1.
Royal Society
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Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016, there are about 1,600 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS, there are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members, the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS. The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up the post on 30 November 2015, since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London. The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations and they were influenced by the new science, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library, after the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society, I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But tis well known who were the men that began and promoted that design. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society, the societys early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673, there had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent college for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by Solomons House in Bacons New Atlantis and, to a lesser extent, by J. V. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659, he suggested a scheme, with apartments for members. The societys ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff and these plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the unrealised—perhaps unrealistic—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded, with a number of scientific greats compared to other periods. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, during the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of the early problems
2.
New Haven, Connecticut
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New Haven, in the U. S. state of Connecticut, is the principal municipality in Greater New Haven, which had a total population of 862,477 in 2010. It is located on New Haven Harbor on the shore of Long Island Sound in New Haven County, Connecticut. It is the second-largest city in Connecticut, with a population of 129,779 people as of the 2010 United States Census, according to a census of 1 July 2012, by the Census Bureau, the city had a population of 130,741. New Haven was founded in 1638 by English Puritans, and a year later eight streets were laid out in a four-by-four grid, the central common block is the New Haven Green, a 16-acre square, and the center of Downtown New Haven. The Green is now a National Historic Landmark and the Nine Square Plan is recognized by the American Planning Association as a National Planning Landmark, New Haven is the home of Yale University. The university is an part of the citys economy, being New Havens biggest taxpayer and employer. Health care, professional services, financial services, and retail trade also help to form a base for the city. The city served as co-capital of Connecticut from 1701 until 1873, New Haven has since billed itself as the Cultural Capital of Connecticut for its supply of established theaters, museums, and music venues. New Haven is also the birthplace of George W. Bush, New Haven had the first public tree planting program in America, producing a canopy of mature trees that gave New Haven the nickname The Elm City. The area was visited by Dutch explorer Adriaen Block in 1614. Dutch traders set up a trading system of beaver pelts with the local inhabitants, but trade was sporadic. In 1637 a small party of Puritans reconnoitered the New Haven harbor area, the Quinnipiacs, who were under attack by neighboring Pequots, sold their land to the settlers in return for protection. By 1640, the theocratic government and nine-square grid plan were in place. However, the north of New Haven remained Quinnipiac until 1678. The settlement became the headquarters of the New Haven Colony, at the time, the New Haven Colony was separate from the Connecticut Colony, which had been established to the north centering on Hartford. Economic disaster struck the colony in 1646, however, when the town sent its first fully loaded ship of goods back to England. This ship never reached the Old World, and its disappearance stymied New Havens development in the face of the rising power of Boston. In 1660, founder John Davenports wishes were fulfilled, and Hopkins School was founded in New Haven with money from the estate of Edward Hopkins, in 1661, the judges who had signed the death warrant of Charles I of England were pursued by Charles II
3.
Stanford University
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Stanford University, officially Leland Stanford Junior University, is a private research university in Stanford, California, adjacent to Palo Alto and between San Jose and San Francisco. Its 8, 180-acre campus is one of the largest in the United States, Stanford also has land and facilities elsewhere. The university was founded in 1885 by Leland and Jane Stanford in memory of their only child, Stanford was a former Governor of California and U. S. Senator, he made his fortune as a railroad tycoon. The school admitted its first students 125 years ago on October 1,1891, Stanford University struggled financially after Leland Stanfords death in 1893 and again after much of the campus was damaged by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Following World War II, Provost Frederick Terman supported faculty and graduates entrepreneurialism to build self-sufficient local industry in what would later be known as Silicon Valley. The university is one of the top fundraising institutions in the country. There are three schools that have both undergraduate and graduate students and another four professional schools. Students compete in 36 varsity sports, and the university is one of two institutions in the Division I FBS Pac-12 Conference. Stanford faculty and alumni have founded a number of companies that produce more than $2.7 trillion in annual revenue. It is the alma mater of 30 living billionaires,17 astronauts and it is also one of the leading producers of members of the United States Congress. Sixty Nobel laureates and seven Fields Medalists have been affiliated with Stanford as students, alumni, Stanford University was founded in 1885 by Leland and Jane Stanford, dedicated to Leland Stanford Jr, their only child. The institution opened in 1891 on Stanfords previous Palo Alto farm, despite being impacted by earthquakes in both 1906 and 1989, the campus was rebuilt each time. In 1919, The Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace was started by Herbert Hoover to preserve artifacts related to World War I, the Stanford Medical Center, completed in 1959, is a teaching hospital with over 800 beds. The SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, which was established in 1962, in 2008, 60% of this land remained undeveloped. Besides the central campus described below, the university also operates at more remote locations, some elsewhere on the main campus. Stanfords main campus includes a place within unincorporated Santa Clara County. The campus also includes land in unincorporated San Mateo County, as well as in the city limits of Menlo Park, Woodside. The academic central campus is adjacent to Palo Alto, bounded by El Camino Real, Stanford Avenue, Junipero Serra Boulevard, the United States Postal Service has assigned it two ZIP codes,94305 for campus mail and 94309 for P. O. box mail
4.
University of California, Los Angeles
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The University of California, Los Angeles is a public research university in the Westwood district of Los Angeles, California, United States. It became the Southern Branch of the University of California in 1919 and it offers 337 undergraduate and graduate degree programs in a wide range of disciplines. UCLA enrolls about 31,000 undergraduate and 13,000 graduate students, and had 119,000 applicants for Fall 2016, including transfer applicants, the university is organized into six undergraduate colleges, seven professional schools, and four professional health science schools. Fourteen Nobel laureates, three Fields Medalists, two Chief Scientists of the U. S. Air Force and three Turing Award winners have been faculty, researchers, or alumni, the university was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1974. The Times Higher Education World University Rankings for 2015–2016 ranked UCLA 16th in the world for academics, in 2015-2016, UCLA ranked 12th in the world by the Academic Ranking of World Universities and 31st in the 2016/17 QS World University Rankings. UCLA student-athletes compete as the Bruins in the Pac-12 Conference, the Bruins won 126 national championships, including 113 NCAA team championships, more than any other university. UCLA student-athletes, coaches and staff won 251 Olympic medals,126 gold,65 silver and 60 bronze, UCLA student-athletes competed in every Olympics since 1920 with one exception, and won a gold medal in every Olympics that the United States participated in since 1932. The State Normal School at Los Angeles opened on August 29,1882, the facility included an elementary school where teachers-in-training could practice their technique with children. That elementary school is related to the present day version, UCLA Lab School, in 1887, the school became known as the Los Angeles State Normal School. In 1914, the moved to a new campus on Vermont Avenue in East Hollywood. However, David Prescott Barrows, the new President of the University of California, the same legislation added its general undergraduate program, the College of Letters and Science. After the athletic teams entered the Pacific Coast conference in 1926, the Southern Branch student council adopted the nickname Bruins, in 1927, the Regents renamed the Southern Branch the University of California at Los Angeles. In the same year, the state broke ground in Westwood on land sold for $1 million, less than one-third its value, by real estate developers Edwin and Harold Janss, the campus in Westwood opened to students in 1929. The original four buildings were the College Library, Royce Hall, the Physics-Biology Building, the first undergraduate classes on the new campus were held in 1929 with 5,500 students. A timeline of the history can be found on its website, during its first 32 years, UCLA was treated as an off-site department of UC. As such, its presiding officer was called a provost, in 1951, UCLA was formally elevated to co-equal status with UC Berkeley, and its presiding officer Raymond B. Allen was the first chief executive to be granted the title of chancellor. The appointment of Franklin David Murphy to the position of Chancellor in 1960 helped spark an era of growth of facilities. By the end of the decade, UCLA had achieved distinction in a range of subjects
5.
Internet protocol suite
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The Internet protocol suite is the conceptual model and set of communications protocols used on the Internet and similar computer networks. It is commonly known as TCP/IP because the protocols in the suite are the Transmission Control Protocol. It is occasionally known as the Department of Defense model, because the development of the model was funded by DARPA. The Internet protocol suite provides end-to-end data communication specifying how data should be packetized, addressed, transmitted, routed and received and this functionality is organized into four abstraction layers which are used to sort all related protocols according to the scope of networking involved. Technical standards specifying the Internet protocol suite and many of its constituent protocols are maintained by the Internet Engineering Task Force, the Internet protocol suite model is a simpler model developed prior to the OSI model. The Internet protocol suite resulted from research and development conducted by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency in the late 1960s, after initiating the pioneering ARPANET in 1969, DARPA started work on a number of other data transmission technologies. In 1972, Robert E. Cerf credits Hubert Zimmermann and Louis Pouzin, designer of the CYCLADES network, the protocol was implemented as the Transmission Control Program, first published in 1974. Initially, the TCP managed both datagram transmissions and routing, but as the protocol grew, other researchers recommended a division of functionality into protocol layers, postel stated, “we are screwing up in our design of Internet protocols by violating the principle of layering”. Encapsulation of different mechanisms was intended to create an environment where the layers could access only what was needed from the lower layers. A monolithic design would be inflexible and lead to scalability issues, the Transmission Control Program was split into two distinct protocols, the Transmission Control Protocol and the Internet Protocol. The new suite replaced all protocols used previously and this design is known as the end-to-end principle. Using this design, it possible to connect almost any network to the ARPANET, irrespective of the local characteristics. One popular expression is that TCP/IP, the product of Cerf and Kahns work. A computer called a router is provided with an interface to each network and it forwards packets back and forth between them. Originally a router was called gateway, but the term was changed to avoid confusion with other types of gateways, from 1973 to 1974, Cerfs networking research group at Stanford worked out details of the idea, resulting in the first TCP specification. A significant technical influence was the early networking work at Xerox PARC, DARPA then contracted with BBN Technologies, Stanford University, and the University College London to develop operational versions of the protocol on different hardware platforms. Four versions were developed, TCP v1, TCP v2, TCP v3 and IP v3, the last protocol is still in use today. In 1975, a two-network TCP/IP communications test was performed between Stanford and University College London, in November,1977, a three-network TCP/IP test was conducted between sites in the US, the UK, and Norway
6.
Internet Society
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The Internet Society is an American, non-profit organization founded in 1992 to provide leadership in Internet-related standards, education, access, and policy. It states that its mission is to promote the development, evolution. The Internet Society has its headquarters in Reston, Virginia, United States and it has a membership base of more than 140 organizations and more than 80,000 individual members. Members also form chapters based on either common geographical location or special interests, there are over 110 chapters around the world. The Internet Society was formed officially in 1992 by Vint Cerf, Vint Cerf, Bob Kahn, Lyman Chapin released a document, Announcing ISOC, which explained the rationale for establishing the Internet Society. To educate the academic and scientific communities and the public concerning the technology, use, to promote scientific and educational applications of Internet technology for the benefit of educational institutions at all grade levels, industry, and the public at large. To provide a forum for exploration of new Internet applications and to collaboration among organizations in their operation. Many of the forces of the Internet, such as the Internet Engineering Task Force. There was a growing need for support and organization structure. However, the Internet Society itself grew out of the IETF, the then Internet Activities Board sought to create a non-profit institution that could provide financial support for the IETF Secretariat among other things. CNRI served as the first host for the Internet Societys operation, the Internet Society conducts a great range of activities under three main categories, namely standards, public policy, access, and education. The Internet Society also seeks to promote understanding and appreciation of the Internet model of open, transparent processes, the Internet Society has a prominent function in Internet governance discussions, including significant involvement in the World Summit on the Information Society and Internet Governance Forum. The Internet Society is the parent company for the Public Interest Registry, ISOC has joint offices in Reston, Virginia, United States and Geneva, Switzerland. It has also established Regional Bureaus for Latin America and the Caribbean, Africa, Asia, North America, the Internet Society is governed by a board of trustees. The current list of trustees and their committee memberships is found on the organizations website
7.
ACM Fellow
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ACM Fellowship is an award and fellowship that recognises outstanding members of the Association for Computing Machinery. New fellows are elected annually since 1993, as of 2016 examples of ACM Fellows include Vint Cerf, Anne Condon and Serge Abiteboul. See also the List of Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery and Category, some fellows use the post-nominal letters FACM
8.
IEEE Alexander Graham Bell Medal
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The IEEE Alexander Graham Bell Medal is an award honoring exceptional contributions to the advancement of communications sciences and engineering in the field of telecommunications. The medal is the highest honor awarded by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers for achievements in telecommunication sciences, the award is presented either to an individual, or to a team of two or three persons. The institutes reasoning for the award was described thus, The invention of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 was an event in electrotechnology. It was instrumental in stimulating the broad telecommunications industry that has improved life throughout the world. As an individual, Bell himself exemplified the contributions that scientists, Recipients of the award receive a gold medal, bronze replica, certificate, and an honorarium. As listed by the IEEE, Alexander Graham Bell honors and tributes IEEE awards World Communication Awards IEEE Alexander Graham Bell Medal Recipients
9.
National Medal of Technology and Innovation
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The award may be granted to a specific person, to a group of people or to an entire organization or corporation. It is the highest honor the United States can confer to a US citizen for achievements related to technological progress, the National Medal of Technology was created in 1980 by the United States Congress under the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act. It was an effort to foster technological innovation and the technological competitiveness of the United States in the international arena. The first National Medals of Technology were issued in 1985 by then-U. S, President Ronald Reagan to 12 individuals and one company. Among the first recipients were Steve Jobs and Stephen Wozniak, founders of Apple Computer, the medal has since been awarded annually. On August 9,2007, President George Bush signed the America COMPETES Act of 2007, the Act amended Section 16 of the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980, changing the name of the Medal to the National Medal of Technology and Innovation. Each year the Technology Administration under the U. S. Department of Commerce calls for the nomination of new candidates for the National Medal of Technology, candidates are nominated by their peers who have direct, first-hand knowledge of the candidates achievements. Candidates may be individuals, teams of individuals, organizations or corporations, individuals and all members of teams nominated must be U. S. citizens and organizations and corporations must be U. S. -owned. All nominations are referred to the National Medal of Technology Evaluation Committee which issues recommendations to the U. S. Secretary of Commerce, all nominees selected as finalists through the merit review process will be subject to an FBI security check. Information collected through the security check may be considered in the selection of winners. The Secretary of Commerce is then able to advise the President of the United States as to which candidates ought to receive the National Medal of Technology. The new National Medal of Technology laureates are announced by the U. S. President once the final selections have been made. As of 2005, there have more than 135 individuals and 12 companies recognized. Summarized here is a list of laureates and a summary of their accomplishments
10.
Princess of Asturias Awards
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The awards are presented at the Campoamor Theatre in Oviedo, the capital of the Principality of Asturias. A sculpture, expressly created for the prize by Spanish sculptor Joan Miró, is presented yearly to the recipients of the prize, king Felipe will continue to preside over the awards ceremony until the Princess of Asturias reaches majority age on 31 October 2023. In 2015, Wikipedia won the prize in the International Cooperation category, every year, a town or community organization in the Principality of Asturias is chosen to receive this award, a royal visit, and a prize of €25,000. List of prizes, medals, and awards Graciano García García, Princess of Asturias Foundation Princess of Asturias Awards
11.
Presidential Medal of Freedom
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The Presidential Medal of Freedom is an award bestowed by the President of the United States and is—along with the comparable Congressional Gold Medal—the highest civilian award of the United States. The award is not limited to U. S. citizens and, while it is an award, it can also be awarded to military personnel. It was established in 1963 by President John F. Kennedy, President John F. Kennedy established the current decoration in 1963 through Executive Order 11085, with unique and distinctive insignia, vastly expanded purpose, and far higher prestige. It was the first U. S. civilian neck decoration and, in the grade of Awarded With Distinction, is the only U. S. sash and star decoration. The Executive Order calls for the medal to be awarded annually on or around July 4, and at other convenient times as chosen by the president, Recipients are selected by the president, either on his own initiative or based on recommendations. The order establishing the medal also expanded the size and the responsibilities of the Distinguished Civilian Service Awards Board so it could serve as a source of such recommendations. The medal may be awarded to a more than once. It may also be awarded posthumously, examples include John F, golden American bald eagles with spread wings stand between the points of the star. It is worn around the neck on a ribbon with white edge stripes. When the medal With Distinction is awarded, the star may be presented descending from a neck ribbon, the sash and medal of the Presidential Medal of Freedom with distinction has never been worn in public since its inception. Andrew Presidential Medal of Freedom, an article from jfklibrary. org, Presidential Medal of Freedom Recipients, a list of recipients from May 5,1993, through August 19,2009, from senate. gov, the U. S. Senates official website. Hosted on georgewbush-whitehouse. archives. gov, a section of the U. S. National Archives, Medal of Freedom Ceremony, a news release, August 12,2009, from the White House Press Secretary at whitehouse. gov, the White Houses official website. War Figures Honored With Medal of Freedom, The New York Times, December 15,2004
12.
Japan Prize
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The Prize is presented by the Japan Prize Foundation. Since its inception in 1985, the Foundation has awarded 81 people from 13 countries, the Japan Prize consists of a certificate, a commemorative medal and a cash award of ¥50 million. No discrimination is made as to nationality, occupation, race, only living persons may be named. Every November, the Japan Prize Foundation selects two fields for the award according to current trends in science and technology, the nomination and selection process takes about one year. The laureates, one from each field, are announced in January, the prestigious prize presentation ceremony is held in the presence of the Emperor of Japan and the Empress. The 2014 Japan Prize Presentation Ceremony was held on April 23 at the National Theatre in Tokyo, at present the international prize is often considered one of the most prestigious awards in science and technology fields after the Nobel Prize. The creation of the Japan Prize was motivated by the desire to express Japans gratitude to international society and this plan was supported with the funds donated by Konosuke Matsushita, the founder of Panasonic Corporation. He was the first chairman of the Japan Prize Preparatory Foundation, peace and prosperity for mankind have been my lifelong desires. I am extremely pleased, therefore, that the Japan Prize has been established with the goal of making some contribution on behalf of Japan to the development of international society. The progress of science and technology has been phenomenal. It is not overstating its role to say that we owe the civilization we enjoy today to this very progress. On the other hand, however, there are many global problems which remain to be solved. It is my hope that the Japan Prize achieves the recognition it deserves. In 1982 the Japan Prize Preparatory Foundation is established and then the establishment of the Japan Prize is endorsed by the Cabinet, in 1985 The 1st Japan Prize Presentation Ceremony is held in Tokyo
13.
Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering
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The £1 million Prize is awarded biennially in the name of Queen Elizabeth II. The prize was launched in November 2011 by a cross-party line up of the UK Prime Minister David Cameron, Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg. The inaugural prize was presented to the creators of the Internet, the browser, the 2015 prize was awarded to Robert Langer, for his work in controlled-release large molecule drug delivery. The third prize was awarded on 1 February 2017 to Eric Fossum, George Smith, Nobukazu Teranishi, the objective of the Queen Elizabeth Prize is to raise the public profile of engineering, and to inspire young people and engage them in engineering. It is run by a company, limited by guarantee. The day-to-day running of the QEPrize is carried out by a team based at the Royal Academy of Engineering, the prize rewards an outstanding engineering-led advance that has produced tangible and widespread public benefit. This is judged on criteria, that includes the cultural impacts of the engineering. Nominations are encouraged from the public, from engineering and science academies, universities, research organisations, the only restriction is that self-nomination is not permitted, and that the prize not be awarded posthumously. Nominations can be made via a portal on the QEPrize website. A search group composed of eminent engineers sifts and develops the nominations before the process begins. The panel uses the following criteria to select the winning nominations, in what way has this innovation been of global benefit to humanity. Is there anyone else who might claim to have had a role in this development. The winner of the QEPrize are announced every two years by the Chairman of the QEPrize Foundation, in the first three prize cycles, this announcement was held at the Royal Academy of Engineering, and was attended by members of the Royal Family. The QEPrize awards ceremony takes place in the year as the announcement. The QEPrize trophy, designed by the winner of the Create the Trophy competition, is presented to the QEPrize winner by a member of the Royal Family, in the first three prize cycles, the trophy was presented by Her Majesty The Queen. On 1 February 2017, it was announced that the 2017 prize would be awarded to the four engineers responsible for the creation of digital imaging sensors. The announcement was made by Lord Browne of Madingley at the Royal Academy of Engineering, the winners of the 2017 prize were, George E. The winners will receive their award in a ceremony at Buckingham Palace later in 2017, the 2015 prize was awarded to Robert Langer of United States, for his work in controlled-release large molecule drug delivery
14.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
15.
Telecommunication
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Telecommunication is the transmission of signs, signals, messages, writings, images and sounds or intelligence of any nature by wire, radio, optical or other electromagnetic systems. Telecommunication occurs when the exchange of information between communication participants includes the use of technology and it is transmitted either electrically over physical media, such as cables, or via electromagnetic radiation. Such transmission paths are divided into communication channels which afford the advantages of multiplexing. The term is used in its plural form, telecommunications. Early means of communicating over a distance included visual signals, such as beacons, smoke signals, semaphore telegraphs, signal flags, other examples of pre-modern long-distance communication included audio messages such as coded drumbeats, lung-blown horns, and loud whistles. Zworykin, John Logie Baird and Philo Farnsworth, the word telecommunication is a compound of the Greek prefix tele, meaning distant, far off, or afar, and the Latin communicare, meaning to share. Its modern use is adapted from the French, because its use was recorded in 1904 by the French engineer. Communication was first used as an English word in the late 14th century, in the Middle Ages, chains of beacons were commonly used on hilltops as a means of relaying a signal. Beacon chains suffered the drawback that they could pass a single bit of information. One notable instance of their use was during the Spanish Armada, in 1792, Claude Chappe, a French engineer, built the first fixed visual telegraphy system between Lille and Paris. However semaphore suffered from the need for skilled operators and expensive towers at intervals of ten to thirty kilometres, as a result of competition from the electrical telegraph, the last commercial line was abandoned in 1880. Homing pigeons have occasionally used throughout history by different cultures. Pigeon post is thought to have Persians roots and was used by the Romans to aid their military, frontinus said that Julius Caesar used pigeons as messengers in his conquest of Gaul. The Greeks also conveyed the names of the victors at the Olympic Games to various cities using homing pigeons, in the early 19th century, the Dutch government used the system in Java and Sumatra. And in 1849, Paul Julius Reuter started a service to fly stock prices between Aachen and Brussels, a service that operated for a year until the gap in the telegraph link was closed. Sir Charles Wheatstone and Sir William Fothergill Cooke invented the telegraph in 1837. Also, the first commercial electrical telegraph is purported to have constructed by Wheatstone and Cooke. Both inventors viewed their device as an improvement to the electromagnetic telegraph not as a new device, samuel Morse independently developed a version of the electrical telegraph that he unsuccessfully demonstrated on 2 September 1837
16.
IBM
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International Business Machines Corporation is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States, with operations in over 170 countries. The company originated in 1911 as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company and was renamed International Business Machines in 1924, IBM manufactures and markets computer hardware, middleware and software, and offers hosting and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. IBM is also a research organization, holding the record for most patents generated by a business for 24 consecutive years. IBM has continually shifted its business mix by exiting commoditizing markets and focusing on higher-value, also in 2014, IBM announced that it would go fabless, continuing to design semiconductors, but offloading manufacturing to GlobalFoundries. Nicknamed Big Blue, IBM is one of 30 companies included in the Dow Jones Industrial Average and one of the worlds largest employers, with nearly 380,000 employees. Known as IBMers, IBM employees have been awarded five Nobel Prizes, six Turing Awards, ten National Medals of Technology, in the 1880s, technologies emerged that would ultimately form the core of what would become International Business Machines. On June 16,1911, their four companies were amalgamated in New York State by Charles Ranlett Flint forming a fifth company, the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company based in Endicott, New York. The five companies had 1,300 employees and offices and plants in Endicott and Binghamton, New York, Dayton, Ohio, Detroit, Michigan, Washington, D. C. and Toronto. They manufactured machinery for sale and lease, ranging from commercial scales and industrial time recorders, meat and cheese slicers, to tabulators and punched cards. Thomas J. Watson, Sr. fired from the National Cash Register Company by John Henry Patterson, called on Flint and, Watson joined CTR as General Manager then,11 months later, was made President when court cases relating to his time at NCR were resolved. Having learned Pattersons pioneering business practices, Watson proceeded to put the stamp of NCR onto CTRs companies and his favorite slogan, THINK, became a mantra for each companys employees. During Watsons first four years, revenues more than doubled to $9 million, Watson had never liked the clumsy hyphenated title of the CTR and in 1924 chose to replace it with the more expansive title International Business Machines. By 1933 most of the subsidiaries had been merged into one company, in 1937, IBMs tabulating equipment enabled organizations to process unprecedented amounts of data, its clients including the U. S. During the Second World War the company produced small arms for the American war effort, in 1949, Thomas Watson, Sr. created IBM World Trade Corporation, a subsidiary of IBM focused on foreign operations. In 1952, he stepped down after almost 40 years at the company helm, in 1957, the FORTRAN scientific programming language was developed. In 1961, IBM developed the SABRE reservation system for American Airlines, in 1963, IBM employees and computers helped NASA track the orbital flight of the Mercury astronauts. A year later it moved its headquarters from New York City to Armonk. The latter half of the 1960s saw IBM continue its support of space exploration, on April 7,1964, IBM announced the first computer system family, the IBM System/360
17.
DARPA
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The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is an agency of the U. S. Department of Defense responsible for the development of emerging technologies for use by the military. DARPA was created in February 1958 as the Advanced Research Projects Agency by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and its purpose was to formulate and execute research and development projects to expand the frontiers of technology and science, with the aim to reach beyond immediate military requirements. DARPA was created in response to the Soviet launching of Sputnik 1 in 1957, the name of the organization changed several times from its founding name ARPA, DARPA, ARPA, and DARPA. DARPA is independent from other research and development and reports directly to senior Department of Defense management. DARPA has about 240 employees, of whom 13 are in management, dARPA-funded projects have provided significant technologies that influenced many non-military fields, such as computer networking and graphical user interfaces in information technology. S. The mission statement has evolved over time, today, DARPAs mission is still to prevent technological surprise to the U. S. but also to create technological surprise for U. S. enemies. The creation of the Advanced Research Projects Agency was authorized by President Dwight D.15 and its creation was directly attributed to the launching of Sputnik and to U. S. realization that the Soviet Union had developed the capacity to rapidly exploit military technology. Initial funding of ARPA was $520 million, ARPAs first director, Roy Johnson, left a $160,000 management job at General Electric for an $18,000 job at ARPA. Herbert York from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory was hired as his scientific assistant, Johnson and York were both keen on space projects, but when NASA was established later in 1958 all space projects and most of ARPAs funding were transferred to it. Johnson resigned and ARPA was repurposed to do high-risk, high-gain, far out basic research, ARPAs second director was Brigadier General Austin W. Betts, who resigned in early 1961. He was succeeded by Jack Ruina who served until 1963, Ruina, the first scientist to administer ARPA, managed to raise its budget to $250 million. In pursuit of this mission, DARPA has developed and transferred technology programs encompassing a range of scientific disciplines that address the full spectrum of national security needs. From 1958 to 1965, ARPAs emphasis centered on major issues, including space, ballistic missile defense. During 1960, all of its civilian space programs were transferred to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the military space programs to the individual Services. This allowed ARPA to concentrate its efforts on the Project Defender, Project Vela, and Project AGILE Programs, and to work on computer processing, behavioral sciences. The DEFENDER and AGILE Programs formed the foundation of DARPA sensor, surveillance, and directed energy R&D, particularly in the study of radar, infrared sensing, ARPA at this point played an early role in Transit a predecessor to the Global Positioning System. Fast-forward to 1959 when a joint effort between DARPA and the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory began to fine-tune the early explorers’ discoveries, TRANSIT, sponsored by the Navy and developed under the leadership of Dr. Richard Kirschner at Johns Hopkins, was the first satellite positioning system. The agency was renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency in 1972, and during the early 1970s, it emphasized direct energy programs, information processing, concerning information processing, DARPA made great progress, initially through its support of the development of time-sharing
18.
MCI Inc.
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MCI, Inc. was an American telecommunication corporation, currently a subsidiary of Verizon Communications, with its main office in Ashburn, Virginia. The company traded on NASDAQ as WCOM and MCIP, for a time WorldCom was the United Statess second largest long distance telephone company. WorldCom grew largely by acquiring other companies, most notably MCI Communications. It also owned the Tier 1 ISP UUNET, a part of the internet backbone. It was headquartered in Clinton, Mississippi, before being relocated to Virginia, the company began as Long Distance Discount Services, Inc. during 1983, based in Jackson, Mississippi. In 1985 LDDS selected Bernard Ebbers to be its CEO, the company became traded publicly as a corporation in 1989 as a result of a merger with Advantage Companies Inc. The company name was changed to LDDS WorldCom in 1995, and relocated to Clinton, the company grew rapidly in the 1990s. Among the companies that were bought or merged with WorldCom were Advanced Communications Corp, resurgens Communications Group, IDB Communications Group, Inc, Williams Technology Group, Inc. and MFS Communications Company, and MCI in 1998. The acquisition of MFS included UUNET Technologies, Inc. which had acquired by MFS shortly before the merger with WorldCom. In February 1998, WorldCom purchased—by a complex transaction—online pioneer company CompuServe from its parent company H&R Block, WorldCom then retained the CompuServe Network Services Division, sold its online service to America Online, and received AOLs network division, ANS. On November 4,1997, WorldCom and MCI Communications announced their US$37 billion merger to form MCI WorldCom, making it the largest corporate merger in U. S. history. On September 15,1998, the new company, MCI WorldCom, opened for business, on October 5,1999, Sprint Corporation and MCI WorldCom announced a $129 billion merger agreement between the two companies. Had the deal been completed, it would have been the largest corporate merger in history, the merged company would have surpassed AT&T as the largest communications company in the United States. However, the deal floundered due to opposition from the U. S. Department of Justice, on July 13,2000, the boards of directors of both companies terminated the merger. Later that year, MCI WorldCom renamed itself simply WorldCom, CEO Bernard Ebbers became very wealthy from the increasing price of his holdings in WorldCom common stock. However, in the year 2000 the telecommunications industry was in decline, WorldCom’s aggressive growth strategy suffered a serious setback when, in July 2000, it was forced by the U. S. Justice Department to abandon its proposed merger with Sprint. By that time, WorldCom’s stock price was decreasing, and banks were placing increasing demands on Ebbers to cover margin calls on his WorldCom stock that were used to finance his other businesses. In 2001, Ebbers persuaded WorldCom’s board of directors to provide him corporate loans, the board hoped that the loans would avert the need for Ebbers to sell substantial amounts of his WorldCom stock, as his doing so would result in a further decrease of the stocks price
19.
Google
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Google is an American multinational technology company specializing in Internet-related services and products. These include online advertising technologies, search, cloud computing, software, Google was founded in 1996 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while they were Ph. D. students at Stanford University, in California. Together, they own about 14 percent of its shares, and they incorporated Google as a privately held company on September 4,1998. An initial public offering took place on August 19,2004, in August 2015, Google announced plans to reorganize its various interests as a conglomerate called Alphabet Inc. Google, Alphabets leading subsidiary, will continue to be the company for Alphabets Internet interests. Upon completion of the restructure, Sundar Pichai became CEO of Google, replacing Larry Page, rapid growth since incorporation has triggered a chain of products, acquisitions, and partnerships beyond Googles core search engine. The company leads the development of the Android mobile operating system, the Google Chrome web browser, and Chrome OS, the new hardware chief, Rick Osterloh, stated, a lot of the innovation that we want to do now ends up requiring controlling the end-to-end user experience. Google has also experimented with becoming an Internet carrier, alexa, a company that monitors commercial web traffic, lists Google. com as the most visited website in the world. Several other Google services also figure in the top 100 most visited websites, including YouTube, Googles mission statement, from the outset, was to organize the worlds information and make it universally accessible and useful, and its unofficial slogan was Dont be evil. In October 2015, the motto was replaced in the Alphabet corporate code of conduct by the phrase Do the right thing, Google began in January 1996 as a research project by Larry Page and Sergey Brin when they were both PhD students at Stanford University in Stanford, California. They called this new technology PageRank, it determined a websites relevance by the number of pages, and the importance of those pages, Page and Brin originally nicknamed their new search engine BackRub, because the system checked backlinks to estimate the importance of a site. Originally, Google ran under Stanford Universitys website, with the domains google. stanford. edu, the domain name for Google was registered on September 15,1997, and the company was incorporated on September 4,1998. It was based in the garage of a friend in Menlo Park, craig Silverstein, a fellow PhD student at Stanford, was hired as the first employee. The first funding for Google was an August 1998 contribution of $100,000 from Andy Bechtolsheim, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, given before Google was incorporated. At least three other investors invested in 1998, Amazon. com founder Jeff Bezos, Stanford University computer science professor David Cheriton. Author Ken Auletta claims that each invested $250,000, early in 1999, Brin and Page decided they wanted to sell Google to Excite. They went to Excite CEO George Bell and offered to sell it to him for $1 million, vinod Khosla, one of Excites venture capitalists, talked the duo down to $750,000, but Bell still rejected it. Googles initial public offering took place five years later, on August 19,2004, at that time Larry Page, Sergey Brin, and Eric Schmidt agreed to work together at Google for 20 years, until the year 2024
20.
Thesis
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A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the authors research and findings. In some contexts, the thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelors or masters course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts. The term graduate thesis is used to refer to both masters theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, the word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek θέσις, meaning something put forth, Dissertation comes from the Latin dissertātiō, meaning path. A thesis may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, an ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters, and a bibliography or a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the different areas of study. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory, Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of the thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the research literature which impinges on the topic of the study, the methods used. Degree-awarding institutions often define their own style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. Other applicable international standards include ISO2145 on section numbers, ISO690 on bibliographic references, some older house styles specify that front matter uses a separate page-number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. They therefore avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter, however, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the size and the page formatting. A thesis or dissertation committee is a committee that supervises a students dissertation, the committee members are doctors in their field and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student, all the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers, a longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelors degree is sometimes called a major paper. High-quality research papers presented as the study of a postgraduate consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis
21.
Gerald Estrin
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Gerald Estrin was an American computer scientist, and Professor at the UCLA Computer Science Department. He is known for his work on the organization of computer systems, on parallel processing, Estrin received his B. S, M. S. and Ph. D. degrees from the University of Wisconsin in 1948,1949, and 1951, respectively. Estrin served as engineer in the von Neumann group at IAS from 1950–56. The idea was realised as The Fixed Plus Variable Structure Computer. He served as Chairperson of the UCLA Computer Science Department from 1979 to 1982 and he retired in 1991, and was recalled as Professor Emeritus. Estrin was IEEE Fellow, a Guggenheim Fellow, and a member of the Board of Governors of the Weizmann Institute of Science, Estrin was survived by his wife, Thelma, and their three daughters Margo, who is a doctor, Judy and Deborah. Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science Deborah Estrin Vint Cerf Estrin, organization of computer systems, the fixed plus variable structure computer. Papers presented at the May 3-5,1960, western joint IRE-AIEE-ACM computer conference, parallel processing in a restructurable computer system. Electronic Computers, IEEE Transactions on 6, 747-755, SARA, modeling, analysis, and simulation support for design of concurrent systems. Software Engineering, IEEE Transactions on 2, 293-311
22.
Internet pioneer
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Instead of a single inventor, the Internet was developed by many people over many years. The following are some Internet pioneers who contributed to its early development and these include early theoretical foundations, specifying original protocols, and expansion beyond a research tool to wide deployment. John von Neumann was a figure of computing. Donald Knuth cites von Neumann as the inventor, in 1945, of the merge sort algorithm, in which the first and second halves of an array are each sorted recursively, von Neumann wrote the sorting program for the EDVAC in ink, which was 23 pages long. He also worked on the philosophy of artificial intelligence with Alan Turing when the latter visited Princeton in the 1930s, claude Shannon called the father of modern information theory, published A Mathematical Theory of Communication in 1948. His paper gave a way of studying communication channels. It established fundamental limits on the efficiency of communication over noisy channels, vannevar Bush helped to establish a partnership between U. S. military, university research, and independent think tanks. Out of this would come DARPA, which in turn would lead to the ARPANET Project and this led to a series of papers titled On Distributed communications that in 1964 described a detailed architecture for a distributed survivable packet switched communications network. In 2012, Baran was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society, donald Davies coined the term packet switching at the National Physical Laboratory in the United Kingdom. Previously working independently, the terminology was adopted when the ARPANET was designed in 1967. In 2012, Davies was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society, joseph Carl Robnett Licklider was a faculty member of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and researcher at Bolt, Beranek and Newman. He developed the idea of a network at the Information Processing Techniques Office of the United States Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. He headed IPTO from 1962 to 1963, and again from 1974 to 1975 and his 1960 paper Man-Computer Symbiosis envisions that mutually-interdependent, living together, tightly-coupled human brains and computing machines would prove to complement each others strengths. In 2012, Herzfeld was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society, Robert W. Taylor was director of ARPAs Information Processing Techniques Office from 1965 through 1969, where he convinced ARPA to fund a computer network. From 1970 to 1983, he managed the Computer Science Laboratory of the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, where such as Ethernet. He was the founder and manager of Digital Equipment Corporations Systems Research Center until 1996, the 1968 paper, The Computer as a Communication Device, that he wrote together with J. C. R. Licklider starts out, In a few years, men will be able to more effectively through a machine than face to face. And while their vision would take more than a few years, douglas Engelbart was an early researcher at the Stanford Research Institute
23.
Bob Kahn
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Kahn was born in New York to parents Beatrice Pauline and Lawrence Kahn in a Jewish family. Through his father, he is related to futurist Herman Kahn, after receiving a B. E. E. degree in electrical engineering from the City College of New York in 1960, Kahn earned M. A. In 1972, he work at the Information Processing Techniques Office within DARPA. He then helped develop the TCP/IP protocols for connecting diverse computer networks. S, after thirteen years with DARPA, he left to found the Corporation for National Research Initiatives in 1986, and as of 2015 is the chairman, CEO and president. No portion of the network would be the point of failure. Vint Cerf joined him on the project in the spring of 1973, later, it was separated into two separate layers, with the more basic functions being moved to the Internet Protocol. The two together are referred to as TCP/IP, and form part of the basis for the modern Internet. In 1992 he co-founded with Vint Cerf the Internet Society, to leadership in Internet related standards, education. The Internets basic communications protocols. and for inspired leadership in networking and he has twice received the Secretary of Defense Civilian Service Award. He was awarded a degree by the University of Pavia in 1998. Kahn received the 2003 Digital ID World award for the Digital Object Architecture as a significant contribution to the digital identity industry. In 2005 he was awarded the Townsend Harris Medal from the Alumni Association of the City College of New York, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, and he was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in May 2006. He was inducted as a Fellow of the Computer History Museum in 2006 for pioneering contributions to internetworking. He was awarded the 2008 Japan Prize for his work in Information Communication Theory, in 2001 he was inducted as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery. Robert Kahn and Vinton Cerf were each inducted as an Honorary Fellow of the Society for Technical Communication in May 2006, the duo were also awarded with the Harold Pender Award, the highest honor awarded by the University of Pennsylvania School Engineering and Applied Sciences, in February 2010. He has also served on the board of directors for Qualcomm, in 2012, Kahn was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society. In 2013 Kahn was one of five Internet and Web pioneers awarded the inaugural Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering, in 2012 he was also recognized as honorary doctor of Saint Petersburg National Research University of Information Technologies, Mechanics and Optics. Vint Cerf & Bob Kahn, Al Gore and the Internet, 2000-09-28 Paul Baran co-inventor of packet-switched networks with Donald Davies Directors & Officers, Robert E. Kahn
24.
MCI Communications
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It was headquartered in Washington, D. C. Founded in 1963, it grew to be the second-largest long-distance provider in the U. S and it was purchased by WorldCom in 1998 and became MCI WorldCom, with the name afterwards being shortened to WorldCom in 2000. WorldComs financial scandals and bankruptcy led that company to change its name in 2003 to MCI Inc, the MCI name disappeared in January 2006 after the company was bought by Verizon. MCI was founded as Microwave Communications, Inc. on October 3,1963 with John D. Goeken being named the companys first president. The initial business plan was for the company to build a series of relay stations between Chicago, Illinois and St. Louis, Missouri. The relay stations would then be used to interface with limited-range two-way radios used by truckers along U. S. Route 66 or by barges on the Illinois Waterway. The long-distance communication service would then be marketed to shipping companies that were too small to build their own private relay systems. In addition to the radio services, MCI soon made plans to offer voice, computer information. The fledgling business began a process of raising capital and submitting applications to the Federal Communications Commission for appropriate licenses, hearings on Microwave Communications initial application between February 13,1967 and April 19,1967 resulted in a recommendation that the FCC approve MCIs application. AT&T quickly sought a reversal of the ruling, and when the FCC denied their request, the FCCs decision was upheld, thus creating a new industry, privately manufactured devices could be connected to the telephone network as long as the manufacturer met interface standards. In 1968, William G. McGowan, an investor from New York with experience in raising venture capital, met with the board of Microwave Communications to discuss financing plans for the business. As a result of meetings in June and July, Microwave Communications of America, McGowan also made an investment into the new corporation large enough to pay all outstanding debts of the combined businesses and create a cash reserve. The investment also provided McGowan a stake in the company and a seat on the board, despite a 1967 recommendation that MCIs application be approved, final authorization for MCI to begin operations was delayed until after H. Rex Lee became an FCC Commissioner in October 1968. The FCC issued a ruling on Docket 16509, MCIs licensing request. By a decision of 4–3 MCI was licensed for operation and this ruling was quickly appealed by AT&T, and after a denial of the appeal by the commission, AT&T filed a suit with the U. S. Court of Appeals to have the ruling overturned. Between September 1969 and February 1971, fifteen new regional carriers were created, in July 1969, MICOM also purchased an equity position in Interdata, an independent regional carrier that was applying to build a microwave relay chain between New York City and Washington, D. C. MCI began selling data transmission services to paying customers on January 1,1972, to pay for the microwave transmission and relay equipment needed for build-out, MICOM began a series of private stock offerings in May 1971. In July 1971, MICOM was restructured into MCI Communications, MCI went public on June 22,1972, selling an initial offering of 3.3 million shares
25.
ICANN
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ICANN performs the actual technical maintenance work of the central Internet address pools and DNS root zone registries pursuant to the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority function contract. The numbering facilities ICANN manages include the Internet Protocol address spaces for IPv4 and IPv6, ICANN also maintains registries of Internet Protocol identifiers. ICANN was created on September 18,1998, and incorporated on September 30,1998 and it is headquartered in the Playa Vista neighborhood of Los Angeles. In 1997 Postel testified before Congress that this had come about as a task to this research work. The Information Sciences Institute was funded by the U. S. Department of Defense, as was SRI Internationals Network Information Center, which also performed some assigned name functions. As the Internet grew and expanded globally, the U. S. Department of Commerce initiated a process to establish a new organization to perform the IANA functions. The proposed rule making, or Green Paper, was published in the Federal Register on February 20,1998, NTIA received more than 650 comments as of March 23,1998, when the comment period closed. ICANN was formed in response to this policy, ICANN managed the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority under contract to the United States Department of Commerce and pursuant to an agreement with the IETF. ICANN was incorporated in California on September 30,1998, with entrepreneur and it is a nonprofit public benefit corporation organized under the California Nonprofit Public Benefit Corporation Law for charitable and public purposes. ICANN was established in California due to the presence of Jon Postel, ICANN formerly operated from the same Marina del Rey building where Postel formerly worked, which is home to an office of the Information Sciences Institute at the University of Southern California. However, ICANNs headquarters is now located in the nearby Playa Vista neighborhood of Los Angeles and they were also required to be financially independent from ICANN. On July 26,2006, the United States government renewed the contract with ICANN for performance of the IANA function for a one to five years. The context of ICANNs relationship with the U. S. government was clarified on September 29,2006 when ICANN signed a new Memorandum of Understanding with the United States Department of Commerce and this document gave the DOC oversight over some of the ICANN operations. During July 2008, the DOC reiterated a statement that it has no plans to transition management of the authoritative root zone file to ICANN. The letter also stresses the separate roles of the IANA and VeriSign, on September 30,2009, ICANN signed an agreement with the DOC that confirmed ICANNs commitment to a multistakeholder governance model, but did not remove it from DOC oversight and control. On March 10,2016, ICANN and the DOC signed a historic, culminating agreement to finally remove ICANN and IANA from the control, on October 1,2016, ICANN was freed from U. S. government oversight. During September and October 2003, ICANN played a role in the conflict over VeriSigns wild card DNS service Site Finder. After an open letter from ICANN issuing an ultimatum to VeriSign, later endorsed by the Internet Architecture Board, after this action, VeriSign filed a lawsuit against ICANN on February 27,2004, claiming that ICANN had exceeded its authority
26.
Association for Computing Machinery
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The Association for Computing Machinery is an international learned society for computing. It was founded in 1947 and is the worlds largest scientific and it is a not-for-profit professional membership group. Its membership is more than 100,000 as of 2011 and its headquarters are in New York City. The ACM is an organization for academic and scholarly interests in computer science. Its motto is Advancing Computing as a Science & Profession, ACM is organized into over 171 local chapters and 37 Special Interest Groups, through which it conducts most of its activities. Additionally, there are over 500 college and university chapters, the first student chapter was founded in 1961 at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. Many of the SIGs, such as SIGGRAPH, SIGPLAN, SIGCSE and SIGCOMM, sponsor regular conferences, the groups also publish a large number of specialized journals, magazines, and newsletters. ACM publishes over 50 journals including the prestigious Journal of the ACM, other publications of the ACM include, ACM XRDS, formerly Crossroads, was redesigned in 2010 and is the most popular student computing magazine in the US. ACM Interactions, an interdisciplinary HCI publication focused on the connections between experiences, people and technology, and the third largest ACM publication, ACM Computing Surveys ACM Computers in Entertainment A number of journals, specific to subfields of computer science, titled ACM Transactions. ACM has made almost all of its publications available to subscribers online at its Digital Library. Individual members additionally have access to Safari Books Online and Books24x7, ACM also offers insurance, online courses, and other services to its members. In 1997, ACM Press published Wizards and Their Wonders, Portraits in Computing, written by Christopher Morgan, the book is a collection of historic and current portrait photographs of figures from the computer industry. The ACM Portal is a service of the ACM. Its core are two sections, ACM Digital Library and the ACM Guide to Computing Literature. The ACM Digital Library is the collection of all articles published by the ACM in its articles, magazines. The Guide is a bibliography in computing with over one million entries, the ACM Digital Library contains a comprehensive archive starting in the 1950s of the organizations journals, magazines, newsletters and conference proceedings. Online services include a forum called Ubiquity and Tech News digest, there is an extensive underlying bibliographic database containing key works of all genres from all major publishers of computing literature. This secondary database is a rich discovery service known as The ACM Guide to Computing Literature, ACM adopted a hybrid Open Access publishing model in 2013
27.
Suit (clothing)
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In clothing, a suit is a set of garments made from the same cloth, usually consisting of at least a jacket and trousers. Lounge suits, which originated in Britain as country wear, are the most common style of Western suit and this article discusses the lounge suit, elements of informal dress code. The variations in design, cut, and cloth, such as two- and three- piece, or single- and double- breasted, determine the social, often, suits are worn, as is traditional, with a collared shirt and necktie. Until around the 1960s, as with all mens clothes, a hat would have also worn when the wearer was outdoors. Suits also come with different numbers of pieces, a suit has a jacket and the trousers. Originally, as with most clothes, a tailor made the suit from his clients selected cloth, the suit was custom made to the measurements, taste, and style of the man. Since the Industrial Revolution, most suits are mass-produced, and and it was in the search for more comfort that the loosening of rules gave rise in the late 19th century to the modern lounge suit. As a suit covers all or most of the wearers body, brooks Brothers is generally credited with first offering the ready-to-wear suit, a suit which was sold already manufactured and sized, ready to be tailored. It was Haggar Clothing that first introduced the concept of suit separates in the US, the concept of separately sold jackets and trousers, there are many possible variations in the choice of the style, the garments and the details of a suit. The silhouette of a suit is its outline, tailored balance created from a canvas fitting allows a balanced silhouette so a jacket need not be buttoned and a garment is not too tight or too loose. A proper garment is shaped from the neck to the chest, shape is the essential part of tailoring that often takes hand work from the start. Good tailoring anywhere in the world is characterised by strongly tapered sides and minimal shoulder, more casual suits are characterised by less construction and tailoring, much like the sack suit is a loose American style. The acid test of authentic tailoring standards is the wrinkle that comes from poor tailoring, for interim fittings, Rock Of Eye, drawing and cutting inaccuracies are overcome by the fitting. Suits are made in a variety of fabrics, but most commonly from wool, the two main yarns produce worsteds and woollens. These can be woven in a number of ways producing flannel, tweed, gabardine, other materials are used sometimes, either alone or blended with wool, such as cashmere. Silk alone or blended with wool is sometimes used, synthetic materials, while cheaper, e. g. polyester, are very rarely recommended by experts. For hot weather, linen is also used, and in North America cotton seersucker is worn, the main four colours for suits worn in business are black, light grey, dark grey, and navy, either with or without patterns. In particular, grey flannel suiting has been very widely since the 1930s
28.
Vilnius
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Vilnius is the capital of Lithuania and its largest city, with a population of 542,664 as of 2015. Vilnius is located in the southeast part of Lithuania and is the second largest city in the Baltic states, Vilnius is the seat of the main government institutions of Lithuania as well as of the Vilnius District Municipality. Vilnius is classified as a Gamma global city according to GaWC studies and its Jewish influence until the 20th century has led to it being described as the Jerusalem of Lithuania and Napoleon named it the Jerusalem of the North as he was passing through in 1812. In 2009, Vilnius was the European Capital of Culture, together with the Austrian city of Linz, the name of the city originates from the Vilnia River. The city has also known by many derivate spellings in various languages throughout its history. The most notable names for the city include, Polish, Wilno, Belarusian, Вiльня, German, Wilna, Latvian, Viļņa, Russian, Вильнюс, Yiddish, ווילנע , Czech. A Russian name from the time of the Russian Empire was Вильна/Вильно, the name Vilna is still used in Finnish, Portuguese, Spanish, and Hebrew. Wilna is still used in German, along with Vilnius, the neighborhoods of Vilnius also have names in other languages, which represent the languages spoken by various ethnic groups in the area. Historian Romas Batūra identifies the city with Voruta, one of the castles of Mindaugas, during the reign of Vytenis a city started to emerge from a trading settlement and the first Franciscan Catholic church was built. These letters contain the first unambiguous reference to Vilnius as the capital, According to legend, Gediminas dreamt of an iron wolf howling on a hilltop and consulted a pagan priest for its interpretation. He was told, What is destined for the ruler and the State of Lithuania, is thus, the Iron Wolf represents a castle and a city which will be established by you on this site. This city will be the capital of the Lithuanian lands and the dwelling of their rulers, the location offered practical advantages, it lay within the Lithuanian heartland at the confluence of two navigable rivers, surrounded by forests and wetlands that were difficult to penetrate. The duchy had been subject to intrusions by the Teutonic Knights, Vilnius was the flourishing capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the residence of the Grand Duke. Gediminas expanded the Grand Duchy through warfare along with strategic alliances and marriages, at its height it covered the territory of modern-day Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Transnistria, and portions of modern-day Poland and Russia. His grandchildren Vytautas the Great and Jogaila, however, fought civil wars, during the Lithuanian Civil War of 1389–1392, Vytautas besieged and razed the city in an attempt to wrest control from Jogaila. The two later settled their differences, after a series of treaties culminating in the 1569 Union of Lublin, the rulers of this federation held either or both of two titles, Grand Duke of Lithuania or King of Poland. In 1387, Jogaila acting as a Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland Władysław II Jagiełło, the city underwent a period of expansion. The Vilnius city walls were built for protection between 1503 and 1522, comprising nine city gates and three towers, and Sigismund August moved his court there in 1544
29.
Van Nuys High School
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Van Nuys High School, established in 1914, is a public high school in the Van Nuys district of Los Angeles, belonging to the Los Angeles Unified School District, District 2. The school is home to a Residential Program and three Magnet Programs—Math/Science, performing arts, and Medical, several neighborhoods, including much of Van Nuys, portions of Sherman Oaks, Magnolia Woods, and Victory Park, are zoned to this school. Van Nuys High School opened in 1914, four years after Van Nuys was established, for years the only high schools in the Valley were Van Nuys, Owensmouth, San Fernando, and North Hollywood. The main buildings and auditorium were built in 1933, incorporating remnants of the 1915 building which had destroyed in the Long Beach earthquake. For the 1998–1999 Scholastic Assessment Test, Van Nuys high had a 537 average on the verbal portion, the Los Angeles Unified School District ordered Van Nuys High School to convert to year-round scheduling in 2001, due to such reasons as overcrowding. Even though this relieved the overcrowding at the school, the Magnet Programs separated tracks, the Performing Arts Magnet and the Medical Magnet were only available on the A-Track Schedule, while the Math and Science Magnet was only available on the C-Track Schedule. B-Trackers could not take the classes as C-Trackers, while C-Trackers could only take certain A-Track classes. Teachers that had both A-Track and C-Track students were frustrated because the curriculum had to be synchronized with both tracks, Van Nuys High School returned to the Traditional School Calendar in 2005. The switch was caused by a decline in the school population, the opening of Panorama High School in October 2006, relieved overcrowding at Van Nuys High School. Van Nuys High School has had the highest AP passing rate in the LAUSD for two consecutive years, Van Nuys High School was indeed established in 1915. Although, the first graduating ceremony was held in 1914 for a group of students that had previously attended different schools. Legitimately making the class of 2014 The Centennials, the Adult School is on the same campus as Van Nuys High School. It allows adults as well as school students to take classes. Most Van Nuys High School students take courses in the Adult School for academic remediation, however, some take classes for Counselor-Identified High School Credit Deficiencies, while others take classes for personal necessities of flexible scheduling. The Adult School is considered a work-at-your-own-pace program, a student can finish an entire course in just 2–3 weeks, but can take longer depending on the work effort of the student. In baseball Van Nuys High qualified for postseason play, the following time the schools team qualified was in 1989, after a 9–7 victory over Birmingham High School at the Van Nuys-Sherman Oaks Recreation Center. Van Nuys High has a variety of including, basketball, baseball, softball, volleyball, football, soccer, golf, wrestling, water polo, swimming. It has had rivalries with Francis Polytechnic High School and Hollywood High School
30.
Jon Postel
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Jonathan Bruce Postel was an American computer scientist who made many significant contributions to the development of the Internet, particularly with respect to standards. He is known principally for being the Editor of the Request for Comment document series, in his lifetime he was known as the god of the Internet for his comprehensive influence on the medium. The Internet Societys Postel Award is named in his honor, as is the Postel Center at Information Sciences Institute and his obituary was written by Vint Cerf and published as RFC2468 in remembrance of Postel and his work. In 2012, Postel was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society, the Channel Islands Domain Registry building was named after him in early 2016. Postel attended Van Nuys High School, and then UCLA where he earned his B. S. as well as his M. A. in Engineering. He then went on to complete his Ph. D. there in Computer Science in 1974, Postel started work at UCLA on 23 December 1969 as a Postgraduate Research Engineer where he was involved in early work on the ARPANET. He worked there until 24 August 1973 when he left to join MITRE Corporation and he assisted with Network Information Center which was being set up at SRI by Elizabeth Feinler. In March 1977, he joined the Information Sciences Institute at the University of Southern California as an Assistant Professor, between 1982 and 1984 Postel co-authored the RFCs which became the foundation of todays DNS which were joined in 1995 by RFC1591 which he also co-wrote. In total, he wrote or co-authored more than 200 RFCs, Postel served on the Internet Architecture Board and its predecessors for many years. He was the Director of the names and number assignment clearinghouse and he was the first member of the Internet Society, and was on its Board of Trustees. He was the original and long-time. us Top-Level Domain administrator and he also managed the Los Nettos Network. ROOT-SERVERS. NET to IANAs DNSROOT. IANA. ORG. Though usage of the Internet was not interrupted, he received orders from senior government officials to undo this change. On October 16,1998, Postel died of complications from surgery in Los Angeles. He was recovering from a surgery to replace a heart valve. ARPANET Computer Networks, The Heralds of Resource Sharing History of the Internet Jonathan B. Postel Service Award STD8 Jon Postel at DMOZ postel. org Research center at USC/ISI created in his honor
31.
Steve Crocker
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Stephen D. Crocker is the inventor of the Request for Comments series, authoring the very first RFC and many more. He received his bachelors degree and PhD from the University of California, Crocker is chair of the board of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers, ICANN. Steve Crocker has worked in the Internet community since its inception, as a UCLA graduate student in the 1960s, he was part of the team that developed the protocols for the ARPANET which were the foundation for todays Internet. For this work, Crocker was awarded the 2002 IEEE Internet Award, while at UCLA Crocker taught an extension course on computer programming. The class was intended to teach digital processing and assembly language programming to high school teachers, a number of high school students were also admitted to the course, to ensure that they would be able to understand this new discipline. Crocker was also active in the newly formed UCLA Computer Club, in 1994, Crocker was one of the founders and chief technology officer of CyberCash, Inc. In 1998, he founded and ran Executive DSL, a DSL-based ISP, in 1999 he cofounded and was CEO of Longitude Systems. He is currently CEO of Shinkuro, a research and development company, Steve Crocker was instrumental in creating the ARPA Network Working Group, which later was the context in which the IETF was created. In 2012, Crocker was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society, RFC1, Host Software, S. Crocker, April 1969. RFC1776, The Address is the Message, S. Crocker, Shinkuro. com executive team info Steve Crocker is a Geek. Oral history interview with Stephen Crocker, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota and he discusses his work as a program manager in the Information Processing Techniques Office
32.
Rocketdyne F-1
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The F-1 is a gas-generator cycle rocket engine developed in the United States by Rocketdyne in the late 1950s and used in the Saturn V rocket in the 1960s and early 1970s. Five F-1 engines were used in the S-IC first stage of each Saturn V, the F-1 remains the most powerful single-combustion chamber liquid-propellant rocket engine ever developed. The F-1 was originally developed by Rocketdyne to meet a 1955 U. S. Air Force requirement for a large rocket engine. The eventual result of requirement was two engines, the E-1 and the much larger F-1. The E-1, although tested in static firing, was quickly seen as a technological dead-end. The Air Force eventually halted development of the F-1 because of a lack of requirement for such a large engine, however, the recently created National Aeronautics and Space Administration appreciated the usefulness of an engine with so much power, and contracted Rocketdyne to complete its development. Test firings of F-1 components had performed as early as 1957. The first static firing of a full-stage developmental F-1 was performed in March 1959, the first F-1 was delivered to NASA MSFC in October 1963. In December 1964, the F-1 completed flight-rating tests, testing continued at least through 1965. Early development tests revealed serious combustion instability problems which caused catastrophic failure. Initially, progress on this problem was slow, as it was intermittent, oscillations of 4 kHz with harmonics to 24 kHz were observed. Eventually, engineers developed a technique of detonating small explosive charges outside the combustion chamber. This allowed them to exactly how the running chamber responded to variations in pressure. The designers could then quickly experiment with different co-axial fuel-injector designs to obtain the one most resistant to instability and these problems were addressed from 1959 through 1961. Eventually, engine combustion was so stable, it would self-damp artificially induced instability within 1/10 of a second, the Rocketdyne-developed F-1 engine is the most powerful single-nozzle liquid-fueled rocket engine ever flown. The M-1 rocket engine was designed to have more thrust, however it was tested at the component level. The F-1 was a rocket motor, burning RP-1 as fuel. A turbopump was used to fuel and oxygen into the combustion chamber
33.
Systems engineering
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Systems engineering is an interdisciplinary field of engineering and engineering management that focuses on how to design and manage complex systems over their life cycles. At its core systems engineering utilizes systems thinking principles to organize this body of knowledge, Systems engineering deals with work-processes, optimization methods, and risk management tools in such projects. Systems engineering ensures that all aspects of a project or system are considered. The systems engineering process is a process that is quite unlike a manufacturing process. A manufacturing process is focused on activities that achieve high quality outputs with minimum cost. The term systems engineering can be traced back to Bell Telephone Laboratories in the 1940s. S, the continuing evolution of systems engineering comprises the development and identification of new methods and modeling techniques. These methods aid in the comprehension and the design and development control of engineering systems as they grow more complex. Popular tools that are used in the systems engineering context were developed during these times, including USL, UML, QFD. In 1990, a society for systems engineering, the National Council on Systems Engineering, was founded by representatives from a number of U. S. corporations and organizations. NCOSE was created to address the need for improvements in engineering practices. As a result of growing involvement from systems engineers outside of the U. S. the name of the organization was changed to the International Council on Systems Engineering in 1995. Schools in several countries offer programs in systems engineering. Systems engineering signifies only an approach and, more recently, a discipline in engineering, as an approach, systems engineering is holistic and interdisciplinary in flavour. The traditional scope of engineering embraces the conception, design, development, Systems engineering, as originally conceived, falls within this scope. The Apollo program is an example of a systems engineering project. The use of the systems engineer has evolved over time to embrace a wider, more holistic concept of systems. This evolution of the definition has been a subject of ongoing controversy, traditional systems engineering was seen as a branch of engineering in the classical sense, that is, as applied only to physical system, such as space craft and aircraft. More recently, systems engineering has evolved to a take on a broader meaning especially when humans were seen as a component of a system
34.
Leonard Kleinrock
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Leonard Kleinrock is an American engineer and computer scientist. He played a role in the development of the ARPANET. Kleinrock was born in New York City on June 13,1934 to a Jewish family, and graduated from the noted Bronx High School of Science in 1951. He then joined the faculty at the University of California at Los Angeles and he described this work as, Basically, what I did for my PhD research in 1961–1962 was to establish a mathematical theory of packet networks. However, Kleinrocks contribution to packet switching is disputed by some, including Paul Baran and his theoretical work on hierarchical routing in the late 1970s with student Farouk Kamoun, is now critical to the operation of todays worldwide Internet. The first message on the ARPANET was sent by UCLA student programmer Charley Kline, at 10,30 p. m, on October 29,1969 from Boelter Hall 3420, the schools main building. Supervised by Kleinrock, Kline transmitted from the universitys SDS Sigma 7 host computer to the Stanford Research Institutes SDS940 host computer, the message text was the word login, the l and the o letters were transmitted, but the system then crashed. Hence, the literal first message over the ARPANET was lo, about an hour later, having recovered from the crash, the SDS Sigma 7 computer effected a full login. The first permanent ARPANET link was established on November 21,1969, by December 5,1969, the entire four-node network was established. In 1988, Kleinrock was the chairman of a group that presented the report Toward a National Research Network to the U. S. Congress. This report was highly influential and was used to develop the High Performance Computing Act of 1991, funding from the bill was used in the development of the 1993 web browser Mosaic, at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications. Room 3420 at Boelter Hall was restored to its condition of 1969 and converted into the Kleinrock Internet Heritage Site and it opened to the public with a grand opening attended by Internet pioneers on October 29,2011. Kleinrock claims to have committed the first illegal act on the Internet, at the time, use of the Internet for personal reasons was unlawful. He has received professional awards. Kleinrock was selected to receive the prestigious National Medal of Science and his mentoring of generations of students has led to the commercialization of technologies that have transformed the world. In 2010 he shared the Dan David Prize, in 2012, Kleinrock was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society. Leonard Kleinrock was inducted into IEEE-Eta Kappa Nu in 2011 as an Eminent Member, in September 2014, Leonard Kleinrock was awarded the ACM SIGMOBILE Outstanding Contribution Award at MobiCom 2014. Internet pioneers Nerds 2.0.1 -1998 documentary in which Kleinrock gives a lengthy interview Plan 55-A, information Flow in Large Communication Nets
35.
ARPANET
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The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network was an early packet switching network and the first network to implement the protocol suite TCP/IP. Both technologies became the foundation of the Internet. ARPANET was initially funded by the Advanced Research Projects Agency of the United States Department of Defense, the packet switching methodology employed in the ARPANET was based on concepts and designs by Americans Leonard Kleinrock and Paul Baran, British scientist Donald Davies, and Lawrence Roberts. The TCP/IP communications protocols were developed for ARPANET by computer scientists Robert Kahn and Vint Cerf, as the project progressed, protocols for internetworking were developed by which multiple separate networks could be joined into a network of networks. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet protocol suite was introduced as the standard networking protocol on the ARPANET. Packet switching—today the dominant basis for data communications worldwide—was a new concept at the time of the conception of the ARPANET, such stations might be telephones or computers. The dedicated line typically comprises many intermediary lines which are assembled into a chain that stretches all the way from the station to the destination station. Thus, not only can the link be shared, much as a single post box can be used to post letters to different destinations and those ideas encompassed many of the features of the contemporary Internet. In October 1963, Licklider was appointed head of the Behavioral Sciences and Command and he convinced Ivan Sutherland and Bob Taylor that this network concept was very important and merited development, although Licklider left ARPA before any contracts were assigned for development. Taylor recalls the circumstance, For each of three terminals, I had three different sets of user commands. So, if I was talking online with someone at S. D. C. and I wanted to talk to someone I knew at Berkeley, or M. I. T. about this, I had to get up from the S. D. C. Terminal, go over and log into the terminal and get in touch with them. Its obvious what to do, If you have three terminals, there ought to be one terminal that goes anywhere you want to go. Donald Davies at the United Kingdoms National Physical Laboratory independently invented the concept in 1965. His work, presented by a colleague, initially caught the attention of ARPANET developers at a conference in Gatlinburg, Tennessee and he gave the first public demonstration, having coined the term packet switching, on 5 August 1968 and incorporated it into the NPL network in England. Larry Roberts at ARPA applied Davies concepts of packet switching for the ARPANET, the NPL network followed by ARPANET were the first two networks in the world to use packet switching, and were themselves connected together in 1973. The NPL network was using line speeds of 768 kbit/s, by mid-1968, Taylor had prepared a complete plan for a computer network, and, after ARPAs approval, a Request for Quotation was issued for 140 potential bidders. Most computer science companies regarded the ARPA–Taylor proposal as outlandish, and only twelve submitted bids to build a network, of the twelve, at years end, ARPA considered only two contractors, and awarded the contract to build the network to BBN Technologies on 7 April 1969
36.
Professor
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Professor is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a person who professes being usually an expert in arts or sciences, in much of the world, the unqualified word professor is used formally to indicate the highest academic rank, informally known as full professor. Professors conduct original research and commonly teach undergraduate, graduate, or professional courses in their fields of expertise, in universities with graduate schools, professors may mentor and supervise graduate students conducting research for a thesis or dissertation. Professors typically hold a Ph. D. another doctorate or a different terminal degree, some professors hold a masters degree or a professional degree, such as an M. D. as their highest degree. The term professor was first used in the late 14th century to one who teaches a branch of knowledge. As a title that is prefixed to a name, it dates from 1706, the hort form prof is recorded from 1838. The term professor is used with a different meaning, ne professing religion. This canting use of the word comes down from the Elizabethan period, a professor is an accomplished and recognized academic. In most Commonwealth nations, as well as northern Europe, the professor is the highest academic rank at a university. In the United States and Canada, the title of professor is also the highest rank, in these areas, professors are scholars with doctorate degrees or equivalent qualifications who teach in four-year colleges and universities. An emeritus professor is a given to selected retired professors with whom the university wishes to continue to be associated due to their stature. Emeritus professors do not receive a salary, but they are often given office or lab space, and use of libraries, labs, the term professor is also used in the titles assistant professor and associate professor, which are not considered professor-level positions in some European countries. In Australia, the associate professor is used in place of reader, ranking above senior lecturer. However, such professors usually do not undertake academic work for the granting institution, in general, the title of professor is strictly used for academic positions rather than for those holding it on honorary basis. Other roles of professorial tasks depend on the institution, its legacy, protocols, place, a professor typically earns a base salary and a range of benefits. In addition, a professor who undertakes additional roles in her institution earns additional income, some professors also earn additional income by moonlighting in other jobs, such as consulting, publishing academic or popular press books, or giving speeches or coaching executives. Some fields give professors more opportunities for outside work, the anticipated average earnings with performance-related bonuses for a German professor is €71,500. The salaries of civil servant professors in Spain are fixed in a basis, but there are some bonus related to performance and seniority
37.
Spacewar!
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It was written for the newly installed DEC PDP-1 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. After its initial creation, Spacewar was expanded further by students and employees of universities in the area, including Dan Edwards. It was also spread to many of the few dozen, primarily academic, installations of the PDP-1 computer, the game features two spaceships, the needle and the wedge, engaged in a dogfight while maneuvering in the gravity well of a star. Both ships are controlled by human players, each ship has limited fuel for maneuvering and a limited number of torpedoes, and the ships follow Newtonian physics, remaining in motion even when the player is not accelerating. Flying near the star to provide a gravity assist was a common tactic, ships are destroyed when hit with a torpedo or colliding with the star. At any time, the player can engage a hyperspace feature to move to a new, random location on the screen, though each use has an increasing chance of destroying the ship instead. The game was controlled with switches on the PDP-1, though Alan Kotok and Bob Saunders built an early gamepad to reduce the difficulty. Spacewar is one of the most important and influential games in the history of video games. It was extremely popular in the programming community in the 1960s and was widely ported to other computer systems at the time. It has also been recreated in more programming languages for PDP-1 emulators. It directly inspired many other games, such as the first commercial arcade games, Galaxy Game and Computer Space. In 2007, Spacewar was named to a list of the ten most important video games of all time and we had this brand new PDP-1, Steve Russell told Rolling Stone in a 1972 interview. Somebody had built some little pattern-generating programs which made interesting patterns like a kaleidoscope, here was this display that could do all sorts of good things. So we started talking about it, figuring what would be interesting displays and we decided that probably you could make a two-dimensional maneuvering sort of thing, and decided that naturally the obvious thing to do was spaceships. The ships fire torpedoes, which are not affected by the pull of the star. The ships have a number of torpedoes and a limited supply of fuel. Torpedoes are fired one at a time by flipping a switch on the computer or pressing a button on the control pad. The ships follow Newtonian physics, remaining in motion even when the player is not accelerating, each player controls one of the ships and must attempt to shoot down the other ship while avoiding a collision with the star
38.
Computer History Museum
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The Computer History Museum is a museum established in 1996 in Mountain View, California, US. The Museum is dedicated to preserving and presenting the stories and artifacts of the information age, the museums origins date to 1968 when Gordon Bell began a quest for a historical collection and, at that same time, others were looking to preserve the Whirlwind computer. The resulting Museum Project had its first exhibit in 1975, located in a coat closet in a DEC lobby. In 1978, the museum, now The Digital Computer Museum, moved to a larger DEC lobby in Marlborough, maurice Wilkes presented the first lecture at TDCM in 1979 – the presentation of such lectures has continued to the present time. TDCM incorporated as The Computer Museum in 1982, in 1984, TCM moved to Boston, locating on Museum Wharf. In 1996/1997, The TCM History Center in Silicon Valley was established, a site at Moffett Field was provided by NASA, in 1999, TCMHC incorporated and TCM ceased operation, shipping its remaining artifacts to TCMHC in 2000. The name TCM had been retained by the Boston Museum of Science so, in 2000, in 2003, CHM opened its new building, at 1401 N. Shoreline Blvd in Mountain View, California, to the public. The facility was heavily renovated and underwent a two-year $19 million makeover before reopening on January 2011. The Computer History Museum claims to house the largest and most significant collection of computing artifacts in the world, the collection comprises nearly 90,000 objects, photographs and films, as well as 4,000 feet of cataloged documentation and several hundred gigabytes of software. The CHM oral history program conducts video interviews around the history of computing and networking, the museums 25, 000-square-foot exhibit Revolution, The First 2000 Years of Computing, opened to the public on January 13,2011. It covers the history of computing in 20 galleries, from the abacus to the Internet, the entire exhibition is also available online. The museum features a Liquid Galaxy in the “Going Places, A History of Silicon Valley” exhibit, the exhibit features 20 preselected locations that visitors can fly to on the Liquid Galaxy. An operating Difference Engine designed by Charles Babbage in the 1840s and it had been on loan since 2008 from its owner, Nathan Myhrvold, a former Microsoft executive. Former media executive John Hollar was appointed CEO of The Computer History Museum in July 2008, in 2012 the APL programming language followed. In February 2013 Adobe Systems, Inc. donated the Photoshop 1.0.1 source code to the collection, on October 21,2014, Xerox Altos source code and other resources followed. The CHM Fellows are exceptional men and women whose ideas have changed the world, the first fellow was Rear Admiral Grace Hopper in 1987. The fellows program has grown to 70 members as of 2015, vintage Computer Festival held annually at The Computer History Museum Computer museums History of computing History of computer science Bell, Gordon. Out of a Closet, The Early Years of the Computer * Museum, official website Computer History Museums channel on YouTube The Computer Museum Archive
39.
PDP-1
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The PDP-1 was the first computer in Digital Equipment Corporations PDP series and was first produced in 1959. It is famous for being the computer most important in the creation of culture at MIT, BBN. The PDP-1 was also the hardware for playing historys first game on a minicomputer. The PDP-1 used an 18-bit word size and had 4096 words as standard main memory, signed numbers were represented in ones complement. The PDP-1 had computing power roughly equivalent to a 1996 pocket organizer, the PDP-1 used 2,700 transistors and 3,000 diodes. It was built mostly of DEC 1000-series System Building Blocks, using micro-alloy and micro-alloy diffused transistors with a rated switching speed of 5 MHz, the System Building Blocks were packaged into several 19-inch racks. The racks were themselves packaged into a large mainframe case, with a hexagonal control panel containing switches. Above the control panel was the systems standard input/output solution, a tape reader and writer. The design of the PDP-1 was based on the pioneering TX-0 computer, designed, benjamin Gurley was the lead engineer on the project. After building prototype models in December 1959, DEC delivered the first PDP-1 to Bolt, Beranek and Newman in November 1960, and it was formally accepted the next April. In 1961, DEC donated the engineering prototype PDP-1 to MIT, where it was placed in the next to its ancestor, the TX-0 computer. In this setting, the PDP-1 quickly replaced the TX-0 as the favorite machine among the hacker culture. Perhaps best known among these is one of the first computerized video games, but among the list are the first text editor, word processor, interactive debugger, the first credible computer chess program, and some of the earliest computerized music. The PDP-1 sold in form for US$120,000. BBNs system was followed by orders from Lawrence Livermore and Atomic Energy of Canada. All of these machines were still being used in 1970. MITs example was donated to The Computer Museum, Boston, on paper tape was still tucked into the case. AECLs computer was sent to Science North, but was later scrapped, the PDP-1 used punched paper tape as its primary storage medium
40.
Gallaudet University
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Gallaudet University /ˌɡæləˈdɛt/ is a federally-chartered private university for the education of the Deaf and hard of hearing located in Washington, D. C. on a 99 acres campus. Founded in 1864, Gallaudet University was originally a school for both deaf and blind children. Hearing students are admitted to the school and a small number are also admitted as undergraduates each year. The university was named after Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, a figure in the advancement of deaf education. Gallaudet University is officially bilingual, with American Sign Language and English used for instruction, although there are no specific ASL proficiency requirements for undergraduate admission, many graduate programs require varying degrees of knowledge of the language as a prerequisite. In 1856, philanthropist and former United States Postmaster General Amos Kendall became aware of several deaf and blind children in Washington, Kendall had the courts declare the children to be his wards and donated 2 acres of his land to establish housing and a school for them. Edward Miner Gallaudet was the first superintendent of the new school, later, John Carlin suggested placing a monument of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet with Alice Cogswell. In 1857, the 34th Congress passed H. R, seven years later, in 1864, the 38th Congress authorized the institution to grant and confirm college degrees. The collegiate department became known as the National Deaf-Mute College, the following year, in 1865, the 38th Congress removed the instruction that the institution was to educate the blind, and renamed it the Columbia Institution for the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb. In 1954, Congress amended the charter of the institution, changing the name to Gallaudet College. During his 17 years as Dean of the College in the 1950s and 1960s and he also led the college in developing new departments, especially drama. He directed Gallaudet theater productions, which led to starting the National Theatre of the Deaf. In 1986, Congress again amended the charter of the Institution, the school was established in 1857 with considerable efforts being made by several concerned citizens of Washington, D. C. Two houses were used, one purchased and one rented, on November 1,1858, the First Annual Report was submitted to the Secretary of the Interior. During the schools second year of operation,14 deaf students and 7 blind students were in attendance. The Second Annual Report was submitted November 5,1859, during the third academic year, Kendall beseeched the federal government for funds to relocate the school to more spacious grounds. Gallaudet praised Kendall for donating money needed to construct a new building, however. There were 24 deaf students, necessitating a second teacher of the deaf, the teacher of the 6 blind students resigned due to health concerns
