1.
Mansion
–
A mansion is a large dwelling house. The word itself derives through Old French from the Latin word mansio dwelling, the English word manse originally defined a property large enough for the parish priest to maintain himself, but a mansion is no longer self-sustaining in this way. Manor comes from the same root—territorial holdings granted to a lord who would remain there—hence it is easy to see how the word Mansion came to have its meaning, within an ancient Roman city, patrician dwellings might be very extensive, and luxurious. Such mansions on one hill in Rome became so extensive that the term palatial was actually derived from the name Palatine hill and is the origin of palace. Following the fall of Rome the practice of building unfortified villas ceased, today, the oldest inhabited mansions around the world usually began their existence as fortified castles in the middle ages. As social conditions slowly changed and stabilised fortifications were able to be reduced and it became fashionable and possible for homes to be beautiful rather than grim and forbidding allowing for the development of the modern mansion. In British English a mansion block refers to a block of flats or apartments designed for the appearance of grandeur, in many parts of Asia, including Hong Kong and Japan, the word mansion also refers to a block of apartments. In Europe, from the 15th century onwards, a combination of politics, as a result, many were transformed into mansions without defences or demolished and rebuilt in a more modern, undefended style. Due to intermarriage and primogeniture inheritance amongst the aristocracy, it common for one noble to often own several country houses. These would be visited throughout the year as their owner pursued the social. Many owners of a house would also own a town mansion in their countrys capital city. These town mansions were referred to as houses in London, hotels in Paris and it might be noted that sometimes the house of a clergyman was called a mansion house. This was a period of social change, as the educated prided themselves on enlightenment. The uses of these edifices paralleled that of the Roman villas and it was vital for powerful people and families to keep in social contact with each other as they were the primary moulders of society. The rounds of visits and entertainments were a part of the societal process. State business was discussed and determined in informal settings. Times of revolution reversed this value, in the great houses of Italy, the number of retainers was often even greater than in England, whole families plus extended relations would often inhabit warrens of rooms in basements and attics. It is doubtful that a 19th-century Marchesa would even know the number of individuals who served her
Mansion
–
Gelbensande Manor, an 1885
Gründerzeit style mansion built for hunting, near
Rostock, Germany.
Mansion
–
Renaissance villas such as
Villa Rotonda near
Vicenza were an inspiration for many later mansions, especially during the
industrialisation.
Mansion
–
Harlaxton Manor, England, a 19th-century meeting of Renaissance, Tudor and Gothic architecture produced
Jacobethan - a popular form of
historicist mansion architecture.
Mansion
–
Built in
Renaissance Revival style,
The Breakers in
Newport, Rhode Island, is one of the best known 19th-century mansions in the
United States.
2.
Province of Viterbo
–
The province of Viterbo is a province in the region of Lazio in Italy. Its provincial capital is the city of Viterbo, as of 2015, the province has a total population of 321,955 inhabitants over an area of 3,615.24 square kilometres, giving it a population density of 89.05 inhabitants per square kilometre. The provincial president is Marcello Meroi and the province contains 60 comuni, the area of the province of Viterbo contained a number of Etruscan cities including Tuscina, Vetralla, Tarquinia, and Viterbo. Matilda of Tuscany gifted the city to the papacy in the eleventh century, Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor was based in Viterbo as he planned to invade Rome in 1153, and Frederick I conquered the city in 1160 while preparing to attack Rome. The Knights of Saint John were expelled from Rhodes in the 16th century and were granted refuge in Viterbo before they could travel to Malta. Pope Paul III described himself as a citizen of Viterbo and formed a university in the city and it joined the Kingdom of Italy on 12 September 1870 and during World War II, Viterbo was heavily bombed
Province of Viterbo
–
Viterbo, the Palace of the Popes.
Province of Viterbo
–
Map highlighting the location of the province of Viterbo in Italy
Province of Viterbo
–
Panorama of the walls of
Civita Castellana.
Province of Viterbo
–
Tarquinia, wall painting in the
Tomb of the Leopards
3.
Lazio
–
Lazio is one of the 20 administrative regions of Italy, situated in the central peninsular section of the country. With almost 5.9 million residents and a GDP of more than 170 billion euros, Lazio is the second most populated region of Italy and its capital is Rome, capital and largest city of Italy. Lazio comprises an area of 17,236 km2 and it has borders with Tuscany, Umbria, and Marche to the north, Abruzzo and Molise to the east, Campania to the south. The region is flat and hilly, with small mountainous areas in the most eastern and southern districts. The coast of Lazio is mainly composed of beaches, punctuated by the headlands of Circeo. The Pontine Islands, which are part of Lazio, lie opposite the southern coast, behind the coastal strip, to the north, lies the Maremma Laziale, a coastal plain interrupted at Civitavecchia by the Tolfa Mountains. The central section of the region is occupied by the Roman Campagna, the southern districts are characterized by the flatlands of Agro Pontino, a once swampy and malarial area, that was reclaimed over the centuries. To the south of the Tiber, other groups form part of the Preapennines, the Alban Hills, also of volcanic origin. The highest peak is Mount Gorzano on the border with Abruzzo, see also, History of Italy The Italian word Lazio descends from the Latin word Latium. The name of the region also survives in the designation of the ancient population of Latins, Latini in the Latin language spoken by them. Although the demography of ancient Rome was multi-ethnic, including, for example, Etruscans and other Italics besides the Latini, in Roman mythology, the tribe of the Latini took their name from king Latinus. Much of Lazio is in flat or rolling. The lands originally inhabited by the Latini were extended into the territories of the Samnites, the Marsi, the Hernici, the Aequi, the Aurunci and the Volsci, all surrounding Italic tribes. This larger territory was still called Latium, but it was divided into Latium adiectum or Latium Novum, the lands or New Latium, and Latium Vetus, or Old Latium. The northern border of Lazio was the Tiber river, which divided it from Etruria, the emperor Augustus officially united almost all of present-day Italy into a single geo-political entity, Italia, dividing it into eleven regions. However, the wars against the Longobards weakened the region. With the Donation of Sutri in 728, the Bishop of Rome acquired the first territory in the region beyond the Duchy of Rome, the strengthening of the religious and ecclesiastical aristocracy led to continuous power struggles between secular lords and the Pope until the middle of the 16th century. Other popes tried to do the same, during the period when the papacy resided in Avignon, France, the feudal lords power increased due to the absence of the Pope from Rome
Lazio
–
Panorama of the
Aniene Valley.
Lazio
–
Latium Lazio
Lazio
–
The
Appian Way (Via Appia), a road connecting
Ancient Rome to the southern parts of Italy, remains usable even today.
4.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
5.
Rome
–
Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
6.
Palazzo Farnese, Rome
–
Palazzo Farnese or Farnese Palace is one of the most important High Renaissance palaces in Rome. Owned by the Italian Republic, it was given to the French government in 1936 for a period of 99 years, and currently serves as the French embassy in Italy. First designed in 1517 for the Farnese family, the expanded in size and conception when Alessandro Farnese became Pope Paul III in 1534. Its building history involved some of the most prominent Italian architects of the 16th century, including Michelangelo, Jacopo Barozzi da Vignola, work was interrupted by the Sack of Rome in 1527. The massive palace block and its facade dominate the Piazza Farnese, when Paul appeared on the balcony, the entire facade became a setting for his person. The courtyard, initially open arcades, is ringed by an exercise in ascending orders. The piano nobile entablature was given a frieze with garlands, added by Michelangelo, while the practicalities of achieving this bridge remain dubious, the idea was a bold and expansive one. During the 16th century, two large granite basins from the Baths of Caracalla were adapted as fountains in the Piazza Farnese, the palazzo was further modified for the papal nephew Ranuccio Farnese by Jacopo Barozzi da Vignola. It was completed for the second Cardinal Alessandro Farnese by Giacomo della Portas porticoed facade towards the Tiber which was finished in 1589, following the death of Cardinal Odoardo Farnese in 1626, the palazzo stood virtually uninhabited for twenty years. At the conclusion of the War of Castro with the papacy, Duke Odoardo was able to regain his family properties, the resulting inventory is the oldest surviving complete inventory of Palazzo Farnese. After Odoardos death, Pope Alexander VII allowed Queen Christina of Sweden to lodge in the palace for several months, other rooms have frescoes by Daniele da Volterra and by other artists. For generations, the room with Herculean frescoes accommodated the famous Greco-Roman antique sculpture known as the Farnese Hercules, other works from the family collection of classical sculpture were also housed in the palace. One of the vault and ceiling fresco by Annibale Carracci is Galleria Farnese and this large central scene depicts the triumphal progress of Bacchus and Ariadne. Two smaller paintings are attached to the top and bottom of the central picture, USA, the Chief Secretary’s Building in Sydney, Australia, and the Royal Palace, Stockholm. In England Charles Barrys great admiration for the building led him to use it as the model for Londons Reform Club, in Puccinis opera Tosca, set in Napoleonic Rome, the heroines confrontation with the malevolent Chief of Police, Scarpia, takes place in Palazzo Farnese. The Palazzo was inherited from the Farnese by the Bourbon kings of Naples, though the government of Benito Mussolini ransomed it in 1936, the French Embassy remains, under a 99-year lease for which they pay the Italian government a symbolic fee of 1 euro per month. The Palazzo Farnese houses the great scholarly library amassed by the Ecole Française de Rome, concentrating especially on the archeology of Italy, the first three volumes are, F. C. Uginet, Le palais farnèse à travers les documents financiers. Ecole Française de Rome I.1 and I.2, Étude des manuscrits latins et en langue vernaculaire
Palazzo Farnese, Rome
–
Palazzo Farnese in Rome
Palazzo Farnese, Rome
–
A mid-18th-century engraving of Palazzo Farnese by
Giuseppe Vasi.
Palazzo Farnese, Rome
–
The coat of arms of Farnese Pope Paul III
Palazzo Farnese, Rome
–
Detail of the Triumph of Bacchus and Ariadne by
Annibale Carracci, the
Farnese Gallery, 1595.
7.
Villa Farnesina
–
The Villa Farnesina is a Renaissance suburban villa in the Via della Lungara, in the district of Trastevere in Rome, central Italy. The villa was built for Agostino Chigi, a rich Sienese banker, between 1506–1510, the Sienese artist and pupil of Bramante, Baldassarre Peruzzi, aided perhaps by Giuliano da Sangallo, designed and erected the villa. The novelty of this suburban villa design can be discerned from its differences from that of a typical urban palazzo, Renaissance palaces typically faced onto a street and were decorated versions of defensive castles, rectangular blocks with rusticated ground floors and enclosing a courtyard. This villa, intended to be a summer pavilion, presented a side towards the street and was given a U shaped plan with a five bay loggia between the arms. In the original arrangement, the entrance was through the north facing loggia which was open. Today, visitors enter on the side and the loggia is glazed. Chigi also commissioned the decoration of the villa by artists such as Raphael, Sebastiano del Piombo, Giulio Romano. The themes were inspired by the Stanze of the poet Angelo Poliziano, best known are Raphaels frescoes on the ground floor, in the loggia depicting the classical and secular myths of Cupid and Psyche, and The Triumph of Galatea. This, one of his few purely secular paintings, shows the near-naked nymph on a shell-shaped chariot amid frolicking attendants and is reminiscent of Botticellis The Birth of Venus. This same Galatea loggia has a vault that displays the positions of the planets around the zodiac on the patrons birth date,29 November 1466. The two main ceiling panels of the give his precise time of birth,9,30 pm on that date. At first floor level, Peruzzi painted the main salone with trompe-lœil frescoes of a grand open loggia with city. The perspective view only works from a point in the room otherwise the illusion is broken. In the adjoining bedroom, Sodoma painted scenes from the life of Alexander the Great, the marriage of Alexander and Roxana, the villa became the property of the Farnese family in 1577. Also in the 16th century, Michelangelo proposed linking the Palazzo Farnese on the side of the River Tiber. This was initiated, remnants of a few arches are in still visible in the back of Palazzo Farnese towards via Giulia on the other side of the Tiber. Later the villa belonged to the Bourbons of Naples and in 1861 to the Spanish Ambassador in Rome, Bermudez de Castro, today, owned by the Italian State, it accommodates the Accademia dei Lincei, a long-standing and renowned Roman academy of sciences. Until 2007 it also housed the Gabinetto dei Disegni e delle Stampe of the Istituto Nazionale per la Grafica, the main rooms of the villa, including the Loggia, are open to visitors
Villa Farnesina
–
Villa Farnesina in
Trastevere
Villa Farnesina
–
Detail of frescoes in the "Perspectives' Hall" by
Baldassarre Peruzzi.
8.
Republic of Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Republic of Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Republic of Italy
–
Flag
Republic of Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Republic of Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
9.
Polo Museale del Lazio
–
The Polo Museale del Lazio is an office of Italys Minister of Cultural Heritage. The office was established on August 29,2014 and started to work on December 11,2014, acquiring and organizing museums, institutions, like the others Poli Museali of other regions of Italy, it depends from the Direzione Generale Musei of the same MIBACT. The Polo Museale manages and promotes Lazios museums, institutions, archaeological areas, an important function of the office is to promote the so-called Art Bonus, a new model of tax relief connected to the world of arts which was introduced in 2014. The office defines common strategies and aims, promotes the integration and organization of museological and cultural itineraries, the Polo Museale del Lazio manages 43 museological institutes, their chronology spans from antiquity, the Middle Ages and the modern age to the contemporary age. Some of them deal with the world of anthropology, but the weight of the office shifts on archaeology, history, art. A total of some 10 million per year visit institutions which are managed by the Polo Museale del Lazio. The most visited sites are the Pantheon, Castel SantAngelo, the Abbey of Montecassino, Villa dEste and Hadrians Villa
Polo Museale del Lazio
–
Rome, Palazzo Venezia, seat of the Polo Museale del Lazio.
10.
Renaissance
–
The Renaissance was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe. This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science, Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, the Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century. Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, the word Renaissance, literally meaning Rebirth in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelets 1855 work, Histoire de France, the word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century. The Renaissance was a movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism, however, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were back from Byzantium to Western Europe. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe life as it really was. Others see more competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand, Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia, silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa, unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity, Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Spain and Sicily and this work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history
Renaissance
–
David, by
Michelangelo (
Accademia di Belle Arti,
Florence) is a masterpiece of Renaissance and world art.
Renaissance
–
Renaissance
Renaissance
–
Leonardo da Vinci 's
Vitruvian Man (c. 1490) shows clearly the effect writers of Antiquity had on Renaissance thinkers. Based on the specifications in
Vitruvius '
De architectura (1st century BC), Leonardo tried to draw the perfectly proportioned man.
Renaissance
–
Portrait of a young woman (c. 1480-85) (
Simonetta Vespucci) by
Sandro Botticelli
11.
Mannerist architecture
–
Mannerism is a style in European art that emerged in the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520, lasting until about 1580 in Italy, when the Baroque style began to replace it. Northern Mannerism continued into the early 17th century, stylistically, Mannerism encompasses a variety of approaches influenced by, and reacting to, the harmonious ideals associated with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and early Michelangelo. Where High Renaissance art emphasizes proportion, balance, and ideal beauty, Mannerism exaggerates such qualities, Mannerism is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial qualities. Mannerism favors compositional tension and instability rather than the balance and clarity of earlier Renaissance painting, Mannerism in literature and music is notable for its highly florid style and intellectual sophistication. The definition of Mannerism and the phases within it continue to be a subject of debate among art historians, for example, some scholars have applied the label to certain early modern forms of literature and music of the 16th and 17th centuries. The term is used to refer to some late Gothic painters working in northern Europe from about 1500 to 1530. Mannerism also has been applied by analogy to the Silver Age of Latin literature, the word mannerism derives from the Italian maniera, meaning style or manner. Like the English word style, maniera can either indicate a type of style or indicate an absolute that needs no qualification. Vasari was also a Mannerist artist, and he described the period in which he worked as la maniera moderna, james V. Mirollo describes how bella maniera poets attempted to surpass in virtuosity the sonnets of Petrarch. This notion of bella maniera suggests that artists thus inspired looked to copying and bettering their predecessors, in essence, bella maniera utilized the best from a number of source materials, synthesizing it into something new. As a stylistic label, Mannerism is not easily defined, “High Renaissance” connoted a period distinguished by harmony, grandeur and the revival of classical antiquity. The term Mannerist was redefined in 1967 by John Shearman following the exhibition of Mannerist paintings organised by Fritz Grossmann at Manchester City Art Gallery in 1965. The label “Mannerism” was used during the 16th century to comment on social behaviour, however, for later writers, such as the 17th-century Gian Pietro Bellori, la maniera was a derogatory term for the perceived decline of art after Raphael, especially in the 1530s and 1540s. From the late 19th century on, art historians have used the term to describe art that follows Renaissance classicism. By the end of the High Renaissance, young artists experienced a crisis, no more difficulties, technical or otherwise, remained to be solved. The young artists needed to find a new goal, and they sought new approaches, at this point Mannerism started to emerge. The new style developed between 1510 and 1520 either in Florence, or in Rome, or in both cities simultaneously and this period has been described as a natural extension of the art of Andrea del Sarto, Michelangelo, and Raphael. Michelangelo from an early age had developed a style of his own, one of the qualities most admired by his contemporaries was his terribilità, a sense of awe-inspiring grandeur, and subsequent artists attempted to imitate it
Mannerist architecture
–
In
Parmigianino 's
Madonna with the Long Neck (1534-40), Mannerism makes itself known by elongated proportions, highly stylized poses, and lack of clear perspective.
Mannerist architecture
–
Mannerism role-model:
Laocoön and His Sons, an ancient sculpture, rediscovered in 1506; now in the
Vatican. The artists of Mannerism greatly admired this piece of sculpture.
Mannerist architecture
–
Ignudi from Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling.
Mannerist architecture
–
The Libyan Sibyl from Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling.
12.
Monte Cimini
–
The Monti Cimini, in English, Cimini Hills, are a range of densely wooded volcanic hills approximately 56 km north-west of Rome. They are part of the Antiapennine range, facing the Apennines main range towards the Tyrrhenian Sea and they are situated in the centre of Tuscia Viterbese, the highest point at Mount Cimino,1,053 m above sea level. Lake Vico, a crater lake, is situated in the hills. The vegetation is predominantly beech forestation, the area is renowned for its hot springs, renaissance villas and Etruscan ruins
Monte Cimini
–
The Mount Fogliano and
Lake Vico.
13.
Volcanic
–
A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. Earths volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of plate hypothesis volcanism, Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes. These so-called hotspots, for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the boundary,3,000 km deep in the Earth. Volcanoes are usually not created where two plates slide past one another. Erupting volcanoes can pose hazards, not only in the immediate vicinity of the eruption. Historically, so-called volcanic winters have caused catastrophic famines, the word volcano is derived from the name of Vulcano, a volcanic island in the Aeolian Islands of Italy whose name in turn comes from Vulcan, the god of fire in Roman mythology. The study of volcanoes is called volcanology, sometimes spelled vulcanology, at the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic plates diverge from one another as new oceanic crust is formed by the cooling and solidifying of hot molten rock. Most divergent plate boundaries are at the bottom of the oceans, therefore, most volcanic activity is submarine, black smokers are evidence of this kind of volcanic activity. Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea-level, volcanic islands are formed, for example, subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. In this case, the plate subducts, or submerges under the continental plate forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process called flux melting, water released from the subducting plate lowers the temperature of the overlying mantle wedge. This magma tends to be very viscous due to its high content, so it often does not reach the surface. When it does reach the surface, a volcano is formed, typical examples of this kind of volcano are Mount Etna and the volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire. Because tectonic plates move across them, each volcano becomes dormant and is eventually re-formed as the plate advances over the postulated plume and this theory is currently under criticism, however. The most common perception of a volcano is of a mountain, spewing lava and poisonous gases from a crater at its summit, however. The features of volcanoes are more complicated and their structure. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater while others have features such as massive plateaus
Volcanic
–
Cleveland Volcano in the
Aleutian Islands of
Alaska photographed from the
International Space Station, May 2006
Volcanic
–
Ash plumes reached a height of 19 kilometres (12 mi) during the climactic
explosive eruption at
Mount Pinatubo, Philippines in 1991.
Volcanic
–
A 2007 eruptive column at
Mount Etna producing volcanic ash, pumice and lava bombs
Volcanic
–
Ubinas Volcano
14.
Rock (geology)
–
Rock or stone is a natural substance, a solid aggregate of one or more minerals or mineraloids. For example, granite, a rock, is a combination of the minerals quartz, feldspar. The Earths outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock, rock has been used by mankind throughout history. The minerals and metals found in rocks have been essential to human civilization, three major groups of rocks are defined, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The scientific study of rocks is called petrology, which is a component of geology. At a granular level, rocks are composed of grains of minerals, the aggregate minerals forming the rock are held together by chemical bonds. The types and abundance of minerals in a rock are determined by the manner in which the rock was formed, many rocks contain silica, a compound of silicon and oxygen that forms 74. 3% of the Earths crust. This material forms crystals with other compounds in the rock, the proportion of silica in rocks and minerals is a major factor in determining their name and properties. Rocks are geologically classified according to such as mineral and chemical composition, permeability, the texture of the constituent particles. These physical properties are the end result of the processes that formed the rocks, over the course of time, rocks can transform from one type into another, as described by the geological model called the rock cycle. These events produce three general classes of rock, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic, the three classes of rocks are subdivided into many groups. However, there are no hard and fast boundaries between allied rocks, hence the definitions adopted in establishing rock nomenclature merely correspond to more or less arbitrary selected points in a continuously graduated series. Igneous rock forms through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava and this magma can be derived from partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either a planets mantle or crust. Typically, the melting of rocks is caused by one or more of three processes, an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition, igneous rocks are divided into two main categories, plutonic rock and volcanic. Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when magma cools and crystallizes slowly within the Earths crust, a common example of this type is granite. Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface either as lava or fragmental ejecta, the chemical abundance and the rate of cooling of magma typically forms a sequence known as Bowens reaction series. Most major igneous rocks are found along this scale, about 64. 7% of the Earths crust by volume consists of igneous rocks, making it the most plentiful category. Of these, 66% are basalts and gabbros, 16% are granite, only 0. 6% are syenites and 0. 3% peridotites and dunites
Rock (geology)
–
Balanced Rock stands in the
Garden of the Gods park in
Colorado Springs
Rock (geology)
–
Rock outcrop along a mountain creek near
Orosí,
Costa Rica.
Rock (geology)
–
Sample of igneous
gabbro
Rock (geology)
–
Sedimentary sandstone with iron oxide bands
15.
Buttress
–
A buttress is an architectural structure built against or projecting from a wall which serves to support or reinforce the wall. Buttresses are fairly common on more ancient buildings, as a means of providing support to act against the forces arising out of the roof structures that lack adequate bracing. The term counterfort can be synonymous with buttress, and is used when referring to dams, retaining walls. Early examples of buttresses are found on the Eanna Temple, dating to as early as the 4th millennium BCE, in addition to flying and ordinary buttresses, brick and masonry buttresses that support wall corners can be classified according to their ground plan. The gallery below shows views of various types of buttress supporting the corner wall of a structure
Buttress
Buttress
Buttress
Buttress
16.
Villa
–
A villa was originally an ancient Roman upper-class country house. Since its origins in the Roman villa, the idea and function of a villa have evolved considerably, after the fall of the Roman Republic, villas became small farming compounds, which were increasingly fortified in Late Antiquity, sometimes transferred to the Church for reuse as a monastery. Then they gradually re-evolved through the Middle Ages into elegant upper-class country homes, in modern parlance, villa can refer to various types and sizes of residences, ranging from the suburban semi-detached double villa to residences in the wildland–urban interface. In ancient Roman architecture a villa was originally a house built for the élite. The Roman villae rusticae at the heart of latifundia were the earliest versions of what later, not included as villae were the domus, a city house for the élite and privileged classes, and insulae, blocks of apartment buildings for the rest of the population. In Satyricon, Petronius described the range of Roman dwellings. Another type of villae is the villa marittima, a seaside villa, a concentration of Imperial villas existed on the Gulf of Naples, on the Isle of Capri, at Monte Circeo and at Antium. Examples include the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum, and the Villa of the Mysteries, wealthy Romans also escaped the summer heat in the hills round Rome, especially around Tibur (Tivoand Frascati, such as at Hadrians Villa. Cicero allegedly possessed no fewer than seven villas, the oldest of which was near Arpinum, pliny the Younger had three or four, of which the example near Laurentium is the best known from his descriptions. Roman writers refer with satisfaction to the self-sufficiency of their latifundium villas, archeologists have meticulously examined numerous Roman villas in England. The grand villa at Woodchester preserved its mosaic floors when the Anglo-Saxon parish church was built upon its site, grave-diggers preparing for burials in the churchyard as late as the 18th century had to punch through the intact mosaic floors. The even more palatial villa rustica at Fishbourne near Winchester was built as an open rectangle. Villae rusticae are essential in the Empires economy, two kinds of villa-plan in Roman Britain may be characteristic of Roman villas in general. The more usual plan extended wings of all opening onto a linking portico. The other kind featured a central hall like a basilica. The villa buildings were often independent structures linked by their enclosed courtyards, timber-framed construction, carefully fitted with mortises and tenons and dowelled together, set on stone footings, were the rule, replaced by stone buildings for the important ceremonial rooms. Traces of window glass have been found, as well as ironwork window grilles, with the decline and collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries, the villas were more and more isolated and came to be protected by walls. In England the villas were abandoned, looted, and burned by Anglo-Saxon invaders in the fifth century, in regions on the Continent, aristocrats and territorial magnates donated large working villas and overgrown abandoned ones to individual monks, these might become the nuclei of monasteries
Villa
–
The
Villa Medici in Fiesole with early terraced hillside
landscape: by
Leon Battista Alberti
Villa
–
The
Getty Villa, an adaptation of the
Villa of the Papyri, in
Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles
Villa
–
Model of
Fishbourne Roman Palace, a governor's villa on the grandest scale
Villa
–
The Villa di Medici by
Giuliano da Sangallo -1470:
Poggio a Caiano,
Tuscany
17.
Paul III
–
Pope Paul III, born Alessandro Farnese, was Pope from 13 October 1534 to his death in 1549. He came to the throne in an era following the sack of Rome in 1527. He convened the Council of Trent in 1545 and he was a significant patron of the arts and employed nepotism to advance the power and fortunes of his family. It is to Pope Paul III that Nicolaus Copernicus dedicated De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, alessandro’s humanist education was at the University of Pisa and the court of Lorenzo de Medici. Initially trained as a notary, he joined the Roman Curia in 1491. Farnese’s sister, Giulia was reputedly a mistress of Alexander VI, for this reason, he was sometimes mockingly referred to as the Borgia brother-in-law, just as Giulia was mocked as the Bride of Christ. More disparagingly he was referred to as Cardinal Fregnese, as Bishop of Parma, he came under the influence of his vicar general, Bartolomeo Guidiccioni. This led to the future pope breaking off the relationship with his mistress, under Pope Clement VII he became Cardinal Bishop of Ostia and dean of the College of Cardinals, and on the death of Clement VII in 1534, was elected as Pope Paul III. As a young cleric, Alessandro lived a dissolute life, taking for himself a mistress. By Silvia Ruffini, he fathered Pier Luigi Farnese, whom he created Duke of Parma, others included Ranuccio Farnese, the fourth pope during the period of the Protestant Reformation, Paul III became the first to take active reform measures in response to Protestantism. Paul III first deferred for a year and then discarded the whole project, in 1536, Paul III invited nine eminent prelates, distinguished by learning and piety alike, to act in committee and to report on the reformation and rebuilding of the Church. This report was printed not only at Rome, but at Strasburg, yet the Pope was in earnest when he took up the problem of reform. Yet it is clear that the Concilium bore no fruit in the situation. On the other hand, serious political complications resulted, in order to vest his grandson Ottavio Farnese with the dukedom of Camerino, Paul forcibly wrested the same from the duke of Urbino. He also incurred virtual war with his own subjects and vassals by the imposition of burdensome taxes, perugia, renouncing its obedience, was besieged by Pauls son, Pier Luigi, and forfeited its freedom entirely on its surrender. The burghers of Colonna were duly vanquished, and Ascanio was banished, after this the time seemed ripe for annihilating heresy. In 1540, the Church officially recognized the young society forming about Ignatius of Loyola, the second visible stage in the process becomes marked by the institution, or reorganization, in 1542, of the Congregation of the Holy Office of the Inquisition. On another side, the Emperor was insisting that Rome should forward his designs toward a recovery of the German Protestants
Paul III
–
Pope Paul III
Paul III
–
Portrait of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, later Pope Paul III, by
Raphael, 1509–1511 (
Museo di Capodimonte,
Naples).
Paul III
–
Cardinal Ascanio Sforza
Paul III
–
Pope Paul III and his Grandsons Cardinal
Alessandro Farnese (left), and
Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma (right), II Duke of Parma since 1547. A triple portrait by
Titian, 1546
18.
Rocca (architecture)
–
A rocca might in reality be no grander than a fortified farmhouse. A more extensive rocca would be referred to as a castello, the rocca in Roman times would more likely be a site of a venerable cult than a dwelling, like the highplace of Athens, its Acropolis. Locally the term la rocca simply designates the local fortified high place, Rocca Flea is a fortified palazzo in Gualdo Tadino, Umbria. In Valletta, Malta, Casa Rocca Piccola is one of the last remaining unconverted palazzi, in Sardinia, the Rocca Doria, a stronghold of the Doria of Genoa, gives its name to the commune Monteleone Rocca Doria. From the earliest stage, when church and rocca were the stone structures the distinction between castles and villages is already one of degree rather than kind. Their protective rocca has extended its name to other small communities. Rocca di Papa in the region called Castelli Romani in the hills surrounding Lazio has given its name to its comune, twelfth-century documents name the Castrum Rocce de Papa, because here lived Pope Eugene III. Rocca Sinibalda, a comune in the Province of Rieti in Lazio, is located about 50 km northeast of Rome, Rocca Canterano, Rocca Priora, Rocca Massima, Rocca di Cave, Rocca Santo Stefano, Rocca dArce are also in Lazio. Rocca Grimalda in the Province of Alessandria, Piedmont was a nest of bandits in the eighteenth century, Rocca Canavese, Rocca Cigliè, Rocca dArazzo, Rocca de Baldi are also comuni in Piedmont. Rocca Pietore is in the Province of Belluno in the Veneto, roccaraso is a town and comune of the Province of LAquila in the Abruzzo region of central Italy. Rocca Susella and Rocca de Giorgi are in the Province of Pavia in Lombardy, castelvecchio di Rocca Barbena is a comune in the Province of Savona in Liguria. Rocca San Casciano is a comune in the Province of Forlì-Cesena in Emilia-Romagna, Rocca San Giovanni is a comune and town in the province of Chieti in the Abruzzo. Rocca dEvandro is a comune in the Province of Caserta in Campania, Rocca Pia s a comunein the Province of LAquila in the Abruzzo region. Rocca Imperiale is a town and comune in the province of Cosenza in Calabria, Rocca di Urbisaglia is a 16th-century military fortification in Urbisaglia, in the Marche
Rocca (architecture)
–
The Rocca of
Cetona (
province of Siena) dominates its village.
19.
Antonio da Sangallo the Younger
–
Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, also known as Antonio da San Gallo, was an Italian architect active during the Renaissance, mainly in Rome and the Papal States. Sangallo was born Antonio Cordiani in Florence, the son of Bartolomeo Piccioni and his grandfather Francesco Giamberti was a woodworker, and his uncles Giuliano and Antonio da Sangallo were noted architects of the time. Vasari writes that the young Sangallo followed his uncles to Rome in order to pursue a career in architecture, he ended up taking the name ″Sangallo″ in their tracks. As an assistant to Bramante, Sangallo prepared a number of sketches due to the disability of his master, due to his success, Bramante gave Sangallo a number of projects to complete with no more than an outline of the design and motifs. Eventually, Sangallo was put in charge of the Passetto di Borgo between the Papal apartments and the Castel SantAngelo and that particular project was left unfinished, but it left Sangallo with a working reputation as an architect. Now living in Rome, Sangallo quickly received a commission for the church of Santa Maria di Loreto in 1507. His design called for a square first story and a second story built in travertine and brick. Sangallo also drew the attention of the Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, from whom he received a number of commissions, first and foremost of these is the Farnese Palace on the Piazza Farnese, although it was not completed until after his death. Sangallo also received a number of contracts from the Farnese family. For instance, he designed a palace and the Church of Santa Maria Maddalena in the Farnese town of Gradoli and he also designed fortifications for Capo di Monte and Caprarola, the latter eventually became a country estate, the Villa Farnese. In addition to the Farnese family, Sangallo had a number of patrons in Rome and he designed the Palazzo Baldassini near the Basilica of SantAgostino for Melchiore Baldassini, he designed a tomb for the Cardinal Jaume Serra i Cau in San Giacomo degli Spagnoli. Peters Basilica by Pope Leo X. Sangallo was hired extensively by Leo X, not only as an architect, some time later, Sangallo was hired to build the foundation for the church of San Giovanni dei Fiorentini on the bank of the Tiber. Jacopo Sansovinos design called for the church to extend into the river, Sangallo successfully completed the foundation, although at such great expense that there was no longer enough money to build the church. Thus the model that Sangallo designed for the church was not built, another project was the Basilica della Santa Casa in Loreto. The church had not been particularly well, with cracking vaults. Sangallo was also hired to do work on the Vatican loggias. Sangallo was also a military architect, working on the fortifications of numerous cities such as Parma, Piacenza, Ancona. In Orvieto, he was tasked by Pope Clement VII with building a well, called Saint Patricks Well
Antonio da Sangallo the Younger
–
The church of Santa Maria di Loreto near the
Trajan's Market in
Rome, considered Sangallo's masterwork.
Antonio da Sangallo the Younger
–
View of St. Patrick's Well in
Orvieto.
20.
Baldassare Peruzzi
–
Baldassare Tommaso Peruzzi was an Italian architect and painter, born in a small town near Siena and died in Rome. He worked for years with Bramante, Raphael, and later Sangallo during the erection of the new St. Peters. He returned to his native Siena after the Sack of Rome where he was employed as architect to the Republic, for the Sienese he built new fortifications for the city and designed a remarkable dam on the Bruna River near Giuncarico. He seems to have moved back to Rome permanently by 1535 and he was a painter of frescoes in the Cappella San Giovanni in the Duomo of Siena. His son Giovanni Sallustio was also an architect, another son, Onorio, learned painting from his father, then became a Dominican priest in the convent of Santa Maria Sopra Minerva in Rome. He then stopped painting until requested by his superiors at San Romano di Lucca to paint the organ doors of the church, almost all art critics ascribe the design of the Villa Chigi in Rome, now known more commonly as the Villa Farnesina, to Peruzzi. In this villa, two wings branch off from a hall with a simple arrangement of pilasters, and a decorative frieze on the exterior of the building. Some of the paintings which adorn the interior rooms are by Peruzzi. One example is the Sala delle Prospettive, in which Peruzzi revived the perspective schemers of Melozzo da Forli and Mantegna, possibly under the influence of both. The walls of the room are painted so that when one stands toward the left, one has the illusion that one is standing in a terrace, lined by pillars. The decoration of the façade, the work of Peruzzi, has almost entirely vanished, Raphael designed the composition of the story of Amor and Psyche as a continuation of the Galatea. On a plate-glass vault Peruzzi painted the firmament, with the signs, the planets. The interior room has a use of illusionistic perspective Peruzzi had produced a mosaic ceiling for the church of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme, Rome. Other paintings ascribed to him are to be found in SantOnofrio, the exterior details display a Mannerist-style. He made significant but unspecified contributions to what would become the Seven Books of Architecture, published in installments after Peruzzis death by his pupil and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles, ed. article name needed
Baldassare Peruzzi
–
Baldassare Peruzzi, Muses Dancing with Apollo
21.
Bastion
–
A bastion is an angular structure projecting outward from the curtain wall of a fortification, most commonly at the corners. The fully developed bastion consists of two faces and two flanks with fire from the flanks being able to protect the wall and also the adjacent bastions. It is one element in the style of fortification dominant from the mid 16th to mid 19th centuries, Bastion fortifications offered a greater degree of passive resistance and more scope for ranged defense in the age of gunpowder artillery compared with the medieval fortifications they replaced. By the middle of the 15th century, artillery pieces had become powerful enough to make the traditional medieval round tower, during the Eighty Years War Dutch military engineers developed the concepts further lengthening the faces and shortening the curtain walls of the bastions. To augment this change they placed v shaped outworks in front of the bastions, Bastions differ from medieval towers in a number of respects. Bastions are lower than towers and are normally of similar height to the adjacent curtain wall, the height of towers, although making them difficult to scale, also made them easy for artillery to destroy. A bastion would normally have a ditch in front, the side of which would be built up above the natural level then slope away gradually. This glacis shielded most of the bastion from the cannon while the distance from the base of the ditch to the top of the bastion meant it was still difficult to scale. In contrast to late medieval towers, bastions were flat sided rather than curved. This eliminated dead ground making it possible for the defenders to fire upon any point directly in front of the bastion, Bastions also cover a larger area than most towers. This allows more cannons to be mounted and provided space for the crews to operate them. Surviving examples of bastions are usually faced with masonry, unlike the wall of a tower this was just a retaining wall, cannonball were expected to pass through this and be absorbed by a greater thickness of hard-packed earth or rubble behind. The top of the bastion was exposed to fire. If a bastion was successfully stormed, it could provide the attackers with a stronghold from which to further attacks. Some bastion designs attempted to minimise this problem and this could be achieved by the use of retrenchments in which a trench was dug across the rear of the bastion, isolating it from the main rampart. Various kinds of bastions have been used throughout history, solid bastions are those that are filled up entirely, and have the ground even with the height of the rampart, without any empty space towards the centre. Void or hollow bastions are those that have a rampart, or parapet, only around their flanks and faces, so that a void space is left towards the centre. The ground is so low, that if the rampart is taken, no retrenchment can be made in the centre, but what will lie under the fire of the besieged
Bastion
–
Drawing of a bastion
Bastion
–
A bastion in the
Komárno Fortress (Slovakia).
Bastion
–
One of the bastions of the castle of
Copertino,
Italy
Bastion
–
Aerial view of bastions at the Castle Siklós,
Hungary
22.
Fortress
–
Fortifications are military constructions or buildings designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and also used to solidify rule in a region during peace time. Humans have constructed defensive works for many thousands of years, in a variety of increasingly complex designs, the term is derived from the Latin fortis and facere. From very early history to modern times, walls have been a necessity for cities to survive in a changing world of invasion. Some settlements in the Indus Valley Civilization were the first small cities to be fortified, in ancient Greece, large stone walls had been built in Mycenaean Greece, such as the ancient site of Mycenae. A Greek Phrourion was a collection of buildings used as a military garrison. These construction mainly served the purpose of a tower, to guard certain roads, passes. Though smaller than a fortress, they acted as a border guard rather than a real strongpoint to watch. The art of setting out a camp or constructing a fortification traditionally has been called castramentation since the time of the Roman legions. Fortification is usually divided into two branches, permanent fortification and field fortification, there is also an intermediate branch known as semi-permanent fortification. Castles are fortifications which are regarded as being distinct from the fort or fortress in that they are a residence of a monarch or noble. Roman forts and hill forts were the antecedents of castles in Europe. The Early Middle Ages saw the creation of towns built around castles. Medieval-style fortifications were made obsolete by the arrival of cannons in the 14th century. Fortifications in the age of black powder evolved into much lower structures with greater use of ditches and earth ramparts that would absorb, Walls exposed to direct cannon fire were very vulnerable, so were sunk into ditches fronted by earth slopes. The arrival of explosive shells in the 19th century led to yet another stage in the evolution of fortification, steel-and-concrete fortifications were common during the 19th and early 20th centuries. However the advances in warfare since World War I have made large-scale fortifications obsolete in most situations. Demilitarized zones along borders are arguably another type of fortification, although a passive kind, many military installations are known as forts, although they are not always fortified. Larger forts may be called fortresses, smaller ones were known as fortalices
Fortress
–
Krak des Chevaliers is one of the best-preserved Crusader
castles.
Fortress
–
Bourtange star fort, restored to 1750 situation,
Groningen (province),
Netherlands.
Fortress
–
The well preserved
Bulgarian medieval fort
Baba Vida.
Fortress
–
Fortifications on the Iraq-Iran Border, viewed from the
ISS, 2014
23.
Alessandro Farnese (cardinal)
–
He should not be confused with his nephew Alessandro Farnese, Governor of the Spanish Netherlands, grandson of Emperor Charles V and great-grandson of Pope Paul III. They were married in Rome on August 6,1519, young Alessandro studied at Bologna along with his cousin, Guido Ascanio Sforza di Santa Fiora. He was a member of the Collegio Ancarano, which had founded in the XV century by Petrus de Ancarano de nobilibus de Farnesino provinciae Patrimoniae B. Petri in Tuscia, for students specializing in legal studies, on 18 December 1534, at the age of 14, he was appointed Cardinal Deacon of the Title of SantAngelo in Pescheria by his grandfather Paul III, who had been elected to the papacy two months previously. On August 11,1535, he was appointed Abbot Commendatory of the Abbey of Tre Fontane on the Via Ostiense, in 1535, he was also appointed Abbot commendatory of S. Étienne de Caën. On August 27,1539, at the age of 18, Alessandro Farnese was named titular Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, the office was highly lucrative, the duties were nominal and did not necessarily involve episcopal functions. In 1538, he was appointed Pope Paul IIIs principal Secretary, in 1541, Cardinal Farnese was named Protector of the Holy Roman Empire before the Holy See and Protector of Spain before the Holy See. At the same time, he was appointed Papal Legate in Avignon, from 1564 to 1565, he was Bishop of Sabina, and it is conjectured that it was in 1564 that Farnese finally was consecrated a bishop. He was certainly a bishop when he was the principal Consecrator of Cardinal Giulio della Rovere on April 15,1566, from 1565 to 1578, he was Bishop of Tusculum. He was the Bishop of Porto from July 9,1578 to December 5,1580 and he was then Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia and Velletri and Dean of the College of Cardinals from December 5,1580 until his death on March 2,1589. His grandfather Pope Paul III immediately named Alessandro Farnese Administrator of the Diocese of Parma, Alessandro resigned on August 13,1535, when Cardinal Guido Ascanio Sforza di Santa Fiora, another grandson of Paul III and only two years older than Alessandro, was named the new Administrator. Farnese was appointed Administrator of Jaen, Spain, from July 30,1535 until another Administrator and he was Administrator of the Archdiocese of Avignon from 1535 to 1551. and of the Diocese of Vizeu, Portugal. On May 9,1536, the Emperor Charles V named Cardinal Farnese as the new Archbishop of Monreale in Sicily, his appointment was confirmed on May 15,1536, by Pope Paul III. But Monreale was not a place, since the monks of the Cathedral of Monreale. On July 26,1549, the Pope was forced to intervene, a Vicar was appointed for the underage and absentee Archbishop, Msgr. Giovanni Antonio Fassari, titular Bishop of Christopolis in Greece, he was succeeded in 1546 by Pompeo Zambecari, in 1557, he was followed by Msgr. Giovanni Pietro Fortiguerra, Bishop of Cyrene in Libya, the Cardinal allowed the Jesuits to found a college in Monreale, and allowed the priests of the Society to work in the diocese. In 1568, Cardinal Farnese visited his diocese and held a synod and he was accompanied by his librarian, the famous antiquarian and papal biographer, Onofrio Panvinio, who, unhappily, died at Palermo on March 16,1568
Alessandro Farnese (cardinal)
–
Alessandro Cardinal Farnese, by
Titian
Alessandro Farnese (cardinal)
–
Titian 's triple portrait,
Pope Paul III and his Grandsons, depicts Alessandro at left.
Alessandro Farnese (cardinal)
–
Pope Paul IV (Carafa)
Alessandro Farnese (cardinal)
–
Cardinal Carlo Borromeo
24.
Pope Paul III
–
Pope Paul III, born Alessandro Farnese, was Pope from 13 October 1534 to his death in 1549. He came to the throne in an era following the sack of Rome in 1527. He convened the Council of Trent in 1545 and he was a significant patron of the arts and employed nepotism to advance the power and fortunes of his family. It is to Pope Paul III that Nicolaus Copernicus dedicated De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, alessandro’s humanist education was at the University of Pisa and the court of Lorenzo de Medici. Initially trained as a notary, he joined the Roman Curia in 1491. Farnese’s sister, Giulia was reputedly a mistress of Alexander VI, for this reason, he was sometimes mockingly referred to as the Borgia brother-in-law, just as Giulia was mocked as the Bride of Christ. More disparagingly he was referred to as Cardinal Fregnese, as Bishop of Parma, he came under the influence of his vicar general, Bartolomeo Guidiccioni. This led to the future pope breaking off the relationship with his mistress, under Pope Clement VII he became Cardinal Bishop of Ostia and dean of the College of Cardinals, and on the death of Clement VII in 1534, was elected as Pope Paul III. As a young cleric, Alessandro lived a dissolute life, taking for himself a mistress. By Silvia Ruffini, he fathered Pier Luigi Farnese, whom he created Duke of Parma, others included Ranuccio Farnese, the fourth pope during the period of the Protestant Reformation, Paul III became the first to take active reform measures in response to Protestantism. Paul III first deferred for a year and then discarded the whole project, in 1536, Paul III invited nine eminent prelates, distinguished by learning and piety alike, to act in committee and to report on the reformation and rebuilding of the Church. This report was printed not only at Rome, but at Strasburg, yet the Pope was in earnest when he took up the problem of reform. Yet it is clear that the Concilium bore no fruit in the situation. On the other hand, serious political complications resulted, in order to vest his grandson Ottavio Farnese with the dukedom of Camerino, Paul forcibly wrested the same from the duke of Urbino. He also incurred virtual war with his own subjects and vassals by the imposition of burdensome taxes, perugia, renouncing its obedience, was besieged by Pauls son, Pier Luigi, and forfeited its freedom entirely on its surrender. The burghers of Colonna were duly vanquished, and Ascanio was banished, after this the time seemed ripe for annihilating heresy. In 1540, the Church officially recognized the young society forming about Ignatius of Loyola, the second visible stage in the process becomes marked by the institution, or reorganization, in 1542, of the Congregation of the Holy Office of the Inquisition. On another side, the Emperor was insisting that Rome should forward his designs toward a recovery of the German Protestants
Pope Paul III
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Pope Paul III
Pope Paul III
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Portrait of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, later Pope Paul III, by
Raphael, 1509–1511 (
Museo di Capodimonte,
Naples).
Pope Paul III
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Cardinal Ascanio Sforza
Pope Paul III
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Pope Paul III and his Grandsons Cardinal
Alessandro Farnese (left), and
Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma (right), II Duke of Parma since 1547. A triple portrait by
Titian, 1546
25.
Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola
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Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola was one of the great Italian architects of 16th century Mannerism. His two great masterpieces are the Villa Farnese at Caprarola and the Jesuits Church of the Gesù in Rome, the three architects who spread the Italian Renaissance style throughout Western Europe are Vignola, Serlio and Palladio. Giacomo Barozzi was born at Vignola, near Modena and he began his career as architect in Bologna, supporting himself by painting and making perspective templates for inlay craftsmen. He made a first trip to Rome in 1536 to make measured drawings of Roman temples, then François I called him to Fontainebleau, where he spent the years 1541–1543. Here he probably met his fellow Bolognese, the architect Sebastiano Serlio, after his return to Italy, he designed the Palazzo Bocchi in Bologna. Here he worked for Pope Julius III and, after the death, he was taken up by the papal family of the Farnese and worked with Michelangelo. In 1558, he was in Piacenza to revise the designs of Palazzo Farnese, commissioned by Margaret of Austria, wife of the Duke Ottavio Farnese, from 1564 Vignola carried on Michelangelos work at St Peters Basilica, and constructed the two subordinate domes according to Michelangelos plans. Giacomo Barozzi died in Rome in 1573, in 1973 his remains were reburied in the Pantheon, Rome. Vignolas main works include, Villa Giulia for Pope Julius III, here Vignola was working with Ammanati, who designed the nymphaeum and other garden features under the general direction of Vasari, with guidance from the knowledgeable pope and Michelangelo. A medal of 1553 shows Vignolas main villa substantially as it was completed, Palazzo dei Banchi, Bologna Palazzo Farnese, Piacenza. This was a project of a vast palace on a scale paralleled only by the Vatican Palace in Italy. Ten arches on the sides and seven on the short are sustained by pilasters with Tuscan style ornamentation that rise from high plinths. A simple frieze with triglyphs and metopes separates the lower from the upper levels. Like many other architects, Vignola submitted his plans for completing the facade of San Petronio, the clarity and ease of use of Vignolas treatise caused it to become in succeeding centuries the most published book in architectural history. Vignolas second treatise, the posthumously-published Due regole della prospettiva pratica, Vignola presented— without theoretical obscurities— practical applications which could be understood by a prospective patron. Egnatio Danti, Les deux règles de la pratique de Vignole,1583, Pascal Dubourg Glatigny, Paris,2003. Website Architectura, Centre détudes supérieures de la Renaissance, Tours Brief biographical sketch Paolo Zauli on Vignola from a Bolognese perspective Vignolas effect on garden design
Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola
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Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola
Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola
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The five orders, engraving from Vignola's Regola delle cinque ordini d'architettura.
Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola
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Cloister of the
Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum
26.
House of Farnese
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For the town in Italy with the same name, see Farnese, Lazio. The Farnese family is a family in Renaissance Italy. The titles of Duke of Parma and Piacenza and Duke of Castro were held by members of the family. A number of important architectural works and antiquities are associated with the Farnese family, buildings include the Palazzo Farnese in Rome and the Villa Farnese at Caprarola, and ancient artifacts include the Farnese Marbles. The family could trace its origins back to around AD984, there has been some debate as to the origins of the name Farnesi/Farnese. In the 12th century, they are recorded as minor feudataries in the areas of Tuscania and Orvieto, one Pietro defeated the Tuscan Ghibellines in 1110 and, most likely, fought against the Italo-Normans in 1134. His son Prudenzio was consul in Orvieto and defeated the Orvieto Ghibellines backed by Siena, in 1254, one Ranuccio defeated Todis troops and fought for Pope Urban IV against Manfred of Sicily. His son Niccolò was in the Guelph army in the Battle of Benevento, the Farnese returned to Tuscia in 1319, when they acquired Farnese, Ischia di Castro, and the castles of Sala and San Savino. In 1354, Cardinal Albornoz, in return for the help in the war against the Papal riotous barons. In this period they fought against the fierce Papal rivals, the Prefetti di Vico, in 1362, Pietro Farnese was commander-in-chief of the Florentine army against Pisa in the war for Volterra. Six years later Niccolò Farnese saved Pope Urban V from the attack of Giovanni di Vico, first in the castle of Viterbo and then in that of Montefiascone. The family substantially increased its power in the course of the 15th century, as their territories reached the shore of the Lake Bolsena and Montalto. He was commander-in-chief of the forces of neighbouring Siena against the Orsini of Pitigliano and, after his victory and his son, Gabriele Francesco, also took up a military career, a line of employment which disappeared after three generations. Ranuccios son, Pier Luigi, married a member of the ancient baronial family of the Caetani, thus giving the Farnese further importance in Rome. His daughter, Giulia, who was a mistress of Pope Alexander VI, under Alexanders successor, Pope Julius II, he became governor of the Marca Anconetana and, in 1534, he was elected as pope and took the name of Paul III. Notable features of his included the establishment of the Council of Trent. For example, two months after becoming pope in 1534, he made his 14-year-old grandson Alessandro a cardinal deacon. Paul III died in 1549 and his role in the Curia passed to his grandson Alessandro
House of Farnese
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Pope Paul III and his Grandsons by
Titian shows
Paul III with his
cardinal-nephew Alessandro Farnese (left) and his other grandson,
Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma
House of Farnese
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Arms as Dukes of Parma
House of Farnese
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The Farnese's Palazzo della Pilotta in Parma.
House of Farnese
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Early arms of the family
27.
Julius III
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Pope Julius III, born Giovanni Maria Ciocchi del Monte, was Pope from 7 February 1550 to his death in 1555. After a career as a distinguished and effective diplomat, he was elected to the papacy as a candidate after the death of Paul III. As pope he made only reluctant and short-lived attempts at reform and his reputation, and that of the Catholic Church, were greatly harmed by his scandal-ridden relationship with his adopted nephew. Giovanni Maria Ciocchi del Monte was born in Monte San Savino and he was educated by the humanist Raffaele Brandolini Lippo, and later studied law at Perugia and Siena. During his career, he distinguished himself as a brilliant canonist rather than as a theologian, Del Monte was the nephew of Antonio Maria Ciocchi del Monte, Archbishop of Manfredonia. When his uncle exchanged this see for a position as a Cardinal in 1511, in 1520, del Monte also became bishop of Pavia. Popular for his manner and respected for his administrative skills. At the Sack of Rome he was one of the hostages given by Pope Clement VII to the Emperors forces, and barely escaped execution. Pope Paul III made him Cardinal-bishop of Palestrina in 1536 and employed him in several important legations, notably as papal legate and first president of the Council of Trent, ottavio Farnese, whose support had been crucial to the election, was immediately confirmed as Duke of Parma. However, Julius soon came to terms with the duke and France, Julius increasingly contented himself with Italian politics and retired to his luxurious palace at the Villa Giulia, which he had built for himself close to the Porta del Popolo. From there he passed the time in comfort, emerging from time to time to make efforts to reform the Church through the reestablishment of the reform commissions. During his pontificate, Catholicism was restored in England under Queen Mary in 1553, Julius sent Cardinal Reginald Pole as legate with powers that he could use at his discretion to help the restoration succeed. In February 1555, an envoy was dispatched from the English parliament to Julius to inform him of the formal submission. Shortly before his death, Julius dispatched Cardinal Giovanni Morone to represent the interests of the Holy See at the Peace of Augsburg, Julius papacy was marked by scandals, the most notable of which is centered around the popes adoptive nephew, Innocenzo Ciocchi Del Monte. After the elevation of Julius to the papacy, Innocenzo Del Monte was adopted into the family by the brother and. As rumours began to circle about the relationship between the pope and his adoptive nephew, Julius refused to take advice. The cardinals Reginald Pole and Giovanni Carafa warned the pope of the evil suppositions to which the elevation of a young man would give rise. To promote none to ecclesiastical livings, save only his buggerers”, the charitably-disposed told themselves the boy might after all be simply his bastard son
Julius III
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Pope Julius III
Julius III
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Bronze statue in
Perugia, 1555.
28.
Roman Curia
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The Roman Curia is the administrative apparatus of the Holy See and the central body through which the Roman Pontiff conducts the affairs of the universal Catholic Church. The Roman Curia instead aids the Pope in the exercise of his primacy over all the Churches, Curia in medieval and later Latin usage means court in the sense of royal court rather than court of law. The Roman Curia is sometimes anglicized as the Court of Rome and it is the papal court and assists the Pope in carrying out his functions. It is normal for every Latin Catholic diocese to have its own curia for its administration, a distinct office, the Vicar General for Vatican City, administers the portion of the Diocese of Rome in Vatican City. Until recently, there still existed hereditary officers of the Roman Curia, a reorganization, ordered by Pope Pius X, was incorporated into the 1917 Code of Canon Law. Further steps toward reorganization were begun by Pope Paul VI in the 1960s, among the goals of this curial reform were the modernization of procedures and the internationalization of the curial staff. These reforms are reflected in the 1983 Code of Canon Law, the offices of the Vatican City State are not part of the Roman Curia, which is composed only of offices of the Holy See. The following organs or charges, according to the website of the Holy See. All members of the Curia except the Cardinal Camerlengo and the Major Penitentiary resign their office immediately after a death or resignation. The principal departments of the Roman Curia are called dicasteries and those remain the five principal categories of departments, with the noteworthy change in that there is now more than a single Secretariate. Both are headed by a prefect, the Secretariat of State is the oldest dicastery in the Roman Curia, the government of the Roman Catholic Church. It is headed by the Secretary of State, since 15 October 2013 Cardinal Pietro Parolin, the Secretariat is divided into two sections, the Section for General Affairs and the Section for Relations with States, known as the First Section and Second Section, respectively. The Secretariat of State was created in the 15th century and is now the department of the curia most involved in coordinating the Holy Sees activities, named the first Prefect of the Secretariat was Monsignor Dario Edoardo Viganò, formerly the Director of the Vatican Television Center. Two departments of the Roman Curia established by Pope Francis in 2016 have been identified as dicasteries rather than as one of the traditional department types, Pope Francis announced on 15 August 2016 the creation of the Dicastery for the Laity, Family and Life, effective 1 September 2016. It took over the responsibilities of the Pontifical Council for the Laity and he named Cardinal Peter Turkson its first prefect. Combining the work of four Pontifical Councils established following the Second Vatican Council, the Pope announced that temporarily he would personally direct the departments work on behalf of migrants and refugees. The Roman Congregations are a type of dicastery of the Roman Curia, each Congregation is led by a prefect, who is a cardinal. Among the most active of these major Curial departments, it oversees Catholic doctrine and its most familiar name for most of its history was the Holy Office of the Inquisition
Roman Curia
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The Church of the Annunciation is the largest Christian church building in the Middle East under the supervision of the
Congregation for the Oriental Churches
Roman Curia
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The headquarters of the Propaganda fide in Rome, North facade on Piazza di Spagna by architect
Bernini, the southwest facade seen here by
Borromini: etching by
Giuseppe Vasi, 1761
Roman Curia
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A depiction of
Pope Gregory IX excommunicating
Roman Curia
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St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
29.
Ronciglione
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Ronciglione is a city and comune in the province of Viterbo, Lazio, about 20 kilometres from Viterbo. The city is located in the Cimini mountains, over two tuff scarps, on the SE slope of the volcano crater now housing the Lake Vico. The citys economy is based largely on agriculture, with production of nuts, chestnuts, the most ancient document mentioning Ronciglione dates to 1103. A historian from the 16th century Orvieto set its foundation around 1045, later it was a possession of the Anguillara, a Guelph family of Rome. Pope Paul II conquered it to the Papal States in 1465, in 1526 Ronciglione became a possession of the Farnese, and lived its period of greatest splendour, its industries included manufacturing of copper, iron, paper, weapons and others. Ended in 1649 the Farnese seignory and bought back by Pope Innocent X, the Ronciglionesi took active part in the Roman Republic of 1798–99, the French troops, however, crushed the revolt and burnt the city on July 20,1799. Ronciglione has one of the most beautiful mediaeval burgs of central Italy, the city monuments and sights include, The Castle, originally built in the High Middle Ages, with the characteristic angle rounded towers. The Cathedral, a Baroque edifice designed by Pietro da Cortona, the bell tower is from 1734. It houses a Tryptych of Christ by the Viterbese painter Gabriele di Francesco, the church of Santa Maria della Provvidenza, restored in Baroque style, although still retaining a three-floors Romanesque belfry. The interior, with a nave, houses some frescoes from the 15th century. The ruins of the church of St. Andrew, with a belfry from 1436. Church of Santa Maria della Pace, began in 1581 and variously attributed to Jacopo Barozzi da Vignola or Rainaldi and it houses paintings by Sebastiano Conca, Cavalier DArpino and a tabernacle by Sansovino. The suggestive basilica church of SantEusebio, along the Via Cassia,3 km in direction of Rome, located on a wide alture, it was built by monks ascpaed from Palestine in the 7th and 8th centuries. Traces of the ancient coenoby and the belfry can still be seen, the interior of the current edifice has a nave with aisles of irregular dimensions, with 12th-13th centuries frescoes and a Madonna with Child from the 15th century. It is dedicated to St. Eusebius, bishop of Sutri which is nearby, a villa with extensive botanical gardens, built by Ulisse Igliori for his wife Lina in 1928 and currently owned and operated as a luxury Bed and Breakfast by their daughter Paola Igliori. Ronciglione is known for its Carnival, established as a derivative of the Renaissance Carnival of Rome, it has typical empty races in which the horses are left to run without riders. The cities are divided into 9 contrades which contend for the Palio of the Manna, Ronciglione is served by the SP1 Cimina provincial road, connecting it to SS2 Cassia national road which starts from Rome, and to Viterbo. SP35 provincial road connects the town to Caprarola and Capranica, there is a station on the Orte-Civitavecchia railroad, which has abandoned in 1995
Ronciglione
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A view of the medieval burg of Ronciglione.
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