etymological roots of Indra are unclear, has been a contested topic among scholars since the 19th-century, one with many proposals. The significant proposals have been, root ind-u, or rain drop, based on the Vedic mythology that he conquered rain, root ind, or equipped with great power. Root idh or kindle, and ina or strong, root indha, or igniter, for his ability to bring light and power that ignites the vital forces of life. This is based on Shatapatha Brahmana, root idam-dra, or It seeing which is a reference to the one who first perceived the self-sufficient metaphysical Brahman. This is based on Aitareya Upanishad, roots in ancient Indo-European, Indo-Aryan deities. Later scholarship has linked Vedic Indra to the European Aynar, Abaza, Ubykh, colarusso suggests a Pontic origin and that both the phonology and the context of Indra in Indian religions is best explained from Indo-Aryan roots and a Circassian etymology. Indra is also called Śakra frequently in the Vedas and in Buddhism, Indra has many epithets in the Indian religions, notably Śakra, Vṛṣan, Vṛtrahan, Meghavāhana, Devarāja, Devendra, Surendra, Svargapati, Vajrapāṇī and Vāsava. Indra is of ancient but unclear origin, the similarities between Indra of Hindu mythologies and of Thor of Nordic and Germanic mythologies are significant states Max Muller. Michael Janda suggests that Indra has origins in the Indo-European *trigw-welumos smasher of the enclosure, brave and heroic Innara or Inra, which sounds like Indra, is mentioned among the gods of the Mitanni, a Hurrian-speaking people of Hittite region. Indra as a deity had a presence in northeastern Asia minor and this tablet mentions a treaty, but its significance is in four names it includes reverentially as Mi-it-ra, U-ru-w-na, In-da-ra and Na-sa-at-ti-ia
17.
Mahabali
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Mahabali, also known as Mahabali or Māveli, was a benevolent Asura King in ancient Hindu mythology. Mahabali was the great grandson of sage Kashyapa, great grandson of Hiranyakshipu. However, Mahabali was a king and very kind to his subjects in the state of Kerala. The time under his rule was considered one of great prosperity and it is in fact this success as a King that led the Gods to be wary of him and bring his demise at the hands of Vamana. To appease his subjects who were distraught at his death, Mahabali is allowed to return to Earth once every year on the festival of Onam. His subjects deck up their houses and themselves in order to show their happiness and prosperity to their King
18.
Hiranyakshipu
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Hiranyakashipu is an Asura from the Puranic scriptures of Hinduism. His younger brother, Hiranyaksha was slain by Varaha, one of the Avatars of Vishnu, angered by this, Hiranyakashipu decided to gain magical powers by performing a penance for Lord Brahma. He was subsequently killed by the Narasimha Avatara of Lord Vishnu and his tale depicts the futility of desiring power over others and the strength of Gods protection over his fully surrendered devotees. Hiranyakashipu, according to legend, was the king of the daityas and had earned a boon from Brahma that made him virtually indestructible and he grew arrogant, thought he was God, and demanded that everyone worship only him. The story of Hiranyakashipu is in three parts, the first has to do with the curse of the Four Kumaras on the gatekeepers of Vaikuntha, Jaya and Vijaya, which causes them to be born as the daityass Hiranyakashipu and Hiranyaksha. The second part deals with Hiranyakashipus penance to propitiate Brahma and gain a boon from him, the final part deals with his efforts to kill his son Prahlada and his subsequent death at the hands of Narasimha. According to a story from Bhagavata Purana, Hiranyakashipu and Hiranyaksha are Vishnus gatekeepers Jaya and Vijaya, in Satya Yuga, Hiranyakashipu and Hiranyaksha - together called the Hiranyas - were born to Diti and the sage Kashyapa. It is said that asuras were born to them as a result of their union at the time of dusk, after his elder Brother Hiranyakshas death at the hands of the Varaha avatar of Vishnu, Hiranyakashipu comes to hate Vishnu. This initially seemed to work as planned, with Brahma becoming pleased by Hiranyakashipus austerities, Brahma appears before Hiranyakashipu and offers him a boon of his choice. But when Hiranyakashipu asks for immortality, Brahma refuses, grant me that I not die within any residence or outside any residence, during the daytime or at night, nor on the ground or in the sky. Grant me that my death not be brought by any being other than those created by you, nor by any weapon, grant me that I not meet death from any entity, living or nonliving. Grant me, further, that I not be killed by any demigod or demon or by any great snake from the lower planets, since no one can kill you in the battlefield, you have no competitor. Therefore, grant me the benediction that I too may have no rival, give me sole lordship over all the living entities and presiding deities, and give me all the glories obtained by that position. Furthermore, give me all the mystic powers attained by long austerities, in other Puranas, many variations of the boon are given. The Shiva Purana mentions that Hiranyakashipu asked Brahma that he would be invulnerable to dry or wet weapons, thunderbolts, mountains, the Vayu Purana mentions that Hiranyakashipu asked to be so powerful, only Vishnu would slay him. Other variations include not being slain by any living being, not at daytime or nighttime, in section 14, the Anusasana Parva of the Mahabharata, the Sage Upamanyu briefly mentioned to Krishna that Hiranyakashipu also performed another penance to please Lord Shiva. In consequence of these two boons, Hiranyakashipu become so mighty that he was able to shake the very Himalayas down to their roots, ravana once tried to lift Hiranyakashipus earrings but he was unable to do so because they were very heavy. The Brahmanda Purana mentions that Hiranyakashipu ruled for 107,280,000 years, whilst Hiranyakashipu is performing the penance to be granted this boon, Indra and the other devas attack his home, seizing the opportunity in his absence
19.
Prahlada
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Prahlada is a male name that means filled with joy or excess in joy. It is the name of a figure in Vedic literature, most notably the Srimad Bhagavatam, in the literature, Prahlada was a daitya king, the son of Hiranyakashipu and Kayadu, and the father of Virochana. He is often described as a boy from the Puranas known for his piety. Despite the abusive nature of his father, Hiranyakashipu, he continued his devotion towards Lord Vishnu and he is considered to be a mahājana, or great devotee, by followers of Vaishnava traditions and is of special importance to devotees of the avatār Narasiṁha. A treatise is accredited to him in the Bhagavata Purana in which Prahlāda describes the process of loving worship to his Lord Vishnu. The majority of stories in the Puranas are based on the activities of Prahlāda as a young boy, the word Narsimha is derived from the Sanskrit word nar meaning Man and simaha meaning lion. After the death of his father, Prahlada took his fathers kingdom and he was known for his generosity and kindness. He sowed similar seeds in his son Virochana and grandson Mahabali, Prahlada while being in his mothers womb got to hear Naradas chants. He was taught by Narada in early childhood, as a result, he was devoted towards Vishnu. His father didnt like his spiritual inclination, despite several warnings from his father Hiranyakashipu, Prahlāda continued to worship Vishnu instead. His father then decided to commit filicide and poison Prahlāda, and he then trampled the boy with elephants, but the boy still lived. Then he put Prahlāda in a room with venomous snakes, Holika, the sister of Hiranyakashipu, was blessed in that she could not be hurt by fire. Hiranyakashipu puts Prahlāda on the lap of Holika as she sits on a pyre, Prahlāda prays to Vishnu to keep him safe. Holika then burns to death as Prahlāda is left unscathed and this event is celebrated as the Hindu festival of Holi. There is an underground pillar known as Prahlāda khamba in Dharahra village, in the Purnia District of Bihar and it is said to be the pillar from which Narasiṁha manifested to kill Hiranyakashipu. Adjacent to the pillar is a temple devoted to Lord Narasiṁha. Allegedly, attempts to excavate or move the Prahlāda khamba have failed, in Maharashtra, an underground temple near the banks of the river Krishna in Sangli District hosts a beautiful stone carved sculpture of Narasimha and Laxmi. The story of Prahlāda teaches that, Faith in God is paramount, devotion can be practiced at any age
20.
Brahmin
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Brahmin is a varna in Hinduism specialising as priests of sacred learning across generations. However, Indian texts suggest that Brahmins were often agriculturalists in medieval India, the Gautama Dharmasutra states in verse 10.3 that it is obligatory on a Brahmin to learn and teach the Vedas. The text forbids a Brahmin from engaging in the trade of animals for slaughter, meat, medicines, the Apastamba Dharmasutra asserts in verse 1.20.10 that trade is generally not sanctioned for Brahmins, but in the times of adversity he may do so. The chapter 1.20 of Apastamba, states Olivelle, forbids the trade of the following under any circumstances, human beings, meat, skins, weapons, barren cows, sesame seeds, pepper, and merits. The 1st millennium CE Dharmasastras, that followed the Dharmasutras contain similar recommendations on occupations for a Brahmin, both in prosperous or normal times, and in the times of adversity. The widely studied Manusmriti, for example, states, Except during a time of adversity and he should gather wealth just sufficient for his subsistence through irreproachable activities that are specific to him, without fatiguing his body. –4. 2–4.3 He must never follow a worldly occupation for the sake of livelihood, one who seeks happiness should become supremely content and self controlled, for happiness is rooted in contentment and its opposite is the root of unhappiness. –4. 11–4.12 The Manusmriti recommends that a Brahmins occupation must never involve forbidden activities such as producing or trading poison, weapons, meat, trapping birds and others. It also lists six occupations that it deems proper for a Brahmin, teaching, studying, offering yajna, officiating at yajna, giving gifts, of these, states Manusmriti, three which provide a Brahmin with a livelihood are teaching, officiating at yajna, and accepting gifts. The text states that teaching is best, and ranks the accepting of gifts as the lowest of the six, in the times of adversity, Manusmriti recommends that a Brahmin may live by engaging in the occupations of the warrior class, or agriculture or cattle herding or trade. Of these, Manusmriti in verses 10. 83–10, the term Brahmin in Indian texts has signified someone who is good and virtuous, not just someone of priestly class. Both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, states Patrick Olivelle, repeatedly define Brahmin not in terms of family of birth and these virtues and characteristics mirror the values cherished in Hinduism during the Sannyasa stage of life, or the life of renunciation for spiritual pursuits. Brahmins, states Olivelle, were the class from which most ascetics came. The earliest inferred reference to Brahmin as a social class is in the Rigveda, occurs once. Ancient texts describing community-oriented Vedic yajna rituals mention four to five priests, the hotar, the adhvaryu, the udgatar, the functions associated with the priests were, The Hotri recites invocations and litanies drawn from the Rigveda. The Adhvaryu is the assistant and is in charge of the physical details of the ritual like measuring the ground. The Udgatri is the chanter of hymns set to melodies and music drawn from the Samaveda, the udgatar, like the hotar, chants the introductory, accompanying and benediction hymns. The Brahmin recites from the Atharvaveda, the Ritvij is the chief operating priest
21.
Umbrella
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An umbrella or parasol is a folding canopy supported by wooden or metal ribs, which is usually mounted on a wooden, metal, or plastic pole. It is designed to protect a person against rain or sunlight, the word umbrella typically refers to a device used for protection from rain. The word parasol usually refers to a designed to protect from the sun. Often the difference is the used for the canopy, some parasols are not waterproof. Umbrella canopies may be made of fabric or flexible plastic, Umbrellas and parasols are primarily hand-held portable devices sized for personal use. The largest hand-portable umbrellas are golf umbrellas, another distinction can be made between manually operated umbrellas and spring-loaded automatic umbrellas which spring open at the press of a button. Hand-held umbrellas have some type of handle, either a wooden or plastic cylinder or a bent crook handle, Umbrellas are available in a range of price and quality points, ranging from inexpensive, modest quality models sold at discount stores to expensive, finely made, designer-labeled models. The collapsible/folding umbrella, the predecessor to the modern umbrella. These Chinese umbrellas were internally supported with bendable, retractable, an umbrella may also be called a brolly, parapluie, rainshade, gamp, or bumbershoot. The word parasol is a combination of para, meaning to stop or to shield, parapluie similarly consists of para combined with pluie, which means rain. Hence, a parasol shields from sunlight while a parapluie shields from rain, the word umbrella evolved from the Latin umbella or umbra, meaning shaded or shadow. In Britain, umbrellas were sometimes referred to as gamps after the character Mrs. Gamp in the Charles Dickens novel Martin Chuzzlewit, Mrs. Gamps character was well known for carrying an umbrella. Brolly is a word for umbrella, used often in Britain, Ireland, New Zealand, Australia, South Africa. Bumbershoot is a fanciful Americanism from the late 19th century, in all written records, the oldest reference to a collapsible umbrella dates to the year 21 AD, when Wang Mang had one designed for a ceremonial four-wheeled carriage. The 2nd-century commentator Fu Qian added that this collapsible umbrella of Wang Mangs carriage had bendable joints which enabled them to be extended or retracted. A 1st century collapsible umbrella has since recovered from the tomb of Wang Guang at Lelang Commandery in the Korean Peninsula, illustrated in a work by Harada. However, the Chinese collapsible umbrella is perhaps a concept that is yet centuries older than Wangs tomb. An even older source on the umbrella is perhaps the ancient book of Chinese ceremonies, called Zhou Li, dating 2400 years ago, which directs that upon the imperial cars the dais should be placed
22.
Sukracharya
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Shukra is a Sanskrit word that means lucid, clear, bright. It also has other meanings, such as the name of an ancient sage who counseled Asuras in Vedic mythology, in medieval mythology and Hindu astrology, the term refers to the planet Venus, one of the Navagrahas. In one mythology, Shukra is the name of a son of Bhrigu, of the third Manu and he was the guru of Daityas / Asuras, and is also referred to as Shukracharya or Asuracharya in various Hindu texts. In another mythology, found in the Mahabharata, Shukra divided himself into two, one becoming the knowledge source for the Devas and the other half being the knowledge source of the Asuras. In the Mahabharata, Shukracharya is mentioned as one of the mentors of Bhishma and these texts present Shukra as one of the planets and estimate the characteristics of the respective planetary motion. Other texts such as Surya Siddhanta dated to have been sometime between the 5th century and 10th century present their chapters on various planets with deity mythologies. The manuscripts of texts exist in slightly different versions, present Shukras motion in the skies. ShukraVar is found in most Indian languages, and Shukara Graha is driven by the planet Venus in Hindu astrology, the word Friday in the Greco-Roman and other Indo-European calendars is also based on planet Venus. The zodiac and naming system of Hindu astrology likely developed in the centuries after the arrival of Greek astrology with Alexander the Great, in Buddhist and Hindu astrology, Shukra is a part of the medieval astrological explanations offered for various ailments. In his iconography, he is of white complexion, middle-aged and he is described variously as mounted on a camel, horse or crocodile. He holds a stick, beads and a lotus and sometimes a bow and arrow, varuna Asura Ahura Mazda Venus Venus Pingree, David. The Mesopotamian Origin of Early Indian Mathematical Astronomy, journal for the History of Astronomy
23.
Onam
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Onam, or Thiruvonam, is a traditional Hindu harvest festival celebrated in the state of Kerala and elsewhere where Malayalam-speaking populations have settled. It falls in the Malayalam calendar month of Chingam, which in Gregorian calendar overlaps with August–September, Onam is the official state festival of Kerala with public holidays that start four days from Onam Eve. The festival is a annual event for Malayali Hindus. It includes Vallam Kali, Pulikali, Pookkalam, Onathappan, Tug of War, Thumbi Thullal, Kummati kali, Onathallu, Onavillu, Kazhchakkula, Onapottan, Atthachamayam, the festival remembers Hindu mythologies associated with Mahabali, Vishnu, Kashyapa and Parashurama. It is the New Year day for Malayali Hindus, the festival is also celebrated by Christians of Kerala, in its churches. The festival has been declared as wrong and taboo for Muslims by Islamic preachers, the celebration by non-Hindus has been explained as Onam being a cultural festival. Onam is an ancient Hindu festival of Kerala that celebrates rice harvest, the significance of the festival is in Hindu legends, of which two are more common. According to the Hindu mythology, Mahabali was the great grandson of a Brahmin sage, Kashyapa. This links it to the Puranic mythology of Prahlada of Holika fame in Hinduism, Prahlada, despite being born to a demonic Asura father who hated Vishnu, rebelled against his fathers persecution of people and worshipped Vishnu. Hiranyakashyap tries to kill his son Prahlada, but is slained by Vishnu in his Narasimha avatar, prahladas grandson Mahabali came to power by defeating the gods, and taking over the three worlds. According to Vaishnavism mythology, the defeated Devas approached Vishnu for help in their battle with Mahabali, Vishnu refused to join the gods in violence against Mahabali, because Mahabali was a good ruler and his own devotee. He, instead, decided to test Mahabalis devotion at an opportune moment, Mahabali, after his victory over the gods, declared that he will perform Yajna and grant anyone any request during the Yajna. Vishnu took the avatar of a boy called Vamana and approached Mahabali. The king offered anything to the boy – gold, cows, elephants, villages, food, the boy said that one must not seek more than one needs, and all he needs is the property right over a piece of land that measures three paces. The Vamana grew and covered everything Mahabali ruled over in just two paces, for the third pace, Mahabali offered himself, an act which Vishnu accepted as evidence of Mahabalis devotion. Vishnu granted him a boon, by which Mahabali could visit again, once every year and this revisit marks the festival of Onam, as reminder of the virtuous rule and his humility in keeping his promise before Vishnu. The last day of Mahabalis stay is remembered with a nine course vegetarian Onasadya feast, according to this legend, Vishnu got upset with the kings and the warrior caste who were constantly at war and were arrogant over others. Vishnu took the avatar of Parashurama, or Rama with an axe and also known as Rama Jamadagyna and this king persecuted and oppressed the people, the sages and the gods
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Diwali
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Diwali or Deepavali is the Hindu festival of lights celebrated every year in autumn in the northern hemisphere. It is a holiday in Fiji, Guyana, India, Malaysia, Mauritius, Myanmar, Nepal, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago. One of the most popular festivals of Hinduism, it signifies the victory of light over darkness, good over evil, knowledge over ignorance. Its celebration includes millions of lights shining on housetops, outside doors and windows, around temples, in the Gregorian calendar, Diwali night falls between mid-October and mid-November. Before Diwali night, people clean, renovate, and decorate their homes and offices, after puja, fireworks follow, then a family feast including mithai, and an exchange of gifts between family members and close friends. Deepavali also marks a major shopping period in nations where it is celebrated, the name of festive days as well as the rituals of Diwali vary significantly among Hindus, based on the region of India. Dhanteras usually falls eighteen days after Dussehra, Diwali or Sanskrit dīpāvali means series of lights, and is derived from dīpam light, lamp and oli glow of light. Diwali is also known as festival of lights. Diwali dates back to ancient times in India, as a festival after the summer harvest in the Hindu calendar month of Kartika. The diyas are mentioned in Skanda Purana to symbolically represent parts of sun, the giver of light and energy to all life. Hindus in some regions of India associate Diwali with the legend of Yama, the Nachiketa story about right versus wrong, true wealth versus transient wealth, knowledge versus ignorance is recorded in Katha Upanishad composed in 1st millennium BC. King Harsha in the 7th century Sanskrit play Nagananda mentions Deepavali as Deepapratipadutsava, the Persian traveller and historian Al Biruni, in his 11th century memoir on India, wrote of Deepavali being celebrated by Hindus on New Moon day of the month of Kartika. Diwali is one of the happiest holidays in India and Nepal with significant preparations, people clean their homes and decorate them for the festivities. People also buy gifts for family members and friends which typically include sweets, dry fruits and it is also the period when children hear ancient stories, legends about battles between good and evil or light and darkness from their parents and elders. Girls and women go shopping and create rangoli and other creative patterns on floors, near doors, youth and adults alike help with lighting and preparing for patakhe. There is significant variation in practices and rituals. Depending on the region, prayers are offered one or more deities, with most common being Lakshmi – the goddess of wealth. On Diwali night, fireworks light up the neighborhood skies, later, family members and invited friends celebrate the night over food and sweets
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Deva (Hinduism)
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Deva means heavenly, divine, anything of excellence, and is also one of the terms for a deity in Hinduism. Deva is masculine, and the feminine equivalent is devi. In the earliest Vedic literature, all beings are called Asuras. The concepts and legends evolve in ancient Indian literature, and by the late Vedic period, in post-Vedic texts, such as the Puranas and the Itihasas of Hinduism, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad. In some medieval Indian literature, Devas are also referred to as Suras and contrasted with their powerful but malevolent half-brothers. Devas along with Asuras, Yakshas and Rakshasas are part of Indian mythology, Deva is a Sanskrit word found in Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE. Monier Williams translates it as heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of excellence, exalted. The concept also is used to refer to deity or god, the feminine form of *deiwos is *deiwih2, which descends into Indic languages as devi, in that context meaning female deity. The bode of the Devas is Dyuloka, according to Douglas Harper, the etymological roots of Deva mean a shining one, from *div- to shine, and it is a cognate with Greek dios divine and Zeus, and Latin deus god. Deva is masculine, and the feminine equivalent is devi. Etymologically, the cognates of Devi are Latin dea and Greek thea, when capitalized, Devi or Mata refers to goddess as divine mother in Hinduism. Deva is also referred to as Devatā, while Devi as Devika, the word Deva is also a proper name or part of name in Indian culture, where it refers to one who wishes to excel, overcome or the seeker of, master of or a best among-. Savitr, Vishnu, Rudra, and Prajapati are gods and hence Devas, saraswati and Ushas are some Devis or goddesses. Many of the deities taken together are worshiped as the Vishvedevas, max Muller states that the Vedic hymns are remarkable in calling every single of different devas as the only one, the supreme, the greatest.163.3, Trita art thou by interior operation. All powerful beings, good or evil, are called Asuras in the oldest layer of Vedic texts, a much studied hymn of the Rigveda states Devav asura, and contrasts it with Asura adevah. They are born from the father, Prajapati, the primordial progenitor, the elder sons are envisioned as the Asuras. The oldest Upanishads mention Devas, and their struggle with the Asuras, the Kaushitaki Upanishad, for example, in Book 4 states that Indra was weaker than the Asuras when he did not know his own Atman. Chandogya Upanishad, in chapter 1.2, describes the battle between Devas and Asuras on various sensory powers, finally, the Deva-Asura battle targets the soul, where Asuras fail and Devas succeed, because soul-force is serene and inherently good, asserts Chandogya Upanishad
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Yajna
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Yajna literally means sacrifice, devotion, worship, offering, and refers in Hinduism to any ritual done in front of a sacred fire, often with mantras. Yajna has been a Vedic tradition, described in a layer of Vedic literature called Brahmanas, as well as Yajurveda, the tradition has evolved from offering oblations and libations into sacred fire to symbolic offerings in the presence of sacred fire. Yajna rituals-related texts have been called the Karma-kanda portion of the Vedic literature, the proper completion of Yajna-like rituals was the focus of Mimansa school of Hindu philosophy. Yajna have continued to play a role in a Hindus rites of passage. Modern major Hindu temple ceremonies, Hindu community celebrations, or monastic initiations may also include Yajna vedic rites, the word yajna appears in the early Vedic literature, composed in 2nd millennium BCE. In Rigveda, Yajurveda and others, it means worship, devotion to anything, prayer and praise, an act of worship or devotion, a form of offering or oblation, and sacrifice. In post-Vedic literature, the term meant any form of rite, a Yajna included major ceremonial devotions, with or without a sacred fire, sometimes with feasts and community events. It is derived, states Nigal, from the Sanskrit verb yaj, the Sanskrit word is related to the Avestan term yasna of Zoroastrianism. Unlike the Vedic yajna, the Yasna is the name of a religious service, not a class of rituals. Yajna has been a part of an individual or social ritual since the Vedic times, when the ritual fire – the divine Agni, the god of fire and the messenger of gods – were deployed in a Yajna, mantras were chanted. The hymns and songs sung and oblations offered into the fire were a form of hospitality for the Vedic gods, the Vedangas, or auxiliary sciences attached to the Vedic literature, define Yajna as follows, Definition of a Vedic sacrifice — Apastamba Yajna Paribhasa-sutras 1. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad in verse 1.5.14, for example, uses the analogy of Yajna materials to explain the means to see ones soul and God, with inner rituals and without external rituals. Vedic yajnas are performed by four priests of the Vedic priesthood, the hotar, the adhvaryu, the udgatar. The functions associated with the priests were, The Hotri recites invocations, the Adhvaryu is the priests assistant and is in charge of the physical details of the ritual like measuring the ground, building the altar explained in the Yajurveda. The Udgatri is the chanter of hymns set to melodies and music drawn from the Samaveda, the udgatar, like the hotar, chants the introductory, accompanying and benediction hymns. The Brahmin is the superintendent of the performance, and is responsible for correcting mistakes by means of supplementary verses. There were usually one, or three, fires lit in the center of the offering ground, oblations are offered into the fire. Among the ingredients offered as oblations in the yajna are ghee, milk, grains, cakes, the duration of a yajna depends on its type, some last only a few minutes whereas, others are performed over a period of hours, days or even months
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Krishna
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Krishna is a major Hindu deity. He is one of the most widely revered and popular Indian divinities, worshipped as the incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu. Krishnas birthday is celebrated every year by Hindus on Janmashtami according to the lunisolar Hindu calendar, Krishna is also known by numerous names, such as Govinda, Mukunda, Madhusudhana, Vasudeva and Makhan chor in affection. The anecdotes and narratives of Krishnas life are generally titled as Krishna Leela and he is a central character in the Bhagavata Purana, the Bhagavad Gita, and is mentioned in many Hindu philosophical, theological and mythological texts. They portray him in various perspectives, a god-child, a prankster, a lover, a divine hero. The synonyms of Krishna have been traced to 1st millennium BCE literature, worship of Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan, sometimes referred to as Krishnaism, arose in the Middle Ages in the context of the Bhakti movement. Krishna-related literature has inspired performance arts such as Bharatnatyam, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Odissi. Since the 1960s, the worship of Krishna has also spread to the Western world, the name originates from the Sanskrit word Kṛṣṇa, which is primarily an adjective meaning black, dark or dark blue. The waning moon is called Krishna Paksha, relating to the adjective meaning darkening, the name is also interpreted sometimes as all attractive. As a name of Vishnu, Krishna is listed as the 57th name in the Vishnu Sahasranama, based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in idols as black or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by other names, epithets and titles. Among the most common names are Mohan enchanter, Govinda meaning chief herdsman, Gopala, some of the distinct names may be regionally important—for instance, Jagannatha, a popular incarnation of Puri, Odisha in eastern India. Krishna is represented in the Indian traditions in many ways, with common features. His iconography typically depicts him as black or dark reflecting his name, however ancient and medieval reliefs and stone-based arts depict him in the natural color of the material he is made from, both in India and in southeast Asia. In some texts, his skin is described as the color of Jambul. Krishna is often depicted wearing a peacock feather wreathe or crown, in this form, he usually stands with one leg bent in front of the other in the Tribhanga posture. He is sometimes accompanied by cows or a calf, symbolism for the divine herdsman Govinda, alternatively, he is shown as an amorous man with the gopis, often making music or playing pranks. In other icons, he is a part of the scene on the battlefield of the epic Mahabharata
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Dashavatara
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Dashavatara refers to the ten avatars of Vishnu, the Hindu god of preservation. Vishnu is said to descend in form of an avatar to restore cosmic order, the list of Dashavatara varies across sects and regions. The standard list is as follows, Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha, sometimes, Krishna replaces Vishnu as the source of all avatars and Balarama takes Krishnas place in the list. In other versions, Krishna may be dropped from the list and substituted by regional deities like Vithoba, the order of the Dashavataras has been interpreted to be reflective of Darwinian evolution. The word Dashavatara derives from daśa, meaning ten and avatar, God Vishnu incarnates on Earth from time to time to eradicate evil forces, to restore the dharma and to liberate the worthy ones or devotees from the cycle of births and deaths. A similar thread appears in Buddhism, the Pāli Canon refers to 28 Buddhas, while the Mahayana tradition additionally has many Buddhas of celestial origin, for example Amitābha and Vairocana. The time till completion for Kali Yuga is in 427,000 years, at that time, the Supreme Personality of Godhead will appear on the earth. Acting with the power of pure spiritual goodness, He will rescue eternal religion, Matsya, the fish, from the Satya Yuga. Vishnu takes the form of a fish to save Manu from the deluge, after which he takes his boat to the new world along with one of every species of plant and animal, Kurma, the tortoise, from the Satya Yuga. Varaha, the boar, from the Satya Yuga and he appeared to defeat Hiranyaksha, a demon who had taken the Earth, or Prithvi, and carried it to the bottom of what is described as the cosmic ocean in the story. The battle between Varaha and Hiranyaksha is believed to have lasted for a thousand years, which the former finally won, Varaha carried the Earth out of the ocean between his tusks and restored it to its place in the universe. Narasimha, the half-man/half-lion, from the Satya Yuga, Vishnu descended as an anthropomorphic incarnation, with the body of a man and head and claws of a lion. He then disembowels the rakshasa at the threshold of his house, at dusk, with his claws. Vamana, a dwarf, from the Treta Yuga, the fourth descendant of Hiranyakashyap, Bali, with devotion and penance was able to defeat Indra, the god of firmament. This humbled the other deities and extended his authority over the three worlds, the gods appealed to Vishnu for protection and he descended as a boy Vamana. During a yajna of the king, Vamana approached him and Bali promised him for whatever he asked, Vamana asked for three paces of land. Bali agreed, and the dwarf then changed his size to that of a giant and he stepped over heaven in his first stride, and the netherworld with the second. Bali realized that Vamana was Vishnu incarnate, in deference, the king offered his head as the third place for Vamana to place his foot
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Matsya
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Matsya is the avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu in the form of a fish. Often listed as the first avatar in the lists of the ten avatars of Vishnu, Matsya is described to have rescued the first man, Manu. Matsya may be depicted as a giant fish, or anthropomorphically with a human torso connected to the half of a fish. The earliest accounts of the legend associate Matsya with the creator god Prajapati, however, Puranic scriptures incorporate Matsya as an avatar of Vishnu. When the flood destroys the world, Manu - in some versions accompanied by the seven great sages - survives by boarding the ark, which Matsya pulls to safety. In later versions of this story, the sacred texts Vedas are hidden by a demon, whom Matsya slays, Manu is rescued, the tale is in the tradition of the family of flood myths, common across cultures. Matsya is depicted in two forms, as a fish or in an anthropomorphic form. He holds in two of his hands the Sudarshana chakra and a shankha, the weapons of Vishnu. The other two make the gestures of varadamudra, which grants boons to the devotee, and abhayamudra. In another configuration, he might have all four attributes of Vishnu, namely the Sudarshana chakra, a shankha, a gada, the human torso generally wears a shawl and a garland. The shawl, worn over his elbows, may be wrapped such that the switch between the human torso and fish half is hidden, Matsya may be depicted alone or in a scene depicting his combat with a demon. A demon called Shankhasura emerging from a conch is sometimes depicted attacking Matsya with a sword as Matsya combats or kills him. Both of them may be depicted in the ocean, while the god Brahma and/or manuscripts or four men, in some scenes, Matsya is depicted as a fish pulling the boat with Manu and the seven great sages on it. Early accounts of the Deluge equate Matsya with the Vedic deity Prajapati, the Shatapatha Brahmana is the earliest extant text to mention Matsya and the flood myth in Hinduism. It identifies the fish with Prajapati-Brahma, the central characters are the fish and Vaivasvata Manu or Satyavrata who becomes the progenitor of mankind. In this version, Vaivasvata Manu, the legislator and the ancestor of two royal dynasties and who later become the progenitor of mankind. In this version, water is brought to Manu for his ablutions and while Manu was washing and taking bath, the tiny fish appealed to Manu to protect him so that he was not eaten by a bigger fish and in return promised to rescue Manu from an impending flood. The fish requested Manu to keep him in a jar and allow him to grow, as he outgrew the pit to transfer him into the ocean, where as a large fish, he will then become indestructible
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Kurma
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In Hinduism, Kurma is the second Avatar of Vishnu, succeeding Matsya and preceding Varaha. Like Matsya, this also occurred in Satya Yuga. The temples dedicated to Kurma are located in Kurmai, Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh, scripture indicates that the sage Durvasa had given a garland to Indra, the king of Gods. Indra placed the garland around his elephant, but the animal trampled it, Durvasa then cursed the gods to lose their immortality, strength, and divine powers. After losing the kingdom of heaven, they approached Vishnu for help and he advised that they had to drink the nectar of immortality to regain their glory. To obtain it, they needed to churn the ocean of milk, a body of water so large they needed Mount Mandara as the staff. The Devas were not strong enough to churn on their own, and declared peace with their foes, finally, Mount Mandara churned, but the force was so great the mountain began to sink into the ocean of milk. Taking the form of the turtle Kurma, Vishnu bore the mountain on his back as they churned the waters, fourteen precious things arose from the turbulent ocean, culminating with Dhanvantari, the physician of the gods, who brought with him the nectar of immortality. The Asuras immediately took the nectar, and quarreled amongst themselves, Vishnu then manifested himself as the beautiful Mohini and tricked the Asuras to retrieve the potion, which he then distributed to the Devas. Though the Asuras realized the trick, it was too late—the Devas had regained their powers, the name of the village Kurmai mentioned above originated as there is historical temple of Kurma Varadarajaswamy, god in this village. The temple located in Srikurmam in Srikakulam District, Andhra Pradesh, is also the Avatar of Kurma, Vishnu Media related to Kurma at Wikimedia Commons Hindu Gods, Kurma Indian Divinity, Kurma Avatar
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Varaha
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Varaha is the avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu in the form of a boar. Varaha is listed as third in the Dashavatara, the ten avatars of Vishnu. When the demon Hiranyaksha stole the earth and hid her in the primordial waters, Varaha slew the demon and retrieved the Earth from the ocean, lifting it on his tusks, and restored Bhudevi to her place in the universe. Varaha may be depicted completely as a boar or in a form, with a boars head. His consort, Bhudevi, the earth, is depicted as a young woman. The earth may be depicted as a mass of land too, like Vishnus first two avatars - Matsya and Kurma, the third avatar Varaha is depicted either in zoomorphic form as an animal, or anthropomorphically. The portrayal of the anthropomorphic Varaha is similar to the fourth avatar Narasimha, the sculpture may not resemble a boar realistically, and may have his features altered for stylistic purposes. The earth, personified as the goddess Bhudevi, clings to one of Varahas tusks, often the colossus is decorated by miniature figurines of gods and goddesses and other world creatures appearing all over his body, which signify the whole of creation. Such sculptures are found in Eran, Muradpur, Badoh, Gwalior, Jhansi, in the anthropomorphic form, Varaha often has a stylized boar face, like the zoomorphic models. The position and size of the tusks may also be altered, the ears, cheeks and eyes are generally based on human ones. Early sculptors in Udayagiri and Eran faced the issue of how to attach the head to the human body. However, in Badami, the problem was resolved by including a human neck, while some sculptures show a mane, it is dropped and replaced by a high conical crown - typical of Vishnu iconography - in others. Varaha sculptures generally look up to the right, there are rare instances of left-facing Varaha depictions. Varaha has four arms, two of which hold the Sudarshana chakra and shankha, while the two hold a gada, a sword, or a lotus or one of them makes the varadamudra. Varaha may be depicted with all of Vishnua attributes in his four hands, the Sudarshana chakra, the shankha, the gada, sometimes, Varaha may carry only two of Vishnus attributes, a shankha and the gada personified as a female called Gadadevi. Varaha is often shown with a muscular physique and in a heroic pose and he is often depicted triumphantly emerging from the ocean as he rescues the earth. The earth may be personified as the goddess Bhudevi in Indian sculpture, Bhudevi is often shown as a small figure in the icon. In later Indian paintings, the earth or a part of it is depicted lifted up by Varahas tusks
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Narasimha
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The avatar of Narasingha is evidenced in early epics, iconography, and temple and festival worship for over a millennium. Narasingha is often visualised as having a human torso and lower body, with a lion face and this image is widely worshipped in deity form by a significant number of Vaiṣṇava groups. Vishnu assumed this form on top of Himvat mountain and he is known primarily as the Great Protector who specifically defends and protects his devotees in times of need. Vishnu is believed to have taken the avatar to destroy the demon king Hiranyakashipu, the word Narasimha means lion-man/half man and half lion. There is also a reference in the Mahābhārata and a Gopāla Tapani Upaniṣad. The Ṛg Veda contains an epithet that has been attributed to Narasiṃha, the half-man, half-lion avatāra is described as, like some wild beast, dread, prowling, mountain-roaming. There is an allusion to a Namuci story in RV. VIII14.13, With waters foam you tore off, Indra and this short reference is believed to have culminated in the full puranic story of Narasiṃha. Bhagavata Purāṇa describes that Vishnu, in his previous avatar as Varāha, the younger brother of Hirṇayakṣa, Hiraṇyakaśipu, wanted revenge on Vishnu and his followers. He undertook many years of penance to take revenge on Viṣṇu, Brahma thus offers the demon a boon. Brahma replies that he himself is not immortal, so he cant grant immortality to anyone else. O my lord, O best of the givers of benediction, if you will grant me the benediction I desire. Grant me that I not die within any residence or outside any residence, during the daytime or at night, grant me that my death not be brought about by any weapon, nor by any human being or animal. Grant me that I not meet death from any entity, living or nonliving created by you, grant me, further, that I not be killed by any demigod or demon or by any great snake from the lower planets. Since no one can kill you in the battlefield, you have no competitor, therefore, grant me the benediction that I too may have no rival. Give me sole lordship over all the entities and presiding deities. Furthermore, give me all the mystic powers attained by long austerities, Hiraṇyakaśipu was happy thinking that he had won over death. Prior to this, while Hiraṇyakaśipu was performing austerities at Mandarācala Mountain, his home was attacked by Indra, at this point the Devarṣi Nārada intervenes to protect Kayādu, whom he describes as sinless. Thus, Prahlāda later begins to show symptoms of this training by Nārada, gradually becoming recognised as a devoted follower of Viṣṇu
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Parasurama
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Parashurama is the sixth avatar of Vishnu in Hinduism. He is the son of Renuka and one of the saptarishis and he lived during the last Treta and Dvapara Yugas and is one of the Chiranjivi of Hinduism. Parashurama, a Brahmin, received his famous axe after undertaking terrible penance to please Shiva, Parashurama is most known for ridding the world of kshatriyas twenty-one times over after the mighty king Kartavirya Arjuna, not the famous one of Mahabharata, killed his father. As per the Mahabharata, Parashurama single-handedly successfully conquered the entire world, Parashurama conducted hundreds of Ashvamedhas and gave away the entire earth he conquered as alms to sage Kashyapa. He plays important roles in the Mahabharata and Ramayana, serving as mentor to Bhishma, Parashurama and Indrajit are believed to be the only humans who ever possessed the three ultimate weapons, the Brahmanda astra, Vaishnava astra and Pashupatastra. Parashurama was a disciple of Shiva and learned the scriptures and the arts of warfare from Shiva and he then acquired celestial weapons from Shiva and the other gods on Shivas instructions. Shiva personally trained Parashurama for decades in the art of warfare. The Bhargavastra was his personal celestial weapon, Parashurama also fought back the advancing seas to save the lands of Konkan and Kerala. Parashurama is worshipped as mūlapuruṣa, or male ancestral founder by some Anavil, Dravidulu, Bhumihar, Tyagi, Chitpavan, along with the sages Vyasa, Kripa and Dronas son Ashwatthama, Parashurama is considered to be foremost among the rishis in the Kaliyuga. Parashurama will also become one of the saptarishi in the 8th Manvantara, Parashurama is a mighty Maharathi and he will reappear as the martial instructor of Vishnus 10th avatar Kalki. The word Parashurama is derived from two words parashu meaning axe and rama, so literally, the word Parashurama means Rama with an axe. Though a Brahmin by birth, Parashurama expressed unusual interest in weapons, afterwards, Parashurama devoted himself in serving his parents and brothers, helping Jamadagni to run his hermitage. According to the Brahmanda Purana, when Parashurama was a teenager, Jamadagni permitted his son and Parashurama visited Richika in his hermitage. Richika and his wife welcomed him and Parashurama stayed with them for a few months, serving them, curious about his ancestors, Parashurama went to the hermitage of Richikas father Aurva and a few months later, he went to Aurvas father, Chyavana. Parashurama was devoted to them and they too gave him knowledge, many months later, Chyavana told Parashurama to meet his own father, Sage Bhrigu, the very progenitor of the Bhargava race himself. With Chyavanas instructions, Parashurama was able to enter Bhrigus hermitage, Parashurama lived with Bhrigu for many months and Bhrigu trained his descendant in performing harsh penances. Lord Shiva was pleased with this, and appeared before him, Parashurama expressed his desire to obtain celestial weapons and skills in warfare from the God. Shiva told him that he would grant the boon only when Parashurama proved himself to be a worthy soul, Shiva told Parashurama to undertake a Tirtha Yatra or holy pilgrimage. After years of penances, Shiva was pleased with Parashuramas devotion, Shiva ordered Parashurama to slay the Daityas and Danavas who were the enemies of the Devas, to which the latter agreed
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Balarama
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Balarama, also known as Baladeva, Balabhadra and Halayudha, is the elder brother of Krishna and is regarded generally as an avatar of Shesha. He is also considered as the Sankarshana form of Vishnu. He may have originated in Vedic times as a deity of agriculture, in Jainism, he is known as Baladeva. He is often depicted with a cup, pitcher, shield. The evil king Kansa, the brother of Devaki, was intent upon killing the children of his sister because of a prediction that he would die at the hands of her eighth son. Vishnu then impregnated the belly of Devaki with two strands of hair, one black, one white, to ensure their safety, their essence was transferred before birth to Rohini, who also desired a child. At birth, Krishna had a darker complexion, while Balarama was born fair, the other name of Balarama is Sankarshana, meaning a spirit transferred between two wombs. According to Bhagavata Purana, the name Sankarshana means, one who brings together two different families of King Yadus and Nanda Babas dynasties and he was named Rama, but because of his great strength he was called Balarama, Baladeva, or Balabhadra, meaning Strong Rama. He was born under Shravana nakshatra on Shraavana Purnima or Raksha Bandhan, one day, Nanda requested the presence of Sage Gargamuni, his priest, to name the newborn Krishna and Balarama. When the Garga arrived, Nanda, received him well and requested the naming ceremony, Gargamuni then reminded Nanda that Kamsa was looking for the son of Devaki and if he performed the ceremony in opulence, it would come to his attention. He attracts the Yadus to follow his instructions and therefore his name is Sankarshana, Balarama spent his childhood as a cow herder with his brother Krishna. He killed Dhenuka, an asura sent by Kansa, as well as Pralamba, after the evil king died, Balarama and Krishna went to the ashrama of sage Sandipani at Ujjain for study. He later married Revati, daughter of King Kakudmi, ruler of Kushasthali or Anarta Balarama taught both Duryodhana of the Kauravas and Bhima of the Pandavas the art of fighting with a mace. When war broke between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, Balarama cared for both sides and so remained neutral, when Bhima defeated Duryodhana by striking him in the groin with his mace, Balarama threatened to kill Bhima. This was prevented when Krishna reminded Balarama of the vow of Bhima—to kill Duryodhana by crushing the thigh he had exposed to Bhimas wife Draupadi, some scriptures describe a great white snake that left the mouth of Balarama, in reference to his identity as Ananta-Sesha. The place where he departed is situated near Somnath Temple in Gujarat, the local people of Veraval believe that in the cave near the temple place, the white snake who came out of Balaramas mouth got into that cave and went back to Paatal Lok. Narratives of Balarama are found in Mahabharata, Harivamsha, Bhagavata Purana, Krishna Charit Manas and he is classified in the Vyuha avatar Sankarshana where in Adishesha and Lakshmana are part of. Vyasa Mahabharata states that after Balaramas death, he turned into a white snake, so it can be concluded that Balarama is an avatar of Adishesha in Dwaparayuga, as Lakshmana was in Tretayuga and Patanjali in Kaliyuga
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Gautama Buddha in Hinduism
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Gautama Buddha is viewed as an avatar of the god Vishnu in Vaishnava Hinduism. The Buddha is described in important Hindu scriptures, including almost all the major puranas and they portray him with two roles, preaching non-theistic Vedic views in order to restore the Dharma and criticizing animal sacrifice. Another important scripture that mentions him as an avatar is Parasharas Brihat Parashara Hora Shastra, Buddha is often described as a yogi or yogācārya and as a sannyāsi. His father is usually called Śuddhodhana, which is consistent with the Buddhist tradition and he is described as beautiful, of yellow skin, and wearing brown-red or red robes. Only a few mention the worship of Buddha, e. g. the Varahapurana states that one desirous of beauty should worship him. The foolish Jina, imagined him to be his son, thus the lord Sri Hari expertly deluded Jina and other demons by his strong words of non-violence. In many puranas, the Buddha is described as an incarnation of Vishnu who incarnated in order to bring either demons or mankind close to the Vedic dharma. The Bhavishya Purana contains the following, At this time, reminded of the Kali Age, the god Vishnu became born as Gautama, the Shakyamuni, then Shuddodana ruled for twenty years, and Shakyasimha for twenty. At the first stage of the Kali Age, the path of the Vedas was destroyed and those who sought refuge with Vishnu were deluded. This pattern changed in the eighth century, the Buddha was replaced as the supreme, imperial deity by one of the Hindu gods. Previously the Buddha had been accorded imperial-style worship and this also was the same period of time the Buddha was made into an avatar of Vishnu. Some sources say that it was Sugata Buddha, also called Adi-Buddha, O Lord Hari, who have assumed the form of Buddha. O Buddha of compassionate heart, you decry the slaughtering of poor animals performed according to the rules of Vedic sacrifice, radhakrishnan, If a Hindu chants the Vedas on the banks of the Ganges. If the Japanese worship the image of Buddha, if the European is convinced of Christs mediatorship and it is their deepest apprehension of God and Gods fullest revelation to them. A number of figures in modern Hinduism, including Mahatma Gandhi, have been inspired by the life and teachings of the Buddha. B. R. Ambedkar denied that Buddha was an incarnation of Vishnu, among the 22 vows he gave to the Dalit Buddhist movement, the 5th vow is I do not and shall not believe that Lord Buddha was the incarnation of Vishnu. I believe this to be madness and false propaganda. Their motive was to absorb Buddhism into their religion and he further expresses that this strategy worked in India to uproot Buddhism from the land of its origin
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Kalki
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In Hinduism, Kalki is the tenth avatar of the god Vishnu in the current Mahayuga, foretold to appear at the end of Kali Yuga, the current epoch. The Purana scriptures foretell that Kalki will be atop a horse with a drawn blazing sword. He is the harbinger of the end time in Hindu eschatology, in Tibetan Buddhism Kalachakra tradition,25 rulers of the Shambhala Kingdom held the title of Kalki, Kulika or Kalki-king. During Vaishakha, the first fortnight in Shukla Paksha is dedicated to fifteen deities, in this tradition, the twelth day is Vaishakha Dwadashi and is dedicated to Madhava, another name for Kalki. The name Kalki is derived from the Sanskrit word kalā which means any practical art, the name Kalki may be a metaphor for eternity or time as kalā has the secondary meaning of a part including time or atoms. The name Kalki may also be derived from the Sanskrit word kalka which means filth, so, the name Kalki can also be meant destroyer of the filth. There are numerous interpretations of Vedic traditions, avatara means descent and refers to a descent of the divine into the material realm in the Avataris self same form. The Garuda Purana lists ten avatars, with Kalki being the tenth, one of the earliest mentions of Kalki is in the Vishnu Purana, dated to after the Gupta Empire. At village/community of Shmbhal, principally of great soul brahmins, on the 12th of the waxing moon in the month of Madhwa Lord Vishnu arrived. This amounts to just 12 days per any given year, furthermore as there is one day per year of Lord Sri Maha Vishnu. जातं ददृशतुः पुत्रं पितरौ हृष्ट-मानसौ।। जातं jatam + ददृशतुः dadastu + पुत्रं putram + पितरौ pitarau + हृष्ट hrshta + मानसौ manasau, then the parents were mentally overjoyed by their son being born. This points to the sun sign of Aries, in the month of Chaitra, the fifteen days in Shukla paksha are dedicated to fifteen gods or deities. Each day of the Chaitra month is dedicated to a different god, the 12th day of Chaitra Shukla Pakshaya is dedicated to Lord Sri Maha Vishnu. There is a description of his background in other sources of scripture, Vishnuyasha refers to the father of Kalki as a devotee of Vishnu while Sumati refers to His mother in Shambhala. Also it is written in Kalki Purana that he will have four brothers who are Sumanta, Prajna, the Agni Purana predicts that at the time of his birth, evil kings will feed on the pious. Kalki will be born son of Vishnuyasha in the mythic Shambhala and he will have Yajnavalkya as his spiritual guru. Parashurama, the avatar of Vishnu is a Chiranjivi and in scripture is believed to be alive. He will be a martial preceptor of Kalki, teaching him military science, warfare arts, the purana also relates that Hari, will then give up the form of Kalki, return to heaven and the Krita or Satya Yuga will return as before
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Nara-Narayana
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Nara-Narayana is a Hindu deity pair. Nara-Narayana is the avatar of the God Vishnu on earth. In the concept of Nara-Narayana, the human soul Nara is the companion of the Divine Narayana. The Hindu epic Mahabharata identifies the God Krishna with Narayana and Arjuna - the chief hero of the epic - with Nara, the legend of Nara-Narayana is also told in the scripture Bhagavata Purana. Hindus believe that the pair dwells at Badrinath, where their most important temple stands, the Nara-Narayana pair is frequently worshipped in temples of the Swaminarayan Faith. Nara means human, and Narayana refers to the name of the deity, in epic poetry, they are the sons of Dharma by Murti or Ahimsa and emanations of Vishnu, Arjuna being identified with Nara, and Krishna with Narayana. - Mahabharata, Harivamsa and Purana. Narayana is Vishnu while Nara is Shesha Nara-Narayana are depicted jointly or separately in images, when depicted separately, Nara is portrayed with two hands and wearing deer skin while Narayana is shown on the right in the usual form of Vishnu. Sometimes, both of them are depicted identical to each other and they are depicted four-armed holding a mace, a discus, a conch and a lotus, resembling Vishnu. Arjuna and Krishna are often referred to as Nara-Narayana in the Mahabharata and are considered part incarnations of Nara and Narayana respectively, in a previous life, the duo were born as the sages Nara and Narayana, and who performed great penances at the holy spot of Badrinath. Nara and Narayana were the Fourth Avatar of Lord Vishnu, the twins were sons of Dharma, the son of Brahma and his wife Murti or Ahimsa. They live at Badrika performing severe austerities and meditation for the welfare of the world and these two inseparable sages took avatars on earth for the welfare of mankind. Legend has it that once Lord Shiva tried to bring the fame of Nara and Narayana before the entire world. To do that, he hurled his own potent weapon Paashupathastra at the meditating rishis, the power of their meditation was so intense that the astra lost its power before them. Lord Shiva stated that this happened since the duo were jnanis of the first order constantly in the state of Nirvikalpa Samadhi, the Bhagavata Purana tells the story of the birth of Urvashi from the sages Nara-Narayana. Once, sages Nara-Narayana were meditating in the shrine of Badrinath situated in the Himalayas. Their penances and austerities alarmed the gods, so Indra, the King of Devas, sent Kamadeva, Vasanta and apsaras to inspire them with passion, the sage Narayana took a flower and placed it on his thigh. Immediately there sprung from it a beautiful nymph whose charms far excelled those of the celestial nymphs, Narayana sent this nymph to Indra with them, and from her having been produced from the thigh of the sage, she was called Urvashi. In Badrinath Temples sanctorium, to the far side of the stone image of Badri-Vishala, are the images of Nara. Also, the Nara and Narayana peaks tower over Badrinath, in Vanaparvan, Krishna says to Arjuna, O invincible one, you are Nara and I am Hari Narayana, and we, the sages Nara-Narayana, have come to this world at the proper time
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Hayagriva
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Hayagriva, also spelt Hayagreeva, is a horse-headed avatar of the Lord Vishnu in Hinduism. In Sanskrit, Hayagrīva means haya=Horse, grīva=Neck, in Hinduism, Lord Hayagriva is an avatar of shri Vishnu. He is worshipped as the God of knowledge and wisdom, with a human body, symbolically, the story represents the triumph of pure knowledge, guided by the hand of God, over the demonic forces of passion and darkness. Origins about the worship of Hayagriva have been researched, some of the early evidences dates back to 2,000 BCE, Hayagriva is one of the prominent deity in Vaishnava tradition. His blessings are sought when beginning study of sacred and secular subjects. Special worship is conducted on the day of the moon in August and on Mahanavami. He is also hailed as Hayasirsa and it is very popular among devotees of Hayagrīva. His beauty, like fresh cut crystal, is an auspicious brilliance that never decays, may this Lord of speech who showers such cooling rays of grace on me be forever manifest in my heart. In the Mahavairocana-sutra translated and copied in 1796 by I-hsing it says and his body is the color of the sun at dawn. He wears flaming effulgence and skulls as a garland and his nails are long and sharp, his face shows a pair of bare tiger’s fangs. His hair is that of a burning lion’s mane. He is awesomely powerful and this is the fierce Vidyaraja of the Lotus section. He is just like a horse-jewel of a Cakravartin that wanders the four continents, nowhere and never does he rest, having all the great and this is his nature, and therefore he possesses this terrible and all-mighty light. Many others submit to him at first sight. This is because though he is fierce and terrible, his heart is full of compassion. ”-- Hayagrīva Stotram, v.32 Later on Hayagriva is referred to as the “Horse necked one”, Defender of faith”, the “Terrible executioner”, the “Excellent Horse”, and the “Aerial horse”. This said, the Horse Avatar of Lord Vishnu is seen as pulling the sun up to the every day. This relationship is the classic nonduality of the Hindu tantra, marichi represents the essence of the power of creation of the cosmos, and is the in/yin half of Dainichi Nyôrai. Whereas Hayagriva represents the other aspect, that of the manifestation of the power of yin/in as action. In other words, Hayagriva represents the manifestation of yin/in as the power and this is the very definition of tantra, that of action
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Lakshmi
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Lakshmi is the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune and prosperity. She is the wife and shakti of Vishnu, a god in Hinduism. Lakshmi is also an important deity in Jainism and found in Jain temples, Lakshmi was also a goddess of abundance and fortune for Buddhists, and was represented on the oldest surviving stupas and cave temples of Buddhism. In Buddhist sects of Tibet, Nepal and southeast Asia, goddess Vasudhara mirrors the characteristics, Lakshmi is also called Sri or Thirumagal because she is endowed with six auspicious and divine qualities, or gunas, and is the divine strength of Vishnu. In Hindu religion, she was born from the churning of the primordial ocean, when Vishnu descended on the Earth as the avatars Rama and Krishna, Lakshmi descended as his respective consort Sita and Rukmini. In the ancient scriptures of India, all women are declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi, the marriage and relationship between Lakshmi and Vishnu as wife and husband is the paradigm for rituals and ceremonies for the bride and groom in Hindu weddings. Lakshmi is considered another aspect of the supreme goddess principle in the Shaktism tradition of Hinduism. She typically stands or sits like a yogin on a pedestal and holds lotus in her hand. Her iconography shows her with four hands, which represent the four goals of life considered important to the Hindu way of life, dharma, kāma, artha. Archaeological discoveries and ancient coins suggest the recognition and reverence for Lakshmi by the 1st millennium BCE, Lakshmis iconography and statues have also been found in Hindu temples throughout southeast Asia, estimated to be from the second half of the 1st millennium CE. The festivals of Diwali and Sharad Purnima are celebrated in her honor, Lakshmi is one of many Hindu deities whose meaning and significance evolved in ancient Sanskrit texts. Lakshmi is mentioned once in Rigveda, but the context suggests that the word does not mean goddess of wealth and fortune, the good are welcomed, while the bad urged to leave. In some chapters of Atharva Veda, Lakshmi connotes the good, later, Lakshmi is referred to as the goddess of fortune, identified with Sri and regarded as wife of Viṣṇu. For example, in Shatapatha Brahmana, variously estimated to be composed between 800 BCE and 300 BCE, Sri is part of one of many theories, in ancient India, about the creation of universe. In Book 9 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Sri emerges from Prajapati, after his meditation on creation of life. Sri is described as beautiful, resplendent and trembling woman at her birth with immense energy, the gods were bewitched, desire her and immediately become covetous of her. The gods approach Prajapati and request permission to kill her and then take her powers, Prajapati refuses, tells the gods that males should not kill females and that they can seek her gifts without violence. The hymns of Shatapatha Brahmana thus describe Sri as a goddess born with and personifying a diverse range of talents, in the Epics of Hinduism, such as in Mahabharata, Lakshmi personifies wealth, riches, beauty, happiness, loveliness, grace, charm and splendour
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Hanuman
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Hanuman is an ardent devotee of Rama. He is one of the figures in the Hindu epic Ramayana. As one of the Chiranjivi, he is mentioned in several other texts, including the Mahabharata. Hanuman participated in Ramas war against the demon king Ravana, several later texts also present him as an incarnation of Shiva. He is the son of Anjana and Kesari and is described as the son of the wind-god Pawan. The Sanskrit texts mention several legends about how Hanuman got his name, one legend is that Indra, the king of the gods, struck Hanumans jaw during his childhood. The child received his name from the Sanskrit words Hanu and -man, the name thus means one with prominent or disfigured jaw. Another theory says the name derives from the Sanskrit words Han and maana, some Jain texts mention that Hanuman spent his childhood on an island called Hanuruha, which is the origin of his name. According to another theory, the name Hanuman derives from the word for male monkey. Linguistic variations of Hanuman include Hanumat, Anuman, Hanumantha, Hanumanthudu, other names of Hanuman include, Anjaneya, Anjaniputra, Anjaneyar, Anjaneyudu, Anjanisuta all meaning the son of Anjana. Similar in meaning to - Vaanaraanaamadheesham, shreeraamadootam, the one who is the messenger of Rama. Atulita Bala Dhaamam, the one who is the repository of incomparable strength, hemshailaabha Deham, the one whose body resembles a golden mountain. Danujvana Krushanum, the one who is the destroyer of forces of demons, gyaaninaam Agraganyam, the one who is considered foremost among knowledgeable beings. Sakala Guna Nidhaanam, the one who is the repository of all the virtues, raghupati Priya Bhaktam, the one who is the dearest of all devotees to Rama. Sankata Mochana, the one who liberates from dangers In the 3rd chapter of Kishkindha Kaanda of Valmiki Ramayana, summarized as follows, Ablest sentence maker. The knower of all Vedas and Scriptures, scholar in nine schools of grammars. Possessing faultless speech and facial features Hanuman is mentioned in both the Hindu epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, the word Vrsakapi or Vrishakapi, later used as an epithet for Hanuman, is mentioned in the Rigveda. Some writers, such as Nilakantha believe that the Vrishakapi of Rigveda alludes to Hanuman, however, other scholars believe that Hanuman is not mentioned in the Vedic mythology, the Vrsakapi of Rigveda refers to another deity or is a common name for the monkeys
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Shesha
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In Hinduism, Shesha, also known as Sheshanaga or Adishesha, is the nagaraja or king of all nāgas and one of the primal beings of creation. In the Puranas, Shesha is said to all the planets of the universe on his hoods. He is sometimes referred to as Ananta Shesha, which translates as endless-Shesha or Adishesha first Shesha and it is said that when Adishesa uncoils, time moves forward and creation takes place, when he coils back, the universe ceases to exist. Vishnu is often depicted as resting on Shesha, Shesha is considered a servant and a manifestation of Vishnu. He is said to have descended to Earth in two forms or avatars, Lakshmana, brother of Rama, Balarama, brother of Krishna. Shesha in Sanskrit texts, especially relating to mathematical calculation. But in Sanskrit it also means 6 shesham as the sheshanaga has been depicted to have many heads, Shesha is generally depicted with a massive form that floats coiled in space, or on the ocean of bliss, to form the bed on which Vishnu lies. Sometimes he is shown as five-headed or seven-headed, but more commonly as a many thousand-headed serpent and his name means that which remains, from the Sanskrit root śiṣ, because when the world is destroyed at the end of the kalpa, Shesha remains as he is. In the Bhagavadgita of Chapter 10, verse 29, Shri Krishna while describing 75 of his common manifestations, declares, anantaś ca asmi nāgānāṁ, Of the nagas, as per the Mahabharata, Shesha was born to sage Kashyap and his wife Kadru. Kadru gave birth to a snakes, of which Shesha was the eldest. After Shesha, Vasuki, Airavata and Takshaka were born, in order, a lot of Sheshas brothers were cruel and were bent upon inflicting harm on others. They were even unkind to Garuda, who was Kashyapa’s son through Vinatha, Shesha, disgusted by the cruel acts of his brothers, left his mother and kin, and took to austere penances. He lived on air and meditated in places including Gandhamadhana, Badrikashrama, Gokarna, Pushkara and his penances were so severe that his flesh, skin and muscles dried up and merged with his frame. Brahma, convinced of his Sheshas will, asked Shesha to request a boon, Shesha asked that he be able to keep his mind under control so that he could continue to perform ascetic penances. Brahma then asked a favour of Shesha, to go beneath the unstable earth, Shesha agreed and went to the netherworld and stabilized her with his hood. He is known to support her even today, thus making Patala his perennial residence, Shesha is also depicted as floating in the ocean of the changing world, forming the bed of Maha Vishnu. Since he is known as Adishesha and because he is Anantashesha or simply Ananta and he is said to live since before the creation of the universe. When the universe is towards its end, he creates 11 rudras from him to destroy the universe for a new one to be created and he expands himself as garbhodakshayi-vishnu in the beginning of the universe to create Brahma
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