1.
Unix
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Among these is Apples macOS, which is the Unix version with the largest installed base as of 2014. Many Unix-like operating systems have arisen over the years, of which Linux is the most popular, Unix was originally meant to be a convenient platform for programmers developing software to be run on it and on other systems, rather than for non-programmer users. The system grew larger as the system started spreading in academic circles, as users added their own tools to the system. Unix was designed to be portable, multi-tasking and multi-user in a time-sharing configuration and these concepts are collectively known as the Unix philosophy. By the early 1980s users began seeing Unix as a universal operating system. Under Unix, the system consists of many utilities along with the master control program. To mediate such access, the kernel has special rights, reflected in the division between user space and kernel space, the microkernel concept was introduced in an effort to reverse the trend towards larger kernels and return to a system in which most tasks were completed by smaller utilities. In an era when a standard computer consisted of a disk for storage and a data terminal for input and output. However, modern systems include networking and other new devices, as graphical user interfaces developed, the file model proved inadequate to the task of handling asynchronous events such as those generated by a mouse. In the 1980s, non-blocking I/O and the set of inter-process communication mechanisms were augmented with Unix domain sockets, shared memory, message queues, and semaphores. In microkernel implementations, functions such as network protocols could be moved out of the kernel, Multics introduced many innovations, but had many problems. Frustrated by the size and complexity of Multics but not by the aims and their last researchers to leave Multics, Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, M. D. McIlroy, and J. F. Ossanna, decided to redo the work on a much smaller scale. The name Unics, a pun on Multics, was suggested for the project in 1970. Peter H. Salus credits Peter Neumann with the pun, while Brian Kernighan claims the coining for himself, in 1972, Unix was rewritten in the C programming language. Bell Labs produced several versions of Unix that are referred to as Research Unix. In 1975, the first source license for UNIX was sold to faculty at the University of Illinois Department of Computer Science, UIUC graduate student Greg Chesson was instrumental in negotiating the terms of this license. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the influence of Unix in academic circles led to adoption of Unix by commercial startups, including Sequent, HP-UX, Solaris, AIX. In the late 1980s, AT&T Unix System Laboratories and Sun Microsystems developed System V Release 4, in the 1990s, Unix-like systems grew in popularity as Linux and BSD distributions were developed through collaboration by a worldwide network of programmers
2.
PDP-11
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The PDP-11 is a series of 16-bit minicomputers sold by Digital Equipment Corporation from 1970 into the 1990s, one of a succession of products in the PDP series. The PDP-11 had several innovative features, and was easier to program than its predecessors through the additional general-purpose registers. The PDP-11 replaced the PDP-8 in many applications, although both product lines lived in parallel for more than 10 years. In total, around 600,000 PDP-11s of all models were sold and its successor in the mid-range minicomputer niche was the 32-bit VAX-11, named as a nod to the PDP-11s popularity. The PDP-11 is considered by experts to be the most popular minicomputer ever. Design features of the PDP-11 influenced the design of most late-1970s computer systems including the Intel x86, design features of PDP-11 operating systems, as well as other operating systems from Digital Equipment, influenced the design of other operating systems such as CP/M and hence also MS-DOS. For a decade, the PDP-11 was the smallest system that could run Unix and it is commonly stated that the C programming language took advantage of several low-level PDP-11–dependent programming features, albeit not originally by design. In 1967–68, DEC engineers designed a 16-bit, word-addressed machine, management cancelled the project and some of the engineers later left DEC and produced it as the Data General Nova. A subsequent effort, code-named Desk Calculator, looked at a variety of options before choosing what became the 16-bit PDP-11, DECs previous PDP-8 and PDP-9 had 12- and 18-bit words, the PDP-11 family was announced in January 1970 and shipments began early that year. DEC sold over 170,000 PDP-11s in the 1970s, initially manufactured of small-scale transistor–transistor logic, a single-board large scale integration version of the processor was developed in 1975. A two-or-three-chip processor, the J-11 was developed in 1979, the last models of the PDP-11 line were the PDP-11/94 and -11/93 introduced in 1990. The PDP-11 processor architecture has an orthogonal instruction set. For example, instead of such as load and store. More complex instructions such as add likewise can have memory, register, input, most operands can apply any of eight addressing modes to eight registers. The addressing modes provide register, immediate, absolute, relative, deferred, and indexed addressing, use of relative addressing lets a machine-language program be position-independent. Early models of the PDP-11 had no dedicated bus for input/output, an input/output device determined the memory addresses to which it would respond, and specified its own interrupt vector and interrupt priority. DEC openly published the basic Unibus specifications, even offering prototyping bus interface circuit boards, the Unibus made the PDP-11 suitable for custom peripherals. Higher-performance members of the PDP-11 family, starting with the PDP-11/45 Unibus and 11/83 Q-bus systems, instead, memory was interfaced by dedicated circuitry and space in the CPU cabinet, while the Unibus continued to be used for I/O only
3.
SIMH
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SIMH is a highly portable, multi-system emulator which runs on Windows, Linux, Mac OS X, FreeBSD, OpenBSD, NetBSD and OpenVMS. It is maintained by Bob Supnik, a former DEC engineer and DEC vice president, SIMH was based on a much older systems emulator called MIMIC, which was written in the late 1960s at Applied Data Research. SIMH was started in 1993 with the purpose of preserving minicomputer hardware and software which was fading into obscurity, SIMH emulates hardware from the following companies. Using SIMH to explore UNIX history - Matthew Hoskins
4.
Bell Labs
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Nokia Bell Labs is an American research and scientific development company, owned by Finnish company Nokia. Its headquarters are located in Murray Hill, New Jersey, in addition to laboratories around the rest of the United States. The historic laboratory originated in the late 19th century as the Volta Laboratory, Bell Labs was also at one time a division of the American Telephone & Telegraph Company, half-owned through its Western Electric manufacturing subsidiary. Eight Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work completed at Bell Laboratories, in 1880, the French government awarded Alexander Graham Bell the Volta Prize of 50,000 francs, approximately US$10,000 at that time for the invention of the telephone. Bell used the award to fund the Volta Laboratory in Washington, D. C. in collaboration with Sumner Tainter, the laboratory is also variously known as the Volta Bureau, the Bell Carriage House, the Bell Laboratory and the Volta Laboratory. The laboratory focused on the analysis, recording, and transmission of sound, Bell used his considerable profits from the laboratory for further research and education to permit the diffusion of knowledge relating to the deaf. This resulted in the founding of the Volta Bureau c,1887, located at Bells fathers house at 1527 35th Street in Washington, D. C. where its carriage house became their headquarters in 1889. In 1893, Bell constructed a new building, close by at 1537 35th St. specifically to house the lab, the building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1972. In 1884, the American Bell Telephone Company created the Mechanical Department from the Electrical, the first president of research was Frank B. Jewett, who stayed there until 1940, ownership of Bell Laboratories was evenly split between AT&T and the Western Electric Company. Its principal work was to plan, design, and support the equipment that Western Electric built for Bell System operating companies and this included everything from telephones, telephone exchange switches, and transmission equipment. Bell Labs also carried out consulting work for the Bell Telephone Company, a few workers were assigned to basic research, and this attracted much attention, especially since they produced several Nobel Prize winners. Until the 1940s, the principal locations were in and around the Bell Labs Building in New York City. Of these, Murray Hill and Crawford Hill remain in existence, the largest grouping of people in the company was in Illinois, at Naperville-Lisle, in the Chicago area, which had the largest concentration of employees prior to 2001. Since 2001, many of the locations have been scaled down or closed. The Holmdel site, a 1.9 million square foot structure set on 473 acres, was closed in 2007, the mirrored-glass building was designed by Eero Saarinen. In August 2013, Somerset Development bought the building, intending to redevelop it into a commercial and residential project. The prospects of success are clouded by the difficulty of readapting Saarinens design and by the current glut of aging, eight Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work completed at Bell Laboratories
5.
Research Unix
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The term Research Unix first appeared in the Bell System Technical Journal to distinguish it from other versions internal to Bell Labs whose code-base had diverged from the primary CSRC version. However, that term was little-used until Version 8 Unix, but has been applied to earlier versions as well. Prior to V8, the system was most commonly called simply UNIX or the UNIX Time-Sharing System. AT&T licensed Version 5 to educational institutions, and Version 6 also to commercial sites, schools paid $200 and others $20,000, discouraging most commercial use, but Version 6 was the most widely used version into the 1980s. So, the first Research Unix would be the First Edition, another common way of referring to them is Version x Unix, where x is the manual edition. All modern editions of Unix—excepting Unix-like implementations such as Coherent, Minix, starting with the 8th Edition, versions of Research Unix had a close relationship to BSD. This began by using 4. 1cBSD as the basis for the 8th Edition. 1c and this continued with 9th and 10th. The ordinary user command-set was, I guess, a bit more BSD-flavored than SysVish, Version 3, Version 4 and Version 5 should not be confused with the UNIX3.0, UNIX4.0 and UNIX5.0 releases by the AT&T UNIX Support Group. After Version 10, Unix development at Bell Labs was stopped in favor of a system, Plan 9 from Bell Labs. In 2002, Caldera International released V7 Unix as FOSS under a permissive BSD-like software license, in 2017, Unix Heritage Society and Alcatel-Lucent USA Inc. List of new features in Research Unix 9th Edition
6.
Version 7 Unix
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Seventh Edition Unix, also called Version 7 Unix, Version 7 or just V7, was an important early release of the Unix operating system. V7, released in 1979, was the last Bell Laboratories release to see widespread distribution before the commercialization of Unix by AT&T Corporation in the early 1980s, V7 was originally developed for Digital Equipment Corporations PDP-11 minicomputers and was later ported to other platforms. Unix versions from Bell Labs were designated by the edition of the manual with which they were accompanied. Released in 1979, the Seventh Edition was preceded by Sixth Edition, V7 was the first readily portable version of Unix. The first Sun workstations ran a V7 port by UniSoft, the first version of Xenix for the Intel 8086 was derived from V7, the VAX port of V7, called UNIX/32V, was the direct ancestor of the popular 4BSD family of Unix systems. The group at University of Wollongong that had ported V6 to the Interdata 7/32 ported V7 to that machine as well, Interdata sold the port as Edition VII, making it the first commercial UNIX offering. DEC distributed their own PDP-11 version of V7, called V7M, UEG evolved into the group that later developed Ultrix. At the time of its release, though, its greatly extended feature set came at the expense of a decrease in performance compared to V6, the exact number of system calls varies depending on the operating system version. More recent systems have seen growth in the number of supported system calls. Linux 3.2.0 has 380 system calls and FreeBSD8.0 has over 450, in 2002, Caldera International released V7 as FOSS under a permissive BSD-like software license. Bootable images for V7 can still be downloaded today, and can be run on modern hosts using PDP-11 emulators such as SIMH, an x86 port has been developed by Nordier & Associates. Paul Allen maintains several publicly accessible computer systems, including a PDP-11/70 running Unix Version 7. Request a login from Living Computers, Museum + Labs and try running Version 7 Unix on the original equipment, many new features were introduced in Version 7. Programming tools, lex, lint, and make, the Portable C Compiler was provided along with the earlier, PDP-11-specific, C compiler by Ritchie. These first appeared in the Research Unix lineage in Version 7, mpx files were considered experimental, not enabled in the default kernel, and disappeared from later versions, which offered sockets or CB UNIXs IPC facilities instead. Version 6 Unix Seventh Edition Unix terminal interface Ancient UNIX Unix Seventh Edition manual Browsable source code PDP Unix Preservation Society
7.
CB UNIX
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Columbus UNIX, or CB UNIX, is a discontinued a variant of the UNIX operating system used internally at Bell Labs for administrative databases and transaction processing. It was developed at the Columbus, Ohio branch, based on V6, V7 and it was little-known outside the company. CB UNIX was developed to address deficiencies inherent in Research Unix, notably the lack of communication and file locking. Several Bell System operation support system products were based on CB UNIX such as Switching Control Center System, the primary innovations were power-fail restart, line disciplines, terminal types, and IPC features. The interprocess communication features developed for CB UNIX were message queues, semaphores and these eventually appeared in mainstream Unix systems starting with System V in 1983, and are now collectively known as System V IPC
8.
UNIX System V
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UNIX System V is one of the first commercial versions of the Unix operating system. It was originally developed by AT&T and first released in 1983, four major versions of System V were released, numbered 1,2,3, and 4. It was the source of common commercial Unix features. System V is sometimes abbreviated to SysV, as of 2012, the Unix market is divided between three System V variants, IBMs AIX, Hewlett-Packards HP-UX and Oracles Solaris. System V was the successor to 1982s UNIX System III, while AT&T sold their own hardware that ran System V, most customers instead ran a version from a reseller, based on AT&Ts reference implementation. A standards document called the System V Interface Definition outlined the default features, in the 1980s and early-1990s, System V was considered one of the two major versions of UNIX, the other being the Berkeley Software Distribution. Historically, BSD was also commonly called BSD Unix or Berkeley Unix, the dispute had several levels, some technical and some cultural. The divide was roughly between longhairs and shorthairs, programmers and technical people tended to line up with Berkeley and BSD, more business-oriented types with AT&T and System V. While HP, IBM and others chose System V as the basis for their Unix offerings, other such as Sun Microsystems. Throughout its development, though, System V was infused with features from BSD, since the early 1990s, due to standardization efforts such as POSIX and the commercial success of Linux, the division between System V and BSD has become less important. System V, known inside Bell Labs as Unix 5.0, there was never an external release of Unix 4.0, which would have been System IV. This first release of System V was developed by AT&Ts UNIX Support Group, System V also included features such as the vi editor and curses from 4.1 BSD, developed at the University of California, Berkeley, it also improved performance by adding buffer and inode caches. It also added support for communication using messages, semaphores. SVR1 ran on DEC PDP-11 and VAX minicomputers, System V Release 2 was released in April,1984. It added shell functions and the SVID, new kernel features included record and file locking, demand paging, and copy on write. The concept of the base was formalized, and the DEC VAX-11/780 was chosen for this release. The porting base is the original version of a release. Educational source licenses for SVR2 were offered by AT&T for US$800 for the first CPU, a commercial source license was offered for $43,000, with three months of support, and a $16,000 price per additional CPU
9.
Operating system
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An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. All computer programs, excluding firmware, require a system to function. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer – from cellular phones, the dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share of around 83. 3%. MacOS by Apple Inc. is in place, and the varieties of Linux is in third position. Linux distributions are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors, other specialized classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real-time systems, exist for many applications. A single-tasking system can run one program at a time. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and co-operative types, in preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems, e. g. Solaris, Linux, cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking, 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking. Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem, a distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing, distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a work in cooperation, they form a distributed system. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses, embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy and they are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design, Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. A real-time operating system is a system that guarantees to process events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could run different programs in succession to speed up processing
10.
Digital Equipment Corporation
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Digital Equipment Corporation, also known as DEC and using the trademark Digital, was a major American company in the computer industry from the 1950s to the 1990s. DEC was a vendor of computer systems, including computers, software. Their PDP and successor VAX products were the most successful of all minicomputers in terms of sales, DEC was acquired in June 1998 by Compaq, in what was at that time the largest merger in the history of the computer industry. At the time, Compaq was focused on the market and had recently purchased several other large vendors. DEC was a major player overseas where Compaq had less presence, however, Compaq had little idea what to do with its acquisitions, and soon found itself in financial difficulty of its own. The company subsequently merged with Hewlett-Packard in May 2002, as of 2007 some of DECs product lines were still produced under the HP name. From 1957 until 1992, DECs headquarters were located in a wool mill in Maynard. DEC was acquired in June 1998 by Compaq, which merged with Hewlett-Packard in May 2002. Some parts of DEC, notably the business and the Hudson. Initially focusing on the end of the computer market allowed DEC to grow without its potential competitors making serious efforts to compete with them. Their PDP series of machines became popular in the 1960s, especially the PDP-8, looking to simplify and update their line, DEC replaced most of their smaller machines with the PDP-11 in 1970, eventually selling over 600,000 units and cementing DECs position in the industry. Originally designed as a follow-on to the PDP-11, DECs VAX-11 series was the first widely used 32-bit minicomputer and these systems were able to compete in many roles with larger mainframe computers, such as the IBM System/370. The VAX was a best-seller, with over 400,000 sold, at its peak, DEC was the second largest employer in Massachusetts, second only to the Massachusetts State Government. The rapid rise of the business microcomputer in the late 1980s, DECs last major attempt to find a space in the rapidly changing market was the DEC Alpha 64-bit RISC instruction set architecture. DEC initially started work on Alpha as a way to re-implement their VAX series, DEC was acquired in June 1998 by Compaq, in what was at that time the largest merger in the history of the computer industry. At the time, Compaq was focused on the market and had recently purchased several other large vendors. DEC was a major player overseas where Compaq had less presence, however, Compaq had little idea what to do with its acquisitions, and soon found itself in financial difficulty of its own. The company subsequently merged with Hewlett-Packard in May 2002, as of 2007 some of DECs product lines were still produced under the HP name
11.
Minicomputer
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A minicomputer, or colloquially mini, is a class of smaller computers that developed in the mid-1960s and sold for much less than mainframe and mid-size computers from IBM and its direct competitors. The class formed a group with its own software architectures. Minis were designed for control, instrumentation, human interaction, and communication switching as distinct from calculation, many were sold indirectly to Original Equipment Manufacturers for final end use application. During the two decade lifetime of the class, almost 100 companies formed and only a half dozen remained. They usually took up one or a few 19-inch rack cabinets, the definition of minicomputer is vague with the consequence that there are a number of candidates for the first minicomputer. An early and highly successful minicomputer was Digital Equipment Corporations 12-bit PDP-8, later versions of the PDP-8 took advantage of small-scale integrated circuits. The important precursors of the PDP-8 include the PDP-5, LINC, the TX-0, the TX-2, DEC gave rise to a number of minicomputer companies along Massachusetts Route 128, including Data General, Wang Laboratories, Apollo Computer, and Prime Computer. Minicomputers were also known as midrange computers and they grew to have relatively high processing power and capacity. They were used in manufacturing process control, telephone switching and to control laboratory equipment, in the 1970s, they were the hardware that was used to launch the computer-aided design industry and other similar industries where a smaller dedicated system was needed. The 7400 series of TTL integrated circuits started appearing in minicomputers in the late 1960s, the 74181 arithmetic logic unit was commonly used in the CPU data paths. Each 74181 had a bus width of four bits, hence the popularity of bit-slice architecture, some scientific computers, such as the Nicolet 1080, would use the 7400 series in groups of five ICs for their uncommon twenty bits architecture. Starting in the 1980s, many minicomputers used VLSI circuits, the result was that minicomputers and computer terminals were replaced by networked workstations, file servers and PCs in some installations, beginning in the latter half of the 1980s. Also, the Microsoft Windows series of operating systems, beginning with Windows NT, now included server versions that supported preemptive multitasking, Digital Equipment Corporation was once the leading minicomputer manufacturer, at one time the second-largest computer company after IBM. DEC was sold to Compaq in 1998, while Data General was acquired by EMC Corporation, today only a few proprietary minicomputer architectures survive. The IBM System/38 operating system, which introduced many advanced concepts, realising the importance of the myriad lines of legacy code written, AS stands for Application System. Great efforts were made by IBM to enable programs written for the System/34. The AS/400 was replaced by the iSeries, which was replaced by the System i. In 2008, the System i was replaced by the IBM Power Systems, by contrast, competing proprietary computing architectures from the early 1980s, such as DECs VAX, Wang VS and Hewlett Packards HP3000 have long been discontinued without a compatible upgrade path
12.
AT&T Corporation
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Founded in 1885 as the original American Telephone and Telegraph Company, it was at times the worlds largest telephone company, the worlds largest cable television operator, and a regulated monopoly. At its peak in the 1950s and 1960s, it employed one million people, in 2005, AT&T was purchased by Baby Bell and former subsidiary SBC Communications for more than $16 billion. SBC then changed its name to AT&T Inc, AT&T started with Bell Patent Association, a legal entity established in 1874 to protect the patent rights of Alexander Graham Bell after he invented the telephone system. Originally a verbal agreement, it was formalized in writing in 1875 as Bell Telephone Company, in 1880 the management of American Bell had created what would become AT&T Long Lines. The project was the first of its kind to create a nationwide long-distance network with a commercially viable cost-structure, the project was formally incorporated in New York State as a separate company named American Telephone and Telegraph Company on March 3,1885. With this assets transfer, AT&T became the parent of both American Bell and the Bell System. AT&T was involved mainly in the business and, although it was a partner with RCA, was reluctant to see radio grow because such growth might diminish the demand for wired services. It established station WEAF in New York as what was termed a toll station, AT&T could provide no programming, but anyone who wished to broadcast a message could pay a toll to AT&T and then air the message publicly. The original studio was the size of a telephone booth, the idea, however, did not take hold, because people would pay to broadcast messages only if they were sure that someone was listening. As a result, WEAF began broadcasting entertainment material, drawing amateur talent found among its employees, throughout most of the 20th century, AT&T held a monopoly on phone service in the United States and Canada through a network of companies called the Bell System. At this time, the company was nicknamed Ma Bell, on April 30,1907, Theodore Newton Vail became President of AT&T. Vail believed in the superiority of one system and AT&T adopted the slogan One Policy, One System. This would be the philosophy for the next 70 years. Under Vail, AT&T began buying up many of the telephone companies including Western Union telegraph. Anxious to avoid action from government antitrust suits, AT&T and the government entered into an agreement known as the Kingsbury Commitment. These actions brought unwanted attention from antitrust regulators, in the Kingsbury Commitment, AT&T and the government reached an agreement that allowed AT&T to continue operating as a monopoly. While AT&T periodically faced scrutiny from regulators, this state of affairs continued until the breakup in 1984. The United States Justice Department opened the case United States v. AT&T in 1974 and this was prompted by suspicion that AT&T was using monopoly profits from its Western Electric subsidiary to subsidize the cost of its network, a violation of anti-trust law
13.
Interactive Systems Corporation
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Interactive Systems Corporation was a US-based software company and the first vendor of the Unix operating system outside AT&T, operating from Santa Monica, California. ISC was acquired by the Eastman Kodak Company in 1988, which sold its ISC Unix operating system assets to Sun Microsystems on September 26,1991, Kodak sold the remaining parts of ISC to SHL Systemhouse Inc in 1993. ISCs 1977 offering, IS/1, was a Version 6 Unix variant enhanced for office automation running on the PDP-11, iS/3 and IS/5 were enhanced versions of Unix System III and System V for PDP-11 and VAX. ISC Unix ports to the IBM PC included a variant of System III, developed under contract to IBM, known as PC/IX, with later versions branded 386/ix, ISC was AT&Ts Principal Publisher for System V.4 on the Intel platform. ISC was also involved in the development of VM/IX and IX/370, according to Bob Blake, the PC/IX product manager for IBM, their primary objective was to make a credible Unix system - not try to IBM-ize the product. PC/IX was not however the first Unix port to the XT, venix/86 preceded PC/IX by about a year, although it was based on the older Version 7 Unix. The main addition to PC/IX was the INed screen editor from ISC, INed offered multiple windows and context-sensitive help, paragraph justification and margin changes, although it was not a fully fledged word processor. PC/IX omitted the System III FORTRAN compiler, the tar file archiver, one reason for not porting these was that in PC/IX individual applications were limited to a single segment of 64 KB of RAM. To achieve good performance, PC/IX directly addressed the XT hard-drive rather than doing this through the BIOS. Because of the lack of memory protection in the 8088 chips. The PC/IX distribution came on 19 floppy disks and was accompanied by a 1, installed, PC/IX took approximately 4.5 MB of disk space. An editorial by Bill Machrone in PC Magazine at the time of PC/IXs launch flagged the $900 price as a show stopper given its lack of compatibility with MS-DOS applications, PC/IX was succeeded by 386/ix in 1985, a System VR3 derivative. Later versions were termed Interactive UNIX System V/386 and based on System V3.2 and its SVR3.2 kernel meant diminished compatibility with other Unix ports in the early nineties, but Interactive Unix was praised by a PC Magazine reviewer for its stability. The last version was System V/386 Release 3.2 Version 4.1.1, official support ended on July 23,2006, five years after Sun withdrew the product from sale. Until version ISA3.0.1, Interactive Unix supported only 16 MB of RAM, in the next versions, it supported 256MB RAM and PCI bus. EISA versions always supported 256MB RAM, covers and compares PC/IX, Xenix, and Venix. Maurice J. Bach, The Design of the UNIX Operating System, ISBN 0-13-201799-7, IBM has snubbed both Microsofts multimillion dollar investment in Xenix and AT&Ts determination to establish System V as the dominant version on Unix. IBMs latest hot potato Interactive Unix Documentation
14.
Idris (operating system)
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Idris is a discontinued multi-tasking, Unix-like, multi-user, real-time operating system released by Whitesmiths, of Westford, Massachusetts. The product was available from 1979 through 1988. Idris was originally written for the PDP-11 by P. J. Plauger and it was binary compatible with Unix V6 on PDP-11, but it could run on non-memory managed systems as well. The kernel required 31 KB of RAM, and the C compiler had more or less the same size. Although Idris was initially available for the PDP-11, it later ported to run on a number of platforms, such as the VAX, Motorola 68000, System/370, there was also a version that used bank-switching for memory management, that ran on the Intel 8080. In 1986, David M. Stanhope and Skip Tavakkolian at Computer Tools International ported Idris to the Atari ST and this work also included a port of X to Idris. Computer Tools and Whitesmiths offered it to Atari as a replacement for Atari TOS, a specific version of Idris was packaged as a. com file under MS-DOS and used it for low level I/O services. Idris was ported to the Apple Macintosh by John OBrien and remained available until the early 1990s, macIdris ran as an application under the Finder or Multifinder
15.
SCO Group
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As part of the settlement, Canopy transferred all of its shares to Yarro. Later on, Caldera International changed its name to SCO and then to The SCO Group to reflect that change in focus. In January 2004, their website, www. sco. com, was attacked by the Mydoom computer virus, in September 2007, SCO filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. In April 2011, UnXis, Inc. bought The SCO Group, Inc. operating assets, the SCO Group, Inc. then renamed itself TSG Group, Inc. In August 2012, TSG Group, Inc. filed to convert from Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection to Chapter 7 stating There is no chance of rehabilitation. On June 14,2013, Judge David Nuffer ruled on SCO v. IBM motions, granting SCOs motion for reconsideration and reopening the case. Santa Cruz Operation was a company based in Santa Cruz. In his book The Art of Unix Programming, Eric Raymond calls SCO the first UNIX company, prior to this UNIX vendors were either computer hardware manufacturers or telephone companies. In 1993, SCO acquired two companies and developed the product line that was named Tarantella. In 2001, SCO sold its rights to UNIX and the divisions to Caldera Systems. After selling its UNIX interests, SCO retained only its Tarantella product line, Caldera, Inc. based in Utah, was founded in 1994 by Bryan Sparks and Ransom Love, receiving start-up funding from Ray Noordas Canopy Group. Its main product was Caldera Network Desktop, a Linux distribution mainly targeted at business customers, Caldera, Inc. later purchased The Linux Support Team Software GmbH and its LST Linux distribution. LST was made the basis of their following product Caldera OpenLinux, Caldera, Inc. inherited a lawsuit against Microsoft when it purchased DR-DOS from Novell in 1996. This lawsuit related to Calderas claims of monopolization, illegal tying, exclusive dealing, in August 1998, the original Caldera, Inc. company split into two daughter companies named Caldera Systems, Inc. and Caldera Thin Clients, Inc. Caldera Systems took over the Linux business, while Caldera Thin Clients took over the DOS, the shell company Caldera, Inc. remained responsible for the lawsuit only. Microsoft reached a settlement in January 2000 with Caldera, Inc. after which Caldera, the payments involved in this settlement were later revealed inadvertently to be $280 million during the Novell v. Microsoft antitrust lawsuit as documented on Groklaw. Caldera Systems reincorporated in Delaware on March 2,2000 and completed an IPO of its common stock, by way of a temporary Caldera Holdings, Inc. the company reorganized in August 2000. In March 2001, Caldera Systems became Caldera International, Inc. in 2002, Caldera International joined with SuSE Linux, Turbolinux and Conectiva to form United Linux in an attempt to standardize Linux distributions
16.
Ancient UNIX
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After the publication of the Lions book, work was undertaken to release the earlier versions of the codebase. SCO first released the code under an educational license. Version 6 Unix provided the basis for the MIT xv6 teaching system, which is an update of that version to ANSI C and the x86 platform. As an example of how relicensing the old Unix code bases has affected the modern computing community, therefore, traditional vi could not be distributed freely, and various work-alikes were created. Now that this code is no longer encumbered, the traditional vi has been adapted for modern Unix-like operating systems. The Unix Heritage Society, a dedicated to the preservation and maintenance of historical UNIX systems code, disk images
17.
John Lions
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John Lions was an Australian computer scientist. He is best known as the author of Lions Commentary on UNIX 6th Edition, with Source Code, Lions gained a degree with first-class honours from the University of Sydney in 1959. He applied, and received a scholarship to study at the University of Cambridge where he earned his doctorate on Control engineering in 1963, after his graduation, he worked at the consulting firm KCS Ltd in Toronto, Canada. In 1967, he took a position at Dalhousie University in Halifax. In 1972 he moved back to Sydney, Australia and became a lecturer in the Department of Computer Science at the University of New South Wales. In 1980, he was promoted to Associate Professor and apart from sabbaticals in 1978,1983 and 1989 at Bell Laboratories and his most famous work, the Lions Book, was written as course notes for his operating systems course at UNSW. Lions organised the Australian UNIX Users Group and was its president from 1984 to 1986. John Lions was married to Marianne and had two children, Katherine and Elizabeth, with donations from many UNSW alumni, corporations, Usenix, Linux Australia, the chair was created in 2006, becoming the first chair at UNSW funded by contributions from alumni. In 2009, Gernot Heiser became the inaugural John Lions Chair, in 2002, UNSW dedicated the John Lions Garden in front of the new Computer Science and Engineering building to Lions memory. In 2011, The School of Computer Science and Engineering at UNSW initiated the John Lions Award for Contribution to Open Software, the Prize is open to high school and undergraduate university students enrolled in an Australian secondary or tertiary institution. Full-time and part-time students are eligible, as well as local, the annual prize is valued at $1,000. In Memoriam, John Lions Code Critic The John Lions Award For Research Work in Open Systems The John Lions Chair in Operating Systems
18.
Source code
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In computing, source code is any collection of computer instructions, possibly with comments, written using a human-readable programming language, usually as ordinary text. The source code of a program is designed to facilitate the work of computer programmers. The source code is often transformed by an assembler or compiler into binary machine code understood by the computer, the machine code might then be stored for execution at a later time. Alternatively, source code may be interpreted and thus immediately executed, most application software is distributed in a form that includes only executable files. If the source code were included it would be useful to a user, programmer or a system administrator, the Linux Information Project defines source code as, Source code is the version of software as it is originally written by a human in plain text. The notion of source code may also be more broadly, to include machine code and notations in graphical languages. It is therefore so construed as to include code, very high level languages. Often there are several steps of program translation or minification between the source code typed by a human and an executable program. The earliest programs for stored-program computers were entered in binary through the front panel switches of the computer and this first-generation programming language had no distinction between source code and machine code. When IBM first offered software to work with its machine, the code was provided at no additional charge. At that time, the cost of developing and supporting software was included in the price of the hardware, for decades, IBM distributed source code with its software product licenses, until 1983. Most early computer magazines published source code as type-in programs, Source code can also be stored in a database or elsewhere. The source code for a piece of software may be contained in a single file or many files. Though the practice is uncommon, a source code can be written in different programming languages. For example, a program written primarily in the C programming language, in some languages, such as Java, this can be done at run time. The code base of a programming project is the larger collection of all the source code of all the computer programs which make up the project. It has become practice to maintain code bases in version control systems. Moderately complex software customarily requires the compilation or assembly of several, sometimes dozens or even hundreds, in these cases, instructions for compilations, such as a Makefile, are included with the source code
19.
University of California, Berkeley
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The University of California, Berkeley, is a public research university located in Berkeley, California. In 1960s, UC Berkeley was particularly noted for the Free Speech Movement as well as the Anti-Vietnam War Movement led by its students. S, Department of Energy, and is home to many world-renowned research institutes and organizations including Mathematical Sciences Research Institute and Space Sciences Laboratory. Faculty member J. R. Oppenheimer, the father of the atomic bomb, Lawrence Livermore Lab also discovered or co-discovered six chemical elements. The Academic Ranking of World Universities also ranks the University of California, Berkeley, third in the world overall, in 1866, the private College of California purchased the land comprising the current Berkeley campus. Ten faculty members and almost 40 students made up the new University of California when it opened in Oakland in 1869, billings was a trustee of the College of California and suggested that the college be named in honor of the Anglo-Irish philosopher George Berkeley. In 1870, Henry Durant, the founder of the College of California, with the completion of North and South Halls in 1873, the university relocated to its Berkeley location with 167 male and 22 female students and held its first classes. In 1905, the University Farm was established near Sacramento, ultimately becoming the University of California, by the 1920s, the number of campus buildings had grown substantially, and included twenty structures designed by architect John Galen Howard. Robert Gordon Sproul served as president from 1930 to 1958, by 1942, the American Council on Education ranked UC Berkeley second only to Harvard University in the number of distinguished departments. During World War II, following Glenn Seaborgs then-secret discovery of plutonium, UC Berkeley physics professor J. Robert Oppenheimer was named scientific head of the Manhattan Project in 1942. Along with the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley is now a partner in managing two other labs, Los Alamos National Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, originally, military training was compulsory for male undergraduates, and Berkeley housed an armory for that purpose. In 1917, Berkeleys ROTC program was established, and its School of Military Aeronautics trained future pilots, including Jimmy Doolittle, both Robert McNamara and Frederick C. Weyand graduated from UC Berkeleys ROTC program, earning B. A. degrees in 1937 and 1938, in 1926, future fleet admiral Chester W. Nimitz established the first Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps unit at Berkeley. The Board of Regents ended compulsory military training at Berkeley in 1962, during the McCarthy era in 1949, the Board of Regents adopted an anti-communist loyalty oath. A number of faculty members objected and were dismissed, ten years passed before they were reinstated with back pay, in 1952, the University of California became an entity separate from the Berkeley campus. Each campus was given autonomy and its own Chancellor. Then-president Sproul assumed presidency of the entire University of California system, Berkeley gained a reputation for student activism in the 1960s with the Free Speech Movement of 1964 and opposition to the Vietnam War. In the highly publicized Peoples Park protest in 1969, students and the school conflicted over use of a plot of land, then governor of California Ronald Reagan called the Berkeley campus a haven for communist sympathizers, protesters, and sex deviants. Modern students at Berkeley are less active, with a greater percentage of moderates and conservatives
20.
Johns Hopkins University
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The Johns Hopkins University is an American private research university in Baltimore, Maryland. Founded in 1876, the university was named for its first benefactor, the American entrepreneur, abolitionist and his $7 million bequest—of which half financed the establishment of The Johns Hopkins Hospital—was the largest philanthropic gift in the history of the United States at that time. Daniel Coit Gilman, who was inaugurated as the institutions first president on February 22,1876, led the university to revolutionize higher education in the U. S. by integrating teaching and research. Adopting the concept of a school from Germanys ancient Heidelberg University. Johns Hopkins is organized into 10 divisions on campuses in Maryland and Washington, D. C. with international centers in Italy, China, and Singapore. The two undergraduate divisions, the Krieger School of Arts and Sciences and the Whiting School of Engineering, are located on the Homewood campus in Baltimores Charles Village neighborhood. The medical school, the school, and the Bloomberg School of Public Health are located on the Medical Institutions campus in East Baltimore. Johns Hopkins was a member of the American Association of Universities. Over the course of almost 140 years, thirty-six Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Johns Hopkins, founded in 1883, the Blue Jays men’s lacrosse team has captured 44 national titles and joined the Big Ten Conference as an affiliate member in 2014. On his death in 1873, Johns Hopkins, a Quaker entrepreneur and childless bachelor, bequeathed $7 million to fund a hospital and university in Baltimore, Maryland. At that time this fortune, generated primarily from the Baltimore, the first name of philanthropist Johns Hopkins is the surname of his great-grandmother, Margaret Johns, who married Gerard Hopkins. They named their son Johns Hopkins, who named his own son Samuel Hopkins, Samuel named one of his sons for his father and that son would become the universitys benefactor. Milton Eisenhower, a university president, once spoke at a convention in Pittsburgh where the Master of Ceremonies introduced him as President of John Hopkins. Eisenhower retorted that he was glad to be here in Pittburgh, the original board opted for an entirely novel university model dedicated to the discovery of knowledge at an advanced level, extending that of contemporary Germany. Building on the German education model of Wilhelm von Humboldt, it dedicated to research. Johns Hopkins thereby became the model of the research university in the United States. Its success eventually shifted higher education in the United States from a focus on teaching revealed and/or applied knowledge to the discovery of new knowledge. The trustees worked alongside four notable university presidents – Charles W. Eliot of Harvard, Andrew D. White of Cornell, Noah Porter of Yale College and they each vouched for Daniel Coit Gilman to lead the new University and he became the universitys first president
21.
University of New South Wales
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The University of New South Wales is an Australian public research university located in the suburb of Kensington in Sydney. Established in 1949, it is regarded as one of the leading universities. In 2016, it was the one university preference for high school students in the State of New South Wales. In the 2016 QS World University Rankings UNSW was ranked globally as 49th overall, 11th in the world for Accounting and Finance, 14th for law, UNSW has produced more millionaires than any other university in Australia. The university comprises eight faculties, through which it offers bachelor, master, the main campus is located on a 38-hectare site in the Sydney suburb of Kensington, seven kilometres from the centre of Sydney. Research stations are located throughout the state of New South Wales, UNSW is a founding member of the Group of Eight, a coalition of Australian research-intensive universities, and of Universitas 21, a global network of research universities. It has international exchange and research partnerships with over 200 universities around the world, the origins of the university can be traced to the Sydney Mechanics School of Arts established in 1833 and the Sydney Technical College established in 1878. This led to the proposal to establish the Institute of Technology, submitted by the then New South Wales Minister for Education Bob Heffron, accepted on 9 July 1946. In March 1948, classes commenced with a first intake of 46 students pursuing programs including engineering, mechanical engineering, mining engineering. At that time the programs were innovative. Each course embodied a specified and substantial period of training in the relevant industry. It was also unprecedented for tertiary institutions at that time to include instruction in humanities. Initially, the university operated from the inner Sydney Technical College city campus in Ultimo, in 1958, the universitys name was changed to the University of New South Wales to reflect its transformation from a technology-based institution to a generalist university. In 1960, it established faculties of arts and medicine and shortly after decided to add the Faculty of Law, the universitys first director was Arthur Denning, who made important contributions to founding the university. In 1953, he was replaced by Philip Baxter, who continued as vice-chancellor when this title was changed in 1955. Baxters dynamic, if authoritarian, management was central to the universitys first 20 years and his visionary, but at times controversial, energies saw the university grow from a handful to 15,000 students by 1968. The 1990s saw the addition of fine arts to the university, the university established colleges in Newcastle and Wollongong, which eventually became the University of Newcastle and the University of Wollongong in 1965 and 1975 respectively. At present, private sources contribute 45% of its annual funding, the university is home to the Lowy Cancer Research Centre, one of Australias largest cancer research facilities
22.
Berkeley Software Distribution
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Berkeley Software Distribution is a Unix operating system derivative developed and distributed by the Computer Systems Research Group of the University of California, Berkeley, from 1977 to 1995. Today the term BSD is often used non-specifically to refer to any of the BSD descendants which together form a branch of the family of Unix-like operating systems, operating systems derived from the original BSD code remain actively developed and widely used. Historically, BSD has been considered a branch of Unix, Berkeley Unix, because it shared the initial codebase, in the 1980s, BSD was widely adopted by vendors of workstation-class systems in the form of proprietary Unix variants such as DEC ULTRIX and Sun Microsystems SunOS. This can be attributed to the ease with which it could be licensed, FreeBSD, OpenBSD, NetBSD, Darwin, and PC-BSD. The earliest distributions of Unix from Bell Labs in the 1970s included the source code to the system, allowing researchers at universities to modify. A larger PDP-11/70 was installed at Berkeley the following year, using money from the Ingres database project, also in 1975, Ken Thompson took a sabbatical from Bell Labs and came to Berkeley as a visiting professor. He helped to install Version 6 Unix and started working on a Pascal implementation for the system, graduate students Chuck Haley and Bill Joy improved Thompsons Pascal and implemented an improved text editor, ex. Other universities became interested in the software at Berkeley, and so in 1977 Joy started compiling the first Berkeley Software Distribution, 1BSD was an add-on to Version 6 Unix rather than a complete operating system in its own right. Some thirty copies were sent out, some 75 copies of 2BSD were sent out by Bill Joy. 2. 9BSD from 1983 included code from 4. 1cBSD, the most recent release,2. 11BSD, was first issued in 1992. As of 2008, maintenance updates from volunteers are still continuing, a VAX computer was installed at Berkeley in 1978, but the port of Unix to the VAX architecture, UNIX/32V, did not take advantage of the VAXs virtual memory capabilities. 3BSD was also alternatively called Virtual VAX/UNIX or VMUNIX, and BSD kernel images were normally called /vmunix until 4. 4BSD, 4BSD offered a number of enhancements over 3BSD, notably job control in the previously released csh, delivermail, reliable signals, and the Curses programming library. In a 1985 review of BSD releases, John Quarterman et al, many installations inside the Bell System ran 4. 1BSD. 4. 1BSD was a response to criticisms of BSDs performance relative to the dominant VAX operating system, the 4. 1BSD kernel was systematically tuned up by Bill Joy until it could perform as well as VMS on several benchmarks. Back at Bell Labs,4. 1cBSD became the basis of the 8th Edition of Research Unix, to guide the design of 4. The committee met from April 1981 to June 1983, apart from the Fast File System, several features from outside contributors were accepted, including disk quotas and job control. Sun Microsystems provided testing on its Motorola 68000 machines prior to release, the official 4. 2BSD release came in August 1983. On a lighter note, it marked the debut of BSDs daemon mascot in a drawing by John Lasseter that appeared on the cover of the printed manuals distributed by USENIX
23.
Samizdat
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Samizdat was a key form of dissident activity across the Soviet bloc in which individuals reproduced censored and underground publications by hand and passed the documents from reader to reader. This grassroots practice to evade official Soviet censorship was fraught with danger, vladimir Bukovsky summarized it as follows, Samizdat, I write it myself, edit it myself, censor it myself, publish it myself, distribute it myself, and spend jail time for it myself. Etymologically, the word derives from sam and izdat. The Ukrainian language has a term, samvýdav, from sam, self. The Russian poet Nikolai Glazkov coined a version of the term as a pun in the 1940s when he typed copies of his poems, Tamizdat refers to literature published abroad, often from smuggled manuscripts. Samizdat copies of texts, such as Mikhail Bulgakovs novel The Master, the techniques used to reproduce these forbidden texts varied. Samizdat distinguishes itself not only by the ideas and debates which it helped spread to a wider audience, the hand-typed, often blurry and wrinkled pages with numerous typographical errors and nondescript covers helped to separate and elevate Russian samizdat from Western literature. The physical form of samizdat arose from a lack of resources. The form samizdat took gained precedence over the ideas it expressed, in effect, the physical form of samizdat itself elevated the reading of samizdat to a prized clandestine act. Samizdat originated from the dissident movement of the Russian intelligentsia, while circulation of samizdat was relatively low, at around 200,000 readers on average, many of these readers possessed positions of cultural power and authority. The purpose and methods of samizdat may contrast with the purpose of the concept of copyright, self-published and self-distributed literature has a long history in Russia. Samizdat is unique to the post-Stalin USSR and other countries with similar systems, under the grip of censorship of the police state, society turned to underground literature for self-analysis and self-expression. Certain works published legally in the State-controlled media were practically impossible to find in bookshops and libraries, the first full-length book to be distributed as samizdat was Boris Pasternaks 1957 novel Doctor Zhivago. Although the literary magazine Novy Mir had published ten poems from the book in 1954, the novel One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn had a similar fate and was widely distributed via samizdat. The editors of magazines were regulars at impromptu public poetry readings in 1958-61 on Mayakovsky square in Moscow. The gatherings did not last long, as soon the authorities began clamping down on them, in the summer of 1961, several meeting regulars were arrested and charged with anti-Soviet agitation and propaganda, putting an end to most of the magazines. Not everything published in samizdat had political overtones, in 1963, Joseph Brodsky was charged with social parasitism and convicted for being nothing but a poet. His poems circulated in samizdat, with only four judged as suitable for official Soviet anthologies, in the mid-1960s, the Youngest Society of Geniuses, an unofficial literary group known by the acronym SMOG issued an almanac titled The Sphinxes and collections of prose and poetry
24.
University of Wollongong
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As of 2014 the university has an enrolment of over 30,000 students, an alumni base of over 112,000 and over 2,000 academic related staff. As of 2015, Wollongong consistently ranks among the top 2% of universities in the world, in 1951 a division of the New South Wales University of Technology was established at Wollongong for the conduct of diploma courses. In 1961 the Wollongong University College of the University of New South Wales was constituted, in 1975 the University of Wollongong was established as an independent institution. Since its establishment, the university has conferred more than 100,000 degrees, diplomas and its students, originally predominantly from the local Illawarra region, are now from over 140 countries, with international students accounting for more than 30 percent of total. The University of Wollongong has fundamentally developed into an institution, three of which are in the Illawarra, one in Sydney and one overseas in Dubai. In addition, there are university education centres in Bega, Batemans Bay, Moss Vale, the university also offers courses equally based on the Wollongong campus in collaboration with partner institutions in a number of offshore locations including in Singapore, Malaysia and Hong Kong. The University of Wollongong traces its origins to 1951, the foundation of the university was in 1951 when a division of The New South Wales University of Technology was established in Wollongong. In 1962, the became the Wollongong College of the University of New South Wales. In 1976, Justice Robert Marsden Hope was installed as chancellor of the university, in 1951, a foundation of the University of Wollongong was founded as a division of the New South Wales University of Technology in Wollongong, New South Wales. A decade later, the became the Wollongong College of the University of New South Wales. In 1975, the University of Wollongong gained its autonomy as an independent institution of learning by the New South Wales Parliament. In 1977, the Faculty of Computer Science developed a version of Unix for the Interdata 7/32 called UNSW01, in the late 70s, Tim Berners-Lee sourced TCP/IP software, an integral element of the World Wide Web, from the University of Wollongong. In 1981, Ken McKinnon was appointed chancellor, overseeing the amalgamation of the university with the Wollongong Institute of Education in 1982. The Wollongong Institute of Education had originated in 1971 as the Teachers College This merger formed the basis of the contemporary university, in 1983, the Faculty of Commerce was established along with the School of Creative Arts, followed by the creation of the Faculty of Education in 1984. In 1993, the University of Wollongong Dubai Campus in Dubai, in 2000, the Shoalhaven Campus was opened at Nowra on the New South Wales south coast. In 2008, the university opened the first building at Wollongong Innovation Campus on a 20-hectare site at Brandon Park in Wollongong, in August, the Faculty of Science dean, Rob Whelan, took up a new role as president of the University of Wollongong in Dubai. In 2009, the chancellor, Mike Codd AC, announced his retirement after three four-year terms and his replacement, effective on 1 October, was Jillian Broadbent AO. She became the third Chancellor after Justice Robert Hope and Mr Michael Codd, in 2010, the New South Wales Health Minister, Carmel Tebbutt, opened the $30 million Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute in July
25.
C (programming language)
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C was originally developed by Dennis Ritchie between 1969 and 1973 at Bell Labs, and used to re-implement the Unix operating system. C has been standardized by the American National Standards Institute since 1989, C is an imperative procedural language. Therefore, C was useful for applications that had formerly been coded in assembly language. Despite its low-level capabilities, the language was designed to encourage cross-platform programming, a standards-compliant and portably written C program can be compiled for a very wide variety of computer platforms and operating systems with few changes to its source code. The language has become available on a wide range of platforms. In C, all code is contained within subroutines, which are called functions. Function parameters are passed by value. Pass-by-reference is simulated in C by explicitly passing pointer values, C program source text is free-format, using the semicolon as a statement terminator and curly braces for grouping blocks of statements. The C language also exhibits the characteristics, There is a small, fixed number of keywords, including a full set of flow of control primitives, for, if/else, while, switch. User-defined names are not distinguished from keywords by any kind of sigil, There are a large number of arithmetical and logical operators, such as +, +=, ++, &, ~, etc. More than one assignment may be performed in a single statement, function return values can be ignored when not needed. Typing is static, but weakly enforced, all data has a type, C has no define keyword, instead, a statement beginning with the name of a type is taken as a declaration. There is no function keyword, instead, a function is indicated by the parentheses of an argument list, user-defined and compound types are possible. Heterogeneous aggregate data types allow related data elements to be accessed and assigned as a unit, array indexing is a secondary notation, defined in terms of pointer arithmetic. Unlike structs, arrays are not first-class objects, they cannot be assigned or compared using single built-in operators, There is no array keyword, in use or definition, instead, square brackets indicate arrays syntactically, for example month. Enumerated types are possible with the enum keyword and they are not tagged, and are freely interconvertible with integers. Strings are not a data type, but are conventionally implemented as null-terminated arrays of characters. Low-level access to memory is possible by converting machine addresses to typed pointers
26.
Compiler
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A compiler is a computer program that transforms source code written in a programming language into another computer language, with the latter often having a binary form known as object code. The most common reason for converting source code is to create an executable program, the name compiler is primarily used for programs that translate source code from a high-level programming language to a lower level language. If the compiled program can run on a computer whose CPU or operating system is different from the one on which the compiler runs, more generally, compilers are a specific type of translator. While all programs that take a set of programming specifications and translate them, a program that translates from a low-level language to a higher level one is a decompiler. A program that translates between high-level languages is called a source-to-source compiler or transpiler. A language rewriter is usually a program that translates the form of expressions without a change of language, the term compiler-compiler is sometimes used to refer to a parser generator, a tool often used to help create the lexer and parser. A compiler is likely to many or all of the following operations, lexical analysis, preprocessing, parsing, semantic analysis, code generation. Program faults caused by incorrect compiler behavior can be difficult to track down and work around, therefore. Software for early computers was written in assembly language. The notion of a high level programming language dates back to 1943, no actual implementation occurred until the 1970s, however. The first actual compilers date from the 1950s, identifying the very first is hard, because there is subjectivity in deciding when programs become advanced enough to count as the full concept rather than a precursor. 1952 saw two important advances. Grace Hopper wrote the compiler for the A-0 programming language, though the A-0 functioned more as a loader or linker than the notion of a full compiler. Also in 1952, the first autocode compiler was developed by Alick Glennie for the Mark 1 computer at the University of Manchester and this is considered by some to be the first compiled programming language. The FORTRAN team led by John Backus at IBM is generally credited as having introduced the first unambiguously complete compiler, COBOL was an early language to be compiled on multiple architectures, in 1960. In many application domains the idea of using a higher level language quickly caught on, because of the expanding functionality supported by newer programming languages and the increasing complexity of computer architectures, compilers have become more complex. Early compilers were written in assembly language, the first self-hosting compiler – capable of compiling its own source code in a high-level language – was created in 1962 for the Lisp programming language by Tim Hart and Mike Levin at MIT. Since the 1970s, it has become practice to implement a compiler in the language it compiles
27.
VAX
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VAX is a discontinued instruction set architecture developed by Digital Equipment Corporation in the mid-1970s. The VAX-11/780, introduced on October 25,1977, was the first of a range of popular, a 32-bit system with a CISC architecture based on DECs earlier PDP-11, VAX was designed to extend or replace DECs various PDP ISAs. The VAX architectures primary features were virtual addressing and its instruction set. Later versions offloaded the compatibility mode and some of the less used CISC instructions to emulation in the system software. The VAX instruction set was designed to be powerful and orthogonal, when it was introduced, many programs were written in assembly language, so having a programmer-friendly instruction set was important. In time, as programs were written in higher-level language, the instruction set became less visible. One unusual aspect of the VAX instruction set is the presence of register masks at the start of each subprogram and these are arbitrary bit patterns that specify, when control is passed to the subprogram, which registers are to be preserved. Since register masks are a form of data embedded within the executable code and this can complicate optimization techniques that are applied on machine code. The native VAX operating system is Digitals VAX/VMS, the VAX architecture and OpenVMS operating system were engineered concurrently to take maximum advantage of each other, as was the initial implementation of the VAXcluster facility. Other VAX operating systems have included various releases of BSD UNIX up to 4. 3BSD, Ultrix-32, VAXELN, more recently, NetBSD and OpenBSD support various VAX models and some work has been done on porting Linux to the VAX architecture. The first VAX model sold was the VAX-11/780, which was introduced on October 25,1977 at the Digital Equipment Corporations Annual Meeting of Shareholders, bill Strecker, C. Gordon Bells doctoral student at Carnegie Mellon University, was responsible for the architecture. Many different models with different prices, performance levels, and capacities were subsequently created, VAX superminicomputers were very popular in the early 1980s. For a while the VAX-11/780 was used as a standard in CPU benchmarks, the actual number of instructions executed in 1 second was about 500,000, which led to complaints of marketing exaggeration. The result was the definition of a VAX MIPS, the speed of a VAX-11/780, within the Digital community the term VUP was the more common term, because MIPS do not compare well across different architectures. The related term cluster VUPs was informally used to describe the performance of a VAXcluster. The VAX-11/780 included a subordinate stand-alone LSI-11 computer that performed microcode load, booting and this was dropped from subsequent VAX models. Enterprising VAX-11/780 users could therefore run three different Digital Equipment Corporation operating systems, VMS on the VAX processor, and either RSX-11M or RT-11 on the LSI-11, the VAX went through many different implementations. The original VAX 11/780 was implemented in TTL and filled a cabinet with a single CPU
28.
Princeton, New Jersey
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As of the 2010 United States Census, the municipalitys population was 28,572, reflecting the former townships population of 16,265, along with the 12,307 in the former borough. Princeton was founded before the American Revolution and is best known as the location of Princeton University, Princeton is roughly equidistant from New York City and Philadelphia. It is close to major highways that serve both cities, and receives major television and radio broadcasts from each. It is also close to Trenton, New Jerseys capital city, the governor of New Jerseys official residence has been in Princeton since 1945, when Morven in the borough became the first Governors mansion. It was later replaced by the larger Drumthwacket, a mansion located in the former Township. Morven became a property of the New Jersey Historical Society. Princeton was ranked 15th of the top 100 towns in the United States to Live, although residents of Princeton traditionally have a strong community-wide identity, the community had been composed of two separate municipalities, a township and a borough. The central borough was completely surrounded by the township, the Borough contained Nassau Street, the main commercial street, most of the University campus, and incorporated most of the urban area until the postwar suburbanization. The Borough and Township had roughly equal populations, the Lenni Lenape Native Americans were the earliest identifiable inhabitants of the Princeton area. Europeans founded their settlement in the part of the 17th century. The first European to find his home in the boundaries of the town was Henry Greenland. He built his house in 1683 along with a tavern, in this drinking hole representatives of West Jersey and East Jersey met to set boundaries for the location of the township. Originally, Princeton was known only as part of nearby Stony Brook, James Leonard first referred to the town as Princetown, when describing the location of his large estate in his diary. The town bore a variety of names subsequently, including, Princetown, Princes Town, although there is no official documentary backing, the town is considered to be named after King William III, Prince William of Orange of the House of Nassau. Another theory suggests that the name came from a large land-owner named Henry Prince, a royal prince seems a more likely eponym for the settlement, as three nearby towns had similar names, Kingston, Queenstown and Princessville. When Richard Stockton, one of the founders of the township, died in 1709 he left his estate to his sons, who helped to expand property, based on the 1880 United States Census, the population of the town comprised 3,209 persons. Local population has expanded from the nineteenth century, according to the 2010 Census, Princeton Borough had 12,307 inhabitants, while Princeton Township had 16,265. Aside from housing the university of the name, the settlement suffered the revolutionary Battle of Princeton on its soil
29.
VM (operating system)
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VM is a family of IBM virtual machine operating systems used on IBM mainframes System/370, System/390, zSeries, System z and compatible systems, including the Hercules emulator for personal computers. The first version, released in 1972, was VM/370, or officially Virtual Machine Facility/370 and this was a System/370 reimplementation of earlier CP/CMS operating system. The current version, z/VM, is widely used as one of the main full virtualization solutions for the mainframe market. The heart of the VM architecture is a program or hypervisor called VM-CP. It runs on the hardware, and creates the virtual machine environment. VM-CP provides full virtualization of the physical machine – including all I/O and it performs the systems resource-sharing, including device management, dispatching, virtual storage management, and other traditional operating system tasks. Each VM user is provided with a virtual machine having its own address space, virtual devices, etc. A given VM mainframe typically runs hundreds or thousands of virtual machine instances, VM-CP began life as CP-370, a reimplementation of CP-67, itself a reimplementation of CP-40. Running within each virtual machine is another, guest operating system, most virtual machines run CMS, a lightweight, single-user operating system. Its interactive environment is comparable to that of a single-user PC, including a system, programming services, device access. IBMs mainstream operating systems can be loaded and run without modification, most mainframe operating systems terminate a normal application which tries to usurp the operating systems privileges. A second level instance of VM can be fully virtualized inside a virtual machine and this is how VM development and testing is done. (A second-level VM can potentially implement a different virtualization of the hardware and this technique was used to develop S/370 software before S/370 hardware was available, and it has continued to play a role in new hardware development at IBM. The literature cites practical examples of five levels deep. Levels of VM below the top are also treated as applications, a copy of the mainframe version of AIX or Linux. In the mainframe environment, these systems often run under VM. Several non-CMS systems run within VM-CP virtual machines, providing services to CMS users such as spooling, interprocess communications and they operate behind the scenes, extending the services available to CMS without adding to the VM-CP control program. By running in virtual machines, they receive the same security and reliability protections as other VM users
30.
LSI-11
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The PDP-11 is a series of 16-bit minicomputers sold by Digital Equipment Corporation from 1970 into the 1990s, one of a succession of products in the PDP series. The PDP-11 had several innovative features, and was easier to program than its predecessors through the additional general-purpose registers. The PDP-11 replaced the PDP-8 in many applications, although both product lines lived in parallel for more than 10 years. In total, around 600,000 PDP-11s of all models were sold and its successor in the mid-range minicomputer niche was the 32-bit VAX-11, named as a nod to the PDP-11s popularity. The PDP-11 is considered by experts to be the most popular minicomputer ever. Design features of the PDP-11 influenced the design of most late-1970s computer systems including the Intel x86, design features of PDP-11 operating systems, as well as other operating systems from Digital Equipment, influenced the design of other operating systems such as CP/M and hence also MS-DOS. For a decade, the PDP-11 was the smallest system that could run Unix and it is commonly stated that the C programming language took advantage of several low-level PDP-11–dependent programming features, albeit not originally by design. In 1967–68, DEC engineers designed a 16-bit, word-addressed machine, management cancelled the project and some of the engineers later left DEC and produced it as the Data General Nova. A subsequent effort, code-named Desk Calculator, looked at a variety of options before choosing what became the 16-bit PDP-11, DECs previous PDP-8 and PDP-9 had 12- and 18-bit words, the PDP-11 family was announced in January 1970 and shipments began early that year. DEC sold over 170,000 PDP-11s in the 1970s, initially manufactured of small-scale transistor–transistor logic, a single-board large scale integration version of the processor was developed in 1975. A two-or-three-chip processor, the J-11 was developed in 1979, the last models of the PDP-11 line were the PDP-11/94 and -11/93 introduced in 1990. The PDP-11 processor architecture has an orthogonal instruction set. For example, instead of such as load and store. More complex instructions such as add likewise can have memory, register, input, most operands can apply any of eight addressing modes to eight registers. The addressing modes provide register, immediate, absolute, relative, deferred, and indexed addressing, use of relative addressing lets a machine-language program be position-independent. Early models of the PDP-11 had no dedicated bus for input/output, an input/output device determined the memory addresses to which it would respond, and specified its own interrupt vector and interrupt priority. DEC openly published the basic Unibus specifications, even offering prototyping bus interface circuit boards, the Unibus made the PDP-11 suitable for custom peripherals. Higher-performance members of the PDP-11 family, starting with the PDP-11/45 Unibus and 11/83 Q-bus systems, instead, memory was interfaced by dedicated circuitry and space in the CPU cabinet, while the Unibus continued to be used for I/O only
31.
USENIX
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The USENIX Association is the Advanced Computing Systems Association. It was founded in 1975 under the name Unix Users Group, focusing primarily on the study and development of Unix and similar systems. In June 1977, a lawyer from AT&T Corporation informed the group that they could not use the word UNIX as it was a trademark of Western Electric and it has since grown into a respected organization among practitioners, developers, and researchers of computer operating systems more generally. Since its founding, it has published a journal entitled. USENIX was started as a technical organization, USENIX has a special interest group for system administrators, LISA, formerly SAGE. USENIXs founding President was Lou Katz, USENIX became the first computing association to provide open access to their conference and workshop papers in 2008. As of 2013, it remains the one to have done so. Since 2011, they have included audio and video recordings of presentations in their open-access materials. This award, also called the Flame award, is handed out annually since 1993
32.
University of Sydney
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The University of Sydney is an Australian public research university in Sydney, Australia. Founded in 1850, it is Australias first university and is regarded as one of the leading universities. The university comprises 16 faculties and schools, through which it offers bachelor, master, in 2011 it had 32,393 undergraduate and 16,627 graduate students. The university is known as one of Australias sandstone universities. Five Nobel and two Crafoord laureates have been affiliated with the university as graduates and faculty, the university has educated six prime ministers and 24 justices of the High Court of Australia, including four chief justices. Sydney has produced 24 Rhodes Scholars and several Gates Scholars and it would take two attempts on Wentworths behalf, however, before the plan was finally adopted. The university was established via the passage of the University of Sydney Act, two years later, the university was inaugurated on 11 October 1852 in the Big Schoolroom of what is now Sydney Grammar School. The first principal was John Woolley, the first professor of chemistry, by 1859, the university had moved to its current site in the Sydney suburb of Camperdown. Most of the estate of John Henry Challis was bequeathed to the university and this was thanks in part due to William Montagu Manning who argued against the claims by British Tax Commissioners. The following year seven professorships were created, anatomy, zoology, engineering, history, law, logic and mental philosophy, the New England University College was founded as part of the University of Sydney in 1938 and later separated in 1954 to become the University of New England. During the late 1960s, the University of Sydney was at the centre of rows to introduce courses on Marxism and feminism at the major Australian universities, prior to 1981, the Sydney Institute of Education was the Sydney Teachers College. In January 2005, the University of Sydney transferred the OAC to Charles Sturt University, in February 2007, the university agreed to acquire a portion of the land granted to St Johns College to develop the Sydney Institute of Health and Medical Research. This caused concern among some groups, who argued that it would interfere with scientific medical research, at the start of 2010, the university controversially adopted a new logo. It retains the same university arms, however it takes on a modern look. The original Coat of Arms from 1857 continues to be used for ceremonial and other formal purposes, concerns about public funding for higher education were reflected again in 2014 following the federal governments proposal to deregulate student fees. In order to enhance its competitiveness locally and internationally, the university has introduced plans to consolidate existing degrees to reduce the overall number of programs. In 2001, the University of Sydney chancellor, Dame Leonie Kramer, was forced to resign by the governing body. In 2005, the Public Service Association of New South Wales, action initiated by Spence to improve the financial sustainability of the university has alienated some students and staff
33.
Eastern Bloc
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The Eastern Bloc was the group of communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, generally the Soviet Union and the countries of the Warsaw Pact. The terms Communist Bloc and Soviet Bloc were also used to denote groupings of states aligned with the Soviet Union, although these terms might include states outside Central and Eastern Europe. Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, who viewed the Soviet Union as a socialist island, Eastern Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Finland and Bessarabia in northern Romania were recognized as parts of the Soviet sphere of influence. Lithuania was added in a secret protocol in September 1939. During the Occupation of East Poland by the Soviet Union, the Soviets liquidated the Polish state, Soviet authorities immediately started a campaign of sovietization of the newly Soviet-annexed areas. Soviet authorities collectivized agriculture, and nationalized and redistributed private and state-owned Polish property, the international community condemned this initial annexation of the Baltic states and deemed it illegal. In June 1941, Germany broke the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact by invading the Soviet Union, from the time of this invasion to 1944, the areas annexed by the Soviet Union were part of Germanys Ostland. Thereafter, the Soviet Union began to push German forces westward through a series of battles on the Eastern Front, from 1943 to 1945, several conferences regarding Post-War Europe occurred that, in part, addressed the potential Soviet annexation and control of countries in Central Europe. I think that if I give him everything I possibly can and ask for nothing from him in return, noblesse oblige, he wont try to annex anything and will work with me for a world of democracy and peace. While meeting with Stalin and Roosevelt in Tehran in 1943, Churchill stated that Britain was vitally interested in restoring Poland as an independent country, Britain did not press the matter for fear that it would become a source of inter-allied friction. In February 1945, at the conference at Yalta, Stalin demanded a Soviet sphere of influence in Central Europe. Stalin eventually was convinced by Churchill and Roosevelt not to dismember Germany, after resistance by Churchill and Roosevelt, Stalin promised a re-organization of the current pro-Soviet government on a broader democratic basis in Poland. He stated that the new primary task would be to prepare elections. In addition to reparations, Stalin pushed for war booty, which would permit the Soviet Union to directly seize property from conquered nations without quantitative or qualitative limitation, a clause was added permitting this to occur with some limitations. At first, the Soviets concealed their role in other Eastern Bloc politics, as a young communist was told in East Germany, its got to look democratic, but we must have everything in our control. Moscow-trained cadres were put into crucial power positions to fulfill orders regarding sociopolitical transformation, elimination of the bourgeoisies social and financial power by expropriation of landed and industrial property was accorded absolute priority. These measures were publicly billed as reforms rather than socioeconomic transformations, the bloc system permitted the Soviet Union to exercise domestic control indirectly. Crucial departments such as responsible for personnel, general police, secret police
34.
Electronika BK
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The Electronika BK was a series of 16-bit PDP-11-compatible Soviet home computers developed by NPO Scientific Center, the leading Soviet microcomputer design team at the time. It was also responsible for the more powerful UKNC and DVK micros, first released in 1984, they were based on the К1801ВМ1 and were the only official Soviet home computer design in mass production. They sold for about 600-650 rubles and this was expensive, but marginally affordable, so they became one of the most popular home computer models in the Soviet Union despite numerous problems. Later, in 90s, their powerful CPU and straightforward, easy to program design made popular as demo machines. BK is a Russian abbreviation which stands for Бытовой Компьютер—domestic computer and it was also for a short time used as cash register, for example, in the State Universal Store. Although BK-0010 was one of the cheapest Soviet PCs and in speed differed little from the simple 8-bit models and it worth to mention that the IBM-PC was a 8 bit machine - only the CPU was 16 bits internally. Although the BK series was included in an economic plan, customer support apparently was not, as it was essentially a barebones machine. The only software available at the launch was a magnetic tape with several programming examples. The ROM firmware included a program to enter machine codes, BASIC. Nevertheless, the DVK became a development platform for BK software. Homebrew developers quickly filled this niche, porting several development tools from DVK and this led to an explosion of homebrew software, from Text editors and databases to operating systems and games. Games and demo communities also flourished, as its graphics were offset by a powerful CPU. One of the systems was ANDOS, although officially the computer was shipped with OS BK-11. The machine was based on a powerful 16-bit single-chip K1801VM1 CPU and it was almost perfectly compatible with Digital Equipment Corporations LSI-11 line, though it lacked EIS and further command set extensions. The manufacturer also closely copied the PDP-11s internal architecture, each model had one free card slot which was electrically, but not mechanically, compatible with Q-Bus. The first versions had 32 KB onboard DRAM, half of which was used as video memory and that was extended to 128 KB in later models, with video memory extended to two 16 KB pages. Video output on all models was provided by the K1801VP1-037 VDC and it was actually a standard 600-gate ULA with a VDC program that allowed for two graphic video modes, high-res and low-res, and supported hardware vertical scrolling. Later models had 16 hardwired 4-color sets selectable from 64 color palette and it didnt support text modes, but simulated two via BIOS routines, 32×25 and 64×25
35.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, often cited as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. Researchers worked on computers, radar, and inertial guidance during World War II, post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian. The current 168-acre campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile along the bank of the Charles River basin. The Institute is traditionally known for its research and education in the sciences and engineering, and more recently in biology, economics, linguistics. Air Force and 6 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT, the school has a strong entrepreneurial culture, and the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh-largest economy in the world. In 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a Conservatory of Art and Science, but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rogers, a professor from the University of Virginia, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars, two days after the charter was issued, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MITs first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865, in 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay. MIT was informally called Boston Tech, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, the curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership, during these Boston Tech years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president Charles W. Eliots repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard Colleges Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard, in its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually the MIT Corporation approved an agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme, the neoclassical New Technology campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious Mr. Smith, starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of production and processing
36.
Xv6
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Xv6 is a modern reimplementation of Sixth Edition Unix in ANSI C for multiprocessor x86 systems. It is used for purposes in MITs Operating Systems Engineering course. Unlike Linux or BSD, xv6 is simple enough to cover in a semester, yet still contains the important concepts and organization of Unix. Rather than study the original V6 code, the course uses xv6 since PDP-11 machines are not widely available, one feature of the Makefile for xv6 is the option to produce a PDF of the entire source code listing in a readable format. The entire printout is only 97 pages, including cross references and this is reminiscent of the original V6 source code, which was published in a similar form in Lions Commentary on UNIX 6th Edition, with Source Code. TrustKernels T6 secure kernel is an Xv6 ARM ported OS and has deployed into many secure phones in China. Xv6 Home page xv6 source code Printable version of the xv6 source code, Xv6, a simple, Unix-like teaching operating system. Operating Systems Engineering T6, xv6 based secure OS using ARM TrustZone
. doi:10.1145/6041.6043. 
