1.
Vizianagaram
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Vizianagaram is a city and district headquarters of Vizianagaram district in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is a municipality and also the headquarters of Vizianagaram mandal. It is located 18 km inland from the Bay of Bengal and 42 km to the northeast of Visakhapatnam, during his rule the Vengi kingdom had expanded from Srikakulam in the north to Nellore in the south. It was under the rule of Kakatiya Dynasty of Warangal during the rule of Ganapati Deva in 13th century CE, the area was overrun by the neighbouring Gajapatis for some time. The Vijayanagara empire fought several wars and ultimately drove out the Gajapatis, the area was under the rule of illustrious Krishna Deva Raya of Vijayanagara Empire too. After a brief rule from Golconda, the rule of Nizam state of Hyderabad followed, nizams ruled for the period 1707 to 1753. Srikakulam to the north was the headquarters for revenue collection of Rajahmundry, Eluru. The French defeated and ended the rule of Nizam in 1753, however French imperialists too could not hold their sway over here for a long time, and were soon driven out from here by British imperialists, during 1756 in Anglo-French wars. The war was fought between the MahaRaja of Vizianagaram and the Rajah of Bobbili on 24 January 1757, rulers of this princely state belong to the Pusapati family. The village Pooshpadu in Nandigama Taluq was built by Amala Raju, the village later came to be known as Pusapadu, and the Kshatriyas living there came to be known as Pusapatis. The history of area is linked with the history of London. Excavations at this town revealed copper coins belonging to the remains of 900 B. C, Vizianagaram is located at 18. 12°N83. 42°E /18.12,83.42. It has an elevation of 74 metres. The district is bounded on the east by Srikakulam District, on the west and south by Visakhapatnam district, on the southeast by the Bay of Bengal, the principal rivers flowing in the district are Nagavali, Vegavathi, Gomukhi, Suvarnamukhi, Champavathi and Gostani. The Nagavali is the river, which flows in about 112 km in Vizianagaram district. The River Gosthani has its origin in Ananthagiri forest area and flows through Srungavarapukota, the Suvarnamukhi River originates in the hills of Saluru mandal, travels in an eastern direction and finally joins the Nagavali at Sangam village in Palakonda mandal of Srikakulam District. Vegavathi originates in hills of Pachipenta mandal and flows almost parallel to Suvarnamukhi. Rivers and irrigation projects Major Rivers flowing through the city are Nagavali, Vegavathi, Gomukhi, Suvarnamukhi, Champavathi, the climate of Vizianagaram district is characterised by high humidity nearly all the year round, with oppressive summers and good seasonal rainfall
2.
States and union territories of India
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India is a federal union comprising twenty-nine states and seven union territories. The states and union territories are further subdivided into districts and further into smaller administrative divisions, the Constitution of India distributes the sovereign executive and legislative powers exercisable with respect to the territory of any State between the Union and that State. The Indian subcontinent has been ruled by different ethnic groups throughout its history. Between 1947 and 1950, the territories of the states were politically integrated into the Indian Union. The new Constitution of India, which came into force on 26 January 1950, the new republic was also declared to be a Union of States. The nine Part A states were Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. The eight Part B states were former princely states or groups of states, governed by a rajpramukh, who was usually the ruler of a constituent state. The rajpramukh was appointed by the President of India, the Part B states were Hyderabad, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Bharat, Mysore, Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Rajasthan, Saurashtra, and Travancore-Cochin. The ten Part C states included both the former chief commissioners provinces and some states, and each was governed by a chief commissioner appointed by the President of India. The Part C states were Ajmer, Bhopal, Bilaspur, Coorg, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Cutch, Manipur, Tripura, the only Part D state was the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which were administered by a lieutenant governor appointed by the central government. The Union Territory of Puducherry was created in 1954 comprising the previous French enclaves of Pondichéry, Karaikal, Yanam, Andhra State was created on 1 October 1953 from the Telugu-speaking northern districts of Madras State. The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 reorganised the states based on linguistic lines resulting in the creation of the new states, as a result of this act, Madras State retained its name with Kanyakumari district added to from Travancore-Cochin. Andhra Pradesh was created with the merger of Andhra State with the Telugu-speaking districts of Hyderabad State in 1956, kerala was created with the merger of Malabar district and the Kasaragod taluk of South Canara districts of Madras State with Travancore-Cochin. The Laccadive Islands which were divided between South Canara and Malabar districts of Madras State were united and organised into the territory of Lakshadweep. Bombay State was enlarged by the addition of Saurashtra State and Kutch State, Rajasthan and Punjab gained territories from Ajmer and Patiala and East Punjab States Union respectively and certain territories of Bihar was transferred to West Bengal. Bombay State was split into the states of Gujarat and Maharashtra on 1 May 1960 by the Bombay Reorganisation Act. Nagaland was formed on 1 December 1963, the Punjab Reorganisation Act of 1966 resulted in the creation of Haryana on 1 November and the transfer of the northern districts of Punjab to Himachal Pradesh. The act also designated Chandigarh as a territory and the shared capital of Punjab
3.
Andhra Pradesh
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Andhra Pradesh is one of the 29 states of India, situated on the southeastern coast of the country. The state is the eighth largest state in India covering an area of 162,968 km2, as per 2011 Census of India, the state is tenth largest by population with 49,386,799 inhabitants. On 2 June 2014, the portion of the state was bifurcated to form a new state of Telangana. In accordance with the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act,2014, Hyderabad will remain the de jure capital of both Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states for a period of not exceeding 10 years. The new riverfront proposed capital in Guntur district is Amaravati, which is under the jurisdiction of APCRDA, the Gross State Domestic Product of the state in the 2016–2017 financial year at current prices stood at ₹6,800.3 billion. The state has a coastline of 974 km with jurisdiction over nearly 15,000 km2 territorial waters, the second longest among all the states of India after Gujarat. It is bordered by Telangana in the north-west, Chhattisgarh in the north, Odisha in the north-east, Karnataka in the west, Tamil Nadu in the south and the water body of Bay of Bengal in the east. A small enclave of 30 km2 of Yanam, a district of Puducherry, Andhra Pradesh is composed of two regions, Coastal Andhra, located along the Bay of Bengal, and Rayalaseema, in the inland southwestern part of the state. These two regions comprise 13 districts, with 9 in Coastal Andhra and 4 in Rayalaseema, Andhra Pradesh hosted 121.8 million visitors in 2015, a 30% growth in tourist arrivals over the previous year. The Tirumala Venkateswara Temple in Tirupati is one of the worlds most visited religious sites, a tribe named Andhra has been mentioned in the Sanskrit texts such as Aitareya Brahmana. According to Aitareya Brahmana of the Rig Veda, the Andhras left north India, archaeological evidence from places such as Amaravati, Dharanikota and Vaddamanu suggests that the Andhra region was part of the Mauryan Empire. Amaravati might have been a centre for the Mauryan rule. After the death of emperor Ashoka, the Mauryan rule weakened around 200 BCE, the Satavahana dynasty dominated the Deccan region from the 1st century BCE to the 3rd century CE. The Satavahanas have been mentioned by the names Andhra, Andhrara-jatiya and Andhra-bhrtya in the Puranic literature, Dharanikota along with Amaravathi was the capital of the later Satavahanas. Amaravathi became a trade and pilgrimage centre during the Satavahana rule. According to the Buddhist tradition, Nagarjuna lived here, possibly in second, Andhra Ikshvakus were one of the earliest recorded ruling dynasties of the Guntur-Krishna regions of Andhra Pradesh. They ruled the eastern Andhra country along the Krishna river during the half of the second century CE. Puranas called Andhra Ikshvakus Shri Parvatiya Andhras, archaeological evidence has suggested that the Andhra Ikshvakus immediately succeeded the Satavahanas in the Krishna river valley
4.
Administrative divisions of India
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The Administrative divisions of India are Indian subnational administrative units, they compose a nested hierarchy of country subdivisions. Indian states and territories frequently use different local titles for the level of subdivision. The smaller subdivisions exist only in rural areas, in urban areas Urban Local Bodies exist instead of these rural subdivisions. The States have been grouped into six zones having an Advisory Council to develop the habit of cooperative working among these States, zonal Councils were set up vide Part-III of the States Reorganisation Act,1956. The North Eastern States special problems are addressed by another statutory body - The North Eastern Council, India is composed of 29 states and 7 union territories. The union territories are governed by administrators, appointed by the President of India, two of the territories have been given partial statehood, with elected legislatures and executive councils of ministers, but limited powers. The Regions of India are not official administrative divisions and they have no official administrative governmental status. They are purely geographic regions, some correspond to countries, states or provinces. A region may comprise one or more divisions, averaging about three divisions per region, however, the boundaries of the regions and the boundaries of the divisions do not always coincide exactly. So far there has no movement to give the regions official administrative status. If this was to be done, it would require that the boundaries of the regions be slightly modified so that they correspond exactly with their constituent districts. Tehsils, talukas, blocks or mandals, headed by a Tehsildar or Talukdar, the governmental bodies at the Tehsil level are called the panchayat samiti. States use varying names for their sub-districts, detailed information is as follows, The block is often the next level of administrative division after the tehsil. Villages are often the lowest level of subdivisions in India, the governmental bodies at the village level are called Gram Panchayat, of which there were an estimated 256,000 in 2002. Each Gram Panchayat covers a large village or a cluster of villages with a combined population exceeding 500 Gram Sabha. Clusters of villages are sometimes called Hobli or Patti. Certain governmental functions and activities - including clean water availability, rural development, India is composed of 1,714,556 habitations In some states, most villages have a single habitation, in others there is a high ratio of habitations to villages. A metro area usually comprises multiple jurisdictions and municipalities, neighbourhoods, townships, cities, exurbs, suburbs, counties, districts, states, as social, economic and political institutions have changed, metropolitan areas have become key economic and political regions. com
5.
District collector
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A District Collector, often abbreviated to Collector, is the foremost Indian Administrative Service officer in charge of revenue collection and administration of a district in India. The Collector is assisted by Deputy Collectors, Assistant Collectors, Sub Collectors, District Administration in India is a legacy of the British Raj. District Collectors were members of the Indian Civil Service, and were charged with supervising general administration in the district, warren Hastings introduced the office of the District Collector in 1772. As District Magistrate, he exercised general supervision over the courts and in particular. The office was meant to achieve the purpose of collecting revenue. The Superintendent of Police, Inspector General of Jails, the Surgeon General, the Divisional Forest Officer, until the later part of the nineteenth century, no native was eligible to become a district collector. But with the introduction of competitive examinations for the Indian Civil Services. The district continued to be the unit of administration after India gained independence in 1947, the role of the District Collector remained largely unchanged, except for separation of most judicial powers to judicial officers of the district. They are appointed by the State government, from among the pool of Indian Administrative Service officers in the state, the members of the IAS are either directly recruited by the Union Public Service Commission or promoted from Provincial Civil Services. A District Magistrate, District Collector, Deputy Commissioner or District Commissioner are transferred from this post by State government, District Collectors are entrusted with a wide range of duties in the jurisdiction of the district. Acts as ex-officio chairman of the District Development Authority in absence of Divisional Commissioner, a District Magistrate/District Collector/Deputy Commissioner/District Commissioner is assisted by some I. A. S and P. C
6.
Lok Sabha
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The Lok Sabha is the Lower house of Indias bicameral Parliament, with the Upper house being the Rajya Sabha. The house meets in the Lok Sabha Chambers of the Sansad Bhavan in New Delhi, under the current laws, the strength of Lok Sabha is 545, including the two seats reserved for members of the Anglo-Indian community. The total elective membership is distributed among the states in proportion to their population, a total of 131 seats are reserved for representatives of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The quorum for the House is 10% of the total membership, term of the House The Lok Sabha, unless sooner dissolved, continues to operate for five years from the date appointed for its first meeting and the expiration of the period of five years. An exercise to redraw Lok Sabha constituencies boundaries has been carried out by the Delimitation Commission based on the Indian census of 2001, the 16th Lok Sabha was elected in May 2014 and is the latest to date. The Lok Sabha has its own channel, Lok Sabha TV. A major portion of the Indian subcontinent was under British rule from 1858 to 1947, the Indian Councils Act 1861 provided for a Legislative Council consisting of the members of the Executive Council and non-official members. The Indian Councils Act 1892 established legislatures in each of the provinces of British India, although these Acts increased the representation of Indians in the government, their power still remained limited, and the electorate very small. The Indian Councils Act 1909 and the Government of India Act 1919 further expanded the participation of Indians in the administration, the Constituent Assembly was divided into two for the separate nations, with each new Assembly having sovereign powers transferred to it for the respective dominion. The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into effect on 26 January 1950, proclaiming India to be a sovereign, democratic republic. This contained the principles of the law of the land which would govern India in its new form. The Lok Sabha was duly constituted for the first time on 17 April 1952 after the first General Elections held from 25 October 1951 to 21 February 1952 and he / She should not be less than 25 years of age. He / She possesses such other qualifications as may be prescribed in that behalf by or under any law made by Parliament, a seat in the Lok Sabha will become vacant in the following circumstances, When the holder of the seat, by writing to the speaker, resigns. When the holder of the seat is absent from 60 consecutive days of proceedings of the House, when the holder of the seat is subject to any disqualifications mentioned in the Constitution or any law enacted by Parliament. A seat may also be vacated when the holder stands disqualified under the Anti-Defection Law, a member both of Parliament and of a House of the Legislature of a State. System of elections in Lok Sabha Members of the Lok Sabha are directly elected by the people of India, for the purpose of holding direct elections to Lok Sabha, each state is divided into territorial constituencies. This provision does not apply for states having a population of less than 6 million, note, The expression population here refers to the population ascertained at the preceding census of which relevant figure have been published. Lok Sabha has certain powers that make it more powerful than the Rajya Sabha, motions of no confidence against the government can be introduced and passed in the Lok Sabha
7.
Andhra Pradesh Legislature
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The Andhra Pradesh Legislature is the state legislature of Andhra Pradesh. The Andhra Pradesh legislature has been both unicameral and bicameral in its history, the Andhra Pradesh Legislature is currently The lower house is called the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly. At present the Legislative Assembly of Andhra Pradesh consists of 175 Members, the Upper House, known as the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Council, has lesser powers than the Assembly and several of its members are nominated by the Assembly. Others are elected from various sections of the society like Graduates, currently the Legislative Council consists of 58 members. This continued until March 2007 when the Legislative Council was reestablished, the assembly currently meets temporary facilities in the Velagapudi neighbourhood of the new capital city of Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati, having relocated there in March 2017. The first session of the legislature at the new capital began on 6 March 2017, previously, the assembly met at the State Assembly Building in Hyderabad. This was was built in 1913 and adjoins the picturesque public gardens known as the hanging gardens. Sri Nallapati Venkataramaiah Chowdary,23.11.1953 to 21.04.1955, Guntur district Sri R. Lakshminarasimham Dora. 23.04.1955 to 03.12.1956, Srikakulam district Sri Ayyadevara Kaleswara Rao,04.12.1956 to 26.02.1962, Krishna district Sri B. V. Subba Reddy,20.03.1962 to 29.09.1971, Kurnool district Sri K. V. Andhra Pradesh Legislative Council Sri Dr. A. Chakrapani,03.04.2007 till date, there are a total of 175 Assembly Constituencies, across 13 districts, in the state of Andhra Pradesh. Following are the years of constitution and dissolution of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly, elections in Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly AP Assembly official site List of MLAs on aponline. gov. in Andhra Pradesh Assembly Segments
8.
Literacy in India
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Literacy in India is a key for socio-economic progress, and the Indian literacy rate has grown to 74. 04% from 12% at the end of British rule in 1947. Although this was a greater than sixfold improvement, the level is well below the average literacy rate of 84%. The 2011 census, however, indicated a 2001–2011 decadal literacy growth of 9. 2%, there is a wide gender disparity in the literacy rate in India, effective literacy rates in 2011 were 82. 14% for men and 65. 46% for women. The low female literacy rate has had a negative impact on family planning. Studies have indicated that female literacy is a predictor of the use of contraception among married Indian couples. The table below shows the adult and youth literacy rates for India, Adult literacy rate is based on the 15+ years age group, while the youth literacy rate is for the 15–24 years age group. Now of the factors contributing to this relatively low literacy rate is usefulness of education. There is a shortage of classrooms to accommodate all the students in 2006–2007, in addition, there is no proper sanitation in most schools. The study of 188 government-run primary schools in central and northern India revealed that 59% of the schools had no drinking water facility, in 600,000 villages and multiplying urban slum habitats, free and compulsory education is the basic literacy instruction dispensed by barely qualified para teachers. The average Pupil Teacher Ratio for All India is 42,1, such inadequacies resulted in a non-standardized school system where literacy rates may differ. Furthermore, the allocated to education was never above 4. 3% of the GDP from 1951 to 2002 despite the target of 6% by the Kothari Commission. This further complicates the problem in India. Discrimination of lower castes has resulted in high rates and low enrollment rates. On 21 February 2005, the Prime Minister of India said that he was pained to note that only 47 out of 100 children enrolled in class I reach class VIII, putting the dropout rate at 52.78 per cent. It is estimated that at least 35 million, and possibly as many as 60 million, absolute poverty in India has also deterred the pursuit of formal education as education is not deemed of as the highest priority among the poor as compared to other basic necessities. The MRP-based poverty estimates of about 22% of poverty in 2004–05 which translated to 22 out of per 100 people are not meeting their basic needs, the large proportion of illiterate females is another reason for the low literacy rate in India. Inequality based on gender differences resulted in female literacy rates being lower at 65. 46% than that of their counterparts at 82. 14%. Due to strong stereotyping of female and male roles, Sons are thought of to be more useful, females are pulled to help out on agricultural farms at home as they are increasingly replacing the males on such activities which require no formal education
9.
Vehicle registration plate
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A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate or a license plate, is metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the owner within the issuing regions database. The first two letters indicate the state to which the vehicle is registered, the next two digit numbers are the sequential number of a district. Due to heavy volume of vehicle registration, the numbers were given to the RTO offices of registration as well, the third part indicates the year of registration of the vehicle and is a 4 digit number unique to each plate. In some countries, the identifier is unique within the entire country, whether the identifier is associated with a vehicle or a person also varies by issuing agency. In the vast majority of jurisdictions, the government holds a monopoly on the manufacturing of vehicle registration plates for that jurisdiction. Thus, it is illegal for private citizens to make and affix their own plates. Alternately, the government will merely assign plate numbers, and it is the owners responsibility to find an approved private supplier to make a plate with that number. In some jurisdictions, plates will be assigned to that particular vehicle for its lifetime. If the vehicle is destroyed or exported to a different country. Other jurisdictions follow a policy, meaning that when a vehicle is sold the seller removes the current plate from the vehicle. Buyers must either obtain new plates or attach plates they already hold, as well as register their vehicles under the buyers name, a person who sells a car and then purchases a new one can apply to have the old plates put onto the new car. One who sells a car and does not buy a new one may, depending on the laws involved, have to turn the old plates in or destroy them. Some jurisdictions permit the registration of the vehicle with personal plates, in some jurisdictions, plates require periodic replacement, often associated with a design change of the plate itself. Vehicle owners may or may not have the option to keep their original plate number, alternately, or additionally, vehicle owners have to replace a small decal on the plate or use a decal on the windshield to indicate the expiration date of the vehicle registration. Plates are usually fixed directly to a vehicle or to a frame that is fixed to the vehicle. Sometimes, the plate frames contain advertisements inserted by the service centre or the dealership from which the vehicle was purchased. Vehicle owners can also purchase customized frames to replace the original frames, in some jurisdictions licence plate frames are illegal
10.
Indian road network
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India has a road network of over 5,472,144 kilometres as on 31 March 2015, the second largest road network in the world. However, qualitatively Indias roads are a mix of modern highways and narrow, unpaved roads, as on 31 March 2015,61. 05% of Indian roads were paved. Adjusted for its population, India has less than 3.8 kilometres of roads per 1000 people. In terms of quality, all season,4 or more highways, India has less than 0.07 kilometres of highways per 1000 people. These are some of the lowest road and highway densities in the world, for context, United States has 21 kilometres of roads per 1000 people, while France about 15 kilometres per 1000 people – predominantly paved and high quality in both cases. In terms of all season,4 or more highways, developed countries such as United States. India in its past did not allocate enough resources to build or maintain its road network and this has changed since 1995, with major efforts currently underway to modernize the countrys road infrastructure. According to the CIA World Factbook, as of 2015, India had about 96,000 kilometers of highways and expressways. Major projects are being implemented under the National Highways Development Project, the Government of India is attempting to promote foreign investment in road projects. The first evidence of development in the Indian subcontinent can be traced back to approximately 2800 BC from the ancient cities of Harrapa. Ruling emperors and monarchs of ancient India had constructed roads to connect the cities, archaeological excavations give us fresh information about road connectivity in ancient India. The Grand Trunk Road was built by Sher Shah Suri in 1540-45 connecting Sonargaon near Dhaka in Bangladesh with Peshawar in modern-day Pakistan linking several cities from in India, India inherited a poor road network infrastructure at the time of its independence in 1947. Beyond that, between 1947 and 1988, India witnessed no new projects, and the roads were poorly maintained. Predominantly all roads were single lane, and most were unpaved, India had no expressways, and less than 200 kilometers of 4-lane highways. In 1988, an entity called the National Highways Authority of India was established in India by an Act of Parliament. The Act empowered this entity to develop, maintain and manage Indias road network through National Highways, however, even though the Authority was created in 1988, not much happened till India introduced widespread economic liberalization in the early 1990s. Road transport is vital to Indias economy and it enables the countrys transportation sector to contribute 4.7 percent towards India’s gross domestic product, in comparison to railways that contributed 1 percent, in 2009–2010. Road transport has gained its importance over the years despite significant barriers and inefficiencies in inter-state freight and passenger movement compared to railways, the government of India considers road network as critical to the countrys development, social integration and security needs of the country
11.
National Highway 16 (India)
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National Highway 16, is a major National Highway in India, that runs along east coast of West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. It is renumbered as NH16, the northern terminal is at National Highway 19 near Kolkata and the southern terminal is at Chennai in Tamil Nadu. It is a part of the Golden Quadrilateral project undertaken by National Highways Development Project, many cities and towns in various districts in the States of West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are connected by National Highway 16. NH16 has a length of 1,533 km and passes through the states of West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh. Route length in states, West Bengal,161 km Odisha,488 km Andhra Pradesh,1,024 km Tamil Nadu,45 km List of National Highways in India by highway number
12.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
13.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
14.
Srikakulam district
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Srikakulam district is one of the 13 districts in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is one of the 9 coastal districts, located in the north eastern direction of the state. The headquarters of the district is located at Srikakulam and it was formerly known as Chicacole. It is situated within the geographic co-ordinates of 18°-20’ and 19°-10’ N, the district is skirted to a distance by Kandivalasagedda, Vamsadhara and Bahuda at certain stretches of their courses while a line of heights of the great Eastern Ghats run from the northeast. Vizianagaram district flanks in the south and west while Odisha bounds it on the north, evidence of early historic man and his activities during Stone Age and Iron Age periods have been recently discovered at Sangamayya Konda and Dannanapeta. The speciality of Dannanapeta Iron Age megalithic site is a large single capstone as a dolmen with 36 ft in length and 14 ft in width and 2 ft thickness. Sailada Hills consists of 36 upright rocks and natural caves used for habitation by Iron Age man in Amudalavalasa mandal of the district, evidences of Jain monuments and Buddhist remnants were discovered near Sangamayya Konda. Jain rock beds were discovered at Dannanapeta near Amudalavalasa in the district, salihundam is a famous Buddhist Remnants site situated on the south bank of River Vamsadhara at a distance of 5 kilometres west of Kalingapatnam and 18 kilometres from Srikakulam town. Srikakulam district occupies an area of 5,837 square kilometres, Srikakulam district can be divided into two main distinct natural divisions. A portion of Srikakulam district is plain terrain with intense agriculture and another portion of the district is rocky, some of the Mahendragiri Hills also covers Srikakulam district. Most of the forest area of the terrain has been damaged by intense agriculture. Kotthuru, Hiramandalam, Pathapatnam, Kalingadal reservoir and some areas are still covered with dense forests. Srikakulam is located 100 km north of Visakhapatnam and it has a population of 2,537,593 of which 10. 98% is urban as of 2001. Srikakulam district has the longest coast line about 193 km in the state of Andhra Pradesh and it is bordered by Odisha on the north, Vizianagaram district on the west and south, Bay of Bengal on the east. Major Rivers flowing through the district are River Nagavali, River Vamsadhara, Mahendratanaya, Champavati, Bahuda, Kumbhikota Gedda, Suvarnamukhi, Vegavati, the Nagavali and Vamsadhara are the major rivers in Srikakulam district. These two river basins together constitute about 5% of the area, the Mahendratanaya and Bahuda rivers are two minor river basins in the district. Others are Benjigedda, Peddagedda, Kandivalasa gedda,147 According to the 2011 census Srikakulam district has a population of 2,699,471, roughly equal to the nation of Kuwait or the US state of Nevada. This gives it a ranking of 147th in India, the district has a population density of 462 inhabitants per square kilometre
15.
Visakhapatnam district
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Visakhapatnam district is a district in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is one of the nine districts in the state. Buddhist era Visakhapatnam history goes back to the 6th century BCE and its name can be found in Hindu and Buddhist texts that date back to ancient times. Vizag, as Visakhapatnam is often referred to, has been mentioned by Panini, the city was also a part of the Kalinga kingdom, which was later conquered by the emperor Ashoka. Visakha District is a large Buddhist remnants hub with many documented and undocumented from north to south border of the district along the coast line. After independence In 1979, part of the district was split to help form Vizianagaram district, Visakhapatnam District is currently a part of the Red Corridor. According to the 2011 census Visakhapatnam district has a population of 4,288,113 This gives it a ranking of 44th in India, the district has a population density of 384 inhabitants per square kilometre. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 11. 89%, Visakhapatnam has a sex ratio of 1003 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 67. 7%. Visakhapatnam district has a population of 4,288,113 people of which 57. 95% is urban as of 2011 census, Visakhapatnam district occupies an area of approximately 11,161 square kilometres, comparatively equivalent to Canadas Cape Breton Island. Climate Visakhapatnam district is the hub for industry and education in the state of Andhra Pradesh. Visakhapatnam district hosts the Vizag Steel Plant, household indicators In 2007–2008, the International Institute for Population Sciences interviewed 1,233 households in 30 villages across the district. They found that 82. 1% had access to electricity,73. 9% had drinking water,42. 6% toilet facilities,22. 6% of girls wed before the legal age of 18 and 73. 8% of interviewees carried a BPL card. The district has four divisions, namely Anakapalli, Paderu, Narsipatnam and Visakhapatnam. These revenue divisions are divided into 43 mandals in the district and these district consists of 3265 villages and 15 towns including,1 municipal corporation,2 municipalities and 12 census towns. Visakhapatnam city is the municipal corporation and the 3 municipalities in the district are Anakapalle. The 12 census towns are Bowluvada, Chodavaram, Chintapalle, Gudivada, Kantabamsuguda, Mulakuddu, Nakkapalle, Narsipatnam, Peda Boddepalle, Payakaraopeta, Upper Sileru Project Site Camp, There are 10 mandals in Visakhapatnam division,11 each in Narsipatnam, Anakapalle and Paderu divisions. The 43 mandals under their revenue divisions are listed below, There are three parliamentary and 15 assembly constituencies in Visakhapatnam district, the parliamentary constituencies are Anakapalli, Visakhapatnam and Araku. The total of road network of the district is 945.443 km
16.
Bay of Bengal
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The Bay of Bengal, the largest bay in the world, forms the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. Roughly triangular, it is bordered mostly by India and Sri Lanka to the west, Bangladesh to the north, and Myanmar, the Bay of Bengal occupies an area of 2,172,000 square kilometres. Among the important ports are Chennai, Chittagong, Colombo, Kolkata, Mongla, Paradip, Tuticorin, Visakhapatnam, on the south, Adams Bridge and from the southern extreme of Dondra Head to the north point of Poeloe Bras. The bay gets its name from the historical Bengal region, in ancient Hindu scriptures, this water body is referred to as Mahodadhi while it appears as Sinus Gangeticus or Gangeticus Sinus, meaning Gulf of the Ganges, in ancient maps. The other Sanskrit names for Bay of Bengal are Vangopasagara, also called as Vangasagara. Even today in Bengali, it is known as Bongoposagor, many major rivers of the Indian subcontinent flow west to east before draining into the Bay of Bengal. The Ganga is the northernmost of these and its main channel enters and flows through Bangladesh, where it is known as the Padma River, before joining the Meghna River. However, the Brahmaputra River flows from east to west in Assam before turning south and this joins the Padma whereupon the Padma joins the Meghna River that finally drains into Bay of Bengal. The Sundarbans mangrove forest at the delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers lies partly in West Bengal, the Brahmaputra at 2,948 km is the 28th longest River in the world. The Hooghly River, another channel of the Ganga that flows through Calcutta drains into Bay of Bengal in India itself, the Ganga–Brahmaputra rivers deposits nearly 1000 million tons of sediment per year. The Bay of Bengal used to be deeper than the Mariana Trench, the fan has buried organic carbon at a rate of nearly 1.1 trillion mol/yr since the early Miocene period. The two rivers currently contribute nearly 8% of the organic carbon deposited in the worlds oceans. Due to high TOC accumulation in the sea bed of the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh can reclaim land substantially and economically from the sea area by constructing sea dikes, bunds, causeways and by trapping the sediment from its rivers. Further south of Bengal, the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri Rivers are the rivers that flow from west to east in the Indian subcontinent. Many small rivers drain directly into the Bay of Bengal. The Irrawaddy River in Myanmar flows into the Andaman Sea of the Bay of Bengal, some of the biggest ports in the world — Chennai, Visakhapatnam, Paradip, Kolkata in India as well as Chittagong and Mongla in Bangladesh — are on the bay. Other Indian ports on the bay include Kakinada, Pondicherry, Dhamra, the islands in the bay are numerous, including the Andaman Islands, Nicobar and Mergui groups of India
17.
Odisha
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Odisha (/ɒˈrɪsə, ɔː-, oʊ-/, is one of the 29 states of India, located in the eastern coast. It is surrounded by the states of West Bengal to the north-east, Jharkhand to the north, Chhattisgarh to the west and north-west, Odisha has 485 kilometres of coastline along the Bay of Bengal on its east, from Balasore to Malkangiri. It is the 9th largest state by area, and the 11th largest by population and it is also the 3rd most populous state of India in terms of tribal population. Odia is the official and most widely spoken language, spoken by 33.2 million according to the 2001 Census. The ancient kingdom of Kalinga, which was invaded by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka in 261 BCE resulting in the Kalinga War, the modern state of Orissa was established on 1 April 1936, as a province in British India, and consisted predominantly of Odia-speaking regions. April 1 is celebrated as Odisha Day, the region is also known as Utkala and is mentioned in Indias national anthem, Jana Gana Mana. Cuttack was made the capital of the region by Anantavarman Chodaganga in c,1135, after which the city was used as the capital by many rulers, through the British era until 1948. Thereafter, Bhubaneswar became the capital of Odisha, the term Odisha is derived from the ancient Prakrit word Odda Visaya as in the Tirumalai inscription of Rajendra Chola I, which is dated to 1025. Sarala Das, who translated the Mahabharata into the Odia language in the 15th century, calls the region Odra Rashtra, the inscriptions of Kapilendra Deva of the Gajapati Kingdom on the walls of temples in Puri call the region Odisha or Odisha Rajya. After a brief debate, the house, Lok Sabha, passed the bill. On 24 March 2011, Rajya Sabha, the house of Parliament, also passed the bill. Prehistoric Acheulian tools dating to Lower Paleolithic era have been discovered in places in the region. Kalinga has been mentioned in ancient texts like Mahabharata, Vayu Purana, the Sabar people of Odisha have also been mentioned in the Mahabharata. Baudhayana mentions Kalinga as not yet being influenced by Vedic traditions, Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty conquered Kalinga in the bloody Kalinga War in 261 BCE, which was the eighth year of his reign. According to his own edicts, in that war about 100,000 people were killed,150,000 were captured, the resulting bloodshed and suffering of the war is said to have deeply affected Ashoka. He turned into a pacifist and converted to Buddhism, by c.150 CE, emperor Kharavela, who was possibly a contemporary of Demetrius I of Bactria, conquered a major part of the Indian sub-continent. He also built the monastery atop the Udayagiri hill, subsequently, the region was ruled by monarchs, such as Samudragupta and Shashanka. It was also a part of Harshas empire, later, the kings of the Somavamsi dynasty began to unite the region
18.
Princely state
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A princely state, also called native state or Indian state, was a nominally sovereign monarchy under a local or regional ruler in a subsidiary alliance with a greater power. At the time of the British withdrawal,565 princely states were recognised in the Indian subcontinent, apart from thousands of zamindaris. Rulers of salute states entitled to a gun salute of eleven guns and above received from the British the style of Highness, while the Nizam of Hyderabad had the unique style of Exalted Highness. At the other end of the scale, the principality of Lawa covered an area of 49 km2, or smaller than Bermuda. Some two hundred of the states had an area of less than 25 km2. The era of the princely states effectively ended with Indian independence in 1947, by 1950, almost all of the principalities had acceded to either India or Pakistan – thirteen to Pakistan and the rest to India. During this time, the princely states were merged into unions, each of which was headed by a former ruling prince with the title of Rajpramukh. In 1956, the position of Rajpramukh was abolished and the federations dissolved, the Indian Government formally derecognised the princely families in 1971, followed by the Government of Pakistan in 1972. The widespread expansion of Islam during this time brought many principalities into tributary relations with Islamic sultanates, notably the Delhi Sultanate, in the south, however, the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire remained dominant until the mid-17th century, among its tributaries was the future Mysore Kingdom. The Turco-Mongol Mughal Empire brought a majority of the existing Indian kingdoms and principalities under its suzerainty by the 17th century, beginning with its foundation in the early 16th century. The advent of Sikhism resulted in the creation of the Sikh Empire in the north by the early 18th century, at the same time, the Marathas carved out their own states to form the Maratha Empire. Through the 18th century, former Mughal governors formed their own independent states, India under the British Raj consisted of two types of territory, British India and the Native states or Princely states. In general the term British India had been used also to refer to the regions under the rule of the East India Company in India from 1774 to 1858, the term has also been used to refer to the British in India. More prestigious Hindu rulers often used the title Raja, Raje or a variant such as Rana, Rao, also in this class were several Thakurs or Thakores and a few particular titles, such as Sardar, Mankari, Deshmukh, Sar Desai, Raja Inamdar, Saranjamdar. The most prestigious Hindu rulers usually had the prefix maha in their titles, as in Maharaja, Maharana, Maharao, etc. The states of Travancore and Cochin had queens regnant styled Maharani, generally the female forms applied only to sisters, spouses and widows, there were also compound titles, such as rajadhiraj, Raj-i-rajgan, often relics from an elaborate system of hierarchical titles under the Mughal emperors. For example, the addition of the adjective Bahadur raised the status of the one level. Furthermore, most dynasties used a variety of titles, such as Varma in South India
19.
Cuttack
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Cuttack/ˈkʌtək/ is the former capital and the second largest city in the eastern Indian state of Odisha. It is also the headquarters of the Cuttack district, the name of the city is an anglicised form of Katak which literally means The Fort, a reference to the ancient Barabati Fort around which the city initially developed. Cuttack is also known as the Millennium City as well as the Silver City due to its history of 1000 years and it is also considered as the judicial capital of Odisha as the Odisha High Court is located here. It is also the capital of Odisha which hosts a large number of trading and business houses in. The old and the most important part of the city is centred on a spit of land between the Kathajodi River and the Mahanadi River, bounded on the southeast by Old Jagannath Road, the city, being a part of the Cuttack Municipal Corporation consisting of 59 wards. Cuttack stretches from Phulnakhara across the Kathajodi in the south to Choudwar in north across the Birupa River, while in the east it begins at Kandarpur, four rivers including Mahanadi and its distributaries Kathajodi, Kuakhai, Birupa run through the city. Further Kathajodi is distributed into Devi and Biluakhai which often makes the area look like fibrous roots. Cuttack and Bhubaneswar are often referred to as the Twin-Cities of Odisha, the metropolitan area formed by the two cities has a population of 1.68 million in 2014. Cuttack is categorised as a Tier-II city as per the ranking system used by Government of India, the name Cuttack is derived from Sanskrit meaning military establishment or a cantonment. The city was known as Bidanasi Katak during the days when Barabati Fort was in existence, Bidanasi is now one of the localities of the city. The two cities are referred to as the Twin Cities. Cuttack is famous for its silver filigree works, and woven textiles. It is also famous for its Dussehra celebrations, the earliest written history of Cuttack may go back to the Keshari dynasty. As stated by the distinguished historian Andrew Stirling, present-day Cuttack was established as a military cantonment by king Nrupa Keshari of Keshari dynasty in 989 CE, Stirling based his opinion on the Madala Panji, a chronicle of the Jagannath temple of Puri. The reign of Maharaja Markata Keshari was distinguished for the stone embank built to protect the new capital from flood in 1002 CE, historical and archaeological evidence suggests Cuttack becoming capital of a kingdom founded by Raja Anangabhimadeva III of Ganga dynasty in 1211 CE. After the end of Ganga rule, Odisha passed to the hands of the Suryavamsi Gajapati dynasty under whom Cuttack continued to be the capital of Odisha. After the death of Raja Mukunda deva, the last Hindu king of Orissa, Cuttack first came under Muslim rule and later under Mughals, who made Cuttack the seat of the new Orissa Subah under Shah Jahan. By 1750, Cuttack came under Maratha rule and it grew fast as a centre being the convenient point of contact between the Marathas of Nagpur and the English merchants of Bengal
20.
Pithapuram
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Pithapuram or Peetha Puram is a town and a municipality in East Godavari district in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. The town also forms a part of Godavari Urban Development Authority, the temple town is one of fifty five Shakti Peethas. Pithapuram is located at 17. 1167°N82. 2667°E /17.1167,82.2667 and it has an average elevataion of 10 meters. It is located near several beaches though not one in particular and it is in between 2 major cities, Kakinada and Rajahmundry. As of 2011 Census of India, the town had a population of 52,360, the total population constitute,25,891 males,26,469 females and 5,116 children, in the age group of 0–6 years. The average literacy rate stands at 75. 00% with 35,434 literates, pithapuram railway station is classified as a D–category stations in the Vijayawada railway division of South Central Railway zone. The primary and secondary education is imparted by government, aided and private schools. The medium of instruction followed by different schools are English, Telugu
21.
East Godavari district
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East Godavari district is a district in Coastal Andhra region of Andhra Pradesh, India. Its district headquarters is at Kakinada, as of Census 2011, it became the most populous district of the state with a population of 5,151,549. Rajahmundry and Kakinada are the two largest cities in the Godavari districts in terms of population, the district of Rajahmundry was reorganised in 1859 into two districts of Godavari and Krishna. Godavari district was bifurcated into East and West Godavari districts in 1925. After June 2014s reorganisation and division of Andhra Pradesh, the mandals of Bhadrachalam, Nellipaka, Chinturu, the district, like the rest of the Deccan was under the Nandas and Mauryas in its early history. After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, the district was under the Sathavahanas until the 3rd century under the poet king Hala. Coins found during excavations have revealed the rule of Gautamiputra Satakarni, Vasisthi-putra Pulumayi, gupta emperor Samudragupta invaded during the rule of both Pishtapura and Avamukta in the district in 350 A. D. Samudraguptas invasion was followed by the rule of the Mathara dynasty from 375 to 500. The earliest known ruler of the dynasty was Shaktivarman, the district passed into the hands of Vishnukundinas during the rule of Vikramendra Varma I during the 5th century. The records indicate that their domain extended over Visakhapatnam, West Godavari, Krishna, indra Bhattaraka defeated the rulers of Vasistha Kula and re-established Vihsnukundina authority, but was shortly defeated by Kalinga armies. Indra Bhattaraka was followed to the throne by a few others, including Madha Varma III and Manchanna Bhattaraka, madhava Varma III was the last important ruler of this family. The Pulakesin II of Badami Chalukyas and his brother Kubja Vishnu Vardhana acquired Pistapura in the 7th century, the Eastern Chalukya dynasty, founded by Kubja Vishnu Vardhana, ruled at first form Pistapura, then from Vengi, and later from Rajahmundry. Many rulers held sway over the kingdom and their history is at times largely a record of disputes over succession, Chalukya Bhima I of this dynasty built a Shiva temple at Draksha Ramam. Rajaraja invaded Vengi on behalf of the sons of Danarnava and killed Jata Choda Bhima, satya Raya of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani did not like the Chola influence in Vengi and the area witnessed many wars between the Cholas and Chalukyas. After the death of Vijaya Aditya VII in 0175 A. D. the Eastern Chalukya dynasty came to an end, kulothunga Chola I, rival of Vijay Aditya VII, fought along the sides of Cholas and established the Chalukya Cholas province. The district along with the rest of the Vengi kingdom became part of their empire, major portions of the district were under Velanati Chodas, trustworthy chieftains to his. The famous rulers of this dynasty were Gonka I, Rajendra Choda I, Gonka II, vikram Aditya vii of Western Chalukyas occupied this region for short period, but it was recovered by Chalukya Cholas and Velanti Chodas. Velanati chiefs also suppressed rebellions from Haihayas of Kona, Gonka II, inscriptions at this region including the ones at Draksha Ramam in 13th century throw light on their history. Prola II of the Kakatiya dynasty declared independence from the western Chalukyas and his son Rudra obtained the Godavari delta as gift from the Rajaraja II of Chalukya Cholas
22.
Maurya
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The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power founded by Chandragupta Maurya which dominated ancient India between c. 322 and 187 BCE. Originating from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic Plain in the side of the Indian subcontinent. The empire was the largest to have existed in the Indian subcontinent. By 316 BCE the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the satraps left by Alexander, Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by Seleucus I, a Macedonian general from Alexanders army, gaining additional territory west of the Indus River. The Maurya Empire was one of the largest empires of the world in its time and it declined for about 50 years after Ashokas rule ended, and it dissolved in 185 BCE with the foundation of the Shunga dynasty in Magadha. After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace, Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia, the population of the empire has been estimated to be about 50–60 million, making the Mauryan Empire one of the most populous empires of Antiquity. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware, the Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary sources of written records of Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath has been made the national emblem of India, the Maurya Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, with help from Chanakya, at Takshashila. Chanakya swore revenge and vowed to destroy the Nanda Empire, meanwhile, the conquering armies of Alexander the Great refused to cross the Beas River and advance further eastward, deterred by the prospect of battling Magadha. Alexander returned to Babylon and re-deployed most of his troops west of the Indus River, soon after Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE, his empire fragmented, and local kings declared their independence, leaving several smaller disunited satraps. Chandragupta Mauryas rise to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy, on one hand, a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the drama Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and even link him with the Nanda family. A kshatriya clan known as the Mauryas are referred to in the earliest Buddhist texts, however, any conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as Sandrokottos, as a young man he is said to have met Alexander. He is also said to have met the Nanda king, angered him, Chanakyas original intentions were to train a guerilla army under Chandraguptas command. The Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta as well as the Jaina work Parishishtaparvan talk of Chandraguptas alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take over the throne of Magadha. These men included the general of Taxila, accomplished students of Chanakya, the representative of King Porus of Kakayee, his son Malayketu. The Macedonians may then have participated, together with other groups, the Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandraguptas alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, often identified with Porus
23.
Chedi Kingdom
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The Chedi Kingdom was one of many Indian kingdoms ruled during early periods by Paurava kings and later by Yadava kings in the central part of the country. It fell roughly in the Bundelkhand division of Madhya Pradesh regions to the south of river Yamuna, the Chedi Kingdom was ruled by Shishupala, an ally of Jarasandha of Magadha and Duryodhana of Kuru. He was a rival of Vasudeva Krishna who was his uncles son and he was killed by Vasudeva Krishna during the Rajasuya sacrifice of the Pandava king Yudhishthira. The city called Suktimati is mentioned as the capital of Chedi, prominent Chedis during the Kurukshetra War included Damaghosha, Shishupala, Dhrishtaketu, Suketu, Sarabha, Bhimas wife, Nakulas wife Karenumati, Dhrishtaketus sons. Other Chedis included King Uparichara Vasu, his children, King Suvahu, the Chedi clan and kingdom was founded by Chidi, the son of Vidarbha and belonging to the Yadava dynasty. Chedi was later conquered and ruled by the Paurava King Vasu Uparichara, Chedi was one among the kingdoms chosen for spending the 13th year of exile by the Pandavas. Uparichara Vasu was a king of Chedi belonging to the Puru Dynasty and he was known as the friend of Indra. During his reign, Chedi kingdom had an economic system and contained much mineral wealth. It was abundant in animals and corn, there were many towns and cities in the kingdom. He possessed a special chariot. He introduced a festival in his kingdom in the honour of Indra, the festival involved planting of a bamboo pole every year, in honour of Indra. The king will pray for the expansion of his cities. After erecting the pole, people decked it with cloth and scents and garlands. From Chedi, he ruled a territory, placing his sons as governors of various provinces. His son Vrihadratha was installed in Magadha, who later fathered Emperor Jarasandha and his other sons, viz. Pratyagraha, Kusamva, Mavella and Yadu also became governors at various places. Thus the Chedi king attained the status of an emperor and his became an vast empire. He diverted the waters of river Suktimati from the locks of the Mountain Kolahala and this beautiful city of the Chedis was called after the Oyster His wife Girika, was from the valley of Kolahala. Girikas brother was installed as the generalissimo of Vasus army, apart from his five royal sons, he had a son and a daughter born of a woman of fisherman community
24.
Satavahana dynasty
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The Satavahanas were an ancient Indian dynasty based in the Deccan region. The Satavahana kingdom mainly comprised the present-day Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, at different times, their rule extended to parts of modern Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka. The dynasty had different capital cities at different times, including Pratishthana, the origin of the dynasty is uncertain, but according to the Puranas, their first king overthrew the Kanva dynasty. In the post-Maurya era, the Satavahanas established peace in the Deccan region, in particular their struggles with the Saka Western Satraps went on for a long time. The dynasty reached its zenith under the rule of Gautamiputra Satakarni, the kingdom fragmented into smaller states by the early 3rd century CE. The Satavahanas were early issuers of Indian state coinage struck with images of their rulers and they formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade and the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India. They supported Brahmanism as well as Buddhism, and patronised Prakrit language instead of Sanskrit, the date and place of origin of the Satavahanas, as well as the meaning of the dynastys name, are a matter of debate among the historians. According to one theory, the word Satavahana is a Prakrit form of the Sanskrit Sapta-Vahana and this would indicate that the Satavahanas originally claimed association with the legendary solar dynasty, as was common in ancient India. According to Inguva Kartikeya Sarma, the name is derived from the words sata and vahana. Another theory connects their name to the earlier Satiyaputa dynasty, yet another theory derives their name from the Munda words Sadam and Harpan, implying son of the performer of a horse sacrifice. Several rulers of the dynasty bear the name or title Satakarni, Satavahana, Satakarni, Satakani and Shalivahana appear to be variations of the same word. Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi theorized that the word Satakarni is derived from the Munda words sada, the Puranas use the name Andhra or Andhra-Bhritya for the Satavahanas. The term Andhra may refer to ethnicity or territory of the dynasty and it does not appear in the dynastys own records. The use of the name Andhra in the Puranas has led scholars to believe that the dynasty originated in the eastern Deccan region. At Kotilingala in Telangana, coins bearing the legend Rano Siri Chimuka Satavahanasa were found, coins attributed to Simukas successors Kanha and Satakarni I were also discovered at Kotilingla. Based on these discoveries, historians such as D. R. Reddy, S. Reddy, however, the coin samples from Kotlingala are small, and it is not certain if these coins were minted there or reached there from somewhere else. Sastry also later changed his view, and stated that the two kings were different, as for the Puranas, these texts were compiled much later, during the Gupta period, and it is not certain if the Satavahanas were referred to as Andhras during their time. Another section of scholars believe that the Satavahanas originated in western Deccan, all of the four extant inscriptions from the early Satavahana period have been found in and around this region
25.
Vishnukundina
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The Vishnukundina dynasty was an Indian imperial power controlling the Deccan, Orissa and parts of South India during the 5th and 6th centuries, carving land out from the Vakataka Empire. It played an important role in the history of the Deccan during the 5th and 6th centuries, by 514, the Vakatakas were reduced to the areas of present-day Telangana area. The area north of the Godavari, Kalinga, became independent, the area south of the Krishna River fell to the Pallavas. The Vishnukundin reign came to an end with the conquest of the eastern Deccan by the Chalukya, Pulakeshin appointed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as Viceroy to rule over the conquered lands. Eventually Vishnuvardhana declared his independence and started the Eastern Chalukya dynasty, Vishnukundina is a Sanskritised name for Vinukonda. Several attempts have been made by scholars to find out the origins of this dynasty, the early rulers of the dynasty migrated to the west in search of employment and under the Vakatakas they might have attained feudatory status. During the reign of Madhava Varma, they became independent and conquered coastal Andhra from the Salankayanas, the Vishnukundin reign might be fixed between the end of the Salankayana and the rise of the Eastern Chalukyan power in 624. Some historians mention Vishnukundins reign was from 420 to 624, while some other historian say there reign was from early 5th century to the 7th century, according to the Indra Pala Nagara plates, Indra Varma is considered to be the first ruler of the Vishnukundin dynasty. He might have carved out a principality for himself probably as a subordinate of the Vakatakas sometime about the last quarter of the 4th century. He adorned the title of priyaputra, parabrama shastry, Indravermas capital was Indrapalapuram in Nalgonda district of Telangana State. Not much information is known about the two kings, Madhav Varma I and his son Govinda Varma. They might have kept intact the inheritance or extended their sway to some extent, by the middle of the 5th century, the dynasty began its imperial expansion under its most efficient ruler Madhav Varma II who ruled for nearly half a century. The reign of Madhav Varma was an age in the history of the Vishnukundins. It was during this period, the small Vishnukundin dynasty rose to imperial heights, a princess of the then powerful ruling family of the Deccan the Vakatakas was given in marriage to Madhav Varmas son, Vikramendra Varma. This alliance gave them power and made it easy for them to extend their influence to the east coast. Madhav Varma II led his arms against Ananda Gotrikas who were ruling over Guntur, Tenali and Ongole, after occupying these areas from the Ananda Gotrikas, Madhav Varma II made Amarapura his capital. Madhav Varma II next turned his attention against the Vengi kingdom which was under the Salankayanas, the Godavari tract became part of the Vishnukundin territory. After these conquests the capital might have shifted to Bezwada
26.
Chalukya dynasty
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The Chalukya dynasty was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties, the earliest dynasty, known as the Badami Chalukyas, ruled from Vatapi from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi, after the death of Pulakeshin II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan. They ruled from Vengi until about the 11th century and these Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani until the end of the 12th century. The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India, the political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers, the rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called Chalukyan architecture. Kannada literature, which had enjoyed royal support in the 9th century Rashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the Western Chalukyas in the Jain, the 11th century saw the birth of Telugu literature under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas. While opinions vary regarding the origins of the Chalukyas, the consensus among noted historians such as John Keay. Sircar, Hans Raj, S. Sen, Kamath, K. V. Ramesh, a theory that they were descendants of a 2nd-century chieftain called Kandachaliki Remmanaka, a feudatory of the Andhra Ikshvaku was put forward. This according to Kamath has failed to explain the difference in lineage, the Kandachaliki feudatory call themselves Vashisthiputras of the Hiranyakagotra. The Chalukyas, however, address themselves as Harithiputras of Manavyasagotra in their inscriptions, which is the lineage as their early overlords. This makes them descendants of the Kadambas, the Chalukyas took control of the territory formerly ruled by the Kadambas. A later record of Eastern Chalukyas mentions the northern origin theory and claims one ruler of Ayodhya came south, defeated the Pallavas and she had a child called Vijayaditya who is claimed to be the Pulakeshin Is father. However, according to the historians K. V. Ramesh, Chopra and Sastri, there are Badami Chalukya inscriptions that confirm Jayasimha was Pulakeshin Is grandfather and Ranaranga, his father. Kamath and Moraes claim it was a practice in the 11th century to link South Indian royal family lineage to a Northern kingdom. The Badami Chalukya records themselves are silent with regards to the Ayodhya origin, while the northern origin theory has been dismissed by many historians, the epigraphist K. V. Ramesh has suggested that an earlier southern migration is a distinct possibility which needs examination. Hence, the place of origin of their ancestors may have been of no significance to the kings of the empire who may have considered themselves natives of the Kannada speaking region. The writing of 12th century Kashmiri poet Bilhana suggests the Chalukya family belonged to the Shudra caste while other sources claim they were Kshatriyas, the historians Jan Houben and Kamath, and the epigraphist D. C
27.
Chola dynasty
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The Chola dynasty was one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BCE left by Ashoka, as one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until the 13th century CE. The whole country south of the Tungabhadra was united and held as one state for a period of two centuries and more, the Chola fleet represented the zenith of ancient Indian sea power. During the period 1010–1200, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of which is now Sri Lanka, Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully invaded cities of Srivijaya of Malaysia and Indonesia, the Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyan Dynasty, which ultimately caused their downfall. The Cholas left a lasting legacy and their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in the building of temples has resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship and they pioneered a centralised form of government and established a disciplined bureaucracy. The Chola school of art spread to Southeast Asia and influenced the architecture, the Cholas are also known as the Choda. There is very little available in regarding their origin. Its antiquity is evident from the mentions in ancient Tamil literature, Later medieval Cholas also claimed a long and ancient lineage. Mentions in the early Sangam literature indicate that the earliest kings of the dynasty antedated 100 CE, Cholas were mentioned in Ashokan Edicts of 3rd Century BCE as one of the neighboring countries existing in the South. A commonly held view is that Chola is, like Chera and Pandya, the annotator Parimelazhagar said, The charity of people with ancient lineage are forever generous in spite of their reduced means. Other names in use for the Cholas are Killi, Valavan and Sembiyan. Killi perhaps comes from the Tamil kil meaning dig or cleave and this word often forms an integral part of early Chola names like Nedunkilli, Nalankilli and so on, but almost drops out of use in later times. Valavan is most probably connected with valam – fertility and means owner or ruler of a fertile country, in Tamil lexicon Chola means Soazhi or Saei denoting a newly formed kingdom, in the lines of Pandya or the old country. There is very little evidence available of the Cholas prior to the 7th century. Historic records exist thereafter, including inscriptions on temples, the main source for the available information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of the Sangam Period
28.
Balijipeta
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Baliji-peta or Baligi-peta is a village in Vizianagaram district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. According to some historians, most of the people of Original Balija caste have migrated from this village, balijipeta is located at 18. 37°N83. 31°E /18.37,83.31. It has an elevation of 76 metres. It is 240 ft above sea level at the distance of 103 km from Visakhapatnam. Balijipeta mandal has a population of 62,787 in 2001, males consists of 31,216 and females 31,571 of the population. The average literacy rate is 48% below the average of 59. 5%. Male literacy rate is 59% and that of females 33%, balijipeta was a Legislative Assembly Constituency of Andhra Pradesh in 1955 and 1962. It was later merged with Vunukuru Constituency, later has been considered in Parvathipuram Constituency. List of Elected Members,1955 - Peddinti Ramaswamy Naidu,1962 - Vasireddy Krishna Murthy Naidu
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Srungavarapukota
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Srunga-varapu-kota or S. Kota is a village in Vizianagaram district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. Srungavarapukota railway station is located on Kothavalasa-Kirandul line under East Coast Railway, Srungavarapukota is located at 18. 1167°N83. 1667°E /18.1167,83.1667. It is at an altitude of 70 meters. As of 2001 census, S. Kota Mandal had a population of 74,413, males constitutes 36,586 and females 37,827 of the population. This phenomenon of females outnumbering males is an unusual phenomenon, the average literacy rate is 59%. Male literacy rate is 70% and that of females 48%, there are 40 revenue villages and 26 gram panchayats in Srungavarapukota Mandal. The town was upgraded from Gram panchayat to Nagar panchayat on 23 June 2011, there are 1,42,285 registered voters in this constituency. Kolla Lalitha Kumari is the present MLA, S. Kota is located on Visakhapatnam - Araku road. APS RTC runs bus services from S. Kota depot to all major bus station in the District
30.
Kakatiya dynasty
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The Kakatiya dynasty was a South Indian dynasty whose capital was Orugallu, now known as Warangal. It was eventually conquered by the Delhi Sultanate, the demise of Kakatiya dynasty resulted in confusion and anarchy under alien rulers for sometime. Three new fledgling kingdoms arose out of the ruins of the Kakatiya empire namely the Reddy kingdom, Padma Nayaka Velama kingdom, historic sources relating to the Kakatiya dynasty are sparse. Of those that are available, the most prevalent are ancient inscriptions that mainly document matters relating to religion and they are particularly abundant for the period 1175–1324 CE, which is the period when the dynasty most flourished and are a reflection of that. The probability is that many inscriptions have been lost due to falling into disuse and also the ravages of subsequent rulers. Inscriptions are still being discovered today but governmental agencies tend to concentrate on recording those that are already known rather than searching for new examples, studies of the inscriptions and coinage by the historian Dineshchandra Sircar reveal that there was no contemporary standard spelling of the family name. Variants include Kakatiya, Kakatiyya, Kakita, Kakati and Kakatya, the family name was often prefixed to the name of the monarch, giving constructs such as Kakatiya-Prataparudra. Some of the also had alternate names, for example, Venkata and Venkataraya may have been alternate names of Prataparuda I. The Kakatiya rulers traced their ancestry to legendary chief or ruler called Durjaya, many other ruling dynasties of Andhra also claimed descent from Durjaya. Nothing further is known about this chief, the early rulers were feudatoris of Western Chalukyas. Prataparudra I established a dynasty in 1163 CE. The regnal dates of the rulers are unknown. In order, they were Venna, Gunda I, Gunda II, Gunda III, the next ruler, Gunda IV, is mentioned in the Mangallu grant of the Eastern Chalukya king Dānārnava in 956 CE. Gunda IV was followed by Beta I, Prola I, Beta II, Durgaraja, next come the sovereign rulers Prataparudra I, Ganapati, Rudrama Devi, and Prataparudra II. The dynasty ended in 1323 after an invasion by the Delhi sultanate, the early Kakatiya rulers used the title Reddi. However, after they became sovereigns they were addressed as deva, there appears to be a significant element of sanskritisation in this transition. According to Sastry, Prataparudra I reigned between around 1158 –1195, while Sircar gives the dates 1163–1195 and it was during Prataparudras reign, in 1163, that the Kakatiyas declared an end to their status as feudatory chiefs of the Chalukyas. It is notable that inscriptions were written using the Kakatiya chiefs vernacular Telugu rather than the Kannada language that had prevailed until that point
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Mughal Empire
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The dynasty, though ethnically Turco-Mongol, was Persianate in terms of culture. The Mughal empire extended over parts of the Indian subcontinent. The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the victory by its founder Babur over Ibrahim Lodi, the Mughal emperors were Central Asian Turco-Mongols belonging to the Timurid dynasty, who claimed direct descent from both Genghis Khan and Timur. During the reign of Humayun, the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by the Sur Empire, the classic period of the Mughal Empire started in 1556 with the ascension of Akbar the Great to the throne. Under the rule of Akbar and his son Jahangir, the region enjoyed economic progress as well as harmony. Akbar was a warrior who also forged alliances with several Hindu Rajput kingdoms. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat to the Mughal dominance of northwestern India, the reign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, between 1628 and 1658 was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several monuments, the best known of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Delhi. By the mid-18th century, the Marathas had routed Mughal armies, during the following century Mughal power had become severely limited, and the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II, had authority over only the city of Shahjahanabad. He issued a firman supporting the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and following the defeat was therefore tried by the British East India Company for treason, imprisoned and exiled to Rangoon. Contemporaries referred to the empire founded by Babur as the Timurid empire, which reflected the heritage of his dynasty, another name was Hindustan, which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari, and which has been described as the closest to an official name for the empire. In the west, the term Mughal was used for the emperor, and by extension, the use of Mughal derived from the Arabic and Persian corruption of Mongol, and it emphasised the Mongol origins of the Timurid dynasty. The term gained currency during the 19th century, but remains disputed by Indologists, similar terms had been used to refer to the empire, including Mogul and Moghul. Nevertheless, Baburs ancestors were sharply distinguished from the classical Mongols insofar as they were oriented towards Persian rather than Turco-Mongol culture, ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass, Baburs forces occupied much of northern India after his victory at Panipat in 1526. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India, the instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun, who was driven out of India and into Persia by rebels. Humayuns exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the Mughal Empire, the restoration of Mughal rule began after Humayuns triumphant return from Persia in 1555, but he died from a fatal accident shortly afterwards. Humayuns son, Akbar, succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari River
32.
Salabat Jung
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Salabat Jung was born Mir Said Muhammad Khan Siddiqi Bayafandi in November 1718. He was the 4th Nizam of Hyderabad and the 3rd son of Nizam-ul-Mulk and he was appointed as Naib Subahdar to his elder brother, Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung II, the Prime Minister of Mughal Empire, with the title Salabat Jung. He was invested by Imperial firman, at Aurangabad, Maharashtra,12 September 1749 and he was granted the titles of Khan Bahadur and Salabat Jung during his fathers lifetime. During the Second Carnatic War he was a prisoner, first in Nasir Jungs camp and he was promoted to the title of Amir-ul-Mamalik by the Emperor Alamgir II. He was the ruler of the Hyderabad State in India from 1751 until 1762, khilwath palace of Hyderabad was also built by him. Salabat Jung agreed to retain the French in the Deccan restoring previous rights and these new weapons would completely reverse fortunes of the Maratha rebels. In March 1751, Salabat Jung gave the French the villages of Nizampatnam and Alamanava in the Krishna district, Kondavid, Narsapur in the Godavary district, together with Yanun and Mahfuzbandar. The extirpation of the conspirators against Muzaffar Jung was only the prelude to a serious contest that threatened his successor to the Nizamat of Hyderabad Deccan. He had scarcely crossed the River Krishna when he was met by 25,000 Marathas under the command of their Peshwa. This prince had entered into a league with Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung II the elder brother of Salabat Jung, had levied a contribution of Rs, the Maratha army however disappeared as suddenly as it had presented itself. The invasion of the Deccan by Damaji Gaikwar from Gujarat had forced the Peshwa to retreat, Salabat Jung made his entry in great pomp and took formal possession of Hyderabad. His first attention was directed to rewarding his allies, gratuities were bestowed on the officers according to their rank from 100,000 to the commander in chief to 5,000 to each ensign. The future pay of the troops was settled with equal liberality, a communication was opened with Machilipatnam and from that port only 220 miles distant the French were supplied with recruits of men, stores and ammunition. De Bussy was thus enabled afterwards to increase his Europeans to 500, Salabat Jung did not remain long at his capital. Salabat Jung reached Aurangabad on 18 June and in the month of August, the character of the French auxiliaries acquired fresh lustre on this occasion. While at Aurangabad their discipline and orderly conduct had commanded the respect of the Indians and they now established the superiority of the Salabat Jung over the Marathas. The Peshwa, meanwhile, had ordered Holkar and Scindia to join Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung II and to affect a junction with himself near Aurangabad, occupied by Salabat Jung, the news of this fresh campaign filled the Nizam and his advisers with consternation and dismay. But it was in the hour of danger that the courage of Charles Joseph Patissier better known as Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau rose to its greatest height, De Bussy said, Care nothing for the invading army, you will best preserve the Deccan by marching on Poona
33.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
34.
Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau
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Charles Joseph Patissier, Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau or Charles Joseph Patissier de Bussy was the Governor General of the French colony of Pondicherry from 1783 to 1785. He served with distinction under Joseph François Dupleix in the East Indies and he contributed to the recovery from Britain of Pondicherry in 1748, and was named in 1782 to lead all French military forces beyond the Cape of Good Hope. He coordinated his operations with Pierre André de Suffren and fought with distinction against the numerically superior British during the Indian campaigns of the American War of Independence, actually, it was in 1750 when French leader de Bussy was staying with entire battalion near Hyderabad. Many soldiers have died due to some disease and he was running with financial crisis. Vijayaramaraju of Vizianagaram helped him to overcome financial crisis and rebuild his battalion, De Bussy helped Salabat Jang to be the Subedar of Deccan. The agreement made between the French and Salabat Jang in Aurangabad bears the signature of Said Loukshur, Minister of Salabat Jang, actually, He was one of the key sub-ordinates of Dupleix who helped him in expanding French activities in Northern Circars and along the Coromandel Coast. Men in his command included the famous Hyder Ali of Mysore. In 1756 Marquis de Bussy visited Rajahmundry, Vijayaramaraju had given a warm welcome to Bussy by going in front at Rajahmundry. There were differences between Vizianagaram Maharaja and the ruler of Bobbili, which led to the battle of Bobbili starting on 23 January 1757, the war was fought between the Rajah of Vizianagaram, Vijayaramaraju aided by the Bussy, the then French General and the Rajah of Bobbili. During the battle the Bobbili fort was destroyed and many Bobbili soldiers died. There is still a street named after Bussy in Yanam, in the year 1755, De Bussy received letter from the newly ordained Mughal Emperor Alamgir II requesting French assistance to put down the Maratha Confederacy. Alamgir II asked if it was possible for De Bussy to dispatch a French contingent of 1000 strong. Alamgir II also promised to pay a hefty sum for the maintenance of the French, De Bussy died in Pondicherry in 1785. He was married to the youngest stepdaughter of Dupleix, Marie in March 1754 and he begot a daughter from her who died at Paris in 1759. Carnatic Wars Madame Dupleix Inde française Hyder Ali Muzaffar Jung dHozier, limpot du sang, ou, La noblesse de France sur les champs de bataille, Volume 3 Malleson, George. History of the French in India, from the founding of Pondichery in 1674 to the capture of that place in 1761
35.
Bobbili
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Bobbili is a town in Vizianagaram district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. Bobbili is located at 18. 5667°N83. 3667°E /18.5667,83.3667 and it has an average elevation of 103 metres. The town of Bobbili was founded during the 17th century by Pedda Rayudu, the town was originally named Pedda-puli after Sher Muhammad Khan, the Nawab of Srikakulam who granted it as a gift to the maharajah of Venkatgiri for his services in his southern campaigns. However, with time, the became known as Pebbuli, then Bebbuli. The battle of Bobbili in 1757, is one of the significant episodes in the history of the state of Andhra Pradesh, Vizianagaram kings won the war with the help of French General Marquis de Bussy. This battle gave the glamour of eternal bravery to Bobbili name, as of 2011 Census of India, the town had a population of 56,819. The total population constitute,28,285 males,28,534 females and 5,693 children in the age group of 0–6 years, the average literacy rate stands at 76. 66% with 39,193 literates, higher than the national average of 74%. The primary and secondary education is imparted by government, aided and private schools. The medium of instruction followed by different schools are English, Telugu, Bobbili is known for its quality education. An age old college in the form of Rajah R. S. R. K, ranga Rao College and even older school in the form of Samsthanam High School Parliamentary and assembly constituencies Bobbili is a parliamentary constituency in Indian Lok Sabha. It had 9,70,612 voters during the elections, since 2009 Bobbili Parliamentary Constituency no longer exists and is replaced with Vizianagaram Parliamentary constituency. Bobbili is a constituency in Andhra Pradesh. There are 1,20,173 registered voters in this constituency in 1999 elections, Andhra Pradesh Industrial Infrastructure Corporation has set up Industrial Development area at Bobbili in 2008. Nearly 200 units will be set up in an area of over 1,000 acres of land, the state government has spent about Rs.20 crore is on infrastructure like roads, water supply, power transmission including a 33 kV sub-station. The major projects in the pipeline include B. K, steels, Vizag Profiles and Ferro Alloys. The Growth Centre has a potential to employ 10,000 people directly, Bobbili Railway junction is in Visakhapatnam division of East Coast Railway zone. It is located at Mallampeta which is named after the goddess Mallamma and it is located in the Vizianagaram-Raipur railway line. There is a Broad-gauge railway line between Bobbili and Salur, Andhra Pradesh Vizianagaram district List of municipalities in Andhra Pradesh
36.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
37.
Shah Alam
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Shah Alam /ʃɑː ˈɑːləm/ is a city and the state capital of Selangor, Malaysia and situated within the Petaling District and a small portion of the neighbouring Klang District. Shah Alam replaced Kuala Lumpur as the city of the state of Selangor in 1978 due to Kuala Lumpurs incorporation into a Federal Territory in 1974. Shah Alam was the first planned city in Malaysia after independence from Britain in 1957, Malaysia grew rapidly after its independence in 1957 under the Father of Modernisation, the second Prime Minister of Malaysia, Allahyarham Tun Abdul Razak Hussein. Shah Alam was once known as Sungai Renggam and was noted for its rubber, later, the same area was identified as Batu Tiga prior to Malaysian independence, and has been a centre of rubber and palm oil trade for centuries. Its current name was chosen by the then state Sultan of Selangor, Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah, many other monuments, buildings and even a street are named after the late Sultan. Shah Alam was opened in 1963 with the purpose of making it the new centre of Selangor. With the consent of the Sultan, Shah Alam was proclaimed the capital of Selangor on 7 December 1978 with an area of 41.68 km2, Shah Alam had encountered several processes of extending its areas and the last was on 1 January 1997. Through the Gazette Plan 1190, Shah Alam was extended to 293 km2, Shah Alam was granted city status on 10 October 2000 with Dato Haji Abu Sujak Haji Mahmud as the first mayor. He recently served as deputy Menteri Besar, or Chief Minister of Selangor, Abu Sujak declared the vision of making Shah Alam a modern city with a unique identity of a Bandaraya Melayu, showcasing the achievements of the Malay race in all sectors. In line with this identity, Shah Alam was declared the first city in the world with no entertainment outlets to avoid any vice activities, Shah Alam is located within the district of Petaling and a portion of the district of Klang in the state of Selangor. Shah Alam has an urban layout to Petaling Jaya or Subang Jaya with housing areas occupying most of the city. There are 56 sections in total, generally Shah Alam can be divided into three parts, the north, central and south parts. North Shah Alam consists of 18 Sections including Sections U1 and U2, the Central Shah Alam is where all the state administrative buildings and agencies are situated. It consists of Section 1 until Section 24, south Shah Alam consists of 12 sections including Section 25, Section 30, Section 31 and Section 32. In the map, south Shah Alam is seen as the purple coloured areas. The city has a number of shopping malls, vibrant commercial areas are situated mostly at the city centre, Seksyen 13 and Seksyen 9. All of the roads and streets in Shah Alam including the new townships such as Setia Alam. As with other cities across Peninsular Malaysia, Shah Alam experiences a tropical rainforest climate according to the Köppen climate classification, temperatures are consistent throughout the year with an average high temperature of 31.9 °C and an average low temperature of 23.2 °C
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United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
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Tribe
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A tribe is viewed, developmentally or historically, as a social group existing before the development of, or outside of, states. A tribe is a group of people, dependent on their land for their livelihood, who are largely self-sufficient. It is perhaps the term most readily understood and used by the general public, stephen Corry defines tribal people as those who. have followed ways of life for many generations that are largely self-sufficient, and are clearly different from the mainstream and dominant society. There are a one hundred and fifty million tribal individuals worldwide. Although nearly all people are indigenous, some are not indigenous to the areas where they now live. The distinction between tribal and indigenous is important because tribal peoples have a special status acknowledged in international law and they often face particular issues in addition to those faced by the wider category of indigenous peoples. Many people used the term tribal society to refer to societies organized largely on the basis of social, especially familial, a customary tribe in these terms is a face-to-face community, relatively bound by kinship relations, reciprocal exchange, and strong ties to place. Tribe is a term due to its roots of being defined by outsiders during the period of colonialism. The word has no shared referent, whether in political form, some argue that it conveys a negative connotation of a timeless unchanging past. To avoid these implications, some have chosen to use the ethnic group. In some places, such as India and North America, tribes are polities that have granted legal recognition. The English word tribe occurs in 12th-century Middle English-literature as referring to one of the tribes of Israel. The Ramnes were named after Romulus, leader of the Latins, Tities after Titus Tatius, leader of the Sabines, according to Livy, the three tribes were squadrons of knights, rather than ethnic divisions. The terms ultimate etymology is uncertain, perhaps from the Proto-Indo-European roots tri-, in 242–240 BC, the Tribal Assembly in the Roman Republic included 35 tribes. The Latin word as used in the Bible translates as Greek phyle, race, tribe, clan, in the historical sense, tribe, race and clan can be used interchangeably. Considerable debate has accompanied efforts to define and characterize tribes, scholars perceive differences between pre-state tribes and contemporary tribes, there is also general controversy over cultural evolution and colonialism. In the popular imagination, tribes reflect a way of life that predates, tribes also privilege primordial social ties, are clearly bounded, homogeneous, parochial, and stable. Tribes are an organization among families, which generates a social and ideological basis for solidarity that is in some way more limited than that of a group or of a nation
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Salur
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Salur or Saluru is a municipal town and Mandal headquarters in Vizianagaram district, of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. Salur is located on the banks of River Vegavathi at 18. 5333°N83. 2167°E /18.5333,83.2167 and it has an average elevation of 118 metres. It is bounded by Makkuva, Bobbili, Ramabhadrapuram and Pachipenta mandals of Andhra Pradesh state, Salur is surrounded with green forests and chain of hills on two sides and by River Vegavathi on the other two sides. The climate of the town is characterized by high humidity almost all round the year, oppressive summer. The temperature varies between 17 and 40 degrees of Celsius, average annual rainfall is 1074.0 mm. The nature of the soil is generally black cotton soil, as of 2011 Census of India, the town had a population of 49,500. The total population constitute,24,021 males,25,479 females and 4,900 children, the average literacy rate stands at 73. 22% with 32,656 literates, approximately equal to the national average of 73. 00%. Salur was a major panchayat till 1950 and it was established in the year 1950 and was upgraded as grade II Municipality in 2001. The extent of Salur municipality area is 19.55 sq mi, the source of water supply is River Vegavathi, with 200 public taps and 226 public bore–wells. The municipality supplies 3 million litres per day of drinking water is supplied with a per capita of 80 litres per day. The municipality has 54 km of roads,4 public parks,5 play gournds,11 community halls etc, there are 23 elementary and 2 secondary schools for education purpose. Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly Constituency of Salur is reserved for Scheduled Tribes, the primary and secondary school education is imparted by government, aided and private schools, under the School Education Department of the state. The medium of instruction followed by different schools are English, Telugu, list of municipalities in Andhra Pradesh
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Indian independence movement
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The Indian independence movement encompassed all activities and ideas aiming to end the East India Company rule and the British Indian Empire in the Indian subcontinent. The movement spanned a total of 190 years, the early part of the 20th century saw a more radical approach towards political self-rule proposed by leaders such as the Lal, Bal, Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh, V. O. Chidambaram Pillai. The last stages of the struggle from the 1920s onwards saw Congress adopt Mohandas Karamchand Gandhis policy of nonviolence and civil resistance. Nationalist like Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, Bhagat Singh and Vinayak Damodar Sawarkar preached armed revolution to achieve self-rule, feminists such as Sarojini Naidu and Begum Rokeya promoted the emancipation of Indian women and their participation in national politics. Babasaheb Ambedkar championed the cause of the sections of Indian society within the larger self-rule movement. The period of the Second World War saw the peak of the campaigns by the Quit India Movement led by Congress, the Indian self-rule movement was a mass-based movement that encompassed various sections of society. It also underwent a process of constant ideological evolution, in 1971, East Pakistan declared independence as the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh. European traders first reached Indian shores with the arrival of the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in 1498 AD at the port of Calicut, in search of the lucrative spice trade. Just over a century later, the Dutch and English established trading outposts on the subcontinent, the decline of the Mughal empire in the first half of the eighteenth century provided the British with the opportunity to establish a firm foothold in Indian politics. After the defeat of Tipu Sultan, most of South India came either under the Companys direct rule, the Company subsequently gained control of regions ruled by the Maratha Empire, after defeating them in a series of wars. The Punjab was annexed in 1849, after the defeat of the Sikh armies in the First, in 1835, English was made the medium of instruction in Indias schools and many Indians increasingly disliked British rule. With the British now dominating most of the subcontinent, many British increasingly disregarded local customs, Puli Thevan was one of the opponents of the British rule in India. He was in conflict with the Nawab of Arcot who was supported by the British and his prominent exploits were his confrontations with Marudhanayagam, who later rebelled against the British in the late 1750s and early 1760s. Nelkatumseval the present Tirunelveli Dist of Tamil Nadu state of India was the headquarters of Puli Thevan, kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja was one of the earliest freedom fighters in India. He was the regent of the princely state of Kottiyur or Cotiote in North Malabar, near Kannur. He fought a war with tribal people from Wynad supporting him. He was caught by the British and his fort was razed to the ground, Rani Velu Nachiyar, was a queen of Indian Sivaganga in 1760–1790. She was the first queen to fight against the British in India, Rani Nachiyar was trained in war match weapons usage, martial arts like Valari, Silambam, horse riding and archery
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Zamindar
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A zamindar in the Indian subcontinent was an aristocrat. The term means land owner in Persian, typically hereditary, zamindars held enormous tracts of land and control over their peasants, from whom they reserved the right to collect tax on behalf of imperial courts or for military purposes. Their families carried surnames of lordship, such as Rao, Chowdhury, Khan, Sardar, Malik, Thakur, Wadero, Reddy, Thevar and Naidu. In the 19th and 20th centuries, many wealthy and influential zamindars were bestowed with princely and royal titles such as Maharaja, Raja, during the Mughal Empire, zamindars belonged to the nobility and formed the ruling class. Emperor Akbar granted them mansabs and their domains were treated as jagirs. Under British colonial rule in India, the permanent settlement consolidated what became known as the zamindari system, the British rewarded supportive zamindars by recognizing them as princes. Many of the princely states were pre-colonial zamindar holdings elevated to a greater protocol. However, the British also reduced the holdings of many pre-colonial aristocrats. The system was abolished during land reforms in East Bengal in 1950, India in 1951, the zamindars often played an important role in the regional histories of the subcontinent. The confederation was led by a zamindar-king, Isa Khan, the zamindars were also patrons of the arts. The Tagore family produced Indias first Nobel laureate in literature in 1913, Rabindranath Tagore, the zamindars also promoted neoclassical and Indo-Saracenic architecture. Before Mughal rule in India, the collected and retained revenue from land. The Mughals appointed people to act as tax officers, sending them around the country to oversee collection of revenue, the zamindari system ensured proper collection of taxes in a period when the power and influence of the Mughal emperors were in decline. All categories of zamindars under the Mughals were required to perform certain police, judicial, Zamindars under the Mughals were, in fact, more the public functionaries than revenue collecting agents. Although zamindaris were allowed to be held hereditarily, the holders were not considered to be the proprietors of their estates, the territorial zamindars had judicial powers also. This conferred status with attendant power, which made them the lords of their domains. They held regular courts, called zamindari adalat, the courts gave them not only power and status but some income as well by way of fines, presents and perquisites. The petty zamindars had some share in the dispensation of civil, the Chowdhurys, who were zamindars in most cases, had authority to deal with the complaints of debts, thefts and petty quarrels and to impose paltry fines
Vizianagaram district
