1.
Michael Collins (Irish leader)
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Michael Collins was a soldier and politician who was a leading figure in the struggle for Irish independence in the early 20th century. Subsequently, he was both Chairman of the Provisional Government and Commander-in-chief of the National Army, Collins was shot and killed in an ambush in August 1922 during the Irish Civil War. Born in Woodfield, Sams Cross, near Clonakilty, County Cork, Collins was the third son, most biographies give his date of birth as 16 October 1890, but his tombstone cites 12 October 1890. Referred to in a British secret service report as brainy, the Collins family were part of an ancient clan and they had republican connections that can be traced back to the 1798 rebellion. Collins father, Michael John, was a farmer by profession, a mathematician in his spare time, he had been a member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood movement. The elder Collins was 60 years old when he married Mary Anne OBrien, then 23 and they brought up eight children on a 90-acre farm called Woodfield, which the Collins had held as tenants for several generations. On his death bed, his father predicted that his daughter Helena would become a nun and she later did, known as Sister Mary Celestine, based in Whitby. He then turned to the family and told them to care of Michael. Hell do great work for Ireland, Michael was six years old when his father died. Collins was a bright and precocious child with a fiery temper and he named a local blacksmith, James Santry, and his headmaster at Lisavaird National School, Denis Lyons, as the first nationalists to personally inspire his pride of Irishness. Lyons was a member of the IRB, while Santrys family had participated in, and forged arms for, there are a number of anecdotal explanations for the origin of his nickname, The Big Fellow. The most authoritative comes from his family, stating that he was called this as a child and it had been a term of endearment for their youngest brother, who was always keen to take on tasks beyond his years. It was certainly established by his teens, long before he emerged as a political or military leader. At the age of thirteen he boarded at Clonakilty National School, during the week he stayed with his sister Margaret Collins-ODriscoll and her husband Patrick ODriscoll, while at weekends he returned to the family farm. Patrick ODriscoll founded the newspaper The West Cork People and Collins helped out with general reporting jobs, in 1910 he became a messenger at a London firm of stockbrokers, Horne and Company. While living in London he studied law at Kings College London and he joined the London GAA and, through this, the IRB. Sam Maguire, a republican from Dunmanway, County Cork, introduced the 19-year-old Collins to the IRB, an organiser of considerable intelligence, Collins had become highly respected in the IRB. This led to his appointment as financial advisor to Count Plunkett, father of one of the Easter Risings organisers, Collins took part in preparing arms and drilling troops for the insurrection
Michael Collins (Irish leader)
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Michael Collins
Irish: Mícheál Ó Coileáin
Michael Collins (Irish leader)
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Michael Collins at the age of 8 with his family.
Michael Collins (Irish leader)
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Collins as a young recruit.
Michael Collins (Irish leader)
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Captured Irish soldiers in
Stafford Gaol after the failed Easter Rising. Collins is fifth from the right with an 'x' over his head.
2.
Arthur Griffith
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Arthur Griffith was an Irish politician and writer, who founded and later led the political party Sinn Féin. He served as President of Dáil Éireann from January to August 1922, Arthur Griffith was born at 61 Upper Dominick Street, Dublin, Ireland on 31 March 1872, of distant Welsh lineage, and was educated by the Irish Christian Brothers. He worked for a time as a printer before joining the Gaelic League and his father had been a printer on The Nation newspaper — Griffith was one of several employees locked out in the early 1890s due to a dispute with a new owner of the paper. The young Griffith was a member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood and he visited South Africa from 1897 to 1898, after the defeat and death of Charles Stewart Parnell whose more moderate views he had initially supported, while recovering from tuberculosis. There he supported the Boers against British expansionism and was an admirer of Paul Kruger. In 1899, on returning to Dublin, he co-founded the weekly United Irishman newspaper with his associate William Rooney, on 24 November 1910, Griffith married his fiancée, Maud Sheehan, after a fifteen-year engagement, they had a son and a daughter. Griffiths fierce criticism of the Irish Parliamentary Partys alliance with British Liberalism was heavily influenced by the rhetoric of Young Irelander John Mitchel. Griffith made a number of controversial statements and opinions. He defended anti-semitic rioters in Limerick, and denounced socialists and pacifists as conscious tools of the British Empire, Griffith also supported movements seeking national independence from the British Empire in Egypt and India and wrote a highly critical description of the British government action at Matabele. Despite his opposition to communism and socialism, he worked with James Connolly. In September 1900, he established an organisation called Cumann na nGaedheal to unite advanced nationalist/separatist groups, in 1903 he set up the National Council to campaign against the visit to Ireland of King Edward VII and his consort Alexandra of Denmark. In 1907, this merged with the Sinn Féin League, which itself had been formed from an amalgamation of Cumann na nGaedheal. Most historians opt for 28 November 1905 as a date because it was on this date that Griffith first presented his Sinn Féin Policy. Its first president was Edward Martyn and this was similar to the policy of Henry Grattan a century earlier. Griffith sought to combine elements of Parnellism with the traditional separatist approach, he saw not as a leader. In 1907 Sinn Féin unsuccessfully contested a by-election in North Leitrim, the IRB members argued that the aim of dual monarchism should be replaced by republicanism, and that Griffith was excessively inclined to compromise with conservative elements. In 1916 rebels seized and took over a number of key locations in Dublin, in became known as the Easter Rising. After its defeat, it was widely described both by British politicians and the Irish and British media as the Sinn Féin rebellion, even though Sinn Féin had very limited involvement
Arthur Griffith
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Arthur Griffith
Arthur Griffith
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Cathal Brugha (Jan–Apr 1919)
Arthur Griffith
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Éamon de Valera (1919 – Aug 1921)
3.
Dublin
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Dublin is the capital and largest city of Ireland. Dublin is in the province of Leinster on Irelands east coast, the city has an urban area population of 1,345,402. The population of the Greater Dublin Area, as of 2016, was 1,904,806 people, founded as a Viking settlement, the Kingdom of Dublin became Irelands principal city following the Norman invasion. The city expanded rapidly from the 17th century and was briefly the second largest city in the British Empire before the Acts of Union in 1800, following the partition of Ireland in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, later renamed Ireland. Dublin is administered by a City Council, the city is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network as a global city, with a ranking of Alpha-, which places it amongst the top thirty cities in the world. It is a historical and contemporary centre for education, the arts, administration, economy, the name Dublin comes from the Irish word Dubhlinn, early Classical Irish Dubhlind/Duibhlind, dubh /d̪uβ/, alt. /d̪uw/, alt /d̪u, / meaning black, dark, and lind /lʲiɲ pool and this tidal pool was located where the River Poddle entered the Liffey, on the site of the castle gardens at the rear of Dublin Castle. In Modern Irish the name is Duibhlinn, and Irish rhymes from Dublin County show that in Dublin Leinster Irish it was pronounced Duílinn /d̪ˠi, other localities in Ireland also bear the name Duibhlinn, variously anglicized as Devlin, Divlin and Difflin. Historically, scribes using the Gaelic script wrote bh with a dot over the b and those without knowledge of Irish omitted the dot, spelling the name as Dublin. Variations on the name are found in traditionally Irish-speaking areas of Scotland, such as An Linne Dhubh. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. Baile Átha Cliath, meaning town of the ford, is the common name for the city in modern Irish. Áth Cliath is a name referring to a fording point of the River Liffey near Father Mathew Bridge. Baile Átha Cliath was an early Christian monastery, believed to have been in the area of Aungier Street, there are other towns of the same name, such as Àth Cliath in East Ayrshire, Scotland, which is Anglicised as Hurlford. Although the area of Dublin Bay has been inhabited by humans since prehistoric times and he called the settlement Eblana polis. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. The subsequent Scandinavian settlement centred on the River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey in an area now known as Wood Quay, the Dubhlinn was a small lake used to moor ships, the Poddle connected the lake with the Liffey. This lake was covered during the early 18th century as the city grew, the Dubhlinn lay where the Castle Garden is now located, opposite the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin Castle
Dublin
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Clockwise from top:
Samuel Beckett Bridge,
Trinity College,
Custom House,
Dublin Castle,
O'Connell Bridge, and
Convention Centre Dublin.
Dublin
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Father Mathew Bridge, formerly Dublin Bridge, is understood to be near the ancient "Ford of the Hurdles" (Baile Átha Cliath), the original crossing point on the River Liffey.
Dublin
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Dublin Castle was the fortified seat of
British rule in Ireland until 1922.
Dublin
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Henrietta Street, developed in the 1720s, is the earliest Georgian Street in Dublin.
4.
Fine Gael
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Fine Gael is a liberal-conservative and Christian democratic political party in Ireland. Fine Gael is currently the governing and largest party in Ireland in terms of members of the Oireachtas, Kenny has led the party since 2002. Fine Gael was founded on 8 September 1933 following the merger of its parent party Cumann na nGaedheal, the National Centre Party and the National Guard. Its origins lie in the struggle for Irish independence and the pro-Treaty side in the Irish Civil War and Michael Collins, Fine Gael is generally considered to be more of a proponent of market liberalism than its traditional rival, Fianna Fáil. However, apart from brief minority governments, Fine Gael has rarely governed Ireland without a coalition also included the Labour Party. Fine Gael describes itself as a party of the centre which it defines as acting in a way that is right for Ireland. It lists its values as equality of opportunity, free enterprise and reward, security, integrity. It is strongly in favour of the European Union and opposed to physical force Irish republicanism, the partys youth wing, Young Fine Gael, was formed in 1977, and has approximately four thousand members. Fine Gael is a member of the European Peoples Party. In 1923 this faction formally separates to become Cumann na nGaedheal and it rules as a minority government until 1932 when it’s replaced by a Fianna Fáil minority government with support from the Labour Party. 1933, It becomes Fine Gael also merging with two groups, the National Centre Party and the National Guard. 1937, It campaigns against the enactment of a new constitution proposed by Fianna Fáil advocating a no vote in the referendum, 1948–51, It forms part of Ireland’s first coalition government also including the Labour Party, Clann na Poblachta, Clann na Talmhan and the National Labour Party. 1954–57, It takes part in a three-party coalition government with the Labour Party,1972, It supported the campaign for a yes vote in the referendum to join the European Communities, voters approved of this proposal in the referendum. Both amendments were approved by voters in referenda, 1973–77, It takes part in a two-party coalition government with the Labour Party. Both amendments were approved by voters in referenda, 1981–82, It takes part in a two-party minority coalition government with the Labour Party. 1982-87, It takes part in a two-party coalition government with the Labour Party,1984, It proposed and supported the campaign for a yes vote for a constitutional amendment to extend the voting franchise to allow votes for non-citizens who are residents. This amendment was approved by voters in the referendum,1986, It proposed and supported the campaign for a yes for a constitutional amendment to make divorce constitutional. This amendment was rejected by voters in the referendum,1987, It supported the campaign for a yes vote for a constitutional amendment permitting the state to ratify the Single European Act
Fine Gael
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Fine Gael
5.
Liam Cosgrave
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Liam Cosgrave is a former Irish Fine Gael politician who served as Taoiseach and as Leader of Fine Gael. He was a Teachta Dála from 1943 to 1981, born in Castleknock, Dublin, Cosgrave was the son of W. T. Cosgrave, the first President of the Executive Council in the newly formed Irish Free State. After qualifying as a barrister he decided to embark on a political career and he was elected to Dáil Éireann at the 1943 general election and sat in opposition alongside his father. The formation of the first inter-party government in 1948 saw Cosgrave become a Parliamentary Secretary to Taoiseach John A. Costello and he formally became a cabinet member in 1954 when he was appointed Minister for External Affairs. The highlight of his tenure was Irelands successful entry into the United Nations. In 1965 Cosgrave was the choice of his colleagues to succeed James Dillon as leader of Fine Gael. He lost the 1969 general election to the incumbent Jack Lynch and he was educated at Synge Street CBS, Castleknock College, Dublin, and Kings Inns. He studied law and was called to the Irish bar in 1943, T. Cosgrave who was one of the founders of the Irish Free State in the 1920s. Cosgrave rapidly rose through the ranks of Fine Gael, and was regarded as being by far the most able, the party was, however, at an extremely low ebb in the 1940s spending many years in opposition. Nevertheless, Cosgrave became the secretary to the Taoiseach and Chief Whip when the party returned to power in 1948. Mulcahy, while remaining leader of Fine Gael, allowed John A Costello to become Taoiseach of the Inter Party Government as the latter had wider appeal, the first coalition Government collapsed in 1951. However, in 1954 a second inter-party Government was formed, on this occasion Liam Cosgrave, at the age of 34, was given a cabinet position. As Minister for External Affairs Cosgrave took part in trade discussions and he also presided over Irelands admission to the United Nations in 1955. Ireland was non aligned in favour of the United States and he did not speak to Sweetman for some years. Cosgrave remained active in opposition but he privately supported Fianna Fáils referendum to abolish the system of representation in June 1959. This opposition was to count against him later that year in the leadership contest, in October 1959, the dual leadership of Fine Gael, Mulcahy and Costello, stood down. Costello wanted to continue his practice as a counsel as well as being leader. He had asked Cosgrave to be his managing director in the Dáil while he was absent on legal work, Cosgrave, not surprisingly, had declined this
Liam Cosgrave
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Official portrait of Liam Cosgrave.
6.
Irish Republic
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The Irish Republic was a revolutionary state that declared its independence from Britain in January 1919. Its origins date back to the Easter Rising of 1916, when Irish republicans seized key locations in Dublin, the insurrection was crushed, but the survivors united under a reformed Sinn Féin party to campaign for a republic. The party won a majority of largely uncontested seats in the 1918 general election. Republicans then established a government, a system and a police force. At the same time, the Irish Volunteers, who came under the control of the Dáil and became known as the Irish Republican Army, the War of Independence ended with the Anglo-Irish Treaty, signed on 6 December 1921 and narrowly approved by Dáil Éireann on 7 January 1922. In English, the state was to be known as the Irish Republic. Two different Irish language titles were used, Poblacht na hÉireann and Saorstát Éireann, the word poblacht was a new word, coined by the writers of the Easter Proclamation in 1916. Saorstát was a word, based on the Irish words saor. Its literal translation was free state, the term Poblacht na hÉireann is the one used in the Proclamation of 1916, but the Declaration of Independence and other documents adopted in 1919 used Saorstát Éireann. Since then, the word saorstát has fallen out of use as a translation of republic, after the Irish state had changed its name to Ireland, in 1949 the description of the state was declared Republic of Ireland, while in Irish it was translated as Poblacht na hÉireann. In The Aftermath, Winston Churchill gives an account of the first meeting of Éamon de Valera with David Lloyd George on 14 July 1921, Lloyd George was a native speaker of Welsh and a noted Welsh linguist and as such was interested in the literal meaning of Saorstát. De Valera replied that it meant Free State, Lloyd George asked. what is your Irish word for Republic. After some delay and no reply, Lloyd George commented, Must we not admit that the Celts never were Republicans and have no word for such an idea. In 1916, nationalist rebels participating in the Easter Rising issued the Proclamation of the Republic, the Easter Rising was short-lived, largely limited to Dublin and, at the time it occurred, enjoyed little support from the Irish general public. The leaders of the Easter Rising had proclaimed a republic, Arthur Griffiths Sinn Féin organisation, which had favoured the establishment of a form of dual monarchy between Ireland and Britain, had not taken part in the Rising. In 1917, Griffiths Sinn Féin and republicans under Éamon de Valera and this agreement was subject to the condition that if the people chose monarchy, no member of the British royal family would be invited to serve as monarch. It also said it would boycott the British Parliament and instead establish a new Irish assembly in Dublin. Sinn Féin candidates won a majority of the seats,73 out of 105,25 of them uncontested
Irish Republic
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Cathal Brugha (Jan–Apr 1919)
Irish Republic
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Flag
Irish Republic
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Éamon de Valera (1919 – Aug 1921)
Irish Republic
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Arthur Griffith (Jan–Aug 1922)
7.
Irish Volunteers
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The Irish Volunteers, sometimes called the Irish Volunteer Force or Irish Volunteer Army, was a military organisation established in 1913 by Irish nationalists. The Volunteers included members of the Gaelic League, Ancient Order of Hibernians and Sinn Féin, and, secretly, the second Home Rule Bill, seven years later having passed the House of Commons, was vetoed by the House of Lords. It would be the third Home Rule Bill, introduced in 1912, on 28 September 1912 at Belfast City Hall just over 450,000 Unionists signed the Ulster Covenant to resist the granting of Home Rule. This was followed in January 1913 with the formation of the Ulster Volunteers composed of adult male Unionists to oppose the passage, the initiative for a series of meetings leading up to the public inauguration of the Irish Volunteers came from the Irish Republican Brotherhood. They therefore confined themselves to encouraging the view that nationalists also ought to organise a volunteer force for the defence of Ireland, a small committee then began to meet regularly in Dublin from July 1913, who watched the growth of this opinion. They refrained however from any action until the precedent of Ulster should have first been established while waiting for the lead to come from a constitutional quarter, the IRB began the preparations for the open organisation of the Irish Volunteers in January 1913. James Stritch, an IRB member, had the Irish National Foresters build a hall at the back of 41 Parnell Square in Dublin, anticipating the formation of the Volunteers they began to learn foot-drill and military movements. The drilling was conducted by Stritch together with members of Fianna Éireann and they began by drilling a small number of IRB associated with the Dublin Gaelic Athletic Association, led by Harry Boland. The IRB knew they would need a highly regarded figure as a front that would conceal the reality of their control. The IRB found Eoin MacNeill the ideal candidate, Professor of Early, mcNeills academic credentials and reputation for integrity and political moderation had widespread appeal. The ORahilly suggested to MacNeill that it should be on some wider subject than mere Gaelic pursuits and it was this suggestion which gave rise to the article entitled The North Began, giving the Irish Volunteers its public origins. On 1 November, MacNeills article suggesting the formation of an Irish volunteer force was published, MacNeill wrote, There is nothing to prevent the other twenty-eight counties from calling into existence citizen forces to hold Ireland for the Empire. It was precisely with this object that the Volunteers of 1782 were enrolled, after the article was published, Hobson asked The ORahilly to see MacNeill, to suggest to him that a conference should be called to make arrangements for publicly starting the new movement. The article threw down the gauntlet to nationalists to follow the lead given by Ulster unionists, MacNeill was unaware of the detailed planning which was going on in the background, but was aware of Hobsons political leanings. He knew the purpose as to why he was chosen, with MacNeill willing to take part, ORahilly and Hobson sent out invitations for the first meeting at Wynns Hotel in Abbey Street, Dublin, on 11 November. Hobson himself did not attend this meeting, believing his standing as an extreme nationalist might prove problematical, the IRB, however, was well represented by, among others, Sean MacDermott and Eamonn Ceannt, who would prove to be substantially more extreme than Hobson. Several others meetings were soon to follow, as prominent nationalists planned the formation of the Volunteers, meanwhile, labour leaders in Dublin began calling for the establishment of a citizens defence force in the aftermath of the lock out of 19 August 1913. Thus formed the Irish Citizen Army, led by James Connolly, the Volunteer organisation was publicly launched on 25 November, with their first public meeting and enrolment rally at the Rotunda in Dublin
Irish Volunteers
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An Irish Volunteer atop a memorial to the Irish War of Independence in Dublin
Irish Volunteers
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Éamon de Valera
8.
Captain (armed forces)
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The army rank of captain is a commissioned officer rank historically corresponding to the command of a company of soldiers. The rank is used by some air forces and marine forces. Today, a captain is typically either the commander or second-in-command of a company or artillery battery, in the Chinese Peoples Liberation Army, a captain may also command a company, or be the second-in-command of a battalion. In NATO countries, the rank of captain is described by the code OF-2 and is one rank above an OF-1, the rank of captain is generally considered to be the highest rank a soldier can achieve while remaining in the field. The rank of captain should not be confused with the rank of captain or with the British-influenced air force rank of group captain. The term ultimately goes back to Late Latin capitaneus meaning chief, prominent, in Middle English adopted as capitayn in the 14th century, the military rank of captain was in use from the 1560s, referring to an officer who commands a company. The naval sense, an officer who commands a man-of-war, is earlier, from the 1550s. He would in turn receive money from another nobleman to serve as his lieutenant, the funding to provide for the troops came from the monarch or his government, the captain had to be responsible for it. If he was not, or was otherwise court-martialed, he would be dismissed, otherwise, the only pension for the captain was selling the right to another nobleman when he was ready to retire. In most countries, the air force is the junior service, many, such as the United States Air Force, use a rank structure and insignia similar to those of the army. However, the United Kingdoms Royal Air Force, many other Commonwealth air forces, a group captain is OF-5 and was derived from the naval rank of captain. In the unified system of the Canadian Forces, the air force rank titles are pearl grey, a variety of images illustrative of different forces insignia for captain are shown below, Captain Captain Senior captain Staff captain
Captain (armed forces)
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Belgian Land Component
9.
Easter Rising
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The Easter Rising, also known as the Easter Rebellion, was an armed insurrection in Ireland during Easter Week, April 1916. The Rising was launched by Irish republicans to end British rule in Ireland and it was the most significant uprising in Ireland since the rebellion of 1798, and the first armed action of the Irish revolutionary period. Organised by a seven-man Military Council of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, the Rising began on Easter Monday,24 April 1916, the British Army brought in thousands of reinforcements as well as artillery and a gunboat. There was fierce fighting on the routes into the city centre. Elsewhere in Dublin, the fighting consisted of sniping and long-range gun battles. The main rebel positions were surrounded and bombarded with artillery. Germany had sent a shipment of arms to the rebels, Volunteer leader Eoin MacNeill had then issued a countermand in a bid to halt the Rising, which greatly reduced the number of rebels who mobilised. With much greater numbers and heavier weapons, the British Army suppressed the Rising, Pearse agreed to an unconditional surrender on Saturday 29 April, although sporadic fighting continued until Sunday, when word reached the other rebel positions. After the surrender the country remained under martial law, about 3,500 people were taken prisoner by the British, many of whom had played no part in the Rising, and 1,800 of them were sent to internment camps or prisons in Britain. Most of the leaders of the Rising were executed following courts-martial, the Rising brought physical force republicanism back to the forefront of Irish politics, which for nearly 50 years had been dominated by constitutional nationalism. It, and the British reaction to it, led to increased support for Irish independence. In December 1918, republicans, represented by the reconstituted Sinn Féin party and they did not take their seats, but instead convened the First Dáil and declared the independence of the Irish Republic, which led to the War of Independence. 485 people were killed in the Easter Rising, about 54% were civilians, 30% were British military and police, and 16% were Irish rebels. Many of the civilians were killed as a result of the British using artillery and heavy machine guns, others were caught in the crossfire in a crowded city. The shelling and the fires it caused left parts of inner city Dublin in ruins, from early on, many Irish nationalists opposed the union and the ensuing exploitation and impoverishment of the island, which led to a high level of depopulation. Opposition took various forms, constitutional, social and revolutionary, the Irish Home Rule movement sought to achieve self-government for Ireland, within the United Kingdom. In 1886, the Irish Parliamentary Party under Charles Stewart Parnell succeeded in having the First Home Rule Bill introduced in the British parliament, the Second Home Rule Bill of 1893 was passed by the House of Commons but rejected by the House of Lords. After the fall of Parnell, younger and more radical nationalists became disillusioned with parliamentary politics, the Gaelic Athletic Association, the Gaelic League and the cultural revival under W. B
Easter Rising
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Tom Clarke
Easter Rising
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Proclamation of the Republic, Easter 1916
Easter Rising
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General Post Office, Dublin. Centre of the Easter Rising
Easter Rising
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A British armoured truck, hastily built from the
smokeboxes of several steam locomotives at
Inchicore railway works
10.
Irish language
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Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland and it has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. The fate of the language was influenced by the power of the English state in Ireland. Elizabethan officials viewed the use of Irish unfavourably, as being a threat to all things English in Ireland and its decline began under English rule in the 17th century. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was a decrease in the number of speakers. Irish-speaking areas were hit especially hard, by the end of British rule, the language was spoken by less than 15% of the national population. Since then, Irish speakers have been in the minority, efforts have been made by the state, individuals and organisations to preserve, promote and revive the language, but with mixed results. Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates of native speakers ranged from 20,000 to 80,000 people. In the 2011 Census, these numbers had increased to 94,000 and 1.3 million, there are several thousand Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that the active Irish-language scene probably comprises 5 to 10 per cent of Irelands population, there has been a significant increase in the number of urban Irish speakers, particularly in Dublin. In Gaeltacht areas, however, there has been a decline of the use of Irish. Údarás na Gaeltachta predicted that, by 2025, Irish will no longer be the language in any of the designated Gaeltacht areas. Survey data suggest that most Irish people think highly of Irish as a marker of identity. It has also argued that newer urban groups of Irish speakers are a disruptive force in this respect. In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil the name of the language is Gaeilge, before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled Gaedhilge, originally this was the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Irish. Older spellings of this include Gaoidhealg in Classical Irish and Goídelc in Old Irish, the modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge, whereas Goidelic languages, used to refer to the language family including Irish, comes from Old Irish
Irish language
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"Caution Children"
Irish language
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Proportion of respondents who said they could speak Irish in the Ireland census 2011 or the Northern Ireland census 2011.
Irish language
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A sign for the Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure in Northern Ireland, in English, Irish and
Ulster Scots.
Irish language
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The Pale - According to Statute of 1488
11.
Irish people
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The Irish people are a nation and ethnic group native to the island of Ireland, who share a common Irish ancestry, identity and culture. Ireland has been inhabited for about 9,000 years according to archaeological studies, for most of Irelands recorded history, the Irish have been primarily a Gaelic people. Today, Ireland is made up of the Republic of Ireland, the people of Northern Ireland hold various national identities, including Irish, Northern Irish, British, or some combination thereof. The Irish have their own customs, language, music, dance, sports, cuisine, although Irish was their main language in the past, today the huge majority of Irish people speak English as their first language. Historically, the Irish nation was made up of kin groups or clans, there have been many notable Irish people throughout history. After Irelands conversion to Christianity, Irish missionaries and scholars exerted great influence on Western Europe, the 6th-century Irish monk and missionary Columbanus is regarded as one of the fathers of Europe, followed by saints Cillian and Fergal. The scientist Robert Boyle is considered the father of chemistry, famous Irish writers include Oscar Wilde, W. B. Yeats, George Bernard Shaw, Bram Stoker and James Joyce, notable Irish explorers include Brendan the Navigator, Robert McClure, Ernest Shackleton and Tom Crean. By some accounts, the first European child born in North America had Irish descent on both sides, many presidents of the United States have had some Irish ancestry. The population of Ireland is about 6.3 million, but it is estimated that 50 to 80 million people around the world have Irish forebears, historically, emigration from Ireland has been the result of conflict, famine and economic issues. People of Irish descent are mainly in English-speaking countries, especially the United Kingdom. There are also significant numbers in Argentina, Mexico and New Zealand, the United States has the most people of Irish descent, while in Australia those of Irish descent are a higher percentage of the population than in any other country. Many Icelanders have Irish and Scottish Gaelic forebears, in its summary of their article Who were the Celts. The National Museum Wales notes It is possible that genetic studies of ancient. However, early studies have, so far, tended to produce implausible conclusions from very small numbers of people and using outdated assumptions about linguistics, nineteenth century anthropology studied the physical characteristics of Irish people in minute detail. During the past 10,000 years of inhabitation, Ireland has witnessed some different peoples arrive on its shores, the ancient peoples of Ireland—such as the creators of the Céide Fields and Newgrange—are almost unknown. Neither their languages nor terms they used to describe themselves have survived, as late as the middle centuries of the 1st millennium the inhabitants of Ireland did not appear to have a collective name for themselves. Ireland itself was known by a number of different names, including Banba, Fódla, Ériu by the islanders, Iouerne and Hiverne to the Greeks, other Latin names for people from Ireland in Classic and Mediaeval sources include Attacotti and Gael
Irish people
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Carrowmore tomb, circa 3000 BC
Irish people
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Robert Boyle, Anglo-Irish scientist and
father of chemistry, whose family obtained land in the plantations
Irish people
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Finnian of Clonard imparting his blessing to the "
Twelve Apostles of Ireland "
Irish people
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Irish Gaels in a painting from the 16th century
12.
Provisional Government of the Irish Free State
–
The Provisional Government of Ireland was the provisional government for the administration of Southern Ireland from 16 January 1922 to 5 December 1922. It was an administration for the period between the ratifying of the Anglo-Irish Treaty and the establishment of the Irish Free State. Its legitimacy was disputed by the Anti-Treaty delegates to Dáil Éireann, Article 17 of the Anglo-Irish Treaty begins, On 14 January 1922 a meeting of the members elected to the House of Commons of Southern Ireland was held at the Mansion House, Dublin. At the meeting the Anglo-Irish Treaty was ratified by the Irish side in accordance with the Treaty, michael Collins was appointed its Chairman. The Provisional Government took up two days later on 16 January 1922 when British administration handed over Dublin Castle to Collins in person. At this time, Westminster had not formally appointed the new Irish ministers or conferred their government with any powers and these gaps were addressed through the Irish Free State Act 1922 of the British Parliament passed on 31 March 1922. It gave the force of law to the Anglo-Irish Treaty, which was scheduled to the Act, by Order in Council under the Act, the British Government formally transferred powers to the Provisional Government on 1 April 1922. The relevant Order in Council signed on 1 April was the Provisional Government Order,1922, the Ministerial appointments became official and were announced in Iris Oifigiúil No.19 of 4 April 1922. The government is referred to simply as the Provisional Government. It is sometimes referred to as the Provisional Government of Ireland, the Irish Free State Act 1922, which implemented the Treaty in British law, referred to it only as the Provisional Government established under that Article. Similarly, the Mansion House meeting at which the government was constituted resolved that a Provisional Government be and is hereby constituted. The Irish Times story on the referred to it as the Irish Free State Provisional Government. A committee set up to deal with Irish affairs, headed by Winston Churchill, was called the Provisional Government of Ireland Committee, the Provisional Government styled itself Rialtas Sealadach na hÉireann in Irish. It overprinted its postage stamps accordingly, Rialtas Sealadach na hÉireann also appeared at the head of High Court proceedings, with the approval of the British government. Several Acts of the post-1922 Oireachtas of the Irish Free State, under the Irish Republics Dáil Constitution adopted in 1919, Dáil Éireann continued to exist after it had ratified the Anglo-Irish Treaty. Most of the Dáil Ministers became concurrently Ministers of this Provisional Government, michael Collins became Chairman of the Provisional Government. He also remained Minister for Finance of Griffiths republican administration, one of the earliest and most remarkable events in the short life of the Provisional Government was the handover of Dublin Castle to the Provisional Government. For centuries Dublin Castle was the symbol, as well as the citadel, the transfer of its Castle administration to the representatives of the Irish people was greatly welcomed in Dublin
Provisional Government of the Irish Free State
–
Postage stamps of the government consisted of overprinted
British stamps. The text in traditional
Irish orthography reads Rialtas Sealadach na hÉireann 1922 and translates as Provisional Government of Ireland 1922
13.
Prime minister
–
A prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. In many systems, the prime minister selects and may dismiss members of the cabinet. In most systems, the minister is the presiding member. In parliamentary systems fashioned after the Westminster system, the minister is the presiding and actual head of government. In such systems, the head of state or the head of states official representative usually holds a ceremonial position. The prime minister is often, but not always, a member of the Legislature or the Lower House thereof and is expected with other ministers to ensure the passage of bills through the legislature. In some monarchies the monarch may also exercise powers that are constitutionally vested in the crown. The first actual usage of the prime minister or Premier Ministre was used by Cardinal Richelieu when in 1625 he was named to head the royal council as prime minister of France. Louis XIV and his descendants generally attempted to avoid giving this title to their chief ministers, the term prime minister in the sense that we know it originated in the 18th century in the United Kingdom when members of parliament disparagingly used the title in reference to Sir Robert Walpole. Over time, however, the title became honorific and remains so in the 21st century, the monarchs of England and the United Kingdom had ministers in whom they placed special trust and who were regarded as the head of the government. Examples were Thomas Cromwell under Henry VIII, William Cecil, Lord Burghley under Elizabeth I, Clarendon under Charles II and these ministers held a variety of formal posts, but were commonly known as the minister, the chief minister, the first minister and finally the prime minister. The power of ministers depended entirely on the personal favour of the monarch. Although managing the parliament was among the skills of holding high office. Although there was a cabinet, it was appointed entirely by the monarch, when the monarch grew tired of a first minister, he or she could be dismissed, or worse, Cromwell was executed and Clarendon driven into exile when they lost favour. Kings sometimes divided power equally between two or more ministers to prevent one minister from becoming too powerful, late in Annes reign, for example, the Tory ministers Harley and St John shared power. The monarch could no longer any law or impose any tax without its permission. It is at point that a modern style of prime minister begins to emerge. A tipping point in the evolution of the prime ministership came with the death of Anne in 1714, George spoke no English, spent much of his time at his home in Hanover, and had neither knowledge of, nor interest in, the details of English government
Prime minister
–
The prime ministers of five members of the
Commonwealth of Nations at the 1944
Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference.
Prime minister
–
Statue of
John A. Macdonald (1815–1891), first Canadian prime minister.
14.
Irish Free State
–
The Irish Free State was an independent state established in 1922 under the Anglo-Irish Treaty of December 1921. That treaty ended the three-year Irish War of Independence between the forces of the self-proclaimed Irish Republic, the Irish Republican Army, and British Crown forces, the Free State was established as a Dominion of the British Commonwealth of Nations. It comprised 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland, Northern Ireland, which comprised the remaining six counties, exercised its right under the Treaty to opt out of the new state. W. T. Cosgrave, who had led both of these governments since August 1922, became the first President of the Executive Council, the legislature consisted of Dáil Éireann and Seanad Éireann, also known as the Senate. Members of the Dáil were required to take an Oath of Allegiance, the oath was a key issue for opponents of the Treaty, who refused to take the oath and therefore did not take their seats. Pro-Treaty members, who formed Cumann na nGaedheal in 1923, held a majority in the Dáil from 1922 to 1927. In the first months of the Free State, the Irish Civil War was waged between the newly established National Army and the anti-Treaty IRA, who refused to recognise the state. The Civil War ended in victory for the government forces, with the anti-Treaty forces dumping its arms in May 1923, the anti-Treaty political party, Sinn Féin, refused to take its seats in the Dáil, leaving the relatively small Labour Party as the only opposition party. In 1926, when Sinn Féin president Éamon de Valera failed to have this policy reversed, he resigned from Sinn Féin, Fianna Fáil entered the Dáil following the 1927 general election, and entered government after the Irish general election,1932, when it became the largest party. De Valera abolished the Oath of Allegiance and embarked on a war with Britain. In 1937 he drafted a new constitution, which was passed by a referendum in July of that year, the Free State came to an end with the coming into force of the new constitution on 29 December 1937. Under the new constitution the Irish state was named Ireland, meanwhile, opposition increased to Irelands participation in World War I in Europe and the Middle East. This came about when the Irish Parliamentary Party supported the Allied cause in World War I in response to the passing of the Third Home Rule Bill in 1914. Many people had begun to doubt whether the Bill, passed by Westminster in September 1914 but suspended for the duration of the war, Sinn Féin, the Irish Party and all other Nationalist elements joined forces in opposition to the idea during the Conscription Crisis of 1918. At the same time the Irish Parliamentary lost in support on account of the crisis, Irish republicans felt further emboldened by successful anti-monarchical revolutions in the Russian Empire, the German Empire, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Sinn Féin party, founded by Arthur Griffith in 1905, had espoused non-violent separatism, under Éamon de Valeras leadership from 1917, it campaigned aggressively and militantly for an Irish republic. On 21 January 1919, Sinn Féin MPs, refusing to sit at Westminster, assembled in Dublin and it affirmed the formation of an Irish Republic and passed a Declaration of Independence, the irish people is resolved. To promote the common weal, to re-establish justice, with equal rights and equal opportunity for every citizen
Irish Free State
–
Irish Free State passport (holder's name removed)
Irish Free State
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Flag
Irish Free State
–
Overprinted stamp
Irish Free State
–
Poster promoting Irish Free State farm goods for breakfast to Canadians ("Irish Free State Butter, Eggs and Bacon for our Breakfasts").
15.
Taoiseach
–
The Taoiseach is the head of government or prime minister of Ireland. The current Taoiseach is Enda Kenny, TD, who was appointed on 9 March 2011, on 10 March 2016, at the first sitting of the 32nd Dáil, Kenny failed to gain the support of the house and tendered his resignation to the President. He remained in office in a capacity until being re-elected on 6 May 2016. The word means chieftain or leader in Irish and was adopted in the 1937 Constitution of Ireland as the title of the head of the Government, Taoiseach is the official title of the head of government in both English and Irish. Outside of Ireland, the Taoiseach is often referred to as the Prime Minister of Ireland, under the Constitution of Ireland, the Taoiseach is nominated by a simple majority of Dáil Éireann from among its members. He/she is then appointed to office by the President, who is required to appoint whomever the Dáil designates. For this reason, it is said that the Taoiseach is elected by Dáil Éireann. The Taoiseach may lose the support of Dáil Éireann by the passage of a vote of no confidence, or the failure of a vote of confidence, or alternatively, the Dáil may refuse supply. In the event of the Taoiseachs resignation, he/she continues to exercise the duties, the Taoiseach nominates the remaining members of the Government, who are then, with the consent of the Dáil, appointed by the President. The Taoiseach also has authority to advise the President to dismiss cabinet ministers from office, advice the President is required to follow by convention, the Taoiseach is further responsible for appointing eleven members of the Seanad. The Department of the Taoiseach is the government department which supports, since 2013, the Taoiseachs annual salary is €185,350. It was cut from €214,187 to €200,000 when Kenny took office, a proposed increase of €38,000 in 2007 was deferred when Brian Cowen became Taoiseach and in October 2008, the government announced a 10% salary cut for all ministers, including the Taoiseach. However this was a cut and the salaries remained nominally the same with ministers. This courted controversy in December 2009 when a cut of 20% was based on the higher figure before the refused amount was deducted. The Taoiseach is also allowed an additional €118,981 in annual expenses, there is no official residence of the Taoiseach. The house, which part of the Farmleigh estate acquired by the State in 1999 for €29. 2m, was renovated at a cost of nearly €600,000 in 2005 by the Office of Public Works. Former Taoiseach Bertie Ahern did not use it as a residence, the words Taoiseach and Tánaiste are both from the Irish language and of ancient origin. Though the Taoiseach is described in the Constitution of Ireland as the head of the Government or Prime Minister, Tánaiste in turn refers to the system of tanistry, the Gaelic system of succession whereby a leader would appoint an heir apparent while still living
Taoiseach
–
Incumbent
Enda Kenny since 9 March 2011
Taoiseach
–
Department of the Taoiseach at
Government Buildings,
Merrion Street, Dublin
16.
Congregation of Christian Brothers
–
The Congregation of Christian Brothers is a worldwide religious community within the Catholic Church, founded by Edmund Rice. The Christian Brothers, as they are known, chiefly work for the evangelisation and education of youth. Their first school was opened in Waterford, Ireland, in 1802, rices congregation is sometimes called the Irish Christian Brothers or the Edmund Rice Christian Brothers to differentiate the two teaching orders. At the turn of the century, Waterford merchant Edmund Rice considered travelling to Rome to join a religious institute. Instead, with the support of Dr. Thomas Hussey, Catholic bishop of the Diocese of Waterford and Lismore, he decided to found a religious community dedicated to teaching disadvantaged youth. The first school, on Waterfords New Street, was a stable and opened in 1802. Two men from his hometown of Callan, Thomas Grosvenor and Patrick Finn, soon arrived to aid Rice in his makeshift schools, with the intention of living the life of lay brothers. In the same year, Rice used proceeds from the sale of his business to begin building a community house. Bishop Hussey opened the new complex, christened “Mount Sion” on June 7,1803, the reputation of the school spread and across the next few years several men sought to become “Michaels”. On 15 August 1808 seven men, including Edmund Rice, took religious promises under Bishop John Power of Waterford, following the example of Nano Nagles Presentation Sisters, they were called Presentation Brothers. This was one of the first congregations of men to be founded in Ireland, houses were soon opened in Carrick-on-Suir, Dungarvan, and in 1811, in Cork. In 1812 the Archbishop of Dublin established a community in the capital and by 1907 there were ten communities in Dublin. The schools included primary, secondary and technical schools, along with orphanages, a community was founded in Limerick in 1816, followed by establishments in several of Irelands principal towns. The Holy See formally established the congregation in 1820 and this, too, was an unusual event, since the Christian Brothers were the first Irish congregation of men approved by a charter from Rome. Some brothers in Cork chose to remain under the original Presentation rule and continued to be known as Presentation Brothers, the congregation of Irish Christian Brothers spread to Liverpool and other parts of England. These new ventures were not always immediately successful, two brothers had been sent to Gibraltar to establish an institute in 1835. However, despite initial successes they left in August 1837 on account of disagreements with the local priests, in 1878 the Brothers returned to the then Crown colony of Gibraltar. The school eventually flourished supplying education to the twentieth century, the Line Wall College was noted in 1930 for the education that it supplied to well to do children
Congregation of Christian Brothers
–
Edmund Rice
Congregation of Christian Brothers
–
Congregation of Christian Brothers (aka Edmund Rice Christian Brothers)
Congregation of Christian Brothers
–
CBS Templemore, Co. Tipperary April 2010
17.
Irish Republican Brotherhood
–
The Irish Republican Brotherhood was a secret oath-bound fraternal organisation dedicated to the establishment of an independent democratic republic in Ireland between 1858 and 1924. Its counterpart in the United States of America was organised by John OMahony, the members of both wings of the movement are often referred to as Fenians. As part of the New Departure of the 1870s–80s, IRB members attempted to democratise the Home Rule League, and its successor, the Irish Parliamentary Party, as well as taking part in the Land War. The IRB staged the Easter Rising in 1916, which led to the establishment of the first Dáil Éireann in 1919, the rebellion was suppressed, but the principles of the United Irishmen were to have a powerful influence on the course of Irish history. Following the collapse of the rebellion, the British prime minister William Pitt introduced a bill to abolish the Irish parliament and manufactured a Union between Ireland and Britain. Opposition from the Protestant oligarchy that controlled the parliament was countered by the widespread and open use of bribery. The Act of Union was passed, the Catholics, who had been excluded from the Irish parliament, were promised emancipation under the Union. This promise was never kept, and caused a protracted and bitter struggle for civil liberties and it was not until 1829 that the British government reluctantly conceded Catholic emancipation. Though leading to general emancipation, this process simultaneously disenfranchised the small tenants, known as ‘forty shilling freeholders’ and this resulted in the Irish Catholic electorate going from 216,000 voters to 37,000. A massive reduction in the number of Catholics being able to vote, Daniel O’Connell, who had led the emancipation campaign, then attempted the same methods in his campaign, to have the Act of Union with Britain repealed. Despite the use of petitions and public meetings which attracted vast popular support, during the early 1840s, the younger members of the repeal movement became impatient with O’Connells over-cautious policies, and began to question his intentions. Later they were what came to be known as the Young Ireland movement, in 1842 three of the Young Ireland leaders, Thomas Davis, Charles Gavan Duffy and John Blake Dillon, launched the Nation newspaper. In the paper they set out to create a spirit of pride, following the collapse of the Repeal Association and with the arrival of famine, the Young Irelanders broke away completely from O’Connell in 1846. The blight that destroyed the potato harvest between 1845 and 1849 was a human tragedy. An entire social class of farmers and labourers were to be virtually wiped out by hunger, disease. The laissez –faire economic thinking of the government ensured that help was slow, between 1845 and 1851 the population fell by almost two million. That the people starved while livestock and grain continued to be exported, quite often under military escort, left a legacy of bitterness and resentment among the survivors. Shocked by the scenes of starvation and greatly influenced by the revolutions then sweeping Europe, the attempted rebellion failed after a small skirmish in Ballingary, Co Tipperary, coupled with a few minor incidents else where. The government quickly rounded up many of the instigators, those who could, fled across the seas, a last flicker of revolt in 1849, led by among others James Fintan Lalor, was equally unsuccessful
Irish Republican Brotherhood
–
Thomas Osborne Davis
Irish Republican Brotherhood
–
Irish Republican Brotherhood
Irish Republican Brotherhood
–
John Mitchel
Irish Republican Brotherhood
–
James Stephens (1824–1901)
18.
Eamonn Ceannt
–
Éamonn Ceannt, born Edward Thomas Kent, was an Irish republican, mostly known for his role in the Easter Rising of 1916. Ceannt was born in the village of Ballymoe, overlooking the River Suck in County Galway. His parents were James Kent and Joanne Galway and he was the sixth of seven children, the others being William, Michael, Richard, Nell, John and James. His father, James Kent was an RIC officer, stationed in Ballymoe, in 1883 he was promoted and transferred to Ardee, County Louth. When his father retired from the force, the moved to Dublin. They were a very religious Catholic family and it has said that Ceannts religious teaching as a child stayed with him for the rest of his life. Two events that evoked nationalism at the end of the 19th century were the 1798 commemoration, Éamonn became interested in these events. He took part in the commemoration, in 1899, Ceannt joined the central branch of the Gaelic League. It was here where he first met many of the men who would play a role in the rising, including, Patrick Pearse. He became increasingly involved in Nationalist movements and had a strong interest in the Irish language, the main purposes of the league were to educate people on the Irish culture, revive the Irish language along with Irish music, dancing, poetry, literature and history. Ceannt was a committed member to the league, he was an elected a member of the governing body. In February 1900 Ceannt, along with Edward Martyn founded Cumann na bPíobairí, Ceannts musical talents earned him a gold medal at the 1906 Oireachtas and in 1905 he even put on a performance for Pope Pius X. It is said that the language in the Pipers Club was Irish. It was through the Gaelic League where Ceannt first met his wife and she joined the League as she shared an interest in the Irish culture and heritage. They got married in June 1905 and their son, Ronan was born in June 1906. In 1907 Ceannt joined the Dublin central branch of Sinn Féin, in 1912 he was sworn to the Irish Republican Brotherhood by Sean MacDiarmada. This movement was pledged to achieve Irish independence and to do so by using force if necessary. While living in county Louth, Ceannt attended the De La Salle national school, after 5 years of schooling in Louth, the family moved to Drogheda, where he attended the Christian Brothers school, Sundays Gate
Eamonn Ceannt
–
Éamonn Ceannt
Eamonn Ceannt
–
Memorial stone in Éamonn Ceannt Park, Dublin.
19.
Penal servitude
–
Penal labour is a generic term for various kinds of unfree labour which prisoners are required to perform, typically manual labour. The work may be light or hard, depending on the context, forms of sentence involving penal labour have included involuntary servitude, penal servitude and imprisonment with hard labour. The term may refer to several related scenarios, labour as a form of punishment, the system used as a means to secure labour. These scenarios can be applied to those imprisoned for political, religious, war, large-scale implementations of penal labour include labour camps, prison farms, penal colonies, penal military units, penal transportation, or aboard prison ships. Punitive labour, also known as labour, prison labour. Punitive labour encompasses two types, productive labour, such as work, and intrinsically pointless tasks used as primitive occupational therapy. Sometimes authorities turn prison labour into an industry, as on a farm or in a prison workshop. On the other hand, for example in Victorian prisons, inmates commonly were made to work the treadmill, in some cases, similar punishments included turning the crank machine or carrying cannonballs. Semi-punitive labour also included oakum-picking, teasing apart old tarry rope to make caulking material for sailing vessels, section 1 of the Penal Servitude Act 1891 makes provision for enactments which authorise a sentence of penal servitude but do not specify a maximum duration. It must now be subject to section 1 of the Criminal Justice Act 1948. Sentences of penal servitude were served in prisons and were controlled by the Home Office. After sentencing, convicts would be classified according to the seriousness of the offence of which they were convicted, first time offenders would be classified in the Star class, persons not suitable for the Star class, but without serious convictions would be classified in the intermediate class. Habitual offenders would be classified in the Recidivist class, care was taken to ensure that convicts in one class did not mix with convicts in another. Penal servitude included hard labour as a standard feature, notable recipients of hard labour under British law include Oscar Wilde and John William Gott. In Inveraray Jail from 1839 prisoners worked up to ten hours a day, most male prisoners made herring nets or picked oakum, those with skills were often employed where the skills could be used, such as shoemaking, tailoring or joinery. Female prisoners picked oakum, knitted stockings or sewed, forms of labour for punishment included the treadmill, shot drill, and the crank machine. Prisoners had to six or more hours a day, climbing the equivalent of 5,000 to 14,000 vertical feet. While the purpose was mainly punitive, the mills could have used to grind grain, pump water
Penal servitude
–
Female convicts chained together by their necks for work on a road.
Dar es Salaam,
Tanganyika c.1890-1927.
Penal servitude
–
Convict labourers in
Australia in the early 20th century.
Penal servitude
–
Prisoners picking oakum at
Coldbath Fields Prison in London (ca. 1864).
Penal servitude
–
Inmates sewing in a
Brazilian prison.
20.
Wales
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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
Wales
–
Bryn Celli Ddu, a late Neolithic chambered tomb on Anglesey
Wales
–
Flag
Wales
–
This article is about the country. For other uses, see
Wales (disambiguation).
Wales
–
Coin of
Magnus Maximus
21.
Dunboyne
–
Dunboyne is a town in Meath, Ireland. Dunboyne is centred on the crossroads formed by the R156 regional road, dunboynes history stretches back to the Middle Ages. Dunboyne was home to men who fought for and against British rule in the Irish Rebellion of 1798. During the War of Independence the town was Division Headquarters to the IRA 1st Eastern Division, the Division consisted nine brigades, 1st Brigade, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, Delvin, 5th, 6th, Edenderry, 7th, 8th Fingal, and 9th. Dunboyne got its name from the Boyne river that runs through it, the tolka river also runs through Dunboyne. Dunboyne Castle, originally a castle was built as a seat for a branch of the Butler dynasty and it later passed to the Mangan family and was the seat of Simon Mangan, HM Lieutenant for County Meath in the 1890s and 1900s. A partial amount of the building had been dismantled, in 2006, the convent was sold and converted into a hotel. Archibald Hamilton father of William Rowan Hamilton was of the Hamilton family of Dunboyne and they were once large landowners in the town. William Rowans uncle the Rev. James Hamilton was the Vicar of Trim, Thomas Cusack, a Lord Chancellor of Ireland in the 1500s. John Butler, 12th Baron Dunboyne Thomas Blood, Colonel Thomas Blood was an Irish colonel best known for attempting to steal the Crown Jewels of England from the Tower of London in 1671 and he was raised in Sarney, Dunboyne. Dunboyne Athletic Club was founded in 1928 and is located on the Rooske Road, in 2013 the club had 790 registered members, making it the 4th largest club in Ireland. Current Irish international athletes who are members include Padraig White and James Mc Cabe, Michael O Hanlon, the club host an annual 4-mile road race on the last Sunday in March that attracts over 1000 participants. Programmes added in 2013 were Fit4Youth for teenagers and Couch25k, new events include a Winter Throws Competition on the first Saturday in March and a Schools Cross Country on the first Wednesday in December. The GUI National Golf Academy is located 5 km outside Dunboyne on the Maynooth Road and it has a driving range, putting green and short game area. It has golf lessons available from professionals, the golf society in Dunboyne would usually go to different golf courses around Meath for their outings. Dunboyne has a rich GAA tradition, the Dunboyne team won the Meath senior county football championship in 1998 and 2005. Dunboyne man Seán Boylan was the longest serving county manager in GAA history and he was awarded Freedom of Meath in 2006 for his contributions to the Meath GAA scene. In 2009 the under 14 team won the All Ireland club championship, since its foundation in 1996, the Dunboyne Ladies GFC remains the only stand alone Ladies Gaelic Football club in the County
Dunboyne
–
Looking east-southeast from the centre of the village
Dunboyne
–
Church of Saints Peter & Paul
22.
County Meath
–
County Meath is a county in Ireland. It is in the province of Leinster and is part of the Mid-East Region and it is named after the historic Kingdom of Meath. Meath County Council is the authority for the county. The population of the county is 194,942 according to the 2016 census, the county is drained by the River Boyne. Meath is the 14th largest of Ireland’s 32 counties in area and it is the second largest of Leinster’s 12 counties in size and third largest in terms of population. The county town is Navan, where the county hall and government are located, although Trim, County Meath also has the only two Gaeltacht areas in the province of Leinster, at Ráth Cairn and Baile Ghib. There are eighteen historic baronies in the county and they include the baronies of Morgallion and Ratoath. While baronies continue to be officially defined units, they are no longer used for administrative purposes. Their official status is illustrated by Placenames Orders made since 2003, There are 40 elected members in Meath County Council. Fine Gael hold 13 seats, Fianna Fáil hold 10, Sinn Féin hold 8, There are 2 Dáil constituencies, Meath West and Meath East. Before, there was only one constituency, the two current constituencies are within the borders of the county. The constituencies also include part of the county of Westmeath. Together they return 6 deputies to Dáil Éireann, part of the county along the Irish Sea coast, known as East Meath which includes Julianstown and Laytown-Bettystown-Mornington are part of the Louth constituency for general elections. Fianna Fáil currently hold no seats, Fine Gael have 2 in each constituency, Labour has 1 in the East constituency, the county is colloquially known by the nickname The Royal County due to its history as the seat of the High King of Ireland. It formed from the part of the former Kingdom of Mide. The seat of the High King of Ireland was at Tara, the archaeological complex of Brú na Bóinne is 5,000 years old and includes the burial sites of Newgrange, Knowth and Dowth, in the north-east of the county. It is a UNESCO designated World Heritage Site, the Hill of Tara, an ancient historical site. Castles at Trim, Slane, Dunsany, Killeen, religious ruins at Trim, Bective, Slane, Dunsany, Skryne
County Meath
–
Trim Castle,
Trim
County Meath
–
Dangan Castle
County Meath
–
Newgrange
23.
Irish general election, 1918
–
The Irish general election of 1918 was that part of the 1918 United Kingdom general election which took place in Ireland. In Ulster, however, the Unionist Party was the most successful party, the Irish War of Independence was conducted under this revolutionary government which sought international recognition, and set about the process of state-building. In 1918 the whole of Ireland was a part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the IPP strove for Home Rule, that is, limited self-government for Ireland within the United Kingdom, and had been supported by most Irish people, especially the Catholic majority. The Unionists were supported by the Conservative Party, whereas from 1885 the Liberal Party was committed to enacting some form of Home Rule, Unionists eventually formed their own representation, first the Irish Unionist Party then the Ulster Unionist Party. Home Rule appeared to have finally achieved with the passing of the Home Rule Act 1914. However the implementation of the Act was however temporarily postponed with the outbreak of World War I, as the war prolonged and with the failure to make any progress on the issue, the more radical Sinn Féin began to grow in strength. Sinn Féin was founded by Arthur Griffith in 1905, prior to 1916, Sinn Féin had been a fringe movement having a limited cooperative alliance with William OBriens All-for-Ireland League and enjoyed little electoral success. However, between the Easter Rising of that year and the 1918 general election, the popularity increased dramatically. In one case there were allegations of electoral fraud. Overall, however, the party would benefit from a number of factors in the 1918 elections, the Irish electorate in 1918, as with the entire electorate throughout the United Kingdom, had changed in two major ways since the preceding general election. Firstly, there was a generational change because of World War I. As a result, no election took place between 1910 and 1918, the longest such spell in modern British and Irish constitutional history, thus the 1918 election saw, in particular, All voters between the age of 21 and 29 were first time general election voters. A generation of voters, most of them IPP supporters, had died in that eight-year period. Emigration had been almost impossible during the war because of the sea lanes. As Ireland had not had conscription, Unionists and moderate Nationalists had predominantly made up the volunteers for the duration of the war. Consequently, there was a loss in the age range of young Unionists and moderate Nationalists. Secondly, the franchise had been extended by the Representation of the People Act 1918. This granted voting rights to women for the first time, and gave all men over 21, the Irish electorate increased from around 700,000 to about two million
Irish general election, 1918
–
105 of the 707 seats to the
House of Commons
Irish general election, 1918
–
Irish general election, 1918 (part of
United Kingdom general election, 1918)
Irish general election, 1918
Irish general election, 1918
24.
Parliament of the United Kingdom
–
It alone possesses legislative supremacy and thereby ultimate power over all other political bodies in the UK and its territories. Its head is the Sovereign of the United Kingdom and its seat is the Palace of Westminster in the City of Westminster, one of the boroughs of the British capital, the parliament is bicameral, consisting of an upper house and a lower house. The Sovereign forms the third component of the legislature, prior to the opening of the Supreme Court in October 2009, the House of Lords also performed a judicial role through the Law Lords. The House of Commons is an elected chamber with elections held at least every five years. The two Houses meet in separate chambers in the Palace of Westminster in London, most cabinet ministers are from the Commons, whilst junior ministers can be from either House. The Parliament of Great Britain was formed in 1707 following the ratification of the Treaty of Union by Acts of Union passed by the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. The UK parliament and its institutions have set the pattern for many throughout the world. However, John Bright – who coined the epithet – used it with reference to a rather than a parliament. In theory, the UKs supreme legislative power is vested in the Crown-in-Parliament. However, the Crown normally acts on the advice of the Prime Minister, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was created in 1801, by the merger of the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland under the Acts of Union. The principle of responsibility to the lower House did not develop until the 19th century—the House of Lords was superior to the House of Commons both in theory and in practice. Members of the House of Commons were elected in an electoral system. Thus, the borough of Old Sarum, with seven voters, many small constituencies, known as pocket or rotten boroughs, were controlled by members of the House of Lords, who could ensure the election of their relatives or supporters. During the reforms of the 19th century, beginning with the Reform Act 1832, No longer dependent on the Lords for their seats, MPs grew more assertive. The supremacy of the British House of Commons was established in the early 20th century, in 1909, the Commons passed the so-called Peoples Budget, which made numerous changes to the taxation system which were detrimental to wealthy landowners. The House of Lords, which consisted mostly of powerful landowners, on the basis of the Budgets popularity and the Lords consequent unpopularity, the Liberal Party narrowly won two general elections in 1910. Using the result as a mandate, the Liberal Prime Minister, Herbert Henry Asquith, introduced the Parliament Bill, in the face of such a threat, the House of Lords narrowly passed the bill. However, regardless of the Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949, the Government of Ireland Act 1920 created the parliaments of Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland and reduced the representation of both parts at Westminster
Parliament of the United Kingdom
Parliament of the United Kingdom
Parliament of the United Kingdom
–
Parliament at night, with the
London Eye visible at right
Parliament of the United Kingdom
–
Leading 17th century Parliamentarian
John Hampden is one of the
Five Members annually commemorated
25.
Cathal Brugha
–
Brugha was born in Dublin of mixed Roman Catholic and Protestant parentage. His father, Thomas, was a maker and antique dealer who had been disinherited by his family for marrying a Catholic. He was the tenth of fourteen children and was educated at the Jesuit Belvedere College but was forced to leave at the age of sixteen because of the failure of his fathers business. He went on to set up a church candle manufacturing firm with two brothers, Anthony and Vincent Lalor, and took on the role of travelling salesman, in 1899 Brugha joined the Gaelic League, and he subsequently changed his name from Charles Burgess to Cathal Brugha. He met his wife, Kathleen Kingston, at an Irish class in Birr, County Offaly. They had six children, five girls and one boy, Brugha became actively involved in the Irish Republican Brotherhood and in 1913 he became a lieutenant in the Irish Volunteers. He led a group of twenty Volunteers to receive the arms smuggled into Ireland in the Howth gun-running of 1914 and he was second-in-command at the South Dublin Union under Commandant Éamonn Ceannt in the Easter Rising of 1916. On the Thursday of Easter Week, being wounded, he was unable to leave when the retreat was ordered. Brugha, weak from loss of blood, continued to fire upon the enemy and was found by Eamonn Ceannt singing God Save Ireland with his still in his hands. He was initially not considered likely to survive and he recovered over the next year, but was left with a permanent limp. Brugha was elected speaker of Dáil Éireann at its first meeting on 21 January 1919, and he read out the Declaration of Independence in Irish, on the following day,22 January, he was appointed president of the ministry pro tempore. He retained this position until 1 April 1919, when de Valera took his place and he proposed a Republican constitution at the 1917 Sinn Féin convention which was unanimously accepted. In October 1917 he became Chief of Staff of the Irish Republican Army and he was elected as a Sinn Féin MP for the County Waterford constituency at the 1918 general election. In January 1919, Sinn Féin MPs refused to recognise the Parliament of the United Kingdom, due to the absence of Éamon de Valera and Arthur Griffith, Brugha presided over the first meeting of Dáil Éireann on 21 January 1919. Brugha opposed the oath of allegiance required for membership of the IRB and, in 1919, his proposition that all Volunteers should swear allegiance to the Irish Republic, Brugha also had the idea of moving the front line of the war to England but was opposed by Collins. On 7 January 1922, Brugha voted against the Anglo-Irish Treaty and it has been argued that, by turning the issue into a vote on Collins popularity, Brugha swung the majority against his own side. Frank OConnor, in his biography of Collins, states that two delegates who had intended to vote against the Treaty changed sides in sympathy with Collins and he left the Dáil and was replaced as Minister for Defence by Richard Mulcahy. When the IRA occupied the Four Courts, he and Oscar Traynor called on them to abandon their position
Cathal Brugha
–
Cathal Brugha
Cathal Brugha
–
Cathal Brugha commemorative plaque in O'Connell Street, Dublin. (Bullet marked stonework included as part of memorial)
Cathal Brugha
–
Cathal Brugha's grave
26.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
–
The British
HMS Sandwich fires into the French
flagship Bucentaure (completely dismasted) during
Trafalgar. The Bucentaure also fights
HMS Victory (behind her) and
HMS Temeraire (left side of the picture). In fact, HMS Sandwich never fought at Trafalgar, it's a mistake by
Auguste Mayer, the painter.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
–
Flag
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
–
Signing of the
Treaty of Ghent (1814), by A. Forestier c. 1915
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
–
The Duke of Wellington
27.
Irish local elections, 1920
–
The 1920 Irish local elections were held in January & June 1920 for the various county & district councils of Ireland. The next local elections in Ireland were held in Northern Ireland in 1924, because many seats won by Sinn Féin were uncontested, and the elections used the first past the post system, Sinn Féin in all contested seats gained slightly less than 50% of the vote. The government hoped that the new system would reveal less-than-monolithic support for Sinn Féin, the electoral method introduced by the 1919 Act is still used in elections in the Republic of Ireland and most elections in Northern Ireland today. The 1919 act mandated elections for all urban councils except Sligo Corporation, the subsequent mayoral elections on 30 January saw a Unionist elected for Belfast, a Nationalist in Londonderry, Labour in Wexford, and Sinn Féin in eight boroughs. The rural elections showed a greater level of support for Sinn Féin in its core support area. It took control of 338 out of 393 local government bodies, county councils, boards of guardians and it should be noted however that the county and rural district elections saw virtually no contests outside of Ulster. Sinn Féins success allowed them to control of virtually every county council. Sinn Féin success in the 12 June rural and county elections extended even to Ulster, with the party winning control of 36 of Ulsters 55 rural districts
Irish local elections, 1920
–
All 1806 councillors across Ireland
Irish local elections, 1920
Irish local elections, 1920
28.
Proportional representation
–
Proportional representation characterizes electoral systems by which divisions in an electorate are reflected proportionately in the elected body. If n% of the support an particular political party, then roughly n% of seats will be won by that party. The essence of such systems is that all votes contribute to the result, not just a plurality, or a bare majority, Proportional representation requires the use of multiple-member voting districts, it is not possible using single-member districts alone. In fact, the most proportional representation is achieved when just one super-district is used, the two most widely used families of PR voting systems are party list PR and single transferable vote. Mixed member proportional representation, also known as the Additional Member System, is a hybrid Mixed Electoral System that uses party list PR as its proportional component, with party list PR, political parties define candidate lists and voters vote for a list. The relative vote for each list determines how many candidates from each list are actually elected, lists can be closed or open, open lists allow voters to indicate individual candidate preferences and vote for independent candidates. Voting districts can be small or as large as a province or an entire nation, the single transferable vote uses small districts, with voters ranking individual candidates in order of preference. During the count, as candidates are elected or eliminated, surplus or discarded votes that would otherwise be wasted are transferred to other candidates according to the preferences, STV enables voters to vote across party lines and to elect independent candidates. Voters have two votes, one for their district and one for the party list, the party list vote determining the balance of the parties in the elected body. Biproportional apportionment, first used in Zurich in 2006, is a method for adjusting an elections result to achieve overall proportionality. Some form of representation is used for national lower house elections in 94 countries, party list PR. As with all systems, there are overlapping and contentious claims in terms of its advantages and disadvantages. But does it follow that the minority should have no representatives at all, is it necessary that the minority should not even be heard. Nothing but habit and old association can reconcile any reasonable being to the needless injustice, in a really equal democracy, every or any section would be represented, not disproportionately, but proportionately. A majority of the electors would always have a majority of the representatives, man for man, they would be as fully represented as the majority. Unless they are, there is not equal government, many academic political theorists agree with Mill, that in a representative democracy the representatives should represent all segments of society. The established parties in UK elections can win formal control of the parliament with as little as 35% of votes, in Canada, majority governments are regularly formed by parties with the support of under 40% of votes cast. Coupled with turnout levels in the electorate of less than 60%, in the 2005 general election, for example, the Labour Party under Tony Blair won a comfortable parliamentary majority with the votes of only 21. 6% of the total electorate
Proportional representation
–
Countries by type of PR system
29.
Anglo-Irish Treaty
–
It also provided Northern Ireland, which had been created by the Government of Ireland Act 1920, an option to opt out of the Irish Free State, which it exercised. The agreement was signed in London on 6 December 1921, by representatives of the British government and by representatives of the Irish Republic including Michael Collins, the Irish representatives had plenipotentiary status acting on behalf of the Irish Republic, though the British government declined to recognise that status. As required by its terms, the agreement was ratified by a meeting of the elected to sit in the House of Commons of Southern Ireland. In reality, Dáil Éireann first debated then ratified the treaty, though the treaty was narrowly ratified, the split led to the Irish Civil War, which was won by the pro-treaty side. Among the treatys main clauses were that, Crown forces would withdraw from most of Ireland, Ireland was to become a self-governing dominion of the British Empire, a status shared by Australia, Canada, Newfoundland, New Zealand and the Union of South Africa. As with the dominions, the King would be the Head of State of the Irish Free State. Members of the new free states parliament would be required to take an Oath of Allegiance to the Irish Free State. A secondary part of the oath was to be faithful to His Majesty King George V, His heirs and successors by law, Northern Ireland would have the option of withdrawing from the Irish Free State within one month of the Treaty coming into effect. If Northern Ireland chose to withdraw, a Boundary Commission would be constituted to draw the boundary between the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland. Britain, for its own security, would continue to control a number of ports, known as the Treaty Ports. The Irish Free State would assume responsibility for a part of the United Kingdoms debt. The treaty would have superior status in Irish law, i. e. in the event of a conflict between it and the new 1922 Constitution of the Irish Free State, the treaty would take precedence. The negotiators included, Providing Secretarial Assistance Robert Barton was the last surviving signatory and he died on 10 August 1975 at the age of 94. Notably, the Irish President Éamon de Valera did not attend, Robert Erskine Childers, the author of the Riddle of the Sands and former Clerk of the British House of Commons, served as one of the secretaries of the Irish delegation. Tom Jones was one of Lloyd Georges principal assistants, and described the negotiations in his book Whitehall Diary, Éamon de Valera sent the Irish plenipotentiaries to the 1921 negotiations in London with several draft treaties and secret instructions from his cabinet. In the meantime, de Valera had been elevated to President of the Republic on 26 August, primarily to be able to accredit plenipotentiaries for the negotiations and that was the basis of our proposals, and we cannot alter it. The status which you now claim in advance for your delegates is, in effect, I am prepared to meet your delegates as I met you in July, in the capacity of chosen spokesmen for your people, to discuss the association of Ireland with the British Commonwealth. On 7 October de Valera signed a letter of accreditation as President on behalf of the Government of the Republic of Ireland, but the letter was never requested by the British side
Anglo-Irish Treaty
–
Éamon de Valera, who, as President of the Irish Republic, opposed the Treaty
Anglo-Irish Treaty
–
Signature page
Anglo-Irish Treaty
–
Arthur Griffith, Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs and leader of the Irish delegation
Anglo-Irish Treaty
–
David Lloyd George, British Prime Minister and head of the British delegation
30.
Australia
–
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
Australia
–
Aboriginal rock art in the
Kimberley region of Western Australia
Australia
Australia
–
Portrait of Captain
James Cook, the first European to map the eastern coastline of Australia in 1770
Australia
–
Tasmania's
Port Arthur penal settlement is one of eleven UNESCO World Heritage-listed
Australian Convict Sites.
31.
British Empire
–
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
British Empire
–
A replica of The Matthew,
John Cabot 's ship used for his second voyage to the
New World.
British Empire
–
Flag
British Empire
–
African slaves working in 17th-century
Virginia, by an unknown artist, 1670.
British Empire
–
Fort St. George was founded at
Madras in 1639.
32.
Four Courts
–
The Four Courts is Irelands main courts building, located on Inns Quay in Dublin. The Four Courts are the location of the Supreme Court, the High Court, until 2010 the building also housed the Central Criminal Court. Work based on the design of Thomas Cooley for the Public Records Office of Ireland, after his death in 1784 renowned architect James Gandon was appointed to finish the building, which we recognise today as the Four Courts. It was built between 1786 and 1796, while the finishing touches to the arcades and wings were completed in 1802, the lands were previously used by the Kings Inns. The building originally housed the four courts of Chancery, Kings Bench, Exchequer and Common Pleas, a major revision in the court system in the late nineteenth century saw these courts merged into a new High Court of Ireland, but the building has retained its historic name. In 1961 the words of justice were dropped from the names of both courts when they were belatedly re-established consequent upon the enactment of the 1937 Constitution, the Four Courts and surrounding areas were held by Commandant Ned Dalys 1st Battalion during the Easter Rising in 1916. Some of the most intense fighting of Easter Week took place in the Church Street/North King Street/North Brunswick Street area, at the end of the week the Four Courts building itself became the headquarters of the 1st Battalion. On 14 April 1922 the courts complex was occupied by forces opposed to the Anglo-Irish Treaty, in the process of the bombardment the historic building was destroyed. The west wing of the building was obliterated in a huge explosion, nearly a thousand years of archives were destroyed by this. They suggest that the explosion was caused by the detonation of their ammunition store during the fighting. For a decade, the old system, then the new Free State courts system, were based in the old viceregal apartments in Dublin Castle. In 1932, a rebuilt and remodelled Four Courts was opened, two side wings were rebuilt further from the river to undo the problem caused by excessively narrow footpaths outside the building. However, that change, and the removal of chimney-stacks, has removed some of the architectural unity, in the early 1990s, the then Chief Justice suggested building a new purpose-built building to house the Supreme Court, leaving the other courts in situ. For the present, however, the Supreme Court remains in the Four Courts, prior to 2010 both civil and serious trials were heard in the Four Courts which was also the location for the Court of Criminal Appeal. With the opening of a new criminal courts complex in January 2010 – the Criminal Courts of Justice beside the Phoenix Park – all criminal trials were transferred there, the Four Courts remaining in use for civil matters. The Court of Criminal Appeal also moved to the new building, Courts of the Republic of Ireland Law of the Republic of Ireland Four Courts web tour Courts Service of Ireland The Bar Council The National Archives of Ireland
Four Courts
–
The Four Courts along the River Liffey quayside
Four Courts
–
Part of the original Gandon-designed interior decoration of the dome, lost in the 1922 destruction
Four Courts
–
The Four Courts on fire during the Civil War
Four Courts
–
The Four Courts at Inns Quay
33.
Munster
–
Munster is one of the provinces of Ireland situated in the south of Ireland. In early Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a king of over-kings Irish, following the Norman invasion of Ireland, the ancient kingdoms were shired into counties for administrative and judicial purposes. In later centuries, local government legislation has seen further sub-division of the historic counties, Munster has no official function for local government purposes. For the purposes of the ISO, the province is listed as one of the provincial sub-divisions of the State, geographically, Munster covers a total area of 24,675 km2 and has a population of 1,246,088 with the most populated city being Cork. Other significant urban centres in the province include Limerick and Waterford, in the early centuries AD, Munster was the domain of the Iverni peoples and the Clanna Dedad familial line, led by Cú Roí and to whom the king Conaire Mór also belonged. In the 5th century, Saint Patrick spent several years in the area and founded Christian churches, during the Early Middle Ages, most of the area was part of the Kingdom of Munster, ruled by the Eóganachta dynasty. Prior to this, the area was ruled by the Dáirine and Corcu Loígde overlords from the early 7th century onwards, later rulers from the Eóganachta who would dominate a greater part of Ireland were Cathal mac Finguine and Feidlimid mac Cremthanin. Notable regional kingdoms and lordships of Early Medieval Munster were Iarmuman, Osraige, Uí Liatháin, Uí Fidgenti, Éile, Múscraige, Ciarraige Luachra, Corcu Duibne, Corcu Baiscinn, around this period Ossory broke away from Munster. The 10th century saw the rise of the Dalcassian clan, who had earlier annexed Thomond and their leaders were the ancestors of the OBrien dynasty and spawned Brian Boru, perhaps the most noted High King of Ireland, and several of whose descendants were also High Kings. By 1118 Munster had fractured into the Kingdom of Thomond under the OBriens, the Kingdom of Desmond under the MacCarthy dynasty, the three crowns of the flag of Munster represent these three late kingdoms. The OBrien of Thomond and MacCarthy of Desmond surrendered and regranted sovereignty to the Tudors in 1543 and 1565, the impactful Desmond Rebellions, led by the FitzGeralds, soon followed. By the mid-19th century much of the area was hit hard in the Great Famine, the province was affected by events in the Irish War of Independence in the early 20th century, and there was a brief Munster Republic during the Irish Civil War. The Irish leaders Michael Collins and earlier Daniel OConnell came from families of the old Gaelic Munster gentry, noted for its traditions in Irish folk music, and with many ancient castles and monasteries in the province, Munster is a tourist destination. During the fifth century, St. Patrick spent seven years founding churches and ordaining priests in Munster, but a fifth century bishop named Ailbe is the patron saint of Munster. In Irish mythology, a number of goddesses are associated with the province including Anann, Áine, Grian, Clíodhna, Aimend, Mór Muman, Bébinn, Aibell. Each is historically associated with certain septs of the nobility, the druid-god of Munster is Mug Ruith. The province has long had trading and cultural links with continental Europe, the tribe of Corcu Loígde had a trading fleet active along the French Atlantic coast, as far south as Gascony, importing wine to Munster. The Eóganachta had ecclesiastical ties with Germany, which show in the architecture of their capital at the Rock of Cashel
Munster
–
The
Rock of Cashel, Co. Tipperary, historical seat of the
Kings of Munster
Munster
Munster
–
Patrick Street, Cork City
Munster
–
River Shannon and King John's Castle, Limerick City
34.
Irish Civil War
–
The civil war was waged between two opposing groups, Irish republicans and Irish nationalists, over the Anglo-Irish Treaty. The forces of the Provisional Government supported the Treaty, while the Republican opposition saw it as a betrayal of the Irish Republic, many of those who fought on both sides in the conflict had been members of the Irish Republican Army during the War of Independence. The Civil War was won by the Free State forces, which were armed with weapons provided by the British Government. The conflict may have claimed more lives than the War of Independence that preceded it, today, two of the main political parties in the Republic of Ireland, Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael, are direct descendants of the opposing sides of the war. The Anglo-Irish Treaty was agreed to end the 1919–1921 Irish War of Independence between the Irish Republic and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the treaty provided for a self-governing Irish state, having its own army and police. The Treaty also allowed Northern Ireland to opt out of the new state, the British suggested this dominion in secret correspondence even before treaty negotiations began, but Sinn Féin leader Éamon de Valera rejected the dominion. The treaty also stipulated that members of the new Irish Oireachtas would have to take the following Oath of Allegiance I and this oath was highly objectionable to many Irish Republicans. Furthermore, the partition of Ireland, which had already decided by the Westminster parliament in the Government of Ireland Act 1920, was effectively confirmed in the Anglo-Irish treaty. All these issues were the cause of a split in the IRA, however, anti-treaty militants in 1922 believed that the treaty would never deliver full Irish independence. The split over the treaty was deeply personal, many of the leaders on both sides had been close friends and comrades during the War of Independence. This made their disagreement over the treaty all the more bitter and he said that he felt deeply betrayed when de Valera refused to stand by the agreement that the plenipotentiaries had negotiated with David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill. De Valera, for his part, was furious that Collins, Dáil Éireann narrowly passed the Anglo-Irish Treaty by 64 votes to 57 on 7 January 1922. Following the Treatys ratification, in accordance with article 17 of the Treaty and its authority under the Treaty was to provide a provisional arrangement for the administration of Southern Ireland during the interval before the establishment of the Irish Free State. In accordance with the Treaty, the British Government transferred the powers, before the British Government transferred such powers, the members of the Provisional Government each signified in writing acceptance of. Upon the Treatys ratification, de Valera resigned as President of the Republic and he challenged the right of the Dáil to approve the treaty, saying that its members were breaking their oath to the Irish Republic. De Valera continued to promote a compromise whereby the new Irish Free State would be in association with the British Commonwealth rather than be a member of it. In early March, he formed the Cumann na Poblachta party while remaining a member of Sinn Féin and commenced a speaking tour of the more republican province of Munster on 17 March 1922. In a letter to the Irish Independent on 23 March, de Valera accepted the accuracy of their report of his comment about wading through blood, but deplored that the newspaper had published it
Irish Civil War
–
National Army soldiers armed with
Lewis machine guns aboard an impromptu-
gunboat during the Civil War.
Irish Civil War
–
National Army soldiers during the Civil War
Irish Civil War
–
The Four Courts along the
River Liffey quayside. The building was occupied by anti-treaty forces during the Civil War, whom the National Army subsequently bombarded into surrender. The Irish national archives in the buildings were destroyed in the subsequent fire. The building was badly damaged but was fully restored after the war.
Irish Civil War
–
National Army soldiers escorting an IRA prisoner of war
35.
General
–
A general officer is an officer of high rank in the army, and in some nations air forces or marines. The term general is used in two ways, as the title for all grades of general officer and as a specific rank. It originates in the 16th century, as a shortening of captain general, the adjective general had been affixed to officer designations since the late medieval period to indicate relative superiority or an extended jurisdiction. Today, the title of General is known in countries as a four-star rank. However different countries use different systems of stars for senior ranks and it has a NATO code of OF-9 and is the highest rank currently in use in a number of armies. The various grades of general officer are at the top of the rank structure. Lower-ranking officers in military forces are typically known as field officers or field-grade officers. There are two systems of general ranks used worldwide. In addition there is a system, the Arab system of ranks. Variations of one form, the old European system, were used throughout Europe. It is used in the United Kingdom, from which it spread to the Commonwealth. The other is derived from the French Revolution, where ranks are named according to the unit they command. The system used either a general or a colonel general rank. The rank of marshal was used by some countries as the highest rank. Many countries actually used two brigade command ranks, which is why some countries now use two stars as their brigade general insignia, mexico and Argentina still use two brigade command ranks. As a lieutenant outranks a sergeant major, confusion arises because a lieutenant is outranked by a major. Originally the serjeant major was, exclusively, the commander of the infantry, junior only to the captain general, the distinction of serjeant major general only applied after serjeant majors were introduced as a rank of field officer. Serjeant was eventually dropped from both titles, creating the modern rank titles
General
–
Shang Jiang (
Republic of China Army)
General
–
General de Exército (
Brazilian Army)
General
–
Kenraali (collar and sleeve) (
Finnish Army)
General
–
Heneral (
Philippine Army)
36.
Richard Mulcahy
–
Richard James Mulcahy was an Irish politician. He was a general and commander-in-chief for the Irish Republican Army. He later served as Leader of the Fine Gael Party and served in the cabinets of W. T. Cosgrave, richard Mulcahy was born in Manor Street, Waterford in 1886. He was educated at Mount Sion Christian Brothers School and later in Thurles, County Tipperary, one of his grandmothers was a Quaker who was disowned by her wealthy family for marrying a Catholic. Mulcahy joined the Royal Mail in 1902 and worked in Thurles, Bantry, Wexford and he was a member of the Gaelic League, and joined the Irish Volunteers at the time of their formation in 1913. He was also a member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood and he was second-in-command to Thomas Ashe in an encounter with the armed Royal Irish Constabulary at Ashbourne, County Meath during the Easter Rising in 1916. Arrested after the Rising, Mulcahy was interned at Knutsford and at the Frongoch internment camp in Wales until his release on 24 December 1916, on his release Mulcahy immediately rejoined the republican movement and became commandant of the Dublin Brigade of the Irish Volunteers. Elected to the First Dáil in the 1918 general election for Dublin Clontarf, he was named Minister for Defence in the new government, in March 1919 he became IRA chief of staff, a position he held until January 1922. He and Michael Collins were largely responsible for directing the campaign against the British during the War of Independence. During this period of upheaval in 1919 he married Mary Josephine Ryan, sister of Kate and Phyllis Ryan, Ryan and Sean T would both serve in Fianna Fáil governments. Mulcahy supported the Anglo-Irish Treaty of December 1921, the Provisional Government appointed Mulcahy Minister of Defence. During the subsequent Civil War after the death of Collins in 1922 and he earned notoriety through his order that anti-Treaty activists captured carrying arms were liable for execution. A total of 77 anti-Treaty prisoners were executed by the Provisional Government and he re-entered the cabinet as Minister for Local Government and Public Health in 1927. During his period on the backbenches of Dáil Éireann his electoral record fluctuated and he was elected as TD for Dublin North-West in the 1921 and 1922 general elections. The following year, in the 1923 election he moved to the Dublin North constituency, Mulcahy was defeated in the 1937 general election, but secured election to the Seanad Éireann, the upper house of the parliament, on the Administrative Panel. The 2nd Seanad sat for less than two months, and he was elected to the 10th Dáil for Dublin North-East in the 1938 election, defeated again in the election of 1943, he secured election to the 4th Seanad, on the Labour Panel. After the resignation of W. T. Cosgrave in 1944, Thomas F. OHiggins was parliamentary leader of the party in the Dáil at the time. Mulcahy was returned again to the 12th Dáil as TD for Tipperary at the 1944 general election, Mulcahy was faced with the task of reviving a party that had been out of office since 1932
Richard Mulcahy
–
Richard Mulcahy
Richard Mulcahy
–
Commemorative relief of General Richard Mulcahy at
Collins Barracks, Dublin.
Richard Mulcahy
–
Mulcahy and his wife Min in 1922
37.
Death penalty
–
Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is a government sanctioned practice whereby a person is put to death by the state as a punishment for a crime. The sentence that someone be punished in such a manner is referred to as a death sentence, etymologically, the term capital in this context alluded to execution by beheading. Fifty-six countries retain capital punishment,103 countries have abolished it de jure for all crimes, six have abolished it for ordinary crimes. Capital punishment is a matter of controversy in various countries and states. In the European Union, Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union prohibits the use of capital punishment, also, the Council of Europe, which has 47 member states, prohibits the use of the death penalty by its members. The United Nations General Assembly has adopted, in 2007,2008,2010,2012 and 2014, non-binding resolutions calling for a moratorium on executions. Although most nations have abolished capital punishment, over 60% of the population live in countries where executions take place, such as China, India. Execution of criminals and political opponents has been used by nearly all societies—both to punish crime, in most countries that practise capital punishment it is reserved for murder, terrorism, war crimes, espionage, treason, defection or as part of military justice. In many countries use the death penalty, drug trafficking is also a capital offence. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are punished by the death penalty, in militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offences such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. The use of formal execution extends to the beginning of recorded history, most historical records and various primitive tribal practices indicate that the death penalty was a part of their justice system. Communal punishment for wrongdoing generally included compensation by the wrongdoer, corporal punishment, shunning, banishment, usually, compensation and shunning were enough as a form of justice. The response to crime committed by neighbouring tribes or communities included a formal apology, a blood feud or vendetta occurs when arbitration between families or tribes fails or an arbitration system is non-existent. This form of justice was common before the emergence of a system based on state or organized religion. It may result from crime, land disputes or a code of honour, acts of retaliation underscore the ability of the social collective to defend itself and demonstrate to enemies that injury to property, rights, or the person will not go unpunished. However, in practice, it is difficult to distinguish between a war of vendetta and one of conquest. Elaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds included peace settlements often done in a religious context, compensation was based on the principle of substitution which might include material compensation, exchange of brides or grooms, or payment of the blood debt. Settlement rules could allow for animal blood to replace human blood, the person offered for execution did not have to be an original perpetrator of the crime because the system was based on tribes, not individuals
Death penalty
–
Anarchist
Auguste Vaillant guillotined in France in 1894
Death penalty
–
Hanged, drawn and quartered: the execution of
Hugh Despenser the Younger, as depicted in the
Froissart of Louis of Gruuthuse
Death penalty
–
The Christian Martyrs' Last Prayer, by
Jean-Léon Gérôme (1883).
Roman Colosseum.
Death penalty
–
Giovanni Battista Bugatti, executioner of the
Papal States between 1796 and 1865,
carried out 516 executions (Bugatti pictured offering
snuff to a condemned prisoner).
Vatican City abolished
its capital punishment statute in 1969.
38.
Irish Republican
–
Irish republicanism is an ideology based on the belief that all of Ireland should be an independent republic. This followed hundreds of years of British conquest and Irish resistance through rebellion and it launched the 1798 Rebellion with the help of French troops. The rebellion had some success, especially in County Wexford, before it was suppressed, a second rising in 1803, led by Robert Emmet, was quickly put down, and Emmet was hanged. The Young Ireland movement, formed in the 1830s, was initially a part of the Repeal Association of Daniel OConnell, primarily a political and cultural organisation, some members of Young Ireland staged an abortive rising, the Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848. Its leaders were transported to Van Diemens Land, some of these escaped to the United States, where they linked up with other Irish exiles to form the Fenian Brotherhood. They staged another rising, the Fenian Rising, in 1867, in the early 20th century IRB members, in particular Tom Clarke and Seán MacDermott, began planning another rising. The execution of the Risings leaders, including Clarke, MacDermott, Patrick Pearse and James Connolly, the elected members did not take their seats but instead set up the First Dáil. Between 1919 and 1921 the Irish Republican Army, who were loyal to the Dáil, fought the British Army and Royal Irish Constabulary in the Irish War of Independence. Talks between the British and Irish in late 1921 led to a treaty by which the British conceded, not a 32-county Irish Republic and this led to the Irish Civil War, in which the republicans were defeated by their former comrades. That same year, the movement took the decision to focus on Northern Ireland thereafter. The Border Campaign, which lasted from 1956 to 1962, involved bombings, the failure of this campaign led the republican leadership to concentrate on political action, and to move to the left. Following the outbreak of The Troubles in 1968-9, the movement split between Officials and Provisionals at the beginning of 1970. The Provisional IRA, except during brief ceasefires in 1972 and 1975, kept up a campaign of violence for nearly thirty years, directed against security forces and civilian targets. This began to change with a speech by Danny Morrison in 1981, advocating what became known as the Armalite. Under the leadership of Gerry Adams, Sinn Féin began to focus on the search for a political settlement. When the party voted in 1986 to take seats in legislative bodies within Ireland, there was a walk-out of die-hard republicans, who set up Republican Sinn Féin and the Continuity IRA. Following the Hume–Adams dialogue, Sinn Féin took part in the Northern Ireland peace process led to the IRA ceasefires of 1994 and 1997. However, another split occurred, with anti-Agreement republicans setting up the 32 County Sovereignty Movement, today, Irish republicanism is divided between those who support the institutions set up under the Good Friday Agreement and the later St Andrews Agreement, and those who oppose them
Irish Republican
–
The
Battle of Killala marked the end of
the rising
Irish Republican
–
Wolfe Tone circa 1794. Tone is considered by many as the father of Irish Republicanism
Irish Republican
–
Michael Dwyer
Irish Republican
–
Depiction of
Robert Emmet 's trial
39.
Robert Erskine Childers
–
He was executed by the authorities of the nascent Irish Free State during the Irish Civil War. He was the son of British Orientalist scholar Robert Caesar Childers, the cousin of Hugh Childers and Robert Barton, when Erskine was six his father died from tuberculosis and, although seemingly healthy, Anna was confined to an isolation hospital, where she died six years later. The five children were sent to the Bartons, the family of their fathers uncle, at Glendalough and they were treated kindly there and Erskine grew up knowing and loving Ireland, albeit at that stage from the comfortable viewpoint of the Protestant Ascendancy. At the recommendation of his grandfather, Canon Charles Childers, he was sent to Haileybury College, there he won an exhibition to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied the classical tripos and then law. He distinguished himself as the editor of Cambridge Review, the university magazine, notwithstanding his unattractive voice and poor debating skills, he became president of the Trinity College Debating Society. Although Erskine was an admirer of his cousin Hugh Childers, a member of the British Cabinet working for Irish home rule, at this stage he spoke vehemently against the policy in college debates. With many sporting ventures now closed to him because of his injury, Childers was encouraged by Walter Runciman. After picking up the fundamentals of seamanship as a deckhand on Runcimans yacht, in 1893 he bought his own scrubby little yacht Shulah and he sold the Shulah in 1895 to a Plymouth man following a trip around the Lizard in a heavyish sea. In 1894 while he was living in Glendalough, he bought a Dublin Bay Water Wag and he sailed this boat on Lough Dan, close to Glendalough, and he and his brother Henry used to take friends for a sail in the Water Wag. These were the adventures he was to fictionalise in 1903 as The Riddle of the Sands, his most famous book and a huge bestseller. In 1903 Childers, now accompanied by his new wife Molly, was cruising in the Frisian Islands, in Sunbeam. Mollys father, Dr Hamilton Osgood, arranged for a fine 28-ton yacht, Asgard, to be built for the couple as a wedding gift and Sunbeam was only a temporary measure while Asgard was being fitted out. (The Asgard was acquired by the Irish government as a training vessel in 1961, stored on dry land in the yard of Kilmainham Gaol in 1979. As with most men of his background and education, Childers was originally a steadfast believer in the British Empire. He was an artilleryman classed as a driver, caring for a pair of horses. The unit set off for South Africa on 2 February 1900, most of the new volunteers, after the three-week voyage it was something of a disappointment that the HAC detachment was, initially, not used. On 26 June, while escorting a train of slow ox-wagons, Childers first came under fire. However it was a smartly executed defence of an infantry regiment on 3 July that established their worth
Robert Erskine Childers
–
Childers in uniform of the City Imperial Volunteers (C.I.V), 1899
Robert Erskine Childers
–
Robert and Molly aboard Asgard on a Baltic cruise, 1910
Robert Erskine Childers
–
Driver Childers, Honourable Artillery Company
Robert Erskine Childers
–
Mary "Molly" Alden Childers
40.
Liam Mellowes
–
Liam Mellows was an Irish republican and Sinn Féin politician. Born in England, to a British Army father, Mellows grew up in Ashton-Under-Lyne, Dublin, Cork and he was active with the Irish Republican Brotherhood and Irish Volunteers, and participated in the Easter Rising in County Galway, and the War of Independence. Elected as a TD to the First Dáil, he rejected the Anglo-Irish Treaty and was captured by pro-Treaty forces during the Irish Civil War, Mellows was executed by Free State forces in 1922. Mellows was born at Hartshead Military Barracks, Ashton-Under-Lyne, Lancashire, England, to William Joseph Mellows, a British Army non-commissioned officer, a nationalist from an early age. He purchased a bicycle when resident at 21 Mont Shannon Road, then in 1911 he purchased a copy of Irish Freedom, which began We stand for Ireland. Mellows approached Thomas Clarke in his shop, who recruited him into Fianna Éireann and he also met Secretary Patrick ORyan, Con Colbert, Eamon Martin, who would be a lifetime friend. At the next meeting, Mellows brothers all signed up, on 7 April 1911 he was sworn to secrecy by the Irish Republican Brotherhood. Mellows was proposed for the post of Organiser and travelling instructor and he founded the Sluagh at Dolphins Barn, Co Wexford, which was a success. He established more Sluagdste at Ferns and Enniscorthy in Easter 1912, Mellows cycled everywhere, which was cheap and convenient, he was promoted Captain by Ard Choisde. In June 1913, Mellows stayed at Waterford IRB Centre with Liam Walsh in the Gaelic League Room, Mellows was organising sports in Tuam, September 1913, when he was introduced to socialist James Connolly at Countess Markieviczs residence, where Connolly was recuperating after his hunger strike. Connolly was deeply impressed and told his daughter Nora I have found a real man, Mellows was called back to Dublin on 25 November 1913. He was active in the IRB and was a member of the Irish Volunteers. He was given a job on 30 s. p/wk. He joined forces with Eamon Ceannt and Sir Horace Plunkett at the Provisional Committee choosing to support the parliamentary route taken by Roger Casement, but as an employee he was compelled to agree with Redmondite candidates, although he had voted against the Nationalists pro-British policy. He was arrested and jailed on several occasions under the Defence of the Realm Act, on 1 August his company were taking an arms shipment from Howth to Dublin, when they fired on RIC at Clontarf. That evening De Valera took him by car to Kilcoole, guns were loaded on a charabanc in Bray at night and then distributed in Dublin from a fleet of taxis. He was sent to Galway, and made his base at Athenry, there he met Sean MacDiarmada and was appointed as election scrutineer at Tuam. On Sunday 18 May 1915, they were at an anti-enlistment rally, MacDiarmada was searched, they found a note book of IRB lists on his person
Liam Mellowes
–
Liam Mellows
41.
Irish War of Independence
–
The Irish War of Independence or Anglo-Irish War or the Tan War was a guerrilla war fought from 1919 to 1921 between the Irish Republican Army and the British security forces in Ireland. It was an escalation of the Irish revolutionary period into armed conflict, in the December 1918 election, the Irish republican party Sinn Féin won a landslide victory in Ireland. On 21 January 1919 they formed a government and declared independence from Britain. Later that day, two members of the British-organized armed police force, the Royal Irish Constabulary, were dead in County Tipperary by IRA members acting on their own initiative. This is often seen as the beginning of the conflict, for much of 1919, IRA activity primarily involved capturing weapons and freeing republican prisoners. In September that year the British government outlawed the Dáil and Sinn Féin, the IRA began ambushing RIC and British Army patrols, attacking their barracks and forcing isolated barracks to be abandoned. The British government bolstered the RIC with recruits from Britain—the Black and Tans and Auxiliaries—who became notorious for ill-discipline, the conflict as a result is often referred to as the Black and Tan War or simply the Tan War. While around 300 people had killed in the conflict up to late 1920. A week later, seventeen Auxiliaries were killed by the IRA in an ambush at Kilmichael in County Cork, the British government declared martial law in much of southern Ireland. The centre of Cork City was burnt out by British forces in December 1920, violence continued to escalate over the next seven months, when 1,000 people were killed and 4,500 republicans were interned. The fighting was concentrated in Munster, Dublin and Belfast. These three locations saw over 75% of the conflicts fatalities, violence in Ulster, especially Belfast, was notable for its sectarian character and its high number of Catholic civilian victims. Both sides agreed to a truce on 11 July 1921, the post-ceasefire talks led to the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty on 6 December 1921. However, six counties remained within the United Kingdom. After the ceasefire, political and sectarian violence between republicans and loyalists continued in Northern Ireland for many months, in June 1922, disagreement among republicans over the Anglo-Irish Treaty led to an eleven-month civil war. The Irish Free State awarded 62,868 medals for service during the War of Independence, since the 1880s, Irish nationalists in the Irish Parliamentary Party had been demanding Home Rule, or self-government, from Britain. Fringe organisations, such as Arthur Griffiths Sinn Féin instead argued for some form of Irish independence, in turn, nationalists formed their own paramilitary organisation, the Irish Volunteers. But a significant minority of the Irish Volunteers opposed Irelands involvement in the war, the Volunteer movement split, a majority leaving to form the National Volunteers under Redmond
Irish War of Independence
–
The Birth of the Irish Republic; painting by Walter Paget
Irish War of Independence
–
Volunteers of the IRA
3rd Tipperary Brigade during the war
Irish War of Independence
–
Police wanted poster for
Dan Breen, one of those involved in the
Soloheadbeg Ambush in 1919.
Irish War of Independence
–
Wall plaque in Great Denmark Street, Dublin where the Dublin IRA Active Service Unit was founded.
42.
Executions during the Irish Civil War
–
The executions during the Irish Civil War took place during the guerrilla phase of the Irish Civil War. From November 1922, the Free State government embarked on a policy of executing Republican prisoners in order to bring the war to an end. Many of those killed had previously been allies, and in some close friends. In addition, government troops summarily executed prisoners in the field on several occasions, the executions of prisoners left a lasting legacy of bitterness in Irish politics. The use of execution by the Irish Free State in the Civil War was relatively harsh compared to the recent British record, in contrast with 77 official executions by the Irish Free State government, the British executed only 24 IRA volunteers during the 1919–21 conflict. We want to any possible unnecessary destruction and loss of life. T. OHiggins in particular voiced the opinion that the use of law was the only way to bring the war to an end. Another factor contributing to the policy was the escalating level of violence. In the first two months of the Civil War, Free State forces had taken all the territory held by Republicans. The town of Kenmare, for example, was re-taken by Anti-Treaty fighters on 9 September and this had the effect of instituting martial law for the duration of the conflict. The legislation, commonly referred to as the Public Safety Bill, empowered military tribunals with the ability to impose life imprisonment, as well as the death penalty, for a variety of offences. On 3 October, the Free State had offered an amnesty to any Anti-Treaty fighters who surrendered their arms, provided that no such sentence of death be executed except under the countersignature of two members of the Army Council. Two Public Safety Acts were also passed in 1923, soon after the passage of the resolution, several other pressures were brought to bear on Republican fighters. In effect this meant that the Anti-Treatyite fighters would be excommunicated, in a population that was 90% Catholic and considered very observant, this was an extremely powerful social pressure applied at an opportune time for the Provisional Government. The Anti-Treaty side were to be called Irregulars and were not to be referred to as Republicans, IRA, forces, or troops, on 17 November, four Anti-Treaty IRA fighters were shot in Dublin. They were followed by three more on 19 November, the next to be executed was Erskine Childers, who had been secretary to the Anglo-Irish Treaty negotiations. He had been captured on 10 November in possession of a Spanish-made. 32-calibre pocket pistol which Collins had given to him, Childers and eight others appealed to the civilian judiciary. The Master of the Rolls considered whether a state of war existed and he considered the existence of a Provisional Government in Ireland and its authority to act as proposed and execute the nine
Executions during the Irish Civil War
–
Memorial to the republican insurgents executed by Free State forces at
Ballyseedy, County Kerry, designed by
Yann Goulet
Executions during the Irish Civil War
–
Memorial to the Irish Republican soldiers executed by Free State forces at Ballyseedy, County Kerry.
43.
County Carlow
–
County Carlow is a county in Ireland. It is part of the South-East Region and is located in the province of Leinster. It is named after the town of Carlow, which lies on the River Barrow, Carlow County Council is the local authority for the county. The population of the county is 54,612 according to the 2011 census, Carlow, or Ceatharlach originally part of the Norman Palantine-county of Leinster, became a separate county probably around 1306. At that time it was larger than today, extending to and including the area around Arklow. These areas were given over to County Wicklow in 1606-07 There are seven historic baronies in the county, Carlow, Forth, Idrone East, Idrone West, Rathvilly, St Mullins Lower and St Mullins Upper. Local government in County Carlow is governed by the Local Government Acts, the top tier of the structure consists of Carlow County Council. The second tier of government consists of town councils. Outside the borough, the county council is responsible for local services. Two towns in the county have town councils, Carlow and Muine Bheag, There are 21 councillors in the county council who are returned from five local electoral areas, Borris, Carlow East, Carlow West, Muine Bheag and Tullow. As the county is part of the South-East Region, some county councillors are also representatives on the South-East Regional Authority, for elections to Dáil Éireann, Carlow is part of the Carlow–Kilkenny constituency which returns 5 TDs. The present form of the constituency was created for the 1948 general election, F. C. Carlow are the local soccer team who compete in the A Championship Carlow GAA are the countys Gaelic Athletic Association body which fields both hurling and football teams. Pierce Butler - soldier, planter, and statesman, recognized as one of United States Founding Fathers and he represented South Carolina in the Continental Congress and the United States Senate. Myles Keogh - American Civil War military officer and later Captain of Company I, U. S. 7th Cavalry Regiment - Fought in Indian Wars and was killed at the Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876 and he was born in Orchard, Leighlinbridge in 1840. William Dargan - engineer, often seen as the father of Irish railways, richie Kavanagh - comic songwriter, from Raheenwood, Fenagh, Co. John Tyndall - the 19th century scientist who was the first to explain why the sky is blue, derek Ryan - Country music singer & former member of Pop band D-side Saoirse Ronan - Oscar and Golden Globe nominated actress. Samuel Haughton - polymath, in 1866 published a formula for calculating the drop needed to cause death at hangings. Peter Murphy - radio and television broadcaster, presented RTÉs Cross Country Quiz, was born in Carlow Sean OBrien Leinster, frank OMeara, Carlow-born Irish artist known for his Impressionist, plein air landscape painting
County Carlow
–
Windmill Hill, Enniscorthy, Blackstairs Mountains on the horizon.
County Carlow
–
The
River Barrow in Carlow
44.
National Army (Ireland)
–
The National Army, sometimes unofficially referred to as the Free State army or the Regulars, was the army of the Irish Free State from January 1922 until October 1924. Its role in this period was defined by its service in the Irish Civil War, Michael Collins, was the armys first chief of staff from its establishment until his death in August 1922. The army made its first public appearance on 31 January 1922 and its first troops were those volunteers of the Irish Republican Army who supported the Anglo-Irish Treaty and the Provisional Government of Ireland formed thereunder. Conflict arose between the National Army and the anti-Treaty components of the IRA, which did not support the government of the Irish Free State. On 28 June 1922 the National Army commenced a bombardment of anti-Treaty IRA forces who were occupying the Four Courts in Dublin. The National Army was greatly expanded in size to fight the war against the anti-Treaty IRA. On 31 January 1922 the first unit of the new National Army, a former IRA unit of the Dublin Guard, took possession of Beggars Bush Barracks, in February 1922, the new Provisional Government began to recruit volunteers into the National Army. R. E. Murphy, and Henry Kelly brought considerable combat experience, in March 1922 there was a major stand-off between up to 700 National Army and anti-treaty IRA in Limerick over who would occupy the military barracks being vacated by departing British troops. The situation was resolved in April when the two sides agreed to occupy two barracks each. In April 1922 Brigadier-General George Adamson – one of the founders of the National Army – was shot dead by the IRA in Athlone. In early May 1922 there was a more serious clash in Kilkenny. 18 people were killed in the fighting in Kilkenny, in a bid to avoid an all-out civil war, both sides agreed to a truce on 3 May 1922. On 14 April 1922,200 Anti-Treaty IRA soldiers led by Rory OConnor occupied the Four Courts and several buildings in central Dublin. On 27 June 1922, the Four Courts IRA garrison kidnapped JJ Ginger OConnell, the Provisional Government appointed Michael Collins as Commander-in-Chief of the National Army. This was the point of no return and is regarded as the beginning of the Irish Civil War, the IRA contingent in the Four Courts, who had only small arms, surrendered after two days of shelling and the buildings were stormed by National Army troops. Fighting continued in Dublin until 5 July 1922, as IRA units from the Dublin Brigade led by Oscar Traynor occupied OConnell Street and this fighting cost both sides, with 65 killed and 280 wounded in all. The British supplied artillery, aircraft, armoured cars, machine guns, small arms, Michael Collins, Richard Mulcahy and Eoin ODuffy planned a nationwide offensive, sending columns overland to take Limerick and Waterford and seaborne forces to Counties Cork, Kerry and Mayo. The only true conventional battle during the offensive was the Battle of Killmallock, Collins was killed in an ambush by IRA forces at Béal na Bláth in County Cork on 22 August 1922, General Richard Mulcahy then took command
National Army (Ireland)
–
National Army soldiers aboard a ship during the Civil War
National Army (Ireland)
–
National Army Cap Badge
45.
Boundary Commission (Ireland)
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The Irish Boundary Commission was a commission which met in 1924–25 to decide on the precise delineation of the border between the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland. The governments of the United Kingdom, of the Irish Free State, when the Northern government refused to cooperate, the British government assigned a Belfast newspaper editor to represent Northern Irish interests. The provisional border in 1922 was that which the Government of Ireland Act 1920 made between Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland, most Irish nationalists hoped for a considerable transfer of land to the Free State, on the basis that most border areas had nationalist majorities. However, the Commission recommended relatively small transfers, and in both directions and this was leaked to The Morning Post in 1925, causing protests from both unionists and nationalists. This was then ratified by their three parliaments, the commissions report was not published until 1969. Sinn Féin refused to recognise any legitimate role of that Parliament in Irish affairs and declined to attend it, james Craigs brother told the British House of Commons unambiguously that the six northeastern counties were the largest possible area that unionists could hold. Article 12 of the Anglo-Irish Treaty included dealing with the establishment of a Boundary Commission. It has been said that. the manner in which the Boundary Commission clause was drafted in the document was only explicit in its ambiguity. Article 12 describes the Commission in the following terms, in March 1922 the three governments signed the Craig–Collins Agreement, an attempt to end the conflict in Northern Ireland. Despite Article 12 of the Treaty, this agreement envisaged a two-party conference between the Northern Ireland government and the Provisional Government of Southern Ireland to establish, a, whether means can be devised to secure the unity of Ireland and b. Failing this, whether agreement can be arrived at on the boundary question otherwise than by recourse to the Boundary Commission outlined in Article 12 of the Treaty, however, this agreement quickly broke down for reasons other than the boundary question. Due to the delay caused by the Irish Civil War, the Commission was appointed in 1924, the Northern Ireland government, which adopted a policy of refusing to cooperate with the Commission since it did not wish to lose any territory, refused to appoint a representative. To resolve this the first Labour Government in the United Kingdom, on 7 November 1925 an English Conservative newspaper, The Morning Post, published leaked notes of the negotiations, including a draft map. The overall effects of the Boundary Commissions recommendations would have been the transfer of 286 square miles to the Free State and 77 square miles to Northern Ireland, the leaked report included, accurately, the Boundary Commission recommendation that parts of east Donegal would be transferred to Northern Ireland. Only 1 in every 25 Northern Irish Catholics would have placed under Free State rule. The Boundary Commissions recommendations would have shortened the border by 51 miles, the Boundary Commissions recommendations, as reported in the The Morning Post were seen as an embarrassment in Dublin. There they were perceived as being contrary to the purpose of the Commission. MacNeill withdrew from the Commission on 20 November and resigned his cabinet post on 24 November, despite withdrawing, MacNeill then voted in favour of the settlement on 10 December
Boundary Commission (Ireland)
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A map showing the
border between the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland, as fixed in 1921 and confirmed in 1925, which remains unaltered to the present day.
46.
Partition of Ireland
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The partition of Ireland was the division of the island of Ireland into two distinct jurisdictions, Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland. It took place on 3 May 1921 under the Government of Ireland Act 1920, today the former is still known as Northern Ireland and forms part of the United Kingdom while the latter is now a sovereign state also named Ireland, formally known as the Republic of Ireland. The Act of 1920 was intended to create two self-governing territories within Ireland, with both remaining within the United Kingdom and it also contained provisions for co-operation between the two territories and for the eventual reunification of Ireland. Since partition, a key aspiration of Irish nationalists has been to bring about a reunited Ireland and this goal conflicts with that of the unionists in Northern Ireland, who want the region to remain part of the United Kingdom. The British and Irish government agreed, under the 1998 Belfast Agreement, in its white paper on Brexit the United Kingdom government reiterated its commitment to the Belfast Agreement. The unionist MP Horace Plunkett, who would later support home rule, exclusion was first considered by the British cabinet in 1912, in the context of Ulster unionist opposition to the Third Home Rule Bill, which was then in preparation. The Curragh incident on 20 March 1914 had already led Westminster to believe that the British Army could not be trusted to carry out their orders in Ireland, the Home Rule Crisis was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I. Westminster passed the Home Rule Bill on 18 September 1914 and it immediately received Royal Assent, at the time it was widely believed that the conflict would only last for a few months. Concurrent with the Conscription Crisis of 1918, support for Irish republicanism had risen in Ireland due to the length of the war, Irish republicans were further emboldened by successful revolutions in the Russian, German and Austro-Hungarian Empires. Meanwhile, Irish unionists – most of whom lived in the northeast of the island – were just as determined to maintain the Union and it was intended that each jurisdiction would be granted home rule but remain within the United Kingdom. The government of Southern Ireland never functioned, the war for independence continued until the two agreed a truce in July 1921, ending with the Anglo-Irish Treaty on 6 December 1921. The new state had the status of a dominion of the British Empire, on 7 December 1922 the houses of the Parliament of Northern Ireland approved an address to George V, requesting that its territory not be included in the Irish Free State. This was presented to the king the day on 8 December 1922. Following independence, the state gradually severed all remaining constitutional links with the United Kingdom. In 1937 the Free State was renamed Ireland in its new constitution, in 1949 the state was declared to be a republic, under the Republic of Ireland Act. The Government of Ireland Act 1920, which came into effect on 3 May 1921, provided for separate self-governing parliaments for Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland, the Irish War of Independence led to the Anglo-Irish Treaty. The treaty was given effect in the United Kingdom through the Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922. Under the former Act, at 1pm on 6 December 1922, the treaty, and the laws which implemented it, allowed Northern Ireland to opt out of the Irish Free State
Partition of Ireland
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Political map of Ireland
47.
Northern Ireland
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Northern Ireland is a constituent unit of the United Kingdom in the north-east of Ireland. It is variously described as a country, province, region, or part of the United Kingdom, Northern Ireland shares a border to the south and west with the Republic of Ireland. In 2011, its population was 1,810,863, constituting about 30% of the total population. Northern Ireland was created in 1921, when Ireland was partitioned between Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland by an act of the British parliament, Northern Ireland has historically been the most industrialised region of Ireland. After declining as a result of the political and social turmoil of the Troubles, its economy has grown significantly since the late 1990s. Unemployment in Northern Ireland peaked at 17. 2% in 1986, dropping to 6. 1% for June–August 2014,58. 2% of those unemployed had been unemployed for over a year. Prominent artists and sports persons from Northern Ireland include Van Morrison, Rory McIlroy, Joey Dunlop, Wayne McCullough, some people from Northern Ireland prefer to identify as Irish while others prefer to identify as British. Cultural links between Northern Ireland, the rest of Ireland, and the rest of the UK are complex, in many sports, the island of Ireland fields a single team, a notable exception being association football. Northern Ireland competes separately at the Commonwealth Games, and people from Northern Ireland may compete for either Great Britain or Ireland at the Olympic Games. The region that is now Northern Ireland was the bedrock of the Irish war of resistance against English programmes of colonialism in the late 16th century, the English-controlled Kingdom of Ireland had been declared by the English king Henry VIII in 1542, but Irish resistance made English control fragmentary. Victories by English forces in war and further Protestant victories in the Williamite War in Ireland toward the close of the 17th century solidified Anglican rule in Ireland. In Northern Ireland, the victories of the Siege of Derry and their intention was to materially disadvantage the Catholic community and, to a lesser extent, the Presbyterian community. In the context of open institutional discrimination, the 18th century saw secret, militant societies develop in communities in the region and act on sectarian tensions in violent attacks. Following this, in an attempt to quell sectarianism and force the removal of discriminatory laws, the new state, formed in 1801, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, was governed from a single government and parliament based in London. Between 1717 and 1775 some 250,000 people from Ulster emigrated to the British North American colonies and it is estimated that there are more than 27 million Scotch-Irish Americans now living in the US. By the close of the century, autonomy for Ireland within the United Kingdom, in 1912, after decades of obstruction from the House of Lords, Home Rule became a near-certainty. A clash between the House of Commons and House of Lords over a controversial budget produced the Parliament Act 1911, which enabled the veto of the Lords to be overturned. The House of Lords veto had been the unionists main guarantee that Home Rule would not be enacted, in 1914, they smuggled thousands of rifles and rounds of ammunition from Imperial Germany for use by the Ulster Volunteers, a paramilitary organisation opposed to the implementation of Home Rule
Northern Ireland
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Scrabo Tower,
County Down
Northern Ireland
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Location of Northern Ireland (dark green) – in
Europe (green & dark grey) – in the
United Kingdom (green)
Northern Ireland
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Cannon on
Derry 's
city walls
Northern Ireland
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Signing of the
Ulster Covenant in 1912 in opposition to Home Rule
48.
Eoin MacNeill
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Eoin MacNeill was an Irish scholar, Irish language enthusiast, nationalist activist, and Sinn Féin politician. MacNeill has been described as the father of the study of early Irish medieval history. A key figure of the Gaelic revival, he was a co-founder of the Gaelic League, to preserve Irish language, in 1913 he established the Irish Volunteers and served as their Chief-of-Staff. He held this position at the outbreak of the Easter Rising but had no role in it or its planning, MacNeill helped countermand the Easter Monday uprising, after learning about it and confronting Patrick Pearse, by placing a last-minute news advertisement advising Volunteers not to take part. He was later elected to the First Dáil as a member of Sinn Féin, MacNeill was born John McNeill, one of five children born to Archibald McNeill, a Roman Catholic working class baker, sailor and merchant, and his wife, Rosetta McNeill, also a Catholic. He was reared in Glenarm, County Antrim, an area still retained some Irish-language traditions. He was educated at St Malachys College and Queens College, Belfast, MacNeill had an enormous interest in Irish history and immersed himself in its study. In 1888 he achieved a BA degree in economics, jurisprudence and constitutional history and he was also editor of the Gaelic Journal from 1894 to 1899. In 1908 he was appointed professor of early Irish history at University College Dublin and he married Agnes Moore on 19 April 1898, the couple had eight children, four sons and four daughters. The Gaelic League was from the start strictly non-political, but in 1915 a proposal was put forward to abandon this policy, MacNeill strongly supported this, and rallied to his side a majority of delegates at the 1915 Oireachtas. Douglas Hyde, a non-political Protestant, who had co-founded the League and been its President for 22 years, through the Gaelic League, MacNeill met members of Sinn Féin, the Irish Republican Brotherhood, and other nationalists and republicans. One such colleague, The ORahilly, ran the newspaper, An Claidheamh Soluis. Unlike the IRB, MacNeill was opposed to the idea of a rebellion, except in resisting any suppression of the Volunteers. The entry of the UK into the First World War was, in their view, with the co-operation of James Connolly and the Irish Citizen Army, a secret council of IRB officials planned a general rising on Easter,1916. Unbeknownst to MacNeill, the letter—called the Castle Document—was a forgery, Pearse, Connolly, and the others agreed that the uprising would go ahead anyway, but it began one day later than originally intended to ensure the authorities were taken by surprise. Beginning on Easter Monday,24 April 1916, the rising lasted less than a week, after the surrender of the rebels, MacNeill was arrested, although he had taken no part in the insurrection. MacNeill was released from prison in 1917 and was elected Member of Parliament for the National University of Ireland, in line with abstentionist Sinn Féin policy, he refused to take his seat in the British House of Commons and sat instead in the newly convened Dáil Éireann. He was a member of the Parliament of Northern Ireland for Londonderry during 1921–25 although he never took his seat, in 1921 he supported the Anglo-Irish Treaty
Eoin MacNeill
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Eoin MacNeill
49.
County Londonderry
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County Londonderry, also known as County Derry, is one of the six counties of Northern Ireland. Adjoining the north-west shore of Lough Neagh, the county covers an area of 2,074 km² and has a population of about 247,132 and it is also one of the thirty-two traditional counties of Ireland, as well as part of the historic province of Ulster. Since 1981, it has one of four counties in Northern Ireland that has a Catholic majority. The county flower is the Purple Saxifrage, the place name Derry is an anglicisation of the old Irish Daire, meaning oak-grove or oak-wood. As with the city, its name is subject to the Derry/Londonderry name dispute, with the form Londonderry generally preferred by unionists, british authorities use the name Londonderry, while Derry is used by the Republic of Ireland. Mountsandel located near Coleraine in County Londonderry is perhaps the oldest recorded settlement within Ireland, at an early period, what became the county of Coleraine was inhabited by the OCahans, who were tributary to the ONeills. This county was named Londonderry, a combination of London and Derry, the Irish Society was made up of the twelve main livery companies of London, which themselves were composed of various guilds. Whilst The Irish Society as a whole was given possession of the city of Londonderry and Coleraine, the county town of County Londonderry, and seat of the Londonderry County Council until its abolition in 1973, was therefore moved to the town of Coleraine. The highest point in the county is the summit of Sawel Mountain on the border with County Tyrone, Sawel is part of the Sperrin Mountains, which dominate the southern part of the county. In the centre of the county are the deciduous forests at Banagher and Ness Wood. These councils were, Derry City Council, Limavady Borough Council, and Magherafelt District Council, most of Coleraine Borough Council, the Londonderry and Lough Swilly Railway continued as a private bus company based in the city but operating predominantly in County Donegal until it closed in 2014. Bus services are now provided by Ulsterbus, two major centres of the University of Ulster are in the county, including its headquarters at Coleraine and the Magee Campus in Derry. The Derry teams wear the red and white. There are many teams competing in up to five leagues. The county team has won one All-Ireland Senior Football Championship and five National League titles, hurling is also widely played but is not as popular as football. However, the county team is regarded as one of the top hurling sides in Ulster. The Northern Ireland Milk Cup was established in 1983 and is regarded as one of the most prestigious youth football tournaments in Europe and the world. In rugby union, the county is represented at senior level by Rainey Old Boys Rugby Club, Magherafelt who compete in the Ulster Senior League and All Ireland Division Three
County Londonderry
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A cannon sits atop the historic Derry Walls, which look over
Derry City.
County Londonderry
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Map of County Londonderry, 1837
County Londonderry
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Downhill Strand.
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