1.
Roberte Ponsonby, Countess of Bessborough
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Roberte de Neuflize Ponsonby, Countess of Bessborough GCStJ JP, was the daughter of Baron Jean de Neuflize, CVO. On 25 June 1912, she married Vere Ponsonby, Viscount Duncannon, son of Edward Ponsonby, 8th Earl of Bessborough and Blanche Vere Guest, she held the courtesy title of Viscountess Duncannon. The Viscount inherited the title of Earl of Bessborough upon the death of his father on 1 December 1920 and she and her husband were predeceased by two of their three sons. Their third son died in 1993, only their daughter is still alive. She was decorated with the Chevalier, Legion of Honour and she held the office of Justice of the Peace for West Sussex between 1943 and 1956. Charles Mosley, editor, Burkes Peerage, Baronetage & Knightage, 107th edition,3 volumes, volume 1, page 363
2.
Vere Ponsonby, 9th Earl of Bessborough
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Vere Brabazon Ponsonby, 9th Earl of Bessborough GCMG PC was an Anglo-Irish businessman and politician who served as Governor General of Canada, the 14th since Canadian Confederation. Upon the death of his grandfather 10 years later, Ponsonby succeeded as Earl of Bessborough, Lord Bessborough is remembered for promoting new communication technologies as well as giving support to the Canadian population during the Great Depression. After the end of his tenure, he returned to London, where he continued in business and also work with the Dominions Office. The 9th Lord Bessborough was the last Earl of Bessborough to own Bessborough House, the country house was largely built in the 1740s for the 1st Earl. It was gutted by fire during the Irish Civil War in February 1923, the 9th Lord Bessborough had the house rebuilt in the late 1920s. However, he sold the house in the late 1930s as he lived in Britain. The house now forms the part of Kildalton Agricultural College. Ponsonby was born in London the first son and third child of Edward, 8th Earl of Bessborough and her father, Sir Josiah Guest, was a great-uncle of Sir Winston Churchill. Ponsonby attended Harrow School before going up to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1898, in 1903, he began a career in law, being called to the Bar at the Inner Temple. After his father succeeded as Earl of Bessborough in 1906, Ponsonby used the title of Viscount Duncannon. In 1907, the young Viscount Duncannon entered politics, being elected to a seat on the London County Council and he remained at that post until running in the January 1910 general election and winning a seat in the British House of Commons as the Member of Parliament for Cheltenham. He lost that seat in the election of 19 December that same year, Lord Duncannon married Roberte de Neuflize on 25 June 1912. With her he had four children, Frederick, born 29 March 1913, Desmond, born 4 August 1915, Moyra, born 2 March 1918 and he was transferred on 11 November 1914 to the Suffolk Hussars, where he was later appointed captain and promoted to acting major. He served at Gallipoli in 1915 and, from 1916 to 1918, at the conclusion of the war, Lord Duncannon was appointed a Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George in the 1919 New Year Honours List. After the death of his father on 1 December 1920, he succeeded to the Irish earldom of Bessborough, requiring him to resign his seat in the House of Commons, on 17 December, he applied to be Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Three Hundreds of Chiltern. It was announced in early 1931 that King George V had, by commission under the royal sign-manual and signet, as a sign of his sympathy with the majority of the populace, he gave up 10% of his salary. Despite the economic situation, Canada was gaining international stature and Lord Bessborough acted as host to the leaders who, in July 1932 and he also presided over the opening of the Welland Canal the same year. Lord Bessborough was also the first Canadian viceroy to fly the new standard dedicated to that office, after life in Canada, Lord Bessborough returned to London and to his businesses
3.
Governor General of Canada
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The Governor General of Canada is the federal viceregal representative of the Canadian monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II. The commission is for a period of time—known as serving at Her Majestys pleasure—though five years is the normal convention. Beginning in 1959, it has also been traditional to rotate between anglophone and francophone incumbents, once in office, the governor general maintains direct contact with the Queen, wherever she may be at the time. The office began in the 16th and 17th centuries with the Crown-appointed governors of the French colony of Canada followed by the British governors of Canada in the 18th and 19th centuries, subsequently, the office is, along with the Crown, the oldest continuous institution in Canada. Throughout this process of gradually increasing Canadian independence, the role of governor general took on additional responsibilities, finally, in 1947, King George VI issued letters patent allowing the viceroy to carry out almost all of the monarchs powers on his or her behalf. The current governor general is David Johnston, who has served since 1 October 2010, johnstons wife—who is thus the viceregal consort—is Sharon Johnston. The Government of Canada spells the title governor general without a hyphen, the Canadian media still often use the governor-general spelling. As governor is the noun in the title, it is pluralized, thus, governors general, moreover, both terms are capitalized when used in the formal title preceding an incumbents name. The position of general is mandated by both the Constitution Act,1867, and the letters patent issued in 1947 by King George VI. As such, on the recommendation of his or her Canadian prime minister and that individual is, from then until being sworn-in, referred to as the governor general-designate. Besides the administration of the oaths of office, there is no set formula for the swearing-in of a governor general-designate, the governor general will then give a speech, outlining whichever cause or causes he or she will champion during his or her time as viceroy. The incumbent will generally serve for at least five years, though this is only a convention. The prime minister may recommend to the Queen that the viceroy remain in her service for a longer period of time. A governor general may also resign, and two have died in office, the sovereign has unrestricted freedom of choice. We leave that to Her Majesty in all confidence, however, between 1867 and 1931, governors general were appointed by the monarch on the advice of the British Cabinet. Thereafter, in accordance with the Statute of Westminster 1931, the appointment was made by the sovereign with the direction of his or her Canadian ministers only. Until 1952, all governors general were also members of the Peerage or sons of peers. These viceroys spent a limited time in Canada, but their travel schedules were so extensive that they could learn more about Canada in five years than many Canadians in a lifetime
4.
Viceroy
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A viceroy /ˈvaɪs. rɔɪ/ is a regal official who runs a country, colony, city, province, or sub-national state, in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning in the place of, a viceroys territory may be called a viceroyalty, though this term is not always applied. The adjectival form is viceregal, less often viceroyal, the term vicereine is sometimes used to indicate a female viceroy suo jure, although viceroy can serve as a gender-neutral term. Vicereine is more used to indicate a viceroys wife. The title was used by the Crown of Aragon, where beginning in the 14th century, it referred to the Spanish governors of Sardinia. In Europe, until the 18th century, the Habsburg crown appointed viceroys of Aragon, Valencia, Catalonia, Navarre, Portugal, Sardinia, Sicily, with the ascension of the House of Bourbon to the Spanish throne, the historic Aragonese viceroyalties were replaced by new captaincies general. At the end of War of the Spanish Succession, the Spanish monarchy was shorn of its Italian possessions and these Italian territories, however, continued to have viceroys under their new rulers for some time, Sardinia would have a viceroy until 1848. These large administrative territories became known as Viceroyalties, New viceroyalties were created for New Granada in 1717 and the Río de la Plata in 1776. These units gathered the local provinces which could be governed by either a crown official, audiencias primarily functioned as superior judicial tribunals, but unlike their European counterparts, the New World audiencias were granted by law both administrative and legislative powers. The Bourbon Reforms introduced the new office of the intendant, which was appointed directly by the crown and had broad fiscal and administrative powers in political and military issues. The government started six years after the discovery of sea route to India by Vasco da Gama, in 1505, however the post was centered by governor Afonso de Albuquerque, who became plenipotentiary, and remained so. The duration in office was three years, possibly longer, given the power represented, of the thirty-four governors of India in the 16th century. After the end of the Iberian Union in 1640, the governors of Brazil that were members of the Portuguese high nobility started to use the title of Viceroy. Brazil became a permanent Viceroyalty in 1763, when the capital of the State of Brazil was transferred from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro, the designation Viceroy, although it was most frequently used in ordinary parlance, had no statutory authority, and was never employed by Parliament. The Governor-General continued to be the representative of the Crown. The viceroys reported directly to the Secretary of State for India in London and were advised by the Council of India, alongside the Commander-in-Chief, India, the viceroy was the public face of the British presence in India, attending to many ceremonial functions as well as political affairs. During the offices history, the Governors-General of India were based in two cities, Calcutta during the 19th century and New Delhi during the 20th century, additionally, whilst Calcutta was the capital of British India, the viceroys spent the summer months at Simla. The two historic residences of the viceroys still stand, the Viceroys House in New Delhi and Government House in Calcutta and they are used today as the official residences of the President of India and the Governor of West Bengal, respectively
5.
Ottawa
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Ottawa is the capital city of Canada. It stands on the bank of the Ottawa River in the eastern portion of southern Ontario. Ottawa borders Gatineau, Quebec, the two form the core of the Ottawa–Gatineau census metropolitan area and the National Capital Region. The 2016 census reported a population of 934,243, making it the fourth-largest city in Canada, the City of Ottawa reported that the city had an estimated population of 960,754 as of December 2015. Founded in 1826 as Bytown, and incorporated as Ottawa in 1855, the city name Ottawa was chosen in reference to the Ottawa River nearby, the name of which is derived from the Algonquin Odawa, meaning to trade. The city is the most educated in Canada, and is home to a number of post-secondary, research, and cultural institutions, including the National Arts Centre, Ottawa also has the highest standard of living in the nation and low unemployment. It ranked second out of 150 worldwide in the Numbeo quality of life index 2014–2015, with the draining of the Champlain Sea around ten thousand years ago the Ottawa Valley became habitable. The area was used for wild harvesting, hunting, fishing, trade, travel. The Ottawa river valley has archaeological sites with arrow heads, pottery, the area has three major rivers that meet, making it an important trade and travel area for thousands of years. The Algonquins called the Ottawa River Kichi Sibi or Kichissippi meaning Great River or Grand River, Étienne Brûlé, the first European to travel up the Ottawa River, passed by Ottawa in 1610 on his way to the Great Lakes. Three years later, Samuel de Champlain wrote about the waterfalls of the area and about his encounters with the Algonquins, the early explorers and traders were later followed by many missionaries. The first maps of the area used the word Ottawa to name the river, philemon Wright, a New Englander, created the first settlement in the area on 7 March 1800 on the north side of the river, across from Ottawa in Hull. He, with five other families and twenty-five labourers, set about to create a community called Wrightsville. Wright pioneered the Ottawa Valley timber trade by transporting timber by river from the Ottawa Valley to Quebec City, the following year, the town would soon be named after British military engineer Colonel John By who was responsible for the entire Rideau Waterway construction project. Colonel By set up military barracks on the site of todays Parliament Hill and he also laid out the streets of the town and created two distinct neighbourhoods named Upper Town west of the canal and Lower Town east of the canal. Similar to its Upper Canada and Lower Canada namesakes, historically Upper Town was predominantly English speaking and Protestant whereas Lower Town was predominantly French, Irish, bytowns population grew to 1,000 as the Rideau Canal was being completed in 1832. In 1855 Bytown was renamed Ottawa and incorporated as a city, William Pittman Lett was installed as the first city clerk guiding it through 36 years of development. On New Years Eve 1857, Queen Victoria, as a symbolic, in reality, Prime Minister John A. Macdonald had assigned this selection process to the Executive Branch of the Government, as previous attempts to arrive at a consensus had ended in deadlock
6.
Rideau Hall
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Rideau Hall is, since 1867, the official residence in Ottawa of both the Canadian monarch and his or her representative, the Governor General of Canada, and has been described as Canadas house. It stands in Canadas capital on a 0.36 km2 estate at 1 Sussex Drive, with the building consisting of approximately 175 rooms across 9,500 m2. Rideau Hall and the grounds were designated as a National Historic Site of Canada in 1977. The house is open to the public for guided tours throughout the year, following the completion of the canal, McKay built mills at Rideau Falls, making him the founder of New Edinburgh, the original settlement of Ottawa. Locals referred to the structure as McKays Castle, the next year, Frederick Preston Rubidge oversaw the refinishing of the original villa and designed additions to accommodate the new functions. It was enlarged to three or four times the size, mostly by way of a new 49 room wing, and, once complete, the first Governor General of Canada. These additions were opposed by George Brown, who claimed that the governor generals residence is a little house. Prime Minister John A. Macdonald agreed, complaining that more had been spent on patching up Rideau Hall than could have used to construct a new royal palace. Nonetheless, the gatehouse was enhanced by Rubidge and the property purchased outright in 1868 for the sum of $82,000. Probably the largest event held in the ballroom was a dress ball hosted by the Dufferins that took place on the evening of 23 February 1876. Still, despite the popularity of the events took place in the building. In 1893, Lady Stanley, wife of Governor General the Lord Stanley of Preston, had no furniture except chairs & tables. The room which has always been the wife of the G. G. s sitting room is very empty, there are no lamps in the house at all. No cushions, no table cloths, in none of the small things that make a room pretty & comfortable. Echoing these earlier comments, the Marchioness of Aberdeen and Temair said upon her departure from Ottawa that Rideau Hall was a shabby old Government House put away amongst its clump of bushes. Various improvements were undertaken over the decades, seeing the first gas chandeliers, the Princess was not long in Rideau Hall before Fenians posed themselves as a threat to her life and she was ushered back to the UK for both rest and protection. When she returned in 1880, with the Queen greatly concerned for her daughters safety, the King, while there, became the first monarch of Canada to personally receive the credentials of an ambassador, that being Daniel Calhoun Roper as the representative of the United States. However, it was decided that the Royal Family leaving the United Kingdom at a time of war would be a blow to morale
7.
Monarchy of Canada
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The Monarchy of Canada is at the very core of both Canadas federal structure and Westminster-style of parliamentary and constitutional democracy. The monarchy is the foundation of the executive, legislature, and judiciary in the federal, the Canadian sovereign is the personification of the Canadian state and, as a matter of constitutional law, is Canada. The current Canadian monarch, since 6 February 1952, is Queen Elizabeth II, as such, Elizabeths son, Prince Charles, is heir apparent. Although the person of the sovereign is shared with 15 other independent countries within the Commonwealth of Nations, each countrys monarchy is separate. However, the Queen is the member of the Royal Family with any constitutional role. While some powers are only by the sovereign, most of the monarchs operational and ceremonial duties are exercised by his or her representative. In each of Canadas provinces, the monarch is represented by a lieutenant governor, as the territories are not sovereign, they do not have a viceroy. As all executive authority is vested in the sovereign, their assent is required to allow for bills to become law and for letters patent, Canada is one of the oldest continuing monarchies in the world. The emergence of this arrangement paralleled the fruition of Canadian nationalism following the end of the First World War and culminated in the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931. Upon a demise of the Crown, the late sovereigns heir immediately and automatically succeeds, without any need for confirmation or further ceremony, hence arises the phrase The King is dead. It is customary for the accession of the new monarch to be proclaimed by the governor general on behalf of the Privy Council. Following an appropriate period of mourning, the monarch is crowned in the United Kingdom in an ancient ritual. This is because, in law, the Crown never dies. After an individual ascends the throne, he or she continues to reign until death. The relationship between the Commonwealth realms is such that any change to the rules of succession to their respective crowns requires the consent of all the realms. Succession is governed by statutes, such as the Bill of Rights 1689, the Act of Settlement 1701, in 1936, King Edward VIII abdicated and any possible future descendants of his were excluded from the line of succession. As the Statute of Westminster 1931 disallowed the UK from legislating for Canada, including in relation to succession, the latter was deemed by the Cabinet in 1947 to be part of Canadian law, as is the Bill of Rights 1689, according to the Supreme Court of Canada. The Department of External Affairs included all succession-related laws in its list of acts within Canadian law, certain aspects of the succession rules have been challenged in the courts
8.
Excellency
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Excellency is an honorific style given to certain members of an organisation or state. Generally people addressed as Excellency are heads of state, heads of government, governors, ambassadors, certain ecclesiastics, royalty, and others holding equivalent rank and the FIFA President. It is sometimes misinterpreted as a title of office in itself, in reference to such an official, it takes the form His or Her Excellency, in direct address, Your Excellency, or, less formally, simply Excellency. The abbreviation HE is often used instead of His/Her Excellency, alternatively it may stand for His/Her Eminence, in most republican nations, the head of state is formally addressed as His Excellency. If a republic has a head of government, that official is often addressed as Excellency as well. If the nation is a monarchy, however, the customs may vary, in the case of Australia, all ambassadors, high commissioners, governors and the governor-general and their spouses are entitled to the use of Excellency. Governors of colonies in the British Empire were entitled to be addressed as Excellency, in various international organizations, notably the UN and its agencies, Excellency is used as a generic form of address for all republican heads of state and heads of government. Judges of the International Court of Justice are also called Your Excellency, in some monarchies the husbands, wives, or children, of a royal prince or princess, who do not possess a princely title themselves, may be entitled to the style. For example, in Spain spouses or children of a born infante or infanta are addressed as Excellency, also, former members of a royal house or family, who did have a royal title but forfeited it, may be awarded the style afterwards. Examples are former husbands or wives of a prince or princess, including Alexandra, Countess of Frederiksborg. In some emirates, only the Emir, heir apparent and prime minister are called His Highness and their children are styled with the lower treatment of His/Her Excellency. In Spain members of the nobility, holding the dignity of grandee, are addressed as The Most Excellent Lord/Lady. Some of the high ranking counts, Excellency can also attach to a prestigious quality, notably in an order of knighthood. By a decree of the Sacred Congregation of Ceremonial of 31 December 1930 the Holy See granted bishops of the Roman Catholic Church the title of Most Reverend Excellency. In the years following the First World War, the title of Excellency. The adjective Most Reverend was intended to distinguish the title from that of Excellency given to civil officials. The instruction Ut sive sollicite of the Holy Sees Secretariat of State, dated 28 March 1969, cardinals, even those who were bishops, continued to use the title of Eminence. In some English-speaking countries, the honorific of Excellency does not apply to other than the nuncio
9.
Order of Canada
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The Order of Canada is a Canadian national order, admission into which is the second highest honour for merit in the system of orders, decorations, and medals of Canada. It comes second only to membership in the Order of Merit, membership is accorded to those who exemplify the orders Latin motto, desiderantes meliorem patriam, meaning they desire a better country, a phrase taken from Hebrews 11,16. Appointees to the order are recommended by a board and formally inducted by the governor general or the sovereign. As of October 2016,6,699 people have been appointed to the Order of Canada, including scientists, musicians, politicians, artists, athletes, business people, and film stars, benefactors, and others. Some have resigned or have been removed from the order, while other appointments have been controversial, appointees are presented with insignia and receive the right to armorial bearings. Pearson, who was assisted with the establishment of the order by John Matheson. Laurent, Hugh MacLennan, David Bauer, Gabrielle Roy, Donald Creighton, Thérèse Casgrain, Wilder Penfield, Arthur Lismer, M. J. Coldwell, Edwin Baker, Alex Colville, and Maurice Richard. From the Order of Canada grew a Canadian honours system, thereby reducing the use of British honours, by the 1980s, Canadas provinces began to develop their own distinct honours and decorations. The Canadian monarch, seen as the fount of honour, is at the apex of the Order of Canada as its Sovereign, followed by the governor general, who serves as the fellowships Chancellor. Thereafter follow three grades, which are, in order of precedence, Companion, Officer, and Member, each incumbent governor general is also installed as the Principal Companion for the duration of his or her time in the viceregal post and continues as an extraordinary Companion thereafter. As of March 2016, there have twenty one honorary appointments. There were originally, in effect, only two ranks to the Order of Canada, Companion and the Medal of Service, there was, however, also a third award, the Medal of Courage, meant to recognize acts of gallantry. This latter decoration fell in rank between the two levels, but was anomalous within the Order of Canada, being a separate award of a different nature rather than a middle grade of the order. Lester Pearsons vision of a structure to the order was thus fulfilled. Companions of the Order of Canada have demonstrated the highest degree of merit to Canada and humanity, up to 15 Companions are appointed annually, with an imposed limit of 165 living Companions at any given time, not including those appointed as extraordinary Companions or in an honorary capacity. As of October 2015, there are 143 living Companions, none being honorary, since 1994, substantive members are the only regular citizens who are empowered to administer the Canadian Oath of Citizenship. As of October 2015, there were 1,123 living Officers, Members of the Order of Canada have made an exceptional contribution to Canada or Canadians at a local or regional level, group, field or activity. As many as 136 Members may be appointed annually, not including extraordinary Members and those inducted on an honorary basis, as of October 2015, there were 2,225 living Members, none being honorary
10.
Order of Saint John (chartered 1888)
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The orders approximately 25,000 members, known as confrères, are mostly of the Protestant faith, though those of other Christian denominations or other religions are accepted into the order. Except via appointment to government or ecclesiastical offices in some realms, membership is by invitation only. It is a constituent member of the Alliance of the Orders of St John of Jerusalem and its headquarters are in London and it is a registered charity under English law. This was to be achieved by issuing bonds in London to form an army of demobilized British soldiers using readily available. The council was reorganised and the Marquis de Sainte-Croix du Molay became its head, scotsman Donald Currie was in 1827 given the authority to raise £240,000. Anyone who subscribed to the project and all commissioned officers of the army were offered the opportunity of being appointed knights of the order. Few donations were attracted, though, and the Greek War of Independence was won without the help of the knights of the Council of the French Langues and it was headquartered at what Mortara called the Auberge of St. John, St Johns Gate, Clerkenwell. The creation of the langue has been regarded either as a revival of the Knights Hospitaller or the establishment of a new order, on 29 January 1831, in the presence of Philip de Castellane and the Agent-General of the French Langues, Peat was elected Prior ad interim. Sir Robert Peat died in April 1837 and Sir Henry Dymoke was appointed grand prior and re-established contact with the knights in France and Germany, into which the group had by that time expanded. This new entity grew its membership over the three decades and, in 1861, the Duke of Manchester agreed to become its grand prior. Additionally, an associated national hospitaller organisation was formed with a corps of ambulances, Sir Edmund Lechmere purchased St Johns Gate as the orders headquarters two years later, the property was initially leased from Lechmere before the order acquired the freehold in 1887. The name given when first constituted in 1888 as the present order of chivalry by Queen Victorias royal charter was Grand Priory of the Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem in England. Its most recent royal charter was granted in 1955, with a charter issued in 1974. In 1999, the order received special status from the United Nations Economic. The Grand Prior may also appoint a secretary of the order, since the orders royal charter of 1888, the Grand Prior has been appointed by the Sovereign Head and has always been a member of the royal family. All Priors, should not already be in the grade or higher, are made a Knight or Dame of Justice upon their assignment. Knights and Dames receive the accolade from the grand prior when they are touched on the shoulder with a sword and are given their robes, bailiffs and Dames Grand Cross additionally have the right to be granted heraldic supporters for life. In 2013, the Priory of Kenya and in 2014 the Priory of Singapore were formed, each is governed by a prior and a priory chapter
11.
Vincent Massey
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Charles Vincent Massey PC CH CC CD FRSC was a Canadian lawyer and diplomat who served as the first Canadian-born Governor General of Canada, the 18th since Canadian Confederation. On September 16,1925, Massey was sworn into the Kings Privy Council for Canada, however, Massey was later, as a former Governor General of Canada, entitled to be styled for life with the superior form of The Right Honourable. He subsequently continued his work and founded Massey College at the University of Toronto. Massey was born in Toronto, Ontario, as the son of Anna and Chester Daniel Massey, the owner of the Massey-Harris Co. and the patriarch of one of the citys wealthiest families. But, he was not with his new bride long before, at the end of 1914, the United Kingdom, and thus Canada along with it, had declared war on Germany. Massey was commissioned as an officer for Military District No.2 and was called to work for the Cabinet war committee before being discharged at the cessation of hostilities in 1918. By the next year, UofTs social and athletic facility was complete and dedicated in memory of Masseys grandfather, Hart Massey, as Hart House, there, Massey participated as an amateur actor and director in the buildings theatre. It was desired that Massey, as a minister, hold a seat in the House of Commons, yet he failed to win his riding of Durham in the 1925 federal election, held on October 29. But, merely five days after Massey relinquished his posting to Washington, Mackenzie Kings Liberal Party was defeated in the federal election, three years later, the Liberals were again returned to a majority in the commons and Mackenzie King was once more installed as prime minister. Throughout his time as commissioner, Massey used his connections to bring to Canada House a litany of personalities from the highest quarters. Seven decades later, these accusations against Massey resulted in a campaign in Windsor, Ontario, to rename a high school that had originally been named in his honour. Though Massey was honoured for all work by being inducted in 1946 by King George VI into the Order of the Companions of Honour. He sat as chair of the National Gallery of Canada from 1948 to 1952 and was selected as Chancellor of the University of Toronto between 1948 and 1953, all this Massey continued despite the death of his wife in July 1950. As a widower, he was also the only unmarried person ever to reside at Rideau Hall, typically, the governor generals wife would be the viceregal consort and act as the hostess and chatelaine of the household. In Masseys case, however, his daughter-in-law, Lilias Massey, fulfilled the role, though she was not accorded the style of Her Excellency, laurents choice of Massey to succeed the Viscount Alexander of Tunis as the Kings representative. Within five days, however, the King was dead and Massey, upon his swearing-in, would thus be the first Canadian-born representative of Georges daughter, Queen Elizabeth II. As he was a member of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, in Canada, there was some commentary about the soon-to-be representative of the new queen. The notion of a Canadian-born governor general, and one also not elevated to the peerage, was viewed as controversial by traditionalists
12.
Widow
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A widow is a woman whose spouse has died, while a widower is a man in that situation. The state of having lost ones spouse to death is termed widowhood and these terms are not applied to a person after he or she becomes divorced from their former spouse. The term widowhood can be used for sex, at least according to some dictionaries. Occasionally, the word viduity is used, the adjective form for either sex is widowed. When the death of a spouse occurs, it is said that an effect is to arise. This is a phenomenon that refers to the mortality rate after the death of a spouse. It is “strongest during the first three months after a death, when they had a 66-percent increased chance of dying”. Most widows and widowers suffer from this effect during the first 3 months of their spouses death, in societies where the husband is the sole provider, his death can leave his family destitute. The tendency for women generally to outlive men can compound this, in some patriarchal societies, widows may maintain economic independence. A woman would carry on her spouses business and be accorded certain rights, more recently, widows of political figures have been among the first women elected to high office in many countries, such as Corazón Aquino or Isabel Martínez de Perón. In 19th-century Britain, widows had greater opportunity for social mobility than in other societies. Along with the ability to ascend socio-economically, widows—who were presumably celibate—were much more able to challenge conventional sexual behaviour than married women in their society. Many immigrants from these cultures to the United States as recently as the 1970s have loosened this strict standard of dress to only two years of black garments. However, Orthodox Christian immigrants may wear black in the United States to signify their widowhood. In other cultures, however, widowhood is much stricter and unarguably more demeaning to womens rights, often, women are required to remarry within the family of their late husband after a period of mourning. As of 2004, women in United States who were widowed at younger ages are at greatest risk for economic hardship, similarly, married women who are in a financially unstable household are more likely to become widows because of the strong relationship between mortality and wealth. In underdeveloped and developing areas of the world, conditions for widows continue to be more severe. A variable that is deemed important and relative to the effects of widowhood is the gender of the widow
13.
Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone
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Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone, VA, GCVO, GBE, GCStJ, was a member of the British Royal Family. She is the longest-lived Princess of the Blood Royal of the British Royal Family and she was godmother to Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands, who is the granddaughter of her first cousin on her mothers side, Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands. Princess Alice was born 25 February 1883 at Windsor Castle and her father was Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, the youngest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Her mother was Princess Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont and she had one brother, Prince Charles Edward, Duke of Albany and later reigning Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. As the granddaughter of the Sovereign through the line, she was a Princess of the United Kingdom. As the daughter of the Duke of Albany, she was, therefore and she was baptised in the Private Chapel of Windsor Castle on 26 March 1883, and named Alice for her late paternal aunt. On 10 February 1904, at St Georges Chapel, Windsor, Princess Alice of Albany married her second cousin once-removed, Prince Alexander of Teck, the brother of Princess Mary, after their marriage, Princess Alice was styled Princess Alexander of Teck. Prince and Princess Alexander of Teck had three children, Princess Alice was one of the carriers of the gene for haemophilia which originated with Queen Victoria, Princess Alice inherited the gene from her father who himself was a sufferer. As such, the two surviving children lost their Württemberg princely titles, Alice remained, however, a Princess of Great Britain and Ireland and a Royal Highness in her own right, as granddaughter of Queen Victoria in the male line. The Earl was appointed Governor-General of the Union of South Africa and served from 1924 to 1931, Lord Athlone and Princess Alice had a coastal beach house constructed at Muizenberg, which still stands today and is one of South Africas national monuments. She became a friend of the South African politician Bernard Friedman. On the sudden death of the vastly popular John Buchan in 1940 Canada found itself without a Governor General in time of war, Princess Alice accompanied her husband to Canada where he served as Governor General from 1940 to 1946. In 1944, the Princess Alice Barracks Cabin at Britannia Bay provided a retreat for Royal Canadian Air Force Womens Division personnel based in Ottawa. The cabin was located near the Britannia Boating Clubs facilities for tennis, rented from the Kings Daughters Guild of Ottawa, the cabin featured 60 beds, a separate cookhouse and dining pavilion. The cabin, which had served previously as a Fresh Air Cottage for mothers, further, in December 1941, British prime minister Winston Churchill arrived at Rideau Hall, where he presided over British Cabinet meetings via telephone from his bed. The viceregal couple also played host at Quebec City to prime minister Mackenzie King, as well as Churchill, photos of the Earl with Roosevelt, Churchill and Mackenzie King on the ramparts of the Citadel during the Quebec Conference were widely published at the time. It was at these meetings that the four men discussed the Allied strategies that would lead to victory over Nazi Germany. When Germany fell on 8 May 1945 and Japan on 15 August of the year, Athlone led the national celebrations held on Parliament Hill
14.
Canadian Armed Forces
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This unified institution consists of sea, land, and air elements referred to as the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force. Under the National Defence Act, the Canadian Armed Forces are an entity separate and distinct from the Department of National Defence, the Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Armed Forces is the reigning Canadian monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, who is represented by the Governor General of Canada. The Canadian Armed Forces is led by the Chief of the Defence Staff, during the Cold War, a principal focus of Canadian defence policy was contributing to the security of Europe in the face of the Soviet military threat. Toward that end, Canadian ground and air forces were based in Europe from the early 1950s until the early 1990s, Canadian defence policy today is based on the Canada First Defence Strategy, introduced in 2008. Based on that strategy, the Canadian military is oriented and being equipped to carry out six core missions within Canada, in North America and globally. Prior to Confederation in 1867, residents of the colonies in what is now Canada served as members of French and British forces. Thereafter, the Royal Canadian Navy was formed, and, with the advent of military aviation and these forces were organised under the Department of Militia and Defence, and split into the Permanent and Non-Permanent Active Militias—frequently shortened to simply The Militia. By 1923, the department was merged into the Department of National Defence, the first overseas deployment of Canadian military forces occurred during the Second Boer War, when several units were raised to serve under British command. Similarly, when the United Kingdom entered into conflict with Germany in the First World War, the Canadian Crown-in-Council then decided to send its forces into the Second World War, as well as the Korean War. Since 1947, Canadian military units have participated in more than 200 operations worldwide, Canada maintained an aircraft carrier from 1957 to 1970 during the Cold War, which never saw combat but participated in patrols during the Cuban Missile Crisis. At the end of the Second World War, Canada possessed the fourth-largest air force and fifth-largest naval surface fleet in the world, conscription for overseas service was introduced only near the end of the war, and only 2,400 conscripts actually made it into battle. Originally, Canada was thought to have had the third-largest navy in the world and its roots, however, lie in colonial militia groups that served alongside garrisons of the French and British armies and navies, a structure that remained in place until the early 20th century. After the 1980s, the use of the Canadian Armed Forces name gave way to Canadian Forces, land Forces during this period also deployed in support of peacekeeping operations within United Nations sanctioned conflicts. The nature of the Canadian Forces has continued to evolve and they have been deployed in Afghanistan until 2011, under the NATO-led United Nations International Security Assistance Force, at the request of the Government of Afghanistan. The Armed Forces are today funded by approximately $20, the number of primary reserve personnel is expected to go up to 30,000 by 2020, and the number of active to at least 70,000. In addition,5000 rangers and 19,000 supplementary personnel will be serving, if this happens the total strength would be around 124,000. These individuals serve on numerous CF bases located in all regions of the country, and are governed by the Queens Regulations and Orders, the 2006 renewal and re-equipment effort has resulted in the acquisition of specific equipment to support the mission in Afghanistan. It has also encompassed initiatives to renew certain so-called core capabilities, in addition, new systems have also been acquired for the Armed Forces
15.
Speech from the throne
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The speech is prepared by the ministers of the crown in cabinet. The event is held annually, although in some places it may occur more or less frequently. In constitutional monarchies today, whether by law or by convention, the head of state reads the Speech From the Throne, the address sets forth the governments priorities with respect to its legislative agenda, for which the cooperation of parliament is sought. In the United Kingdom, the speech is known as Her Majestys Most Gracious Speech, the Gracious Address, or, less formally, in Canada, it is often shortened to Throne Speech. In Australia, this speech is called the Governors speech or opening speech, in Hong Kong, the governors address was termed the Policy Address during Chris Pattens governorship. In the Irish Free State, the governor-general delivered the Governor-Generals Address to Dáil Éireann, in the Commonwealth realms, the Speech From the Throne is an oration that forms part of a ceremony marking the opening of parliament. Some records indicate the ceremony has taken place since the Medieval era, while others place its origins in the 16th century, the speech explained to parliament the reasons it was summoned and sometimes set out the sovereigns policies and objectives. The monarch would sometimes speak to parliament in person, King Edward III, Richard II, and Edward IV did so. It was given on his behalf by the Bishop of Winchester in 1410, in 1453 and 1467, the Bishop of Lincoln, the Bishop of Rochester in 1472, and the Keeper of the Privy Seal in 1431. It may have been written by or with the input of the king or queens advisers, but, in unicameral parliaments, the speech is read in the one legislative chamber. Unusually, in the Irish Free State, the speech was delivered in the house of its bicameral parliament. In the United Kingdom, the speech is read by the reigning sovereign at the State Opening of Parliament. Traditions surrounding the Opening and the speech go back to the 16th century, the present ceremony dates from 1852, the ceremony now occurs annually in May or soon after a general election. Another member of the Royal Family may also perform this duty, such as when, on 1 September 1919, Prince Edward, Prince of Wales, read the Speech From the Throne in the Canadian parliament. On two occasions, the Administrator of the Government delivered the address to the Parliament of Canada,16 May 1963 and 30 September 1974. In almost all the Canadian provinces, the relevant lieutenant governor delivers the speech, at the Provincial level in Canada, only in Quebec is the speech not referred to as the Speech From the Throne. In British overseas territories that have instituted this practice, the relevant governor delivers the speech, however, the British monarch often undertakes visits and speaks to the devolved bodies in a less official capacity. In each of the Canadian territories, the commissioner reads the Throne Speech or Opening Address to the legislature, formally, the motion that follows the speech merely calls on parliament to thank the monarch or viceroy via an Address in Reply
16.
Canada Day
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Canada Day is the national day of Canada. Originally called Dominion Day, the holiday was renamed in 1982, Canada Day celebrations take place throughout the country, as well as in various locations around the world, attended by Canadians living abroad. Although Canada existed prior to 1867, within both the French and British empires, Canada Day is frequently referred to as Canadas birthday, Canada became a kingdom within the British Empire in its own right on that date, named the Dominion of Canada. Canada gradually gained increasing independence over the years until finally becoming independent in 1982. Under the federal Holidays Act, Canada Day is observed on July 1, unless that falls on a Sunday. Celebratory events will still take place on July 1, even though it is not the legal holiday. If it falls on a Saturday, any businesses normally closed that day will usually dedicate the following Monday as a day off, there doesnt seem to be a central recipe for how to celebrate it—chalk it up to the nature of the federation. Smaller events are mounted in parks around the city and in Gatineau. Given the federal nature of the anniversary, celebrating Canada Day can be a cause of friction in the province of Quebec and you could wave a different flag, and choose another face paint, and nothing would be lost. Canada Day also coincides with Quebecs Moving Day, when many fixed-lease apartment rental terms expire, Canadian expatriates will often organize Canada Day activities in their local area on or near the date of the holiday. In China, Canada Day celebrations are held at the Bund Beach by the Canadian Chamber of Commerce in Shanghai, the holiday was initially not dominant in the national calendar, any celebrations were mounted by local communities and the governor general hosted a party at Rideau Hall. No larger celebrations were held until 1917 and then again for a further decade—the golden and diamond anniversaries of Confederation. In 1946, Philéas Côté, a Quebec member of the House of Commons, beginning in 1958, the Canadian government began to orchestrate Dominion Day celebrations. That year, then Prime Minister John Diefenbaker requested that Secretary of State Ellen Fairclough put together appropriate events, Parliament was traditionally in session on July 1, but Fairclough persuaded Diefenbaker and the rest of the federal Cabinet to attend. Official celebrations thereafter consisted usually of Trooping the Colour ceremonies on Parliament Hill in the afternoon and evening, followed by a band concert. Fairclough, who became Minister of Citizenship and Immigration, later expanded the bills to include performing folk, the day also became more casual and family oriented. Into the late 1960s, nationally televised, multi-cultural concerts held in Ottawa were added, after 1980, the Canadian government began to promote celebrating Dominion Day beyond the national capital, giving grants and aid to cities across the country to help fund local activities. Others claimed Dominion was widely misunderstood and conservatively inclined commenters saw the change as part of a larger attempt by Liberals to re-brand or re-define Canadian history
17.
Parliament Hill
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Parliament Hill, colloquially known as The Hill, is an area of Crown land on the southern banks of the Ottawa River in downtown Ottawa, Ontario. Its Gothic revival suite of buildings is the home of the Parliament of Canada and has elements of national symbolic importance. Parliament Hill attracts approximately 3 million visitors each year, law enforcement on parliament hill and in the parliamentary precinct is the responsibility of the Parliamentary Protective Service. Since 2002, an extensive $1 billion renovation and rehabilitation project has been underway throughout all of the precincts buildings, Parliament Hill is a limestone outcrop with a gently sloping top that was originally covered in primeval forest of beech and hemlock. After Ottawa—then called Bytown—was founded, the builders of the Rideau Canal used the hill as a location for a military base, a large fortress was planned for the site, but was never built, and by the mid 19th century the hill had lost its strategic importance. On 7 May, the Department of Public Works issued a call for proposals for the new parliament buildings to be erected on Barrack Hill. After the entries were narrowed down to three, Governor General Sir Edmund Walker Head was approached to break the stalemate, and the winners were announced on 29 August 1859. The team of Thomas Stent and Augustus Laver, under the pseudonym of Stat nomen in umbra, won the prize for the second category, $300,000 was allocated for the main building, and $120,000 for each of the departmental buildings. Ground was broken on 20 December 1859, and the first stones laid on 16 April of the following year, the construction of Parliament Hill became the largest project undertaken in North America to that date. By early 1861, Public Works reported that $1,424,882, two years later, the unfinished site hosted a celebration of Queen Victorias birthday, further cementing the areas position as the central place for national outpouring. The site was still incomplete when three of the British North American colonies entered Confederation in 1867, with Ottawa remaining the capital of the new country, thus, the offices of parliament spread to buildings beyond Parliament Hill even at that early date. The British military gave a nine-pound naval cannon to the British army garrison stationed in Ottawa in 1854 and it was purchased by the Canadian government in 1869 and fired on Parliament Hill for many years as the Noonday Gun. By 1876, the structures of Parliament Hill were finished, along with the surrounding fence, fire destroyed the Centre Block on 3 February 1916. Eleven years later, the new tower was completed and dedicated as the Peace Tower, the Queen was back on Parliament Hill on 17 April 1982, to issue a royal proclamation of the enactment of the Constitution Act that year. In April 1989, a Greyhound Lines bus with 11 passengers on board travelling to New York City from Montreal was hijacked by an armed man, a standoff with police ensued and lasted eight hours, though three shots were fired, there were no injuries. The following year, Queen Elizabeth IIs Golden Jubilee was marked on 13 October, on 22 October 2014, several shooting incidents occurred around Parliament Hill. A gunman, after shooting a Canadian Army soldier mounting the ceremonial guard at the National War Memorial. There, he was killed in a shootout with RCMP officers, the gunman also injured one House of Commons constable, who was shot in the foot
18.
State visit
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Speaking for the host, it is generally called a state reception. State visits are considered to be the highest expression of friendly relations between two sovereign states, and are in general characterised by an emphasis on official public ceremonies. Queen Elizabeth II is the most travelled head of state in the world, however, the Queen has occasionally made some state and official visits representing one of her other Commonwealth realms. A 21-gun salute is fired in honor of the head of state. The playing of the two national anthems by a military band, the guest countrys anthem is usually played first. A review of an honor guard or guard of honour. An exchange of gifts between the two heads of state, a state dinner, either white tie or black tie, is mounted by the hosting head of state, with the visiting head of state being the guest of honor. A visit to the legislature of the host country, often with the head of state being invited to deliver a formal address to the assembled members of the legislature. High-profile visits by the heads of state to host country landmarks such as laying a wreath at a military shrine or cemetery. The staging of cultural events celebrating links between the two nations, the visiting head of state is usually accompanied by a senior government minister, usually by a foreign minister. While the costs of a visit are usually borne by state funds of the host country, most nations host fewer than ten state visits per year. State visits by well-known global leaders, such as Elizabeth II, the President of the United States or the Pope, often draw much publicity and large crowds
19.
Quebec City
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Quebec City, French, Ville de Québec, officially Québec) is the capital city of the Canadian province of Quebec. Founded in 1608 by Samuel de Champlain, Quebec City is one of the oldest cities in North America. The citys landmarks include the Château Frontenac, a hotel which dominates the skyline, and La Citadelle, the National Assembly of Quebec, the Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec, and the Musée de la civilisation are found within or near Vieux-Québec. Thus, Québec is officially spelled with an accented é in both Canadian English and French, although the accent is not used in common English usage. Quebec City is one of the oldest European settlements in North America, while many of the major cities in Latin America date from the sixteenth century, among cities in Canada and the U. S. few were created earlier than Quebec City. Also, Quebecs Old Town is the only North American fortified city north of Mexico whose walls still exist, French explorer Jacques Cartier built a fort at the site in 1535, where he stayed for the winter before going back to France in spring 1536. He came back in 1541 with the goal of building a permanent settlement, Quebec was founded by Samuel de Champlain, a French explorer and diplomat on 3 July 1608, and at the site of a long abandoned St. Lawrence Iroquoian settlement called Stadacona. Champlain, also called The Father of New France, served as its administrator for the rest of his life, the name Canada refers to this settlement. Although called the cradle of the Francophone population in North America, the place seemed favourable to the establishment of a permanent colony. In 1629 there was the surrender of Quebec, without battle, however, Samuel de Champlain argued that the English seizing of the lands was illegal as the war had already ended, he worked to have the lands returned to France. As part of the negotiations of their exit from the Anglo-French War. These terms were signed into law with the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the lands in Quebec and Acadia were returned to the French Company of One Hundred Associates. In 1665, there were 550 people in 70 houses living in the city, one-quarter of the people were members of religious orders, secular priests, Jesuits, Ursulines nuns and the order running the local hospital, Hotel-Dieu. Quebec City was the headquarters of many raids against New England during the four French, in the last war, the French and Indian War, Quebec City was captured by the British in 1759 and held until the end of the war in 1763. France ceded New France, including the city, to Britain in 1763, at the end of French rule in 1763, forests, villages, fields and pastures surrounded the town of 8,000 inhabitants. The town distinguished itself by its architecture, fortifications, affluent homes of masonry and shacks in the suburbs of Saint-Jean. Despite its urbanity and its status as capital, Quebec City remained a small city with close ties to its rural surroundings. Nearby inhabitants traded their farm surpluses and firewood for imported goods from France at the two city markets, during the American Revolution revolutionary troops from the southern colonies assaulted the British garrison in an attempt to liberate Quebec City, in a conflict now known as the Battle of Quebec
20.
Citadelle of Quebec
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The Citadelle of Quebec, also known as La Citadelle, is an active military installation and official residence of both the Canadian monarch and the Governor General of Canada. It is located atop Cap Diamant, adjoining the Plains of Abraham in Quebec City, the Citadelle is a National Historic Site of Canada and forms part of the Fortifications of Québec National Historic Site of Canada. The fortress is located within the Historic District of Old Québec, the site receives some 200,000 visitors annually. Cap Diamants strategic value was identified by Samuel de Champlain in 1608, the promontory was practically insurmountable and thus the only side of the settlement ever to be heavily fortified was the west, the only one not naturally protected by the hill. The proposal to build a fort was deemed by the government in France to be too costly. After the fall of Louisbourg in 1745, considerable work on the battlements took place under the direction of military engineer Gaspard-Joseph Chaussegros de Léry, the first British Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, General James Murray, saw the weakness of Quebec Citys defences. He urged the construction of a citadel, but the government at Westminster, like the French before, deemed a large fort to be of little value. During the American Revolutionary War, after seizing Montreal in the autumn of 1775, American rebels, led by General Richard Montgomery and Benedict Arnold, there, Montgomery was killed and Arnold wounded and forced to retreat. The Americans attempted to keep Quebec under siege, but withdrew after the arrival of British reinforcements in the spring of 1776, the ramparts around the Upper Town cliff and four martello towers on the Plains of Abraham were completed before 1812. A citadel was a key part of Manns design, but no fort was built because the cost was deemed prohibitive and that, though, was somewhat of an anachronism by the time of the forts completion, in comparison to other contemporary European military architecture. Additional buildings were completed in 1850, after Canadian Confederation in 1867, Canada became responsible for its own defence, the British departed the Citadelle in 1871. Two batteries of the Royal Canadian Artillery were established at the Citadelle, since 1920, the Citadelle has been the home station of the Royal 22e Régiment of the Canadian Forces. From the late 19th century, living conditions for soldiers at the fort gradually improved, canteens were opened, roosevelt discussed strategy for World War II, were held at the Citadelle of Quebec. The Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada designated the Citadel as a historic site in 1946. The Citadelle is a military installation for the Canadian Forces. The latter, by tradition, resides there for weeks during the summer as well as other shorter periods throughout the year. The residence is open to the public, running a visitors program. The Citadelle attracts approximately 200,000 visitors each year, additionally, daily at noon, a cannon is fired from the fort, the sound of which can be heard throughout Quebec City
21.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
22.
Royal Canadian Air Force Women's Division
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The Royal Canadian Air Force Womens Division was a non-combatant element of the Royal Canadian Air Force which was active during the Second World War. The Womens Divisions original role was to replace male air force personnel so that they would be available for combat-related duties, first called the Canadian Womens Auxiliary Air Force, the name changed to Royal Canadian Air Force Womens Division in February 1942. Womens Division personnel were known as WDs. The RCAF was the first branch of the Canadian armed services to actively recruit women, at the beginning of the war, Canadian women began pressing for the right to be allowed to join the war effort. The Royal Air Force suggested that the RCAF form its own womens unit much like the RAF Womens Auxiliary Air Force, in June 1941, the government formally decided to allow the enlistment of women in the armed services. The CWAAF was modelled on and structured like the Royal Air Force Womens Auxiliary Air Force, to assist with the organizing of the new RCAF womens unit, several WAAF officers were temporarily loaned by the RAF. Since the CWAAF became a part of the RCAF, another order-in-council changed the CWAAF to the RCAF Womens Division on 3 February 1942. Originally, only nine trades were open to women, however, duties expanded as the war progressed, RCAF regulations at the time precluded women who possessed flying licences from flight instructing or front-line duty. Princess Alice, the viceregal consort of Governor General Alexander Cambridge, Earl of Athlone. A total of 17,038 women served with the Womens Division before it was discontinued in December 1946, twenty WDs received the BEM,12 officers received the MBE, and one officer, Dr. Jean Davey, was awarded the OBE. Twenty-eight WDs died during the war from various causes, Women were again permitted to enter the RCAF in 1951 when the air force was expanding to cover Canadas NATO commitments. Women were accepted as military pilots in 1980, and Canada became the first Western country to allow women to be pilots in 1988. Newspapers and radio were used for publicity, many recruits were attracted by recruiting posters and pamphlets, and many were influenced by a WD precision squad that travelled across Canada. Officers also travelled across Canada to encourage recruitment, tours of WD facilities were arranged. Films such as Proudly She Marches publicized the Womens Division, and they were expected to have experience in business or social work and with working with people, and have organizing ability. The women chosen were the very best of applicants, 70% of them had high school education. The criteria were more demanding since they were going to be the leaders of the Womens Division, most WDs lived in barracks, each wing of which typically accommodated approximately 68 women. WDs who worked at Air Force Headquarters in Ottawa lived in a block that housed up to 800 airwomen
23.
Jean-Daniel Lafond
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Lafond was born in France during the liberation of Paris from the Nazis. After attending the class of Michel Foucault and Michel Serres, he taught philosophy from 1971 while pursuing research in audio-visual training, in 1974 Lafond left France for Quebec and became a Canadian citizen in 1981. After teaching at the Université de Montréal he left the university to focus on film-making, radio, from his first marriage Lafond has two daughters Estelle and Élise, as well as two grandchildren. With his current wife former Governor General Michaëlle Jean he has a daughter Marie-Éden, images dun doux ethnocide, with Arthur Lamothe, Montréal, Ateliers audio-visuels du Québec,1979. Vidéo-communication, with Claire Meunier, Montréal, Publications Grerdave,1979, pratique et analyse des médias en milieu éducatif, Montréal, Publications Grerdave,1980. Le film sous influence, un procédé danalyse, Paris, Édilig, Les traces du rêve, Montréal, LHexagone,1991. La manière nègre ou Aimé Césaire, chemin faisant, genèse dun film, Montréal, La liberté en colère, le livre du film, Montréal, LHexagone,1994. Iran, les mots du silence, with Fred A. Reed, Laval, conversations in Tehran, with Fred A. Reed, Vancouver, Talon Books,2006. Marie de lIncarnation ou la déraison damour, with Marie Tifo, Montréal, préface, la rencontre, in Olivier Ducharme et Pierre-Alexandre Fradet, Une vie sans bon sens. Regard philosophique sur Pierre Perrault, Montréal, Nota bene,2016, while the personality of Michaëlle Jean was mostly accepted throughout Canada, Lafond himself had early on been suspected of being a Quebec separatist because of some of his movies. When an article in a sovereigntist journal made its way to the press, later in August, his wife reacted to this in a formal letter announcing she and her husband had never adhered to a political party or to the sovereigntist ideology. Confusion continues to surround his loyalties, in his book, La manière nègre, he wrote, So, a sovereign Quebec. Yes, and I applaud with both hands and I promise to be at all the St. Jean parades, however, in October 2005, in an interview with Radio-Canada he said, I never believed that I could become a separatist. I have a deal of difficulty with nationalism in general. He also called members of the sovereigntist movement who had called him a traitor, at the same time he affirmed that he was a Québécois before a Canadian. He believes that he has fought for the cultural independence of Quebec. The National Post asserted that the film was too sympathetic to David Belfield, in 2010, he was made a member of the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts. As the spouse of the then Governor General, in 2005 he was appointed a Companion of the Order of Canada and was awarded the Saskatchewan Centennial Medal
24.
Francophone
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
25.
American Fugitive: The Truth About Hassan
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American Fugitive, The Truth About Hassan is a film, directed by Jean-Daniel Lafond, about an exiled American political activist named Dawud Salahuddin. Belfield has confessed to assassinating a former Iranian diplomat, who supported the Shah of Iran, belfield unexpectedly appeared playing an exiled American political activist in the 2001 film Kandahar. Lafond then traveled to Iran to film the documentary about him, American Fugitive, The Truth About Hassan at the Internet Movie Database
26.
National Post
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The National Post is a Canadian English-language newspaper. The paper is the publication of Postmedia Network, and is published Mondays through Saturdays. It was founded in 1998 by Conrad Black, as of 2006, the Post is no longer distributed in Canadas Atlantic provinces and the territories. Black built the National Post around the Financial Post, a newspaper in Toronto which he purchased from Sun Media in 1997. Financial Post was retained as the name of the new business section. The Post became Blacks national flagship title, and Ken Whyte was appointed editor, when the Post launched, its editorial stance was conservative. It advocated a unite-the-right movement to create an alternative to the Liberal government of Jean Chrétien. The Posts op-ed page has included dissenting columns by ideological liberals such as Linda McQuaig, as well as conservatives including Mark Steyn and Diane Francis, and David Frum. Original members of the Post editorial board included Ezra Levant, Neil Seeman, Jonathan Kay, Conservative Member of Parliament John Williamson, the Posts magazine-style graphic and layout design has won awards. The original design of the Post was created by Lucie Lacava, the Post now bears the motto Worlds Best-Designed Newspaper on its front page. The Post was unable to maintain momentum in the market without continuing to operate with annual budgetary deficits, at the same time, Conrad Black was becoming preoccupied by his debt-heavy media empire, Hollinger International. CanWest Global also owned the Global Television Network, izzy Asper died in October 2003, and his sons Leonard and David Asper assumed control of CanWest, the latter serving as chairman of the Post. Editor-in-chief Matthew Fraser departed in 2005 after the arrival of a new publisher, frasers deputy editor, Doug Kelly succeeded him as editor. Pyette departed seven months after his arrival, replaced by Gordon Fisher, the newspaper continued its erosion in 2008 with the announcement that weekday editions and home delivery would no longer be available in the provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan. Politically, the Post has retained a conservative editorial stance although the Asper family has long been a supporter of the Liberal Party of Canada. Izzy Asper was once leader of the Liberal Party in his province of Manitoba. The Aspers had controversially fired the publisher of the Ottawa Citizen, Russell Mills, however, the Post endorsed the Conservative Party of Canada in the 2004 election when Fraser was editor. The Conservatives narrowly lost that election to the Liberals, the paper switched camps again in the runup to the 2006 election
27.
Anti-Americanism
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Criticism largely originates from the perception that the United States military wants to act as a world policeman. French scholar Marie-France Toinet says use of the term anti-Americanism is only justified if it implies systematic opposition – a sort of allergic reaction – to America as a whole. In the online Oxford Dictionary the term anti-American is defined as hostile to the interests of the United States, in France the use of the noun form antiaméricanisme has been catalogued from 1948, entering ordinary political language in the 1950s. A poll conducted in 2014 by the BBC World Service,12 countries rated U. S. influence positively, interpretations of anti-Americanism have often been polarized. S. Other advocates of the significance of the term argue that anti-Americanism represents a coherent and dangerous ideological current and its status as an -ism is a greatly contended suspect, however. Brendon OConnor notes that studies of the topic have been patchy and impressionistic, American academic Noam Chomsky, a prolific critic of U. S. and its policies, asserts that the use of the term within the U. S. The concept anti-American is an interesting one, the counterpart is used only in totalitarian states or military dictatorships. Thus, in the old Soviet Union, dissidents were condemned as anti-Soviet, thats a natural usage among people with deeply rooted totalitarian instincts, which identify state policy with the society, the people, the culture. In contrast, people even the slightest concept of democracy treat such notions with ridicule. Some have attempted to both positions. French academic Pierre Guerlain has argued that the term represents two different tendencies, One systematic or essentialist, which is a form of prejudice targeting all Americans. The other refers to the way criticisms of the United States are labeled anti-American by supporters of U. S. policies in a bid to discredit their opponents. Guerlain argues that these two types of anti-Americanism can sometimes merge, thus making discussion of the phenomenon particularly difficult. Other scholars have suggested that a plural of anti-Americanisms, specific to country and time period, the widely used anti-American sentiment, meanwhile, less explicitly implies an ideology or belief system. Globally, increases in perceived anti-American attitudes appear to correlate with particular policies or actions, such as the Vietnam, for this reason, critics sometimes argue the label is a propaganda term that is used to dismiss any censure of the United States as irrational. In the mid- to late-eighteenth century, a theory emerged among some European intellectuals that the New World landmasses were inherently inferior to Europe, the so-called degeneracy thesis held that climatic extremes, humidity and other atmospheric conditions in America physically weakened both men and animals. Others, like Jean-François Revel, have examined what lay hidden behind this fashionable ideology, native Americans were also held to be feeble, small, and without ardor. The theory originated with Comte de Buffon, a leading French naturalist, the French writer Voltaire joined Buffon and others in making the argument
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Samuel de Champlain
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Samuel de Champlain, The Father of New France, was a French navigator, cartographer, draftsman, soldier, explorer, geographer, ethnologist, diplomat, and chronicler. He founded New France and Quebec City on July 3,1608 and he is important to Canadian history because he made the first accurate map of the coast and he helped establish the settlements. Born into a family of mariners, Champlain, while still a man, began exploring North America in 1603 under the guidance of François Gravé Du Pont. Then, in 1608, he established the French settlement that is now Quebec City, Champlain was the first European to explore and describe the Great Lakes, and published maps of his journeys and accounts of what he learned from the natives and the French living among the Natives. He formed relationships with local Montagnais and Innu and later with others farther west, with Algonquin and with Huron Wendat, in 1620, Louis XIII of France ordered Champlain to cease exploration, return to Quebec, and devote himself to the administration of the country. In every way but formal title, Samuel de Champlain served as Governor of New France and he established trading companies that sent goods, primarily fur, to France, and oversaw the growth of New France in the St. Lawrence River valley until his death in 1635. The most notable of these is Lake Champlain, which straddles the border between northern New York and Vermont, extending slightly across the border into Canada. Champlain was born to Antoine Champlain and Marguerite Le Roy, in either Hiers-Brouage, or the city of La Rochelle. He was born on or before August 13,1574 according to a recent baptism record found by Jean-Marie Germe, although Léopold Delayant wrote as early as 1867 that Rainguets estimate was wrong, the books of Rainguet and Laverdière have had a significant influence. The 1567 date was carved on numerous monuments dedicated to Champlain and is regarded as accurate. In the first half of the 20th century, some authors disagreed, in 1978 Jean Liebel published groundbreaking research about these estimates of Champlains birth year and concluded, Samuel Champlain was born about 1580 in Brouage, France. Liebel asserts that some authors, including the Catholic priests Rainguet and Laverdière, Champlain claimed to be from Brouage in the title of his 1603 book, and to be Saintongeois in the title of his second book. The exact location of his birth is also not known with certainty. Born into a family of mariners, Samuel Champlain learned to navigate, draw, make nautical charts and his education did not include Ancient Greek or Latin, so he did not read or learn from any ancient literature. During this time he claimed to go on a secret voyage for the king. By 1597 he was a capitaine dune compagnie serving in a garrison near Quimper, in 1598, his uncle-in-law, a navigator whose ship Saint-Julien was chartered to transport Spanish troops to Cádiz pursuant to the Treaty of Vervins, gave Champlain the opportunity to accompany him. After a difficult passage, he spent some time in Cadiz before his uncle, whose ship was chartered to accompany a large Spanish fleet to the West Indies. His uncle, who gave command of the ship to Jeronimo de Valaebrera and this journey lasted two years, and gave Champlain the opportunity to see or hear about Spanish holdings from the Caribbean to Mexico City
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Charles de Montmagny
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Charles Jacques Huault de Montmagny was governor of New France from 1636 to 1648. He was the first person to bear the title of Governor of New France, he succeeded Champlain, Montmagny was able to negotiate a peace treaty with the Iroquois at Trois-Rivières in 1645. His name Montmagny roughly translated into the Iroquoian languages as Onontio, late in his life he was commissioned by the Knights Hospitaller to oversee the Hospitaller colonies in the Caribbean. His presence there was ineffective, since he was bogged down in power struggles with the sitting governor, Montmagny died on Saint Christopher in 1654. Montmagny, Quebec, former Montmagny |former electoral district of Montmagny]], laurent Bermen Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
30.
Louis d'Ailleboust de Coulonge
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Louis dAilleboust de Coulonge was the French governor of New France from 1648 to 1651 and acting governor from 1657 to 1658. He built what is known as Duke of Kent House. He was born at Ancy-le-Franc into a family, the son of Antoine dAilleboust. He was trained as a military engineer and he went to Ville-Marie in 1643 and played a leading role there, he was an acting governor of Montreal. After being named governor in 1648, he tried in vain to prevent the Iroquois from annihilating most of the Hurons, the travellers, after a stormy crossing, landed on the Île dOrléans,29 July. In the middle of August the four Sulpicians, whom the Jesuits had kept as their guests for a few days in their residence, Louis d’Ailleboust died at Montreal on 31 May 1660, at the age of 48. He was buried on June 1,1660, in the cemetery of the hospital stood on the site of today’s Place dArmes. Ailleboust de Coulonge et dArgentenay, Louis d
31.
Jean de Lauson
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Jean de Lauzon or de Lauson was the Governor of New France from 1651 to 1657, one of the most challenging times for the new colony. A prominent lawyer in France, in 1613 Lauzon was appointed a counsellor in the Parliament and he served in several government positions, including president of the Grand Conseil, intendant of Provence, then of Guyenne, and of Dauphiné. He had been developing interests in the colony of New France and he was a founding member and became the director of the Compagnie des Cent-Associés. Lauzon used his influence within the company to land for himself. By 1640, the Lauzons had become the biggest landowners in the colony and their properties included the Island of Montreal and Île dOrléans. Lauzon was appointed as Governor in 1651 and he moved with his three sons — including François, the eldest, who was a member of Parliament for Bordeaux — to the colony. His wife had earlier died in France. All three sons married into other founding families of the colony after having set up with various lands. The establishment of Lauzons family in the colony was intended to inspire confidence amongst the settlers. He was the first governor to pursue this type of policy, in 1653, Lauzon negotiated a peace treaty with the Mohawk, an Iroquois nation based in what is now New York. It ended their attacks on French settlers and reduced the threat to the colony for some years, afterward, he accorded to himself the monopoly on the fur trade, settlers sought to open the trade by petitioning King Louis XIV. The king responded by ordering the fur trade to be reopened to all colonists, Lauzon returned to France, where he continued his business and political career. He died in 1666 at the age of 83, in Paris, one of his descendents, Marie-Catherine-Antoinette de Lauson, married Roland-Michel Barrin de La Galissonière, who also served as Governor of Canada. Lauzon, Quebec was named in his honour in 1867
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Louis de Buade de Frontenac
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Louis de Buade, Comte de Frontenac et de Palluau was a French soldier, courtier, and Governor General of New France from 1672 to 1682 and from 1689 to his death in 1698. He established a number of forts on the Great Lakes and engaged in a series of battles against the English, in particular, despite the opposition of bishop François de Laval, he supported selling brandy to the Aboriginal tribes, which Laval considered a mortal sin. The conflict with the Sovereign Council led to his recall in 1682 and he died before his second recall to France. Frontenac was born in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the son of Henri de Buade, colonel in the regiment of Navarre, the details of his early life are meager, as no trace of the Frontenac papers have been discovered. The de Buades, however, were a family of distinction in the principality of Bearn, Frontenac entered the army at an early age. In 1635 he began his career and he served under the prince of Orange in Holland. Seventeenth century warfare ceased during the months and Frontenac, being a soldier. Like many military officers, Frontenac took residence at the King’s court, unfortunately for Frontenac, such a lavish lifestyle proved to be costly and his time at the King’s court only led him to amass more debt. His growing debt led him to seek an Arrêt du Conseil d’ État later in his life in order to protect his properties from his creditors who otherwise would have been able to seize his properties. Frontenac courted her because she was set to inherit a large sum of money from her mother and her father upon his death. Anne de la Grange-Trianon’s father had remarried and had a child to ensure that his fortune would not go to his daughter. Therefore, when Frontenacs father-in-law died, Frontenac did not receive the money he was hoping for as his wife’s father left his fortune to his new wife, in this expedition he won military glory, but his fortune was not improved thereby. In 1664, Frontenac admitted to owing debt of 325,878 livres plus 17,350 livres of interest to his creditors, Frontenac, however, was offered the position of governor-general of New France which deferred his debts until the end of his governorship. Frontenac was appointed governor and lieutenant general of Canada, Acadia, a seventeenth-century painting of Anne de la Grange-Trianon can be seen today at the Chateau de Versailles. At this period the affairs of New France claimed the attention of the French court. At this crisis in the administration of New France, de Frontenac was appointed to succeed de Courcelle, from the beginning of Frontenacs term, it was evident that he was prepared to give effect to a policy of colonial expansion. He was also genuinely ambitious to inaugurate an era of prosperity for Canada and he exercised an independence of action that did not coincide with the views of his minister Colbert. As governor, Frontenac was undoubtedly the most powerful figure within the colony, among his most prominent duties as governor, Frontenac maintained control over military matters and foreign affairs
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Joseph-Antoine de La Barre
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Joseph-Antoine le Fèbvre de La Barre was the Governor of New France from 1682 to 1685. He had previously been Governor of Auvergne and of the French Antilles and he was originally an administrator, who then became an officer in the French Navy. Having replaced the frustrated Comte de Frontenac, La Barre set out to establish the fur trade in the west. In 1683 he, along with a few hundred soldiers, made camp at the site of Oswego. After a while, over a hundred of La Barres men fell ill, La Barre and his men elected to return to Montreal and abandon the west. They left Oswego and Fort Frontenac to the Iroquois, as punishment, the French government handed La Barres governorship to Jacques-René de Brisay, Marquis de Denonville, a tough, pious cavalry officer. In 1687, La Barre was again Governor of Cayenne, françois-Jean de la Barre, known as the Chevalier de la Barre, was his descendant
34.
Philippe de Rigaud Vaudreuil
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Philippe de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil was a French politician, who was Governor-General of New France from 1703 to 1725, throughout Queen Annes War and Father Rales War. Born at the Castle of Vaudreuil, near Castelnaudary, France and he was the second son of Jean-Louis de Rigaud, Baron de Vaudreuil, Seigneur dAuriac and de Cabanial, by his wife Marie de Château-Verdun, daughter of Francois, Seigneur de la Razairie. As Chevalier de Vaudreuil, he was sent to command French forces in New France before being appointed Governor of Montreal in 1702, and then Governor-General of New France in 1703. He married Louise Élisabeth de Joybert, a daughter of Pierre de Joybert de Soulanges et de Marson, by his wife Marie-Françoise and they lived at Château Vaudreuil, which was built in 1723 by Chaussegros de Léry, but was eventually destroyed by a fire in 1803. Several of his sons went on to distinguished careers in the French army. His grandson Louis-Philippe de Vaudreuil defeated the English Navy at the Battle of Yorktown on the Septre and his grandson also brought back the victorious French army of Rochambeau, back to France after the Siege of Yorktown. Château Vaudreuil was constructed in 1723 as his residence in Montreal. A Squadron of cadets at the Royal Military College Saint-Jean was named in his honour, Vaudreuil is mentioned in a Fort Saint-Jean plaque erected in 1926 by Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada at the Royal Military College Saint-Jean. Constructed in 1743 by M. de Léry under orders from Governor la Galissonnière and this post was for all the military expeditions towards Lake Champlain. In August 31,1760, Commandant de Roquemaure had it blown up in accordance with orders from the Governor de Vaudreuil in order to prevent its falling into the hands of the English, rebuilt by Governor Carleton, in 1773. During the same year, under the command of Major Charles Preston of the 26th Regiment, Louis-Philippe, rear admiral, knight of the order of Saint-Louis. Jean, Mousquetaire Pierre, governor of Trois-Rivières, governor of French Louisiana, françois-Pierre, conquered Fort Massachusetts, governor of Trois-Rivières, governor of Montréal. Joseph Hyacinthe, governor general of Saint-Domingue Canadian Hereditary Peers Jacques Baudry de Lamarche Zoltvany, Yves F. Rigaud de Vaudreuil, Philippe de Rigaud de Vaudreuil, Marquis de Vaudreuil
35.
Charles de la Boische, Marquis de Beauharnois
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Charles de la Boische, Marquis de Beauharnois was a French Naval officer who served as Governor of New France from 1726 to 1746. Charles had two brothers who also impacted the history of New France, claude de Beauharnois was a French Naval officer who spent time commanding ships that maintained supply lines to the colony and François de Beauharnois was intendant of New France for a time. The governor worked well with traders, explorers, and missionaries. His term saw an expansion in the number of western forts with the leadership of people like La Vérendrye. Exploration was pushed west to the Rocky Mountains by La Vérendrye, despite a generally peaceful and prosperous administration, he was blamed for the fall of Fortress Louisbourg in 1745, and was recalled in 1746, returning to France to following year. Many places carry his name including the town of Beauharnois, Quebec and Fort Beauharnois, Beauharnois de la Boische, Charles de, Marquis de Beauharnois. In Halpenny, Francess G. Dictionary of Canadian Biography
36.
Michel-Ange Duquesne de Menneville
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For the French naval officer, marquis du Bouchet, see Abraham Duquesne Michel-Ange Du Quesne de Menneville, Marquis Du Quesne was a French Governor General of New France. Du Quesne served from 1752 through 1755, and is best known for his role in the French, Fort Duquesne, established in 1755 at the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers at what is now Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was named for him. It was abandoned by French forces in 1758 with the arrival of the more powerful British Forbes Expedition. He was very aggressive in enforcing French claims in North America and he built a line of defensive fortifications to strengthen the French presence. However, Du Quesne was attacked by a British force led by Henry Osborne, the ultimate result of this action was to deny Louisbourg any chance of relief, and it surrendered later in the year. He died in 1778 in Antony, Hauts-de-Seine, Duquesne University was named after him. Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online Duquesne University
37.
Pierre de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial
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Pierre de Rigaud de Vaudreuil de Cavagnial, Marquis de Vaudreuil was a Canadian-born colonial governor of Canada in North America. He was governor of French Louisiana and in 1755 became the last Governor-General of New France, in 1759 and 1760 the British conquered the colony in the Seven Years War. He was born to the Governor-General of New France, Philippe de Rigaud Vaudreuil and his wife Louise-Élisabeth, daughter of Pierre de Joybert de Soulanges et de Marson and he was the uncle of Louis-Philippe de Vaudreuil. Vaudreuil-Cavagnial rose quickly through the New France military and civil service, in part owing to his fathers patronage and he moved to France in 1753 before being appointed by King Louis XV as governor of New France in 1755. The two men grew to detest one another, much to the detriment of the French war effort and he was forced to surrender Montreal on 8 September 1760 to Maj. Gen. Jeffrey Amherst. One of several scapegoats for Frances losses in the New World, Vaudreuil was imprisoned in the Bastille on March 30,1762 and he was joined by Bigot, Cadet, Pean, Breard, Varin, Le Mercier, Penisseault, Maurin and Copron amongst others. Of the 21 men brought to trial,10 were condemned, six were acquitted, absent were 34, of whom seven were sentenced in default, and judgement was reserved in the case of the rest. Exonerated in a military tribunal held in December 1763, he was awarded a pension and he died in Paris on 4 August 1778. His nephew Louis-Philippe de Vaudreuil was the second in command of the French naval units supporting the Americans during the American Revolution, Le Grand marquis, Pierre de Rigaud de Vaudreuil et la Louisiane, Montréal, Fides,481 p. Frégault, Guy. La Guerre de la Conquête, Montréal, Fides,514 p. Roy, la Famille de Rigaud de Vaudreuil, Lévis,216 p. 764–767. Lettres du marquis de Vaudreuil au chevalier de Lévis,215 p. Casgrain, extraits des archives des Ministères de la marine et de la guerre à Paris, Canada, Correspondance générale, MM. Duquesne et Vaudreuil, Gouverneurs-generaux, 1755-1760, Québec, L. J. Demers,322 p. Vaudreuil, canadian Military Heritage - Mutual Dislike Between Colonial and Metropolitan Officers. 1759 From the Warpath to the Plains of Abraham
