1.
Stroopwafel
–
A stroopwafel is a waffle made from two thin layers of baked dough with a caramel-like syrup filling in the middle. It is popular in the Netherlands, where they were first made in the city of Gouda, the stiff dough for the waffles is made from flour, butter, brown sugar, yeast, milk, and eggs. Medium-sized balls of dough are put into a waffle iron and pressed into the required uniformly thin. After the waffle has been baked, and while it is still warm, the warm filling, made from syrup, brown sugar, butter, and cinnamon, is spread between the waffle halves, gluing them together. The stroopwafel was first made in Gouda either during the late 18th century or the early 19th century by a baker using leftovers from the bakery, such as breadcrumbs, which were sweetened with syrup. In the 19th century, there were around 100 syrup waffle bakers in Gouda, after 1870 they were also made at parties and in markets outside the city of Gouda. In the 20th century, factories started to make stroopwafels, in 1960, there were 17 factories in Gouda alone, of which four are currently still open. Freska — Egyptian snack IJzerkoekje How stroopwafels are made, schepsbakeries. com Dutch Stroopwafels, dianasdesserts. com Association of Stroopwafel Addicts at Meta-Wiki
Stroopwafel
–
Stroopwafels
Stroopwafel
Stroopwafel
Stroopwafel
2.
Nijmegen
–
Nijmegen, historically anglicized as Nimeguen, is a municipality and a city in the Dutch province of Gelderland. It is situated on the Waal river, close to the German border, Nijmegen is the oldest city in the Netherlands, the first to be recognized as such in Roman times, and in 2005 celebrated 2,000 years of existence. The municipality is part of the Stadsregio Arnhem-Nijmegen, an area with 736,107 inhabitants. By 69, when the Batavians, the inhabitants of the Rhine and Maas delta, revolted. This village was destroyed in the revolt, but when it had ended the Romans built another, bigger camp where the Legio X Gemina was stationed, soon after, another village formed around this camp. In 98, Nijmegen was the first of two settlements in what is now the Kingdom of the Netherlands to receive Roman city rights. In 103, the X Gemina was re-stationed to Vindobona, modern day Vienna, in 104 Emperor Trajan renamed the town, which now became known as Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum, Noviomagus for short. Beginning in the half of the 4th century, Roman power decreased. It also appeared around this time on the Peutinger Map and it has been contended that in the 8th century Emperor Charlemagne maintained his palatium in Nijmegen on at least four occasions. During his brief deposition of 830, the emperor Louis the Pious was sent to Nijmegen by his son Lothar I, thanks to the Waal river, trade flourished. The powerful Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor was born at Nijmegen in 1165, in 1230 his son Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor granted Nijmegen city rights. In 1247, the city was ceded to the count of Guelders as collateral for a loan, the loan was never repaid, and Nijmegen has been a part of Gelderland ever since. This did not hamper trade, Nijmegen even became part of the Hanseatic League in 1364, the arts also flourished in this period. Famous medieval painters like the Limbourg brothers were born and educated in Nijmegen, during the Dutch Revolt, trade came to a halt and even though Nijmegen became a part of the Republic of United Provinces in 1585, it remained a border town and had to endure multiple sieges. In 1678 Nijmegen was host to the negotiations between the European powers that aimed to put an end to the constant warfare that had ravaged the continent for years, the result was the Treaty of Nijmegen that, unfortunately, failed to provide for a lasting peace. In the second half of the 19th century, the fortifications around the city became a major problem, there were too many inhabitants inside the walls, but the fortifications could not be demolished because Nijmegen was deemed as being of vital importance to the defence of the Netherlands. When events in the Franco-Prussian war proved that old-fashioned fortifications were no more of use, this policy was changed, the old castle had already been demolished in 1797, so that its bricks could be sold. Through the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, the Waal was bridged in 1878 by a rail bridge and in 1936 by a car bridge, which was claimed to be Europes biggest bridge at the time
Nijmegen
–
Nijmegen city centre
Nijmegen
–
Historical buildings at the "Grote Markt" ("Great Market").
Nijmegen
–
Historical watchtower (nowadays restaurant) "Belvedère" back in 1900
Nijmegen
–
The Waal river near Nijmegen, 1641.
3.
Harvard University
–
Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
Harvard University
–
Engraving of
Harvard College by
Paul Revere, 1767
Harvard University
–
Harvard University
Harvard University
–
John Harvard statue,
Harvard Yard
Harvard University
–
Richard Rummell's 1906 watercolor landscape view, facing northeast.
4.
Escutcheon (heraldry)
–
In heraldry, an escutcheon is a shield that forms the main or focal element in an achievement of arms. The word is used in two related senses, firstly, as the shield on which a coat of arms is displayed. Escutcheon shapes are derived from actual shields used by knights in combat, other shapes are in use, such as the roundel commonly used for arms granted to Aboriginal Canadians by the Canadian Heraldic Authority. Secondly, a shield can itself be a charge within a coat of arms, more often, a smaller shield is placed over the middle of the main shield as a form of marshalling. In either case, the shield is usually given the same shape as the main shield. When there is one such shield, it is sometimes called an inescutcheon. The word escutcheon is derived from Middle English escochon, from Anglo-Norman escuchon, from Vulgar Latin scūtiōn-, from Latin scūtum, from its use in heraldry, escutcheon can be a metaphor for a familys honour. The idiom a blot on the escutcheon is used to mean a stain on somebodys reputation, by about 1250 the shields used in warfare were almost triangular in shape, referred to as heater shields. That on the monument to the latters grandfather Geoffrey V. This almost equilateral shape is used as a setting for armorials from this classical age of heraldry. In the Tudor era the heraldic escutcheon took the shape of an inverted Tudor arch, continental European designs frequently use the various forms used in jousting, which incorporate mouths used as lance rests into the shields, such escutcheons are known as à bouche. The mouth is correctly shown on the side only, as jousting pitches were designed for right-handed knights. Heraldic examples of English shields à bouche can be seen in the spandrels of the timber roof of Lincolns Inn Hall. In this case the lozenge is without crest or helm, again objects of manly warfare, however, for the practical purpose of categorisation the lozenge may be treated as a variety of heraldic escutcheon. In general a female was represented by her paternal arms impaled by the arms of her husband on an escutcheon, in modern Canadian heraldry, and certain other modern heraldic jurisdictions, women may be granted their own arms and display these on an escutcheon. Life peeresses in England display their arms on a lozenge, an oval or cartouche is occasionally also used instead of the lozenge for armigerous women. Divorced women may theoretically until remarriage use their ex-husbands arms differenced with a mascle, the lozenge shape of quasi-escutcheon is also used for funerary hatchments for both men and women. Pretoria High School for Girls in South Africa is one of the few schools that was granted permission to use the lozenge as part of its coat of arms
Escutcheon (heraldry)
–
Effigy of
William II Longespee (d.1250) in Salisbury Cathedral, showing an early triangular
heater shield, the shape used as the "canvas" for the display of arms during the classical age of heraldry
Escutcheon (heraldry)
–
Points of an escutcheon or heraldic shield: A – Chief B –
Dexter C –
Sinister D – Base E – Dexter Chief F – Middle Chief G – Sinister Chief H – Honour Point I – Fess Point J – Nombril Point K – Dexter Base L – Sinister Base M – Middle Base (seldom used)
5.
Kitchen utensil
–
A kitchen utensil is a small hand held tool used for food preparation. A cooking utensil is a utensil for cooking, a partially overlapping category of tools is that of eating utensils, which are tools used for eating. Some utensils are both kitchen utensils and eating utensils, cutlery can be used for both food preparation in a kitchen and as eating utensils when dining. Other cutlery such as forks and spoons are both kitchen and eating utensils and these latter categorizations include utensils — made of glass, silver, clay, and so forth — that are not necessarily kitchen utensils. He observed that iron had been used as a substitute, by the turn of the 20th century, Maria Parloa noted that kitchen utensils were made of iron and steel, copper, nickel, silver, tin, clay, earthenware, and aluminium. The latter, aluminium, became a material for kitchen utensils in the 20th century. Copper has good thermal conductivity and copper utensils are both durable and attractive in appearance, however, they are also comparatively heavier than utensils made of other materials, require scrupulous cleaning to remove poisonous tarnish compounds, and are not suitable for acidic foods. Iron is more prone to rusting than copper, for some iron kitchen utensils, water is a particular problem, since it is very difficult to dry them fully. In particular, iron egg-beaters or ice cream freezers are tricky to dry, when storing iron utensils for long periods, van Rensselaer recommended coating them in non-salted fat or paraffin. Iron utensils have little problem with high cooking temperatures, are simple to clean as they become smooth with long use, are durable and comparatively strong, however, as noted, they rust comparatively easily. Stainless steel finds many applications in the manufacture of kitchen utensils, stainless steel is considerably less likely to rust in contact with water or food products, and so reduces the effort required to maintain utensils in clean useful condition. Cutting tools made with stainless steel maintain an edge while not presenting the risk of rust found with iron or other types of steel. Thompson noted that as a consequence of this the use of glazed earthenware was prohibited by law in some countries from use in cooking. In addition to their problems with shock, enamelware utensils require careful handling, as careful as for glassware. But enamel utensils are not affected by acidic foods, are durable, however, they cannot be used with strong alkalis. Earthenware, porcelain, and pottery utensils can be used for cooking and serving food, and so thereby save on washing-up of two separate sets of utensils. They are durable, and excellent for slow, even cooking in even heat, however, they are comparatively unsuitable for cooking using a direct heat, such as a cooking over a flame. However, its disadvantages are that it is easily discoloured, can be dissolved by acidic foods, in the European Union, the construction of kitchen utensils made of aluminium is determined by two European standards, EN601 and EN602
Kitchen utensil
–
An exhibit of a
batterie de cuisine, from the beginning of the 20th century, at the
Musée Cernuschi in
Paris.
Kitchen utensil
–
Biodegradable plastic utensils made from
bioplastic
Kitchen utensil
–
An exhibit of
Israeli Defence Forces kitchen utensils at the Batey ha-Osef Museum in
Tel Aviv.
Kitchen utensil
–
Various kitchen utensils. At top: a
spice rack with jars of
mint,
caraway,
thyme, and
sage. Lower: hanging from hooks; a small pan, a meat fork, an icing spatula, a whole spoon, a slotted spoon, and a perforated spatula.
6.
Small appliance
–
A small appliance or small domestic appliance is a portable or semi-portable machines, generally used on table-tops, counter-tops, or other platforms, to accomplish a household task. Examples include microwave ovens, toasters, humidifiers, and coffee makers and they contrast with major appliances, such as the refrigerator and washing machine, which cannot be easily moved and are generally placed on the floor. Small appliances also contrast with consumer electronics which are for leisure, some small appliances perform the same or similar function as their larger counterparts. For example, an oven is a small appliance that performs a similar function as an oven. Small appliances often have a version and a commercial version, for example waffle irons, food processors. The commercial, or industrial, version is designed to be used continuously in a restaurant or other similar setting. Commercial appliances are connected to a more powerful electrical outlet, are larger and stronger, have more user-serviceable parts. Dollars, or very expensive, such as an espresso maker. Most homes in developed economies contain several cheaper home appliances, with perhaps a few more expensive appliances, many small appliances are powered by electricity. The appliance may use a permanently attached cord which is plugged into an outlet or a detachable cord. The appliance may have a cord storage feature, a few hand-held appliances use batteries, which may be disposable or rechargeable. Some appliances consist of an electrical motor upon which is mounted various attachments so as to constitute several individual appliances, such as a blender, many stand mixers, while functioning primarily as a mixer, have attachments which can perform additional functions. A few gasoline and gas-powered appliances exist for use in situations where electricity is not expected to be available, small appliances which are defective or improperly used or maintained may cause house fires and other property damage, or may harbor bacteria if not properly cleaned. It is important that users read the instructions carefully and that appliances that use a grounded cord be attached to a grounded outlet, because of the risk of fire, some appliances have a short detachable cord that is connected to the appliance magnetically. If the appliance is moved further than the length from the wall. Designations and regulations of small appliances vary by country and are not simply determined by physical sizes
Small appliance
–
Small appliances in a kitchen: a food processor, a waffle iron, a coffee maker, and an electric kettle
Small appliance
–
Glowing
filaments of a modern 4-slice
toaster
Small appliance
–
An electric drip
coffeemaker
Small appliance
–
An electric
blender
7.
Cooking
–
Cooking or cookery is the art, technology and craft of preparing food for consumption with the use of heat. The ways or types of cooking also depend on the skill, cooking is done both by people in their own dwellings and by professional cooks and chefs in restaurants and other food establishments. Cooking can also occur through chemical reactions without the presence of heat, such as in ceviche, preparing food with heat or fire is an activity unique to humans. It may have started around 2 million years ago, though evidence for it reaches no more than 1 million years ago. The expansion of agriculture, commerce, trade and transportation between civilizations in different regions offered cooks many new ingredients, New inventions and technologies, such as the invention of pottery for holding and boiling water, expanded cooking techniques. Some modern cooks apply advanced scientific techniques to food preparation to further enhance the flavor of the dish served, phylogenetic analysis suggests that human ancestors may have invented cooking as far back as 1.8 million to 2.3 million years ago. Re-analysis of burnt bone fragments and plant ashes from the Wonderwerk Cave, there is evidence that Homo erectus was cooking their food as early as 500,000 years ago. Evidence for the use of fire by Homo erectus beginning some 400,000 years ago has wide scholarly support. Archeological evidence, from 300,000 years ago, in the form of ancient hearths, earth ovens, burnt animal bones, and flint, are found across Europe, anthropologists think that widespread cooking fires began about 250,000 years ago, when hearths started appearing. More recently, the earliest hearths have been reported to be at least 790,000 years old, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, food was a classic marker of identity in Europe. In the nineteenth-century Age of Nationalism cuisine became a symbol of national identity. Communication between the Old World and the New World in the Colombian exchange influenced the history of cooking, the Industrial Revolution brought mass-production, mass-marketing and standardization of food. Factories processed, preserved, canned, and packaged a wide variety of foods, in the 1920s, freezing methods, cafeterias and fast-food establishments emerged. Along with changes in food, starting early in the 20th century, governments have issued nutrition guidelines, the 1916 Food For Young Children became the first USDA guide to give specific dietary guidelines. Updated in the 1920s, these guides gave shopping suggestions for different-sized families along with a Depression Era revision which included four cost levels, in 1943, the USDA created the Basic Seven chart to make sure that people got the recommended nutrients. It included the first-ever Recommended Daily Allowances from the National Academy of Sciences, in 1956, the Essentials of an Adequate Diet brought recommendations which cut the number of groups that American school children would learn about down to four. In 1979, a guide called Food addressed the link between too much of certain foods and chronic diseases, but added fats, oils, most ingredients in cooking are derived from living organisms. Vegetables, fruits, grains and nuts as well as herbs and spices come from plants, while meat, eggs, mushrooms and the yeast used in baking are kinds of fungi
Cooking
–
A chef preparing steak
Cooking
–
Historical oven cooking depicted in a painting by
Jean-François Millet
Cooking
–
Doughnuts frying in oil
Cooking
–
Water is often used to cook foods such as
noodles.
8.
Waffle
–
A waffle is a dish made from leavened batter or dough that is cooked between two plates that are patterned to give a characteristic size, shape and surface impression. There are many variations based on the type of waffle iron, Waffles are eaten throughout the world, particularly in Belgium, which has over a dozen regional varieties. Waffles may be fresh or simply heated after having been commercially precooked. The word waffle first appears in the English language in 1725 and it is directly derived from the Dutch wafel, which itself derives from the Middle Dutch wafele. While the Middle Dutch wafele is first attested to at the end of the 13th century, it is preceded by the French walfre in 1185, depending on the context of the use of wafla, it either means honeycomb or cake. Alternate spellings throughout modern and medieval Europe include waffe, wafre, wafer, wâfel, waufre, iauffe, gaufre, goffre, gauffre, wafe, waffel, wåfe, wāfel, wafe, vaffel, and våffla. Waffles are preceded, in the early Middle Ages, around the period of the 9th–10th centuries, with the emergence of fer à hosties / hostieijzers. While the communion wafer irons typically depicted imagery of Jesus and his crucifixion, the format of the iron itself was almost always round and considerably larger than those used for communion. The oublie was, in its form, composed only of grain flour. Oublies, not formally named as such until ca,1200, spread throughout northwestern continental Europe, eventually leading to the formation of the oublieurs guild in 1270. In the late 14th century, the first known recipe was penned in an anonymous manuscript, Le Ménagier de Paris. While it technically contains four recipes, all are a variation of the first, Beat some eggs in a bowl, season with salt, toss in some flour, and mix. Then fill, little by little, two irons at a time with as much of the paste as a slice of cheese is large, then close the iron and cook both sides. If the dough does not detach easily from the iron, coat it first with a piece of cloth that has been soaked in oil or grease. The other three variations explain how cheese is to be placed in two layers of batter, grated and mixed in to the batter, or left out. However, this was a waffle / gaufre in name only, not only were the newly fashioned ones rectangular, taking the form of the fer à hosties, but some circular oublie irons were cut down to create rectangles. By the 16th century, paintings by Joachim de Beuckelaer, Pieter Aertsen, bruegels work, in particular, not only shows waffles being cooked, but fine detail of individual waffles. In those instances, the pattern can be counted as a large 12x7 grid, with cleanly squared sides, suggesting the use of a fairly thin batter
Waffle
–
Waffle
Waffle
–
Detail of a Belgian moule à oublie
Waffle
–
Detail of a French moule à oublie / moule à gaufre, Musée Lorrain
Waffle
–
Detail from Pieter Bruegel's
Het gevecht tussen Carnaval en Vasten – among the first known images of waffles
9.
Batter (cooking)
–
Batter is a liquid mixture of one or more flours made with ground grains or soaked grains that are ground. Batters are used to various foods. The word batter comes from the old French word battre which means to beat, many batters are made by combining dry flours with liquids such as water, milk or eggs. Batters can also be made by soaking grains in water and grinding them wet. Often a leavening agent such as baking powder is included to aerate and fluff up the batter as it cooks, carbonated water or another carbonated liquid such as beer may instead be used to aerate the batter in some recipes. The liquid mixture churned and frozen in order to ice cream is also referred to as batter. The viscosity of batter may range from heavy to thin. Heat is applied to the batter, usually by frying, baking or steaming, in order to cook the ingredients, batters may be sweet or savoury, often with either sugar or salt being added. Many other flavourings such as herbs, spices, fruits or vegetables may be added to the mixture, beer is a popular ingredient in batters used to coat foods before frying. One reason is that a batter can be made from merely flour, beer. The purpose of using beer is so the bubbles in the beer will add body, depending on the type and quality of the beer, beer may also add colour or some flavour to the batter. The practice of beer battering is popular in Australia, New Zealand, some foods that are commonly beer battered and fried are fish, chips, and onion rings. Batters are used in many cuisines under many names, tempura in Japan, pakora in India, spoon bread in the USA, and many other examples are all types of batters. All batters work by forming a shell around the food, preventing scorching and retaining flavor. The ideal batter for fried foods is to be enough to adhere to the food. This ideal batter has been described poetically as being like a newlywed brides negligee, batters thicken with every second that passes after mixing because of the development of gluten. Strategies to reduce this effect include the use of ice water when mixing, alcohol, media related to Batter at Wikimedia Commons
Batter (cooking)
–
A thin batter for
English pancakes
Batter (cooking)
–
ಮೆಂತೆ ಸೊಪ್ಪು ಕಲಸಿದ ಗೋಧಿ ಸಂಪಣೆ. wheat batter mixed with fenugreek leaves for
Kannada Dōse
Batter (cooking)
–
Crêpe batter
Batter (cooking)
–
Batter with a batter spoon
10.
Tongs
–
Tongs are a tool used to grip and lift objects, of which there are many forms adapted to their specific use. Tongs consisting of a band of metal bent round one or two bands joined at the head by a spring, as in sugar-tongs, asparagus-tongs and the like. Tongs in which the pivot or joint is placed close to the ends, such as a drillers round tongs. Tongs are commonly used as a utensil, as they provide a way to move, rotate. According to Pirkei Avot, a classical Jewish text of the century of the common era. The reasoning is that a blacksmith must use a pair of tongs in order to fashion a new pair of tongs, accordingly, God must have provided humankind with the first pair of tongs. Fire iron Food preparation utensils Forceps Trongs Tweezers Food portal
Tongs
–
Silicone-tipped locking tongs designed to withstand temperatures up to 500 degrees Fahrenheit
11.
Kitchen stove
–
A kitchen stove, usually called a gas range, range, cooker, or oven is a kitchen appliance designed for the purpose of cooking food. Kitchen stoves rely on the application of heat for the cooking process and may also contain an oven. When homes began to be heated with heating systems, there was less need for an appliance that served as both heat source and cooker and stand-alone cookers replaced them. Cooker and stove are often used interchangeably, the fuel-burning stove is the most basic design of kitchen stove. Nearly half of the people in the world, burn biomass, more fuel efficient and environmentally sound biomass cook stoves are being developed for use there. Modern kitchen stoves may use alternative methods for heating food, natural gas and electric stoves are the most common today in western countries. In particular, professional chefs often prefer gas cooktops, for they allow them to control the more finely. On the other hand, some chefs often prefer electric stoves because they tend to heat more evenly. Todays major brands offer both gas and electric stoves, and many also offer dual-fuel stoves combining gas and electric cooktops Modern kitchen stoves have both burners on the top as well as an oven. A cooktop can refer to the top of a stove or burners built into a countertop, many newer cooktops are made of glass-ceramic. A drop-in range a combination unit that installs in a kitchens lower cabinets flush with the countertop. Most modern stoves come in a unit with built-in extractor hoods, early clay stoves that enclosed the fire completely, were known from the Chinese Qin Dynasty, and a similar design known as kamado appeared in the Kofun period in Japan. These stoves were fired by wood or charcoal through a hole in the front, in both designs, pots were placed over or hung into holes at the top of the knee-high construction. Raised kamados were developed in Japan during the Edo period, prior to the 18th century in Europe, people cooked over open fires fueled by wood. In the Middle Ages, waist-high brick-and-mortar hearths and the first chimneys appeared, the fire was built on top of the construction, the cooking done mainly in cauldrons hung above the fire or placed on trivets. The heat was regulated by placing the cauldron higher or lower above the fire, attempts were made to enclose the fire to make better use of the heat that it generated and thus reduce the wood consumption. An early step was the chamber, the fire was enclosed on three sides by brick-and-mortar walls and covered by an iron plate. This technique also caused a change in the used for cooking
Kitchen stove
–
A wood burning iron stove
Kitchen stove
–
A stove at Holzwarth Ranch National Historic Site in
Rocky Mountain National Park,
Colorado
Kitchen stove
–
Indonesian traditional
brick stove which is still used in some rural areas
Kitchen stove
–
The 18th-century Japanese merchant's kitchen, Kamado (Hezzui) made of copper (Fukagawa Edo Museum)
12.
Electrical appliance
–
A small appliance or small domestic appliance is a portable or semi-portable machines, generally used on table-tops, counter-tops, or other platforms, to accomplish a household task. Examples include microwave ovens, toasters, humidifiers, and coffee makers and they contrast with major appliances, such as the refrigerator and washing machine, which cannot be easily moved and are generally placed on the floor. Small appliances also contrast with consumer electronics which are for leisure, some small appliances perform the same or similar function as their larger counterparts. For example, an oven is a small appliance that performs a similar function as an oven. Small appliances often have a version and a commercial version, for example waffle irons, food processors. The commercial, or industrial, version is designed to be used continuously in a restaurant or other similar setting. Commercial appliances are connected to a more powerful electrical outlet, are larger and stronger, have more user-serviceable parts. Dollars, or very expensive, such as an espresso maker. Most homes in developed economies contain several cheaper home appliances, with perhaps a few more expensive appliances, many small appliances are powered by electricity. The appliance may use a permanently attached cord which is plugged into an outlet or a detachable cord. The appliance may have a cord storage feature, a few hand-held appliances use batteries, which may be disposable or rechargeable. Some appliances consist of an electrical motor upon which is mounted various attachments so as to constitute several individual appliances, such as a blender, many stand mixers, while functioning primarily as a mixer, have attachments which can perform additional functions. A few gasoline and gas-powered appliances exist for use in situations where electricity is not expected to be available, small appliances which are defective or improperly used or maintained may cause house fires and other property damage, or may harbor bacteria if not properly cleaned. It is important that users read the instructions carefully and that appliances that use a grounded cord be attached to a grounded outlet, because of the risk of fire, some appliances have a short detachable cord that is connected to the appliance magnetically. If the appliance is moved further than the length from the wall. Designations and regulations of small appliances vary by country and are not simply determined by physical sizes
Electrical appliance
–
Small appliances in a kitchen: a food processor, a waffle iron, a coffee maker, and an electric kettle
Electrical appliance
–
Glowing
filaments of a modern 4-slice
toaster
Electrical appliance
–
An electric drip
coffeemaker
Electrical appliance
–
An electric
blender
13.
Heating element
–
A heating element converts electricity into heat through the process of resistive or Joule heating. Electric current passing through the element encounters resistance, resulting in heating of the element, unlike the Peltier effect, this process is independent of the direction of current flow. Nichrome, Most heating elements use nichrome 80/20 wire, ribbon, nichrome 80/20 is an ideal material, because it has relatively high resistance and forms an adherent layer of chromium oxide when it is heated for the first time. Material beneath this layer will not oxidize, preventing the wire from breaking or burning out, resistance wire, Metallic resistance heating elements may be wire or ribbon, straight or coiled. They are used in common heating devices like toasters and hair dryers, furnaces for heating, floor heating, roof heating, pathway heating to melt snow, dryers. These elements are found in precision heating applications like medical diagnostics. Molybdenum disilicide an intermetallic compound, a silicide of molybdenum, is a refractory ceramic primarily used in heating elements and it has moderate density, melting point 2030 °C, and is electrically conductive. At high temperatures it forms a layer of silicon dioxide. The application area includes glass industry, ceramic sintering, heat treatment furnaces, PTC ceramic elements, PTC ceramic material is named for its positive thermal coefficient of resistance. Most ceramics have a coefficient, whereas most metals have positive values. This behavior causes the material to act as its own thermostat, since current passes when it is cool, thin films of this material are used in automotive rear-window defrost heaters, and honeycomb-shaped elements are used in more expensive hair dryers and space heaters. Resistive heaters can be made of conducting PTC rubber materials where the resistivity increases exponentially with increasing temperature, such a heater will produce high power when it is cold, and rapidly heat up itself to a constant temperature. Due to the exponentially increasing resistivity, the heater can never heat itself to warmer than this temperature, above this temperature, the rubber acts as an electrical insulator. The temperature can be chosen during the production of the rubber, typical temperatures are between 0 and 80 °C. It is a point-wise self-regulating heater and self-limiting heater, self-regulating means that every point of the heater independently keeps a constant temperature without the need of regulating electronics. Self-limiting means that the heater can never exceed a temperature in any point. Tubular elements normally comprise a fine coil of resistance heating alloy wire. To keep moisture out of the insulator, the ends are equipped with beads of insulating material such as ceramic or silicone rubber
Heating element
–
A heating element from an
espresso machine
Heating element
–
sheathed element cut off cross section
Heating element
–
A coiled heating element from an electric
toaster
Heating element
–
A flexible PTC heater made of conductive rubber.
14.
Thermostat
–
A thermostat is a component which senses the temperature of a system so that the systems temperature is maintained near a desired setpoint. It is a closed loop control device, as it seeks to reduce the error between the desired and measured temperatures, sometimes a thermostat combines both the sensing and control action elements of a controlled system, such as in an automotive thermostat. A thermostat exerts control by switching heating or cooling devices on or off, or by regulating the flow of a heat transfer fluid as needed, to maintain the correct temperature. Thermostats can be constructed in ways and may use a variety of sensors to measure the temperature. The output of the sensor then controls the heating or cooling apparatus, instead, the heating or cooling equipment runs at full capacity until the set temperature is reached, then shuts off. Increasing the difference between the setting and the desired temperature therefore does not shorten the time to achieve the desired temperature. A thermostat may have a maximum switching frequency, or switch heating and cooling equipment on and this reduces the risk of equipment damage from frequent switching. The term thermostat is derived from the Greek words θερμός thermos, hot and στατός statos, standing, early technologies included mercury thermometers with electrodes inserted directly through the glass, so that when a certain temperature was reached the contacts would be closed by the mercury. These were accurate to within a degree of temperature, common sensor technologies in use today include, Bimetallic mechanical or electrical sensors. He invented a mercury thermostat to regulate the temperature of a chicken incubator and this is one of the first recorded feedback-controlled devices. Modern thermostat control was developed in the 1830s by Andrew Ure, a Scottish chemist, Warren S. Johnson of Wisconsin patented a bi-metal room thermostat in 1883, and two years later filed a patent for the first multi-zone thermostatic control system. Albert Butz invented the electric thermostat and patented it in 1886, one of the first industrial uses of the thermostat was in the regulation of the temperature in poultry incubators. Charles Hearson, a British engineer, designed the first modern incubator for eggs that was taken up for use on farms in 1879. The incubators incorporated an accurate thermostat to regulate the temperature so as to simulate the experience of an egg being hatched naturally. This covers only devices which both sense and control using purely mechanical means, domestic water and steam based central heating systems have traditionally been controlled by bi-metallic strip thermostats, and this is dealt with later in this article. Purely mechanical control has been localised steam or hot-water radiator bi-metallic thermostats which regulated the individual flow, however, Thermostatic Radiator Valves are now being widely used. Purely mechanical thermostats are used to regulate dampers in some rooftop turbine vents, some automobile passenger heating systems have a thermostatically controlled valve to regulate the water flow and temperature to an adjustable level. In older vehicles the thermostat controls the application of engine vacuum to actuators that control water valves, in modern vehicles, the vacuum actuators may be operated by small solenoids under the control of a central computer
Thermostat
–
Honeywell 's iconic "The Round" model
T87 thermostat, one of which is in the
Smithsonian.
Thermostat
–
Next Generation Lux Products TX9600TS Universal 7-Day Programmable Touch Screen Thermostat.
Thermostat
–
A
Honeywell electronic thermostat in a retail store
Thermostat
–
Car engine thermostat
15.
Aluminium alloy
–
Aluminium alloys are alloys in which aluminium is the predominant metal. The typical alloying elements are copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon, tin, there are two principal classifications, namely casting alloys and wrought alloys, both of which are further subdivided into the categories heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable. About 85% of aluminium is used for products, for example rolled plate, foils. Cast aluminium alloys yield cost-effective products due to the low melting point, the most important cast aluminium alloy system is Al–Si, where the high levels of silicon contribute to give good casting characteristics. Aluminium alloys are used in engineering structures and components where light weight or corrosion resistance is required. Alloys composed mostly of aluminium have been important in aerospace manufacturing since the introduction of metal-skinned aircraft. Aluminium-magnesium alloys are both lighter than aluminium alloys and much less flammable than alloys that contain a very high percentage of magnesium. Aluminium alloy surfaces will develop a white, protective layer of aluminium oxide if left unprotected by anodizing and/or correct painting procedures, referred to as dissimilar-metal corrosion, this process can occur as exfoliation or as intergranular corrosion. Aluminium alloys can be heat treated. This causes internal element separation, and the metal then corrodes from the inside out, Aluminium alloy compositions are registered with The Aluminum Association. Aluminium alloys with a range of properties are used in engineering structures. Alloy systems are classified by a system or by names indicating their main alloying constituents. Selecting the right alloy for a given application entails considerations of its strength, density, ductility, formability, workability, weldability. A brief historical overview of alloys and manufacturing technologies is given in Ref. Aluminium alloys are used extensively in aircraft due to their high strength-to-weight ratio. On the other hand, pure aluminium metal is too soft for such uses. Aluminium alloys typically have an elastic modulus of about 70 GPa, therefore, for a given load, a component or unit made of an aluminium alloy will experience a greater deformation in the elastic regime than a steel part of identical size and shape. Though there are aluminium alloys with somewhat-higher tensile strengths than the commonly used kinds of steel, with completely new metal products, the design choices are often governed by the choice of manufacturing technology. Extrusions are particularly important in regard, owing to the ease with which aluminium alloys, particularly the Al–Mg–Si series
Aluminium alloy
–
Aluminium alloy bicycle wheel. 1960s
Bootie Folding Cycle
Aluminium alloy
–
Parts of the Mig–29 are made from Al–Sc alloy.
16.
Non-stick coating
–
A non-stick surface is a surface engineered to reduce the ability of other materials to stick to it. Non-stick cookware is an application, where the non-stick coating allows food to brown without sticking to the pan. Non-stick is often used to refer to surfaces coated with polytetrafluoroethylene, in the twenty-first century other coatings have been marketed as non-stick, such as anodized aluminium, ceramics, silicone, enameled cast iron, and seasoned cookware. The Mycenaean Greeks might have used non-stick pans to make more than 3,000 years ago. Mycenaean ceramic griddles had one side and one side covered with tiny holes. The bread was probably placed on the side with the holes, the holes seemed to be an ancient non-sticking technology, ensuring that oil spread evenly over the griddle. The modern non-stick pans were made using a coating of Teflon, PTFE was invented serendipitously by Roy Plunkett in 1938, while working for a joint venture of the DuPont company. The substance was found to have unique properties, including very good corrosion-resistance. PTFE was first used to make seals resistant to the uranium hexafluoride gas used in development of the bomb during World War II. Dupont registered the Teflon trademark in 1944 and soon began planning for post-war commercial use of the new product, while working at DuPont, NYU Tandon School of Engineering alumnus John Gilbert was asked to evaluate a newly- developed material called Teflon. His experiments using the polymer as a surface coating for pots. A few years later, a French engineer had begun coating his fishing gear with Teflon to prevent tangles and his wife Colette suggested using the same method to coat her cooking pans. The idea was successful and a French patent was granted for the process in 1954, the Tefal company was formed in 1956 to manufacture non-stick pans. Not all non-stick pans use Teflon, other coatings have become available. For example, a mixture of titanium and ceramic can be sandblasted onto the pan surface, polytetrafluoroethylene is a synthetic fluoropolymer used in various applications including non-stick coatings. Teflon is a brand of PTFE, often used as a term for PTFE. The metallic substrate is roughened to promote adhesion, and layers of PTFE, from one to seven, are sprayed or rolled on, with a number of layers. The number and thickness of the layers and quality of the material determine the quality of the non-stick coating, better-quality coatings are more durable, and less likely to peel and flake, and keep their non-stick properties for longer
Non-stick coating
–
Food in a non-stick pan
17.
Teflon
–
Polytetrafluoroethylene is a synthetic fluoropolymer of tetrafluoroethylene that has numerous applications. The best known name of PTFE-based formulas is Teflon by Chemours. Chemours is a spin-off of DuPont Co. which discovered the compound in 1938, PTFE is a fluorocarbon solid, as it is a high-molecular-weight compound consisting wholly of carbon and fluorine. PTFE is hydrophobic, neither water nor water-containing substances wet PTFE, PTFE has one of the lowest coefficients of friction of any solid. PTFE is used as a coating for pans and other cookware. It is very non-reactive, partly because of the strength of carbon–fluorine bonds, where used as a lubricant, PTFE reduces friction, wear and energy consumption of machinery. It is commonly used as a material in surgical interventions. Also, it is employed as coating on catheters, this interferes with the ability of bacteria and other infectious agents to adhere to catheters. PTFE was accidentally discovered in 1938 by Roy Plunkett while he was working in New Jersey for DuPont. Since Plunkett was measuring the amount of gas used by weighing the bottle, he became curious as to the source of the weight and he found the bottles interior coated with a waxy white material that was oddly slippery. Analysis showed that it was polymerized perfluoroethylene, with the iron from the inside of the container having acted as a catalyst at high pressure, Kinetic Chemicals patented the new fluorinated plastic in 1941, and registered the Teflon trademark in 1945. By 1948, DuPont, which founded Kinetic Chemicals in partnership with General Motors, was producing two million pounds of Teflon brand PTFE per year in Parkersburg, West Virginia. In 1954, the wife of French engineer Marc Grégoire urged him to try the material he had been using on fishing tackle on her cooking pans and he subsequently created the first Teflon-coated, non-stick pans under the brandname Tefal. In the United States, Marion A. Trozzolo, who had been using the substance on scientific utensils, marketed the first US-made Teflon-coated pan, The Happy Pan, however, Tefal was not the only company to utilize PTFE in nonstick cookware coatings. Other cookware companies, such as Meyer Corporations Anolon, use Teflon nonstick coatings purchased from DuPont, in the 1990s, it was found that PTFE could be radiation cross-linked above its melting point in an oxygen-free environment. Electron beam processing is one example of radiation processing, cross-linked PTFE has improved high-temperature mechanical properties and radiation stability. This was significant because, for years, irradiation at ambient conditions has been used to break down PTFE for recycling. This radiation-induced chain scission allows it to be more easily reground, PTFE is produced by free-radical polymerization of tetrafluoroethylene
Teflon
–
Teflon thermal cover showing impact craters, from NASA's Ultra Heavy Cosmic Ray Experiment (UHCRE)
Teflon
–
Polytetrafluoroethylene
Teflon
–
PTFE is often used to coat
non-stick pans as it is
hydrophobic and possesses fairly high heat resistance.
Teflon
–
"Amazing New Concept in Cooking"
18.
Cast-iron
–
Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content greater than 2%. Its usefulness derives from its low melting temperature. Carbon ranging from 1. 8–4 wt%, and silicon 1–3 wt% are the main alloying elements of cast iron, Iron alloys with less carbon content are known as steel. While this technically makes the Fe–C–Si system ternary, the principle of cast iron solidification can be understood from the simpler binary iron–carbon phase diagram, cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. It is resistant to destruction and weakening by oxidation, the earliest cast iron artefacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is now Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture, during the 15th century, cast iron became utilized for artillery in Burgundy, France, and in England during the Reformation. The first cast iron bridge was built during the 1770s by Abraham Darby III, cast iron is also used in the construction of buildings. Cast iron is made by re-melting pig iron, often along with quantities of iron, steel, limestone, carbon. Phosphorus and sulfur may be burnt out of the iron, but this also burns out the carbon. Depending on the application, carbon and silicon content are adjusted to the desired levels, other elements are then added to the melt before the final form is produced by casting. Cast iron is melted in a special type of blast furnace known as a cupola. After melting is complete, the molten cast iron is poured into a furnace or ladle. Cast irons properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or alloyants, next to carbon, silicon is the most important alloyant because it forces carbon out of solution. A low percentage of silicon allows carbon to remain in solution forming iron carbide, a high percentage of silicon forces carbon out of solution forming graphite and the production of grey cast iron. Other alloying agents, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, titanium and vanadium counteracts silicon, promotes the retention of carbon, nickel and copper increase strength, and machinability, but do not change the amount of graphite formed. The carbon in the form of graphite results in an iron, reduces shrinkage, lowers strength. Sulfur, largely a contaminant when present, forms iron sulfide, the problem with sulfur is that it makes molten cast iron viscous, which causes defects. To counter the effects of sulfur, manganese is added because the two form into manganese sulfide instead of iron sulfide, the manganese sulfide is lighter than the melt so it tends to float out of the melt and into the slag
Cast-iron
–
A
cast iron pan.
Cast-iron
–
Steels and other iron–carbon alloy phases
Cast-iron
–
Cast iron drain, waste and vent piping
Cast-iron
–
Cast iron plate on grand piano
19.
Pizzelle
–
Pizzelle are traditional Italian waffle cookies made from flour, eggs, sugar, butter or vegetable oil, and flavoring. Pizzelle can be hard and crisp or soft and chewy depending on the ingredients and method of preparation. It can be moulded into various shapes, pizzelle were originally made in Ortona, in the Abruzzo region of central Italy. The name comes from the Italian word for round and flat, many other cultures have developed a pizzelle-type cookie as part of their culture. It is known to be one of the oldest cookies, and is believed to have developed from the ancient Roman crustulum, pizzelle are known as ferratelle in the Lazio region of Italy. In Molise they may be called ferratelle, cancelle, or pizzelle, the cookie dough or batter is put into a pizzelle iron, which resembles a small variant of the popular waffle iron. The pizzelle iron is held by hand over a hot burner on the stovetop, although models are electric. Typically, the iron stamps a snowflake pattern onto both sides of the thin golden-brown cookie, which has a crisp texture once it is cooled, there are also several brands of ready-made pizzelle available in stores. Pizzelle are popular during Christmas and Easter and they are often found at Italian weddings, alongside other traditional pastries such as cannoli and traditional Italian cookies. It is also common for two pizzelle to be sandwiched with cannoli cream or hazelnut spread, pizzelle, while still warm, can also be rolled using a wooden dowel to create cannoli shells
Pizzelle
–
Pizzelle
Pizzelle
–
Pizzelle shaped into a
cannolo and filled with an orange-almond creme
20.
Low Countries
–
Most of the Low Countries are coastal regions bounded by the North Sea or the English Channel. The countries without access to the sea have linked themselves politically and economically to those with access to one union of port. The Low Countries were the scene of the northern towns, newly built rather than developed from ancient centres. In that period, they rivaled northern Italy for the most densely populated region of Europe, all of the regions mainly depended on trade, manufacturing and the encouragement of the free flow of goods and craftsmen. Germanic languages such as Dutch and Luxembourgish were the predominant languages, secondary languages included French, Romance-speaking Belgium, the Romance Flanders, and Namur. Governor Mary of Hungary used both the expressions les pays de par deça and Pays dEmbas, which evolved to Pays-Bas or Low Countries, today the term is typically fitted to modern political boundaries and used in the same way as the term Benelux, which also includes Luxembourg. The name of the country the Netherlands has the same meaning. The same name of countries can be found in other European languages, for example German Niederlande, French, les Pays-Bas, and so on. In the Dutch language itself no plural is used for the name of the modern country, so Nederland is used for the modern nation and de Nederlanden for the 16th century domains of Charles V. In Dutch, and to an extent in English, the Low Countries colloquially means the Netherlands and Belgium, sometimes the Netherlands. For example, a Derby der Lage Landen, is an event between Belgium and the Netherlands. Belgium was renamed only in 1830, after splitting from the Kingdom of the Netherlands, politically, before the Napoleonic wars, it was referred to as the Southern, Spanish or later Austrian Netherlands. It is still referred to as part of the low countries, the region politically had its origins in Carolingian empire, more precisely, most of it was within the Duchy of Lower Lotharingia. After the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia, the Low Countries were brought under the rule of various lordships until they came to be in the hands of the Valois Dukes of Burgundy. Hence, a part of the low countries came to be referred to as the Burgundian Netherlands also called the Seventeen Provinces up to 1581. Even after the secession of the autonomous Dutch Republic in the north. The Low Countries were part of the Roman provinces of Gallia Belgica, Germania Inferior and they were inhabited by Belgic and Germanic tribes. In the 4th and 5th century, Frankish tribes had entered this Roman region and they came to be ruled by the Merovingian dynasty, under which dynasty the southern part was re-Christianised
Low Countries
–
The Low Countries as seen from space with modern day boundaries drawn in thin blue.
21.
Wood
–
Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees, and other woody plants. It is a material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers which are strong in tension embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees, in a living tree it performs a support function, enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves. It also conveys water and nutrients between the leaves, other growing tissues, and the roots, Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, or wood chips or fiber. In 2005, the stock of forests worldwide was about 434 billion cubic meters. As an abundant, carbon-neutral renewable resource, woody materials have been of intense interest as a source of renewable energy, in 1991 approximately 3.5 billion cubic meters of wood were harvested. Dominant uses were for furniture and building construction, a 2011 discovery in the Canadian province of New Brunswick discovered the earliest known plants to have grown wood, approximately 395 to 400 million years ago. Wood can be dated by carbon dating and in species by dendrochronology to make inferences about when a wooden object was created. People have used wood for millennia for many purposes, primarily as a fuel or as a material for making houses, tools, weapons, furniture, packaging, artworks. Constructions using wood date back ten thousand years, buildings like the European Neolithic long house were made primarily of wood. Recent use of wood has changed by the addition of steel. The year-to-year variation in tree-ring widths and isotopic abundances gives clues to the climate at that time. This process is known as growth, it is the result of cell division in the vascular cambium, a lateral meristem. These cells then go on to form thickened secondary cell walls, composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, if the distinctiveness between seasons is annual, these growth rings are referred to as annual rings. Where there is little seasonal difference growth rings are likely to be indistinct or absent, if the bark of the tree has been removed in a particular area, the rings will likely be deformed as the plant overgrows the scar. It is usually lighter in color than that near the portion of the ring. The outer portion formed later in the season is known as the latewood or summerwood. However, there are differences, depending on the kind of wood
Wood
–
Diagram of
secondary growth in a
tree showing idealised vertical and horizontal sections. A new layer of wood is added in each growing season, thickening the stem, existing branches and
roots, to form a
growth ring.
Wood
Wood
–
A knot on a tree at the
Garden of the Gods public park in
Colorado Springs, Colorado (October 2006)
Wood
–
Wood knot in vertical section
22.
Handle (grip)
–
A handle is a part of, or attachment to, an object that can be moved or used by hand. The design of type of handle involves substantial ergonomic issues. Handles for tools are an important part of their function, enabling the user to exploit the tools to maximum effect, the three nearly universal requirements of are, Sufficient strength to support the object, or to otherwise transmit the force involved in the task the handle serves. Sufficient length to permit the hand or hands gripping it to exert that force. Sufficiently small circumference to permit the hand or hands to surround it far enough to grip it as solidly as needed to exert that force. Other requirements may apply to specific handles, A sheath or coating on the handle that provides friction against the hand, designs such as recessed car-door handles, reducing the chance of accidental operation, or simply the inconvenience of snagging the handle. Sufficient circumference to distribute the force comfortably and safely over the hand, design to thwart unwanted access, for example, by children or thieves. In these cases many of the requirements may have reduced importance. For example, a child-proof doorknob can be difficult for even an adult to use, one major category of handles are pull handles, where one or more hands grip the handle or handles, and exert force to shorten the distance between the hands and their corresponding shoulders. The three criteria stated above are universal for pull handles, many pull handles are for lifting, mostly on objects to be carried. Horizontal pull handles are widespread, including drawer pulls, handles on latchless doors, the inside controls for opening car doors from inside are usually pull handles, although their function of permitting the door to be pushed open is accomplished by an internal unlatching linkage. Pull handles are also a frequent host of common door handle bacteria such as e-coli, some throwing motions, as in a track-and-field hammer throw, involve pulling on a handle against centrifugal force, in the course of accelerating the thrown object by forcing it into circular motion. Another category of hand-operated device requires grasping and rotating the hand and either the arm or the whole arm. When the grip required is a fist grip, as with a handle that has an arm rather than a knob to twist
Handle (grip)
–
A modern claw hammer with
rubber handle
Handle (grip)
–
Flat-nose pliers with
thermoplastic handles
Handle (grip)
–
Many drawers use pull handles.
Handle (grip)
–
Many doors use twist handles.
23.
Coat of arms
–
A coat of arms is an heraldic visual design on an escutcheon, surcoat, or tabard. The coat of arms on an escutcheon forms the central element of the heraldic achievement which in its whole consists of shield, supporters, crest. A coat of arms is traditionally unique to a person, family, state. The ancient Romans used similar insignia on their shields, but these identified military units rather than individuals, the first evidence of medieval coats of arms has been attributed to the 11th century Bayeux Tapestry in which some of the combatants carry shields painted with crosses. However, that heraldic interpretation remains controversial, coats of arms came into general use by feudal lords and knights in battle in the 12th century. By the 13th century, arms had spread beyond their initial battlefield use to become a flag or emblem for families in the social classes of Europe. Exactly who had a right to use arms, by law or social convention, in the German-speaking regions both the aristocracy and burghers used arms, while in most of the rest of Europe they were limited to the aristocracy. The use of spread to the clergy, to towns as civic identifiers. Flags developed from coats of arms, and the arts of vexillology, the coats of arms granted to commercial companies are a major source of the modern logo. Despite no widespread regulation, heraldry has remained consistent across Europe, some nations, like England and Scotland, still maintain the same heraldic authorities which have traditionally granted and regulated arms for centuries and continue to do so in the present day. In England, for example, the granting of arms is and has controlled by the College of Arms. Unlike seals and other emblems, heraldic achievements have a formal description called a blazon. Many societies exist that also aid in the design and registration of personal arms, in the heraldic traditions of England and Scotland, an individual, rather than a family, had a coat of arms. In those traditions coats of arms are legal property transmitted from father to son, wives, undifferenced arms are used only by one person at any given time. Other descendants of the bearer could bear the ancestral arms only with some difference. One such charge is the label, which in British usage is now always the mark of an apparent or an heir presumptive. Because of their importance in identification, particularly in seals on legal documents and this has been carried out by heralds and the study of coats of arms is therefore called heraldry. In time, the use of arms spread from military entities to educational institutes, the author Helen Stuart argues that some coats of arms were a form of corporate logo
Coat of arms
–
The German
Hyghalmen Roll, ca. late 15th century, illustrates the German practice of thematic repetition from the arms in the crest
Coat of arms
Coat of arms
–
The
Zechariah Seal coat of arms.
24.
Landscape
–
A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms and how they integrate with natural or man-made features. The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and it is the dynamic backdrop to people’s lives. Landscape can be as varied as farmland, a landscape park, the activity of modifying the visible features of an area of land is referred to as landscaping. There are several definitions of what constitutes a landscape, depending on context, the term landscape emerged around the turn of the sixteenth century to denote a painting whose primary subject matter was natural scenery. Land may be taken in its sense of something to people belong. The suffix ‑scape is equivalent to the more common English suffix ‑ship, the roots of ‑ship are etymologically akin to Old English sceppan or scyppan, meaning to shape. The suffix ‑schaft is related to the verb schaffen, so that ‑ship, the word landscape, first recorded in 1598, was borrowed from a Dutch painters term. An example of this usage can be found as early as 1662 in the Book of Common Prayer, Could we but climb where Moses stood. Setting, In works of narrative, it includes the moment in time and geographic location in which a story takes place. Picturesque, The word literally means in the manner of a picture, fit to be made into a picture, and used as early as 1703, gilpin’s Essay on Prints defined picturesque as a term expressive of that peculiar kind of beauty, which is agreeable in a picture. A view, A sight or prospect of some landscape or extended scene, wilderness, An uncultivated, uninhabited, and inhospitable region. Cityscape, The urban equivalent of a landscape, in the visual arts a cityscape is an artistic representation, such as a painting, drawing, print or photograph, of the physical aspects of a city or urban area. Seascape, A photograph, painting, or other work of art depicts the sea. Geomorphology is the study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features created by physical or chemical processes operating at or near Earths surface. Geomorphology is practiced within physical geography, geology, geodesy, engineering geology, archaeology and this broad base of interests contributes to many research styles and interests within the field. The surface of Earth is modified by a combination of processes that sculpt landscapes, and geologic processes that cause tectonic uplift and subsidence. Many of these factors are strongly mediated by climate, the Earth surface and its topography therefore are an intersection of climatic, hydrologic, and biologic action with geologic processes. Desert, Plain, Taiga, Tundra, Wetland, Mountain, Mountain range, Cliff, Coast, Littoral zone, Glacier, Polar regions of Earth, Shrubland, Forest, Rainforest, Woodland, Jungle, Moors
Landscape
–
A
prairie:
Badlands National Park,
South Dakota, USA.
Landscape
–
Tropical
rainforest, Fatu Hiva Island,
Marquesas Islands,
French Polynesia.
Landscape
–
Tundra in
Siberia, Russia.
Landscape
–
Taiga (Boreal forest),
Alaska, US.
25.
Baking
–
Baking is a method of cooking food that uses prolonged dry heat, normally in an oven, but also in hot ashes, or on hot stones. The most common baked item is bread but many types of foods are baked. Heat is gradually transferred from the surface of cakes, cookies, as heat travels through it transforms batters and doughs into baked goods with a firm dry crust and a softer centre. Baking can be combined with grilling to produce a hybrid barbecue variant by using both methods simultaneously, or one after the other, Baking is related to barbecuing because the concept of the masonry oven is similar to that of a smoke pit. Because of historical social and familial roles, baking has traditionally performed at home by women for domestic consumption and by men in bakeries. When production was industrialized, baking was automated by machines in large factories, the art of baking remains a fundamental skill and is important for nutrition, as baked goods, especially breads, are a common but important food, both from an economic and cultural point of view. A person who prepares baked goods as a profession is called a baker, all types of food can be baked, but some require special care and protection from direct heat. Various techniques have developed to provide this protection. In addition to bread, baking is used to prepare cakes, pastries, pies, tarts, quiches, cookies, scones, crackers, pretzels, and more. Larger cuts prepared without stuffing or coating are often roasted. Roasting, however, is suitable for finer cuts of meat. One of these is the known as en croûte, which protects the food from direct heat. Meat, poultry, game, fish or vegetables can be prepared by baking en croûte, the en croûte method also allows meat to be baked by burying it in the embers of a fire – a favourite method of cooking venison. In this case, the casing is made from a paste of flour. Salt can also be used to make a protective crust that is not eaten, another method of protecting food from the heat while it is baking, is to cook it en papillote. In this method, the food is covered by baking paper to protect it while it is being baked, the cooked parcel of food is sometimes served unopened, allowing diners to discover the contents for themselves which adds an element of surprise. Eggs can also be used in baking to produce savoury or sweet dishes, in combination with dairy products especially cheese, they are often prepared as a dessert. For example, although a baked custard can be made using starch, baked custards, such as crème caramel, are among the items that need protection from an ovens direct heat, and the bain-marie method serves this purpose
Baking
–
Bedouins making and baking bread
Baking
–
Anders Zorn - Bread baking (1889)
Baking
–
A
Palestinian woman baking
markook bread on
tava or Saj oven in
Artas,
Bethlehem
Baking
–
A
terracotta baking mould for
pastry or
bread, representing goats and a lion attacking a cow. Early 2nd millennium BC, Royal palace at
Mari, Syria
26.
Hearth
–
In historic and modern usage, a hearth /ˈhɑːrθ/ is a brick- or stone-lined fireplace, with or without an oven, used for heating and originally also used for cooking food. In a medieval hall, the hearth commonly stood in the middle of the hall, later, such hearths were moved to the side of the room and provided with a chimney. In fireplace design, the hearth is the part of the fireplace where the fire burns, usually consisting of masonry at floor level or higher, the word hearth derives from an Indo-European root, *ker-, referring to burning, heat, and fire. In archaeology, a hearth is a firepit or other feature of any period. Hearths are common features of many eras going back to prehistoric campsites and they were used for cooking, heating, and the processing of some stone, wood, faunal, and floral resources. Farming or excavation—deform or disperse hearth features, making difficult to identify without careful study. Lined hearths are easily identified by the presence of fire-cracked rock, often present are fragmented fish and animal bones, carbonized shell, charcoal, ash, and other waste products, all embedded in a sequence of soil that has been deposited atop the hearth. Unlined hearths, which are easily identified, may also include these materials. Because of the nature of most of these items, they can be used to pinpoint the date the hearth was last used via the process of radiocarbon dating. Although carbon dates can be affected if the users of the hearth burned old wood or coal. This was the most common way to cook, and to interior spaces in cool seasons. Kapnikon was a tax raised on households without exceptions for the poor, in England, a tax on hearths was introduced on 19 May 1662. Householders were required to pay a charge of two shillings per annum for each hearth, with half the payment due at Michaelmas and half at Lady Day. Exemptions to the tax were granted, to those in receipt of relief, those whose houses were worth less than 20 shillings a year. Also exempt were charitable institutions such as schools and almshouses, and industrial hearths with the exception of smiths forges, the returns were lodged with the Clerk of the Peace between 1662 and 1688. A revision of the Act in 1664 made the tax payable by all who had more than two chimneys The tax was abolished by William III in 1689 and the last collection was for Lady Day of that year and it was abolished in Scotland in 1690. Hearth tax records are important to historians as they provide an indication of the size of each assessed house at the time. The numbers of hearths are generally proportional to the size of the house, the assessments can be used to indicate the numbers and local distribution of larger and smaller houses
Hearth
–
Hearth with cooking utensils
Hearth
–
Japanese traditional hearth (Irori)
Hearth
–
A cauldron over a fire in
William Blake 's illustrations to his mythical
Europe a Prophecy first published in 1794. This version of the print is currently held by the
Fitzwilliam Museum
Hearth
–
Dutch style kitchen hearth in
Hofwijck mansion, Voorburg, Netherlands.
27.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
28.
Cornelius Swartwout
–
Cornelius Swartwout was an American inventor who filed an early US patent related to waffle irons. Swartwout was born in Troy, New York, the grandson of the American Revolutionary War military veteran Cornelius Swartwout, the Swartwout family lineage goes back to Groningen in the Dutch Republic. The earliest waffle irons were not the work of Mr. Swartwout, instead and these irons were held over a hearth fire for baking. On August 24th,1869, Swartwout was awarded a US patent for an Improvement in Waffle-Irons and his invention looked nothing like modern electric models. Fashioned to sit on wood or gas stoves, the plates were joined by a hinge that swiveled in a cast-iron collar. In memory of Swartwouts patent, National Waffle Day in the United States is celebrated on August 24th each year
Cornelius Swartwout
–
Cornelius Swartwout
Cornelius Swartwout
–
Swartwout patent
29.
Patent
–
A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention. An invention is a solution to a technological problem and is a product or a process. Patents are a form of intellectual property, the procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims that define the invention. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property right and these claims must meet relevant patentability requirements, such as novelty, usefulness, and non-obviousness. Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to country, the word patent originates from the Latin patere, which means to lay open. More directly, it is a version of the term letters patent. Similar grants included land patents, which were land grants by early state governments in the USA, and printing patents, a precursor of modern copyright. In modern usage, the term patent usually refers to the granted to anyone who invents any new, useful. The additional qualification utility patent is used to distinguish the primary meaning from these other types of patents. Particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents, the period of protection was 10 years. These were mostly in the field of glass making, as Venetians emigrated, they sought similar patent protection in their new homes. This led to the diffusion of patent systems to other countries, by the 16th century, the English Crown would habitually abuse the granting of letters patent for monopolies. After public outcry, King James I of England was forced to revoke all existing monopolies, the Statute became the foundation for later developments in patent law in England and elsewhere. Important developments in patent law emerged during the 18th century through a process of judicial interpretation of the law. During the reign of Queen Anne, patent applications were required to supply a complete specification of the principles of operation of the invention for public access. Influenced by the philosophy of John Locke, the granting of patents began to be viewed as a form of property right. The English legal system became the foundation for patent law in countries with a common law heritage, including the United States, New Zealand, in the Thirteen Colonies, inventors could obtain patents through petition to a given colonys legislature
Patent
–
U.S patent
Patent
–
James Puckle 's 1718
early autocannon was one of the first inventions required to provide a specification for a patent.
Patent
–
The plate of the Martin
ejector seat of a military aircraft, stating that the design is covered by multiple patents in Britain, South Africa, Canada and "others".
Dübendorf Museum of Military Aviation.
30.
Shamokin, Pennsylvania
–
Shamokin is a city in Northumberland County, Pennsylvania, surrounded by Coal Township at the western edge of the Anthracite Coal Region. It was named after a Saponi village, Schahamokink, at the 2010 census the population was 7,374 residents. The city of Shamokin is bordered by Coal Township, Pennsylvania, the first human settlement of Shamokin was probably Shawnee migrants. A large population of Delaware Indians was also resettled there in the early 18th century after they lost rights to their land in the Walking Purchase. From 1727 to 1756, Sunbury was one of the largest and most influential Indian settlements in Pennsylvania, at that time, it was known as Shamokin, not to be confused with the present-day city of Shamokin, Pennsylvania, which is located to the east. In 1745, Presbyterian missionary David Brainerd described the city as being located on both the east and west sides of the river, and on an island, as well. Brainerd reported that the city housed 300 Indians, half of which were Delawares, in 1754, much of the land west of the Susquehanna was transferred from the Six Nations to Pennsylvania at the Albany Congress. However, Shamokin was not sold and was reserved by the Six Nations, the French and Indian War brought fighting to much of the region. The Delaware Indian residents of Shamokin remained neutral for much of the part of the war, in part because a drought. However, the Delaware Indians at Shamokin joined the war against Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Fort Augusta was built in 1756 at Shamokin. Read more about history of Sunbury in Shamokin. On March 21,1772, Northumberland County was incorporated and subdivided, the settlement of Shamokin was renamed Sunbury that same year, The city of present-day Shamokin was founded by as a village by colonists in 1773, but did not develop much until the 19th century. The discovery of coal resources in the region, known as hard coal. Railroad companies, such as Reading Railroad, bought interests in coal and became major employers of the area, building railroads to coal to market. Workers gradually organized into unions to develop means of bargaining with these powerful companies, during the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, workers in Shamokin marched and demonstrated during the summer period of labor unrest. Shamokin was incorporated as a borough on November 9,1864, in addition to anthracite coal-mining, it became an industrial center in the 19th century, with silk and knitting mills, stocking and shirt factories, wagon shops, ironworks, and brickyards. The Eagle Silk Mill became the largest textile manufacturing building under one roof in the United States, Thomas Edison, briefly a resident of Sunbury, established the Edison Illuminating Company of Shamokin in the fall of 1882. When the Shamokin station started on September 22,1883, St. Edwards Catholic Church became the first church in the world to be lit by electricity, mayor William Douty commissioned a citizen militia to help during the unrest
Shamokin, Pennsylvania
–
Streets in Shamokin, Pennsylvania
Shamokin, Pennsylvania
–
Keystone Marker
Shamokin, Pennsylvania
–
A coal pile near Shamokin, Pennsylvania from Shamokin
