1.
New Zealand Wars
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The New Zealand Wars were a series of armed conflicts that took place in New Zealand from 1845 to 1872 between the New Zealand government and the Māori. The colonial government summoned thousands of British troops to mount major campaigns to overpower the Māori King Movement and also acquire farming, guerilla-style tactics were used by both sides in later campaigns, often fought in dense bush. Over the course of the Taranaki and Waikato campaigns the lives of about 1800 Māori and 800 Europeans were lost, historians, however, have debated whether Māori signatories fully understood this last point, due to the possible mistranslation of the word sovereignty in the treaty copies. The majority of Māori wanted to sign in order to consolidate peace and they also wished to acquire the technological culture of the British. All pre-treaty colonial land-sale deals had taken place directly between two parties, in the early period of contact Māori generally sought trade with Europeans. The British and the French established mission stations, and missionaries received land from iwi for houses, schools, churches, as part of the Treaty of Waitangi, colonial authorities decreed that Māori could sell land only to the Crown. The various conflicts of the New Zealand wars span a period. The earliest conflicts in the 1840s happened at a time when Māori were still the predominant power, the first armed conflict between Māori and the European settlers took place on 17 June 1843 in the Wairau Valley, in the north of the South Island. The clash was sparked when settlers led by a representative of the New Zealand Company—which held a title deed to a block of land—attempted to clear Māori off the land ready for surveying. The party also attempted to arrest Ngāti Toa chiefs Te Rauparaha, fighting broke out and 22 Europeans were killed, as well as four to six Māori. Several Europeans were slain after being captured, in early 1844, the new Governor, Robert FitzRoy, investigated the incident and declared the settlers were at fault. The Wairau Affray—described as the Wairau Massacre in early texts—was the only armed conflict of the New Zealand Wars to take place in the South Island. The Flagstaff War took place in the far north of New Zealand, around the Bay of Islands, in 1845 George Grey arrived in New Zealand to take up his appointment as governor. At this time Hone Heke challenged the authority of the British, there were many causes of the Flagstaff War and Heke had a number of grievances in relation to the Treaty of Waitangi. Despite the fact that Tāmati Wāka Nene and most of Ngāpuhi sided with the government, after the Battle of Ruapekapeka Heke and Kawiti were ready for peace. It was Tāmati Wāka Nene they approached to act as the intermediary to negotiate with Governor Grey, the fighting in the north ended and there was no punitive confiscation of Ngāpuhi land. The Hutt Valley campaign of 1846 came as a sequel to the Wairau Affray, Ngāti Toa chief Te Rauparaha was also taken into custody during the campaign, he was detained without charge in Auckland for two years. The bloodshed heightened settlers fears in nearby Wanganui, which was given a military force to guard against attack
2.
Flagstaff War
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The Flagstaff War – also known as Hōne Hekes Rebellion, the Northern War and the First Māori War – was fought between 11 March 1845 and 11 January 1846 in and around the Bay of Islands, New Zealand. The conflict is best remembered for the actions of Hōne Heke who challenged the authority of the British by cutting down the flagstaff on Flagstaff Hill at Kororāreka, the flagstaff had been a gift from Hōne Heke to James Busby, the first British Resident. The signing of the Treaty of Waitangi started on 6 February 1840, ostensibly, the treaty established the legal basis for the British presence in New Zealand. On 21 May 1840, New Zealand was formally annexed to the British Crown, in the Bay of Islands, Hōne Heke, one of the original signatories to the treaty, started to become increasingly unhappy with the outcome of the treaty. Heke and his cousin Titore also collected and divided a levy of £5 on each ship entering the Bay, Pōmare II complained that he no longer collected payment from American ships that called at Otuihu across from Opua. Heke and the Ngāpuhi chief Pōmare II had listened to Captain William Mayhew, Heke obtained an American ensign from Henry Green Smith, a storekeeper at Wahapu who had succeeded Mayhew as Acting-Consul. After the flagstaff was cut down for a time, the Stars. Hōne Heke and Te Ruki Kawiti worked out the plan to draw the colonial forces into battle, in July 1844, Kotiro, a former slave of Heke, openly insulted the Ngāpuhi chief. Kotiro had been captured from a southern tribe 15 years earlier, and was now living with her English husband, there are differing stories as to the specific insult or the circumstances in which it was delivered. Carleton used the presence of Kotiro, and her status, as pretext for a taua — a raid upon Kororāreka. The Auckland Chronicle reported the incident as such, On 8 July 1844 the flagstaff on Maiki Hill at the end of Kororāreka was cut down for the first time. Heke had set out to cut down the flagstaff, but was persuaded by Archdeacon William Williams not to do so, on 24 August 1844 Governor FitzRoy arrived in the bay from Auckland upon HMS Hazard. The Government brig Victoria arrived in company with HMS Hazard, with a detachment of the 96th Regiment under Lieutenant Colonel William Hulme, Governor FitzRoy summoned the Ngāpuhi chiefs to a conference at Te Waimate mission on 2 September and apparently defused the situation. Tāmati Wāka Nene and the other Ngāpuhi chiefs undertook to keep Heke in check, Hōne Heke did not attend, but sent a conciliatory letter and offered to replace the flagstaff. The soldiers were returned to Sydney, but the accord did not last, the Ngāpuhi warriors led by Te Ruki Kawiti and Hōne Heke decided to challenge the Europeans at Kororāreka. On 10 January 1845, the flagstaff was cut down a second time, on 17 January, a small detachment of a subaltern and 30 men of the 96th Regiment were landed. A new and stronger flagstaff sheathed in iron was erected on 18 January 1845, Nene and his men provided guards for the flagstaff, but the next morning the flagstaff was felled for the third time. Governor FitzRoy sent over to New South Wales for reinforcements, early in February 1845 Kawitis warriors begun to plunder the settlers a mile or two from Kororāreka
3.
Hutt Valley Campaign
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The Hutt Valley Campaign was a brief round of hostilities in the lower North Island of New Zealand between indigenous Māori and British settlers and military forces in 1846. The campaign was among the earliest of the 19th century New Zealand wars that were fought over issues of land, the three conflicts also shared many of the same combatants. Ngāti Toa chief Te Rauparaha was taken into custody during the campaign, tensions rose in the mid-1840s as settlers and Māori were left to deal with the consequences of haphazard and often dubious land purchases by the New Zealand Company. The boundaries of purchased land and Māori reserves were only vaguely indicated, creating confusion. Among the recipients was Ngāti Tama chief Te Kaeaea, then living at Kaiwharawhara in subservience to Te Rauparaha, Ngāti Rangatahi, although it had been in the Heretaunga district seasonally since the early 1830s, was offered nothing, although its territory was included in the purchase. Te Rauparaha, who saw himself as the owner by right of conquest. Spain arrived in Auckland in December and began his hearings into the Port Nicholson dealings in May 1842, an abortive bid by settlers and company representatives to arrest the two chiefs for impeding them resulted in the bloody Wairau Affray. The deeds indicated acceptance of a surrender of all our title to all our claims in all our lands which are written in the Document except pā, cultivations. Te Aro Māori demanded further payment, but relented four days later when Ngāti Mutunga chief Pōmare—visiting the area from his new home in the Chatham Islands—advised them to accept the offer. Te Aro gave a third of their payment to Pōmare. Another ₤530 was distributed to Māori of Kumutoto, Pipitea and Tiakiwai pā the same day, Te Rauparaha said he considered Port Nicholson to mean all the land seaward of the Rotokakahi Stream, about 2 km up the Heretaunga River. Spain raised his offer, offering Te Rauparaha another £100 to compensate for lost crops if he ensured Taringa Kuri left the valley immediately. On 12 November Clarke wrote a document acknowledging the receipt by Te Rauparaha, the Waitangi Tribunal noted that the document did not define the boundaries of the land that had been surrendered and gave Ngāti Toa no guarantee of reserves. It said the document was not signed by Te Rangihaeata, who received no share of the money until March 1845. The tribunal said there was no indication Ngāti Tama received any of the compensation for their crops. Government officials now began to suggest that force might be required to them to make way for European settlers. A series of redoubts and stockades were built in the Wellington area, including Fort Richmond beside the Hutt River, with further small outposts at Boulcotts Farm, all were manned by militia until the steady arrival of almost 800 British troops from Auckland and the Bay of Islands. Governor George Grey arrived in New Zealand in November 1845 and began to adopt an aggressive approach than his predecessor, Robert Fitzroy
4.
Wanganui Campaign
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The Wanganui Campaign was a brief round of hostilities in the North Island of New Zealand as indigenous Māori fought British settlers and military forces in 1847. The Wanganui settlement had established by the New Zealand Company in 1840 on land supposedly bought by William Wakefield in November 1839. By 1845 the settlement had grown to about 200 people and about 60 houses, another 100 soldiers from the Grenadier Company of the 65th Regiment arrived the following May. The establishment of the garrison heightened Te Mamakus expectations of government intervention, on 16 April 1847 a minor chief of the Wanganui people was accidentally shot by a junior army officer, suffering a head injury. Five of the six killers were captured by lower Wanganui Māori, four were court-martialled in Wanganui, the execution prompted a further revenge attack. About 500 or 600 heavily-armed Māori formed a taua that swept down the Wanganui River in a procession of war canoes in early May, initially plundering and burning settlers houses, the warriors also killed and mutilated a soldier from the 58th Regiment who ventured out of the town. The towns residents abandoned their homes at night to begin sleeping in a group of fortified houses. On 19 May Te Mamakus warriors made their first attack on the town, approaching from the west and north, in June reconnaissance missions were mounted up the valley of the Wanganui River from the garrison—which now contained 500 to 600 soldiers—resulting in some minor skirmishes. On 20 July about 400 Māori fighters approached the town from the low hills inland, occupying a ridge at St Johns Wood where they had dug trenches and rifle-pits and thrown up breastworks. About 400 imperial soldiers commanded by William Anson McCleverty became involved in a series of skirmishes along a pathway through swampy ground. After being bombarded with artillery fire, Māori forces charged on the troops, Māori withdrew to the trenches and breastworks, maintaining fire on the British troops until nightfall. Three British soldiers died and one was wounded in the clash, on 23 July Te Mamakus forces appeared again, exchanging fire with British forces before retiring upriver to their stronghold near Pipiriki. In February 1848 Grey negotiated a settlement with Te Mamaku. Twelve years of cooperation and development followed, with the gradual alienation of yet more Māori land which led to more conflict
5.
First Taranaki War
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The war was sparked by a dispute between the government and Māori landowners over the sale of a property at Waitara, but spread throughout the region. It was fought by more than 3,500 imperial troops brought in from Australia, as well as soldiers and militia. Total losses among the imperial, volunteer and militia troops are estimated to have been 238, while Māori casualties totalled about 200, the war ended in a ceasefire, with neither side explicitly accepting the peace terms of the other. Although there were claims by the British that they had won the war, there were widely held views at the time they had suffered an unfavourable, historians have also been divided on the result. Historian James Belich has claimed that the Māori succeeded in thwarting the British bid to sovereignty over them. But he said the Māori victory was a one, leading to the invasion of the Waikato. An opinion sought by the tribunal from a constitutional lawyer stated that the Governor, Thomas Gore Browne. The term First Taranaki War is opposed by some historians, who refer only to the Taranaki Wars, the 1927 Royal Commission on Confiscated Land also referred to the hostilities between 1864 and 1866 as a continuation of the initial Taranaki war. The catalyst for the war was the sale of 600 acres of land known as the Pekapeka block, or Teiras block. Browne accepted the purchase with full knowledge of the circumstances and tried to occupy the land, one commentator observed, with reference to Waitara, We seem to be fast approaching a settlement of that point, whether Her Fair Majesty or His Dark Majesty shall reign in New Zealand. The British were convinced that their system represented the best that civilization had to offer, however, in the 20 years since the signing of the Treaty, the Māori had made significant political advances. One of the principles of the King Movement was their opposition to the sale of Māori land. Teira was paid a deposit for the land in December 1859. When Māori obstructed surveyors as they work on the block. Two days later a deed for the sale of the disputed Pekapeka block was executed, four hundred men landed at Waitara the next day to fortify a position and the survey of the land began on 13 March without resistance. On the night of 15 March, however, Kingi and about 80 men built an L-shaped pā, or defensive strong point, at Te Kohia, at the south-west extremity of the block, commanding the road access. The next day, they uprooted the surveyors boundary markers and when ordered the day,17 March, to surrender. Golds troops opened fire and the Taranaki wars had begun, golds troops, by then numbering almost 500, poured in heavy fire all day from as near as 50 metres, firing 200 rounds from two 24-pound howitzers as well as small arms fire
6.
Invasion of the Waikato
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The Waikato is a territorial region with a northern boundary somewhat south of the city of Auckland. Hostilities lasted for nine months, from July 1863 to April 1864, the campaign was fought by a peak of about 14,000 Imperial and colonial troops and about 4,000 Māori warriors drawn from more than half the major North Island tribal groups. Grey reactivated the invasion plans in June 1863 amid mounting tension between Kingites and the government and fears of a violent raid on Auckland by Kingite Māori. Troops crossed into Waikato territory three days later and launched their first attack on 17 July at Koheroa, but were unable to advance for another 14 weeks. The campaign ended with the retreat of the Kingitanga Māori into the interior of the North Island. The Governor-General normally gives Royal Assent to legislation by signing on her behalf, the First Taranaki War had ended in March 1861 as an uneasy truce between government and Māori forces, with both sides recognising they had reached a stalemate. Browne concluded that members of the Kingite movement would have to be compelled to submit to British rule, in response to Brownes belligerence, Kingite leaders formed plans to launch a raid on Auckland on 1 September and burn the town and slaughter most of its residents. Brownes invasion plan was suspended when he was replaced by Sir George Grey in September that year, the so-called Great South Road would provide quick access to troops in the event of an invasion. In November 1862 he ordered a gunboat steamer from Sydney and purchased another in Lyttelton to supplement the supply system, by early 1863 the imperial government had provided Grey with 3000 men for the expected war. Events in early 1863 brought tensions to a head, the raiders, led by Rewi Maniapoto and Wiremu Kīngi, sent a message to Gorst—who was absent at the time—to quit the property or risk death, Grey recalled Gorst to Auckland soon after. On 4 April Grey arranged for a 300-strong Imperial force to evict Māori from the contested Tataramaika block in Taranaki and reoccupy it. The ambush, ordered by Rewi, may have been planned as an attempt on Grey. Concerned by the aggression, some Kingites began resurrecting their plan to raid Auckland. But in correspondence to London Grey cited that incident as proof of the imminent danger to New Zealand settlers. On 9 July 1863 Grey issued a new ultimatum, ordering that all Māori living between Auckland and the Waikato take an oath of allegiance to Queen Victoria or be expelled south of the river. As many young men retreated into the bush with their weapons, officials began seizing others—including the ill and aged—who declined to swear the oath, by the instigation of some of you, officers and soldiers were murdered at Taranaki. Others of you have expressed approval of these murders. You are now assembling in armed bands, you are threatening to come down the river to ravage the Settlement of Auckland
7.
Tauranga Campaign
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The Tauranga Campaign was a six-month-long armed conflict in New Zealands Bay of Plenty in early 1864, and part of the New Zealand wars that were fought over issues of land ownership and sovereignty. The campaign was a sequel to the invasion of Waikato, which aimed to crush the Māori King Movement that was viewed by the government as a challenge to the supremacy of the British monarchy. The new fortification, which known as the Gate Pā, was built just 5 km from imperial troops. Puhirake, finding it difficult to keep his force together without a battle in prospect. Meanwhile, fighting had broken out nearby. A large contingent of East Coast Māori, possibly as many as 700 warriors, were making their way towards the conflict at Waikato and their route took them through the territory of another tribe which saw themselves as allies of the Pākehā, the Arawa tribe based around Rotorua. Forewarned of this, the Arawa chiefs called back their tribesmen, pausing in Tauranga to borrow guns from the British, they hastened onward to Rotorua. Four hundred warriors of the tribe were mobilised and they met, while the main redoubt was garrisoned by Ngāi Te Rangi, the smaller one was manned by about 30 members of the Ngāti Koheriki hapu and another 10 men from Piri-Rikau and other hapu. The total garrison of Gate Pā was about 230, on 5 April Cameron abandoned hope of pursuing Ngāti Hauā leader and prominent Kingite Wiremu Tamihana after his foe evacuated the besieged Te Tiki o te Ihingarangi pā near Lake Karapiro. He switched his attention to Tauranga, arriving there on 21 April in HMS Esk, on the afternoon of 28 April, Cameron launched an hour-long attack on the front of Gate Pā with four batteries of artillery placed at a range of between 350 and 800 metres. Those forces were joined by a detachment of the Naval Brigade from the warships Esk, Falcon, at first light on 29 April the assembled guns and mortars opened fire again, this time maintained for more than eight hours, destroying the palisade and completely suppressing Māori gunfire. An estimated 30 tonnes of shell and shot were dropped on or near the Māori position, another 300 men followed at a distance as a reserve. Some in the initial British assault force were shot as they entered the main pā, a lull of about five minutes occurred, during which time Captain G. R. Greaves, who was with the files of the assault party, left the pā and reported to Cameron that the redoubt had been captured. But minutes later, as the rear of the pā was breached by the 68th Regiment, in a sequence of events that is still unclear, fierce fighting erupted, taking a heavy toll on the invaders and panicked British forces began streaming out of the pā. Historian James Cowan wrote, More than a hundred of the column were casualties, and the glacis. The Maoris suffered too, but not severely, thirty-one of the British force died, including 10 officers, while 80 were wounded. Several theories exist to explain the British stampede from the pā, a contemporary report by a seaman in the pā suggested that the flood of soldiers from the 68th Regiment at the rear was mistaken for Māori reinforcements
8.
Second Taranaki War
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The Second Taranaki War is a term used by some historians for the period of hostilities between Māori and the New Zealand Government in the Taranaki district of New Zealand between 1863 and 1866. The Hauhau movement became a factor for Taranaki Māori in the absence of individual Māori commanders. The style of warfare after 1863 differed markedly from that of the 1860-61 conflict, in which Māori had taken set positions, as the troops advanced, the Government built an expanding line of redoubts, behind which settlers built homes and developed farms. The effect was a creeping confiscation of almost a million acres of land, the Governments war policy was opposed by the British commander, General Duncan Cameron, who clashed with Governor Sir George Grey and offered his resignation in February 1865. He left New Zealand six months later, among the new colonial forces were specialist Forest Ranger units, which embarked on lengthy search-and-destroy missions deep into the bush. It concluded, In so far as Māori fought at all – and few did – they were defending their kainga, crops and land against military advance. The conflict in Taranaki had its roots in the First Taranaki War, neither side fulfilled the terms of the truce, leaving many of the issues unresolved. In 1861 Governor Thomas Gore Browne had promised to investigate the legitimacy of the sale of the Waitara land, in a despatch to London Grey wrote that he had failed to shake the dogged determination of Māori on the Waitara question. A great part of the race, he wrote, may be stated to be at the present moment in arms. Large numbers of them have renounced the Queens authority, and many of them declare openly that they have been so wronged that they never return under it. The great majority of them declare that if war arises from this cause, they will rise, the reasons they urge for such proceedings are. That the people of the Waitara, without having been guilty of any crime, were driven at the point of the sword from villages, houses and that a great crime had been committed against them. That through all future generations it will be told that their lands have been forcibly and unlawfully taken from them by officers appointed by the Queen of England. A month later Grey began planning to return Waitara to the Māori, but he did nothing to signal his intention and on 4 May, a week before he acted, Māori began killing British troops traversing their land. Little distinction was made between the land of rebels and Māori loyal to the government, in their eyes the fight was not against the Queens sovereignty, but a struggle for house and home. In 1862 the so-called Hauhau Movement emerged among Taranaki Māori, the movement was an extremist part of the Pai Mārire religion that was both violent and vehemently anti-Pākehā. The fragile peace that had existed in Taranaki since the truce of March 1861 was broken with two separate but related events southwest of New Plymouth. In March 1863 a group of Māori encamped on land they had seized at Tataraimaka were ousted with force by British troops in what they regarded as an act of war
9.
East Cape War
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At least five separate campaigns were fought in the area during a period of relative peace in the long-running 19th century New Zealand wars. Pai Mārire arrived on the east coast from Taranaki about 1865, in 2013 the Crown paid $23 million in financial redress and expressed profound regret over the unjust attacks in Hawkes Bay in 1866 and apologised for subsequent land confiscations. In 1863 the government enacted laws to confiscate the land of Māori deemed to have been in rebellion against the government in the land wars. The laws were aimed at punishing Māori for their aggression and also establishing law, order, from early 1865 the government began confiscating wide areas of Taranaki and Waikato, depriving Māori of their food sources and livelihood. In many parts of the North Island the resultant resentment and anger found expression in the radical, nationalistic elements of Pai Mārire. In early 1865 Pai Mārire leader Te Ua Haumēne sent two prophets, Kereopa Te Rau and Patara Raukatauri, to convert East Coast tribes, Kereopa, an ageing veteran of the Waikato wars, carried with him the head of Captain P. W. J. Lloyd, who had killed in the Ahuahu attack of April 1864 in Taranaki. Ignoring warnings that his life was in danger, Volkner sailed back to Opotiki, the schooner was looted and Volkner and another missionary, Thomas Grace, were taken captive. The following day Volkner was hanged, then beheaded, Grace remained captive for two weeks before escaping. A poorly-armed Māori party led by chiefs including Ropata Wahawaha mounted a raid on Pai Mārire adherents at Mangaone, near Pukemaire. McLean immediately supplied Mokena with weapons and ammunition, then dispatched about 100 Colonial Defence Force troops under Major James Fraser. The HMS Eclipse landed the troops at Hicks Bay and at the mouth of the Waiapu River on 5 July 1865 in a bid to capture Kereopa and Patara, shelling their Hauhau enemy the next day. Fulloon and two of its crew were shot and killed and the vessels mast was taken ashore and erected as a niu or sacred pole for Pai Mārire rites. In Auckland, fears grew that the spread of Pai Mārire could unite tribes against settlers in a tide of religious fanaticism, the captured stockade was then burned. Though outnumbered 500 to 200, Ropata captured the positions, then used a revolver to execute prisoners from his own tribe who had converted to the religion. On 18 August at a pā between Tokomaru and Tolaga Bay a heavily outnumbered force of 36 men under Henare Potae was reinforced by another 90 under Ropata in a sharp and bloody engagement. Twelve of the Pai Mārire were killed, prompting survivors to abandon the East Cape region, eight Whakatohea Māori were killed in the two-day clash. On 4 October McDonnell led a force to Te Tarata, a new pā about 6 km from Opotiki, when the force came under heavy fire, McDonnell sent for cavalry and artillery reinforcement, who surrounded the pā on three sides and began shelling it
10.
Te Kooti's War
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Te Kootis War was among the last of the New Zealand wars, the series of 19th century conflicts between the Māori and the colonising European settlers. The conflict was sparked by Te Kootis return to New Zealand after two years of internment on the Chatham Islands, from where he had escaped with almost 200 Māori prisoners of war and their families. Te Kooti, who had been held without trial on the island for two years, told the government he and his followers wished to be left in peace and would fight only if pursued and attacked. But two weeks after their return to New Zealand, members of Te Kootis party found themselves being pursued by a force of militia, government troops, Te Kootis force routed them in an ambush, seizing arms, ammunition, food and horses. The engagement was the first in what became a guerrilla war, involving more than 30 expeditions by colonial. Te Kooti was finally granted sanctuary by the Māori king in 1872 and moved to the King Country and he was formally pardoned by the government in February 1883 and died in 1893. Te Kooti Arikirangi Te Turuki was born about 1832 into the Ngati Maru sub-tribe of the Māori people in Poverty Bay on the shore of East Cape. The protests were part of a movement to recover occupied land, despite his involvement in land politics, Te Kooti stayed clear of the Pai Mārire religion when it spread to the East Coast in early 1865. He fought with kūpapa Māori and government troops against Pai Mārire men, women and children in the siege of Waerenga-a-Hika in October 1865. Te Kooi claimed to have killed two Pai Mārire fighters in the battle, but was accused of being a spy and was arrested after the siege ended. His repeated pleas to be told of what offence he had accused of. Prisoners were kept in conditions with minimal health care and forced to build roads and barracks. In April 1867, a year after their arrival, prisoners were told they would not be repatriated until East Coast land confiscations had been determined, by 1868 the mood of the exiles darkened as they realised there were no plans to return them to New Zealand. A total of 298 people—163 men,64 women and 71 children—sailed out of the Chatham Islands, arriving at a cove at Whareongaonga, south of Turanga. The letter also asked that they be left in peace and not be pursued as they made their way to the interior of the North Island, while in the Chathams Te Kooti also learned of the sale of disputed Poverty Bay land in which he held an interest. The transactions involved many of those, both Māori and European settler, whom he killed in his Poverty Bay campaigns. Te Kooti rejected the demand, declaring he would fight if he was pursued and attacked. Te Kooti intended to settle in the village of Tauranga
11.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
12.
Treaty of Waitangi
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The Treaty of Waitangi is a treaty first signed on 6 February 1840 by representatives of the British Crown and various Māori chiefs from the North Island of New Zealand. It resulted in the declaration of British sovereignty over New Zealand by Lieutenant Governor William Hobson in May 1840, the Treaty established a British Governor of New Zealand, recognised Māori ownership of their lands, forests and other properties, and gave the Māori the rights of British subjects. In return the Māori people ceded New Zealand to Queen Victoria, the English and Māori versions of the Treaty differed significantly, so there is no consensus as to exactly what was agreed. From the British point of view, the Treaty gave Britain sovereignty over New Zealand, Māori believed they ceded to the Crown a right of governance in return for protection, without giving up their authority to manage their own affairs. After the initial signing at Waitangi, copies of the Treaty were taken around New Zealand, in total there are nine copies of the Treaty of Waitangi including the original signed on 6 February 1840. Around 530 to 540 Māori, at least 13 of them women, in the 1970s the treaty gained prominence amid greater awareness of Maori issues and grievances, particularly with regard to land claims. Māori have looked to the Treaty for rights and remedies for land loss and unequal treatment by the state, from the late 1960s Māori began drawing attention to breaches of the Treaty, and subsequent histories have emphasised problems with its translation. In 1975, the Waitangi Tribunal was established as a permanent commission of inquiry tasked with researching breaches of the Treaty by the British Crown or its agents, the move showed that the original document was not a firm foundation for the construction of a State. Today the Treaty is generally considered the document of New Zealand as a nation. Despite this, it is often the subject of heated debate, many Māori feel that the Crown did not fulfil its obligations under the Treaty, and have presented evidence of this before sittings of the Waitangi Tribunal. Some non-Māori New Zealanders have suggested that Māori may be abusing the Treaty in order to claim special privileges. The Crown, in most cases, is not obliged to act on the recommendations of the Tribunal but nonetheless in many instances has accepted that it breached the Treaty and its principles. Settlements for Treaty breaches to date have consisted of hundreds of millions of dollars of reparations in cash and assets, the date of the signing has been a national holiday, now called Waitangi Day, since 1974. Between 1795 and 1830 a steady flow of sealing and then whaling ships visited New Zealand, mainly stopping at the Bay of Islands for food supplies, many of the ships came from Sydney. Trade between Sydney and New Zealand increased as traders sought kauri timber and flax and missionaries purchased large areas of land in the Bay of Islands. The purchase of muskets by Ngāpuhi in Sydney began a devastation of the Māori population in a series of as many as 3000 tribal battles known as the Musket Wars between 1807 and 1845. In 1831, thirteen chiefly rangatira from the far north of the country met at Kerikeri to compose a letter to King William IV asking for help to guard their lands. Specifically, the chiefs sought protection from the French, the tribe of Marion, in response, the British government sent James Busby in 1832 to be the British Resident in New Zealand
13.
South Island
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The South Island or Te Waipounamu is the larger of the two major islands of New Zealand, the other being the smaller but more populous North Island. It is bordered to the north by Cook Strait, to the west by the Tasman Sea, the South Island covers 150,437 square kilometres and has a temperate climate. In the early stages of European settlement of the country, the South Island had the majority of the European population, in prose, the two main islands of New Zealand are called the North Island and the South Island, with the definite article. Charcoal drawings can be found on rock shelters in the centre of the South Island. The drawings are estimated to be between 500 and 800 years old, and portray animals, people and fantastic creatures, possibly stylised reptiles, some of the birds pictured are long extinct, including moa and Haasts eagles. They were drawn by early Māori, but by the time Europeans arrived, early inhabitants of the South Island were the Waitaha. They were largely absorbed via marriage and conquest by the Kāti Mamoe in the 16th century, Kāti Mamoe were in turn largely absorbed via marriage and conquest by the Kāi Tahu who migrated south in the 17th century. While today there is no distinct Kāti Mamoe organisation, many Kāi Tahu have Kāti Mamoe links in their whakapapa and, a notable feature of the Moriori culture, an emphasis on pacifism, proved disadvantageous when Māori warriors arrived in the 1830s aboard a chartered European ship. In the early 18th century, Kāi Tahu, a Māori tribe who originated on the east coast of the North Island, There they and Kāti Mamoe fought Ngāi Tara and Rangitāne in the Wairau Valley. Ngāti Māmoe then ceded the east coast regions north of the Clarence River to Kāi Tahu, Kāi Tahu continued to push south, conquering Kaikoura. By the 1730s, Kāi Tahu had settled in Canterbury, including Banks Peninsula, from there they spread further south and into the West Coast. In 1827-1828 Ngāti Toa under the leadership of Te Rauparaha successfully attacked Kāi Tahu at Kaikoura, Ngāti Toa then visited Kaiapoi, ostensibly to trade. When they attacked their hosts, the well-prepared Kāi Tahu killed all the leading Ngāti Toa chiefs except Te Rauparaha, Te Rauparaha returned to his Kapiti Island stronghold. After destroying Te Maiharanuis village they took their captives to Kapiti, John Stewart, though arrested and sent to trial in Sydney as an accomplice to murder, nevertheless escaped conviction. In the summer of 1831–32 Te Rauparaha attacked the Kaiapoi pā, Kaiapoi was engaged in a three-month siege by Te Rauparaha, during which his men successfully sapped the pā. They then attacked Kāi Tahu on Banks Peninsula and took the pā at Onawe, in 1832-33 Kāi Tahu retaliated under the leadership of Tūhawaiki and others, attacking Ngāti Toa at Lake Grassmere. Kāi Tahu prevailed, and killed many Ngāti Toa, although Te Rauparaha again escaped, fighting continued for a year or so, with Kāi Tahu maintaining the upper hand. Ngāti Toa never again made an incursion into Kāi Tahu territory
14.
New Zealand Company
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The New Zealand Company was a 19th-century English company that played a key role in the colonisation of New Zealand. The company was formed to carry out the principles of systematic colonisation devised by Edward Gibbon Wakefield, the New Zealand Company established settlements at Wellington, Nelson, Wanganui and Dunedin and also became involved in the settling of New Plymouth and Christchurch. It reached the peak of efficiency about 1841, encountered problems from 1843 from which it never recovered. The company indulged in many land purchases from Māori, in many cases reselling land it did not own. The company, in turn, was criticised by the Colonial Office and New Zealand Governors for its trickery. Missionaries in New Zealand were also critical of the company, fearing its activities would lead to the “conquest, britains Colonial Secretary rejected the proposal. The earliest organised attempt to colonise New Zealand came in 1825, on 5 March 1826 the ships, Lambton and Rosanna, reached Stewart Island, which Herd explored and then dismissed as a possible settlement, before sailing north to inspect land around Otago Harbour. Herd was unconvinced that area was the location and sailed instead for Te Whanganui-a-Tara. The ships then sailed up the east coast to explore prospects for trade, stopping at the Coromandel Peninsula and the Bay of Islands. In January 1827 Herd surveyed parts of the harbour at Hokianga, the price for the land was five muskets, fifty three pounds powder, four pair blankets, three hundred flints and four musket cartridge boxes. The venture had cost the New Zealand Company ₤20,000, the failure of Lambtons project came to the attention of 30-year-old aspiring politician Edward Gibbon Wakefield, who was serving three years in jail for abducting a 15-year-old heiress. Wakefields plan entailed a company buying land from the residents of Australia or New Zealand very cheaply, then selling it to speculators. The immigrants would provide the labour to break in the gentlemens lands and they would eventually be able to buy their own land, but high land prices and low rates of pay would ensure they first laboured for many years. In May 1830 Wakefield was released from prison and joined the National Colonisation Society, whose committee included Wilmot-Horton, nine MPs and three clergymen. Wakefields influence within the society grew and by the end of the year his plans for colonisation of Australasia had become the central focus of the societys pamphlets. Land in the town of Adelaide was offered at ₤1 an acre on maps showing town, in March 1836 a survey party sailed for South Australia and the first emigrants followed four months later. Wakefield claimed all credit for the establishment of the colony, but was disappointed with the outcome, instead, in late 1836, he set his sights on New Zealand, where his theories of systematic colonisation could be put into full effect. Wakefield formed the New Zealand Association, and on 22 May 1837 chaired its first meeting, which was attended by ten others including MPs Molesworth and William Hutt, and R. S
15.
Wairau Valley
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Wairau Valley is the valley of the Wairau River in Marlborough, New Zealand and also the name of the main settlement in the upper valley. State Highway 63 runs through the valley, the valley opens onto the Wairau Plain, where Renwick and Blenheim are sited. The Alpine–Wairau Fault runs along the length of the valley, the population of the Wairau Valley and Wairau Plain, excluding Renwick and Blenheim, was 4,572 in the 2006 Census, an increase of 717 from 2001. Wairauite is an alloy which is named after the valley. J. S. Cotterell surveyed the Wairau Valley in November 1842, settlers from Nelson, led by Arthur Wakefield, tried to take possession of the land but the Ngāti Toa, led by Te Rauparaha and Te Rangihaeata objected. The dispute escalated into the Wairau Affray at Tuamarina on 23 June 1843, in which 22 settlers, an enquiry held in 1844 by Governor Robert FitzRoy decided that the settlers were in the wrong. In November 1846, Nelson farmers Nathaniel Morse and John Cooper drove sheep into the Wairau valley, Governor Sir George Grey purchased the land in the same year, but legal title to the land for the settlers was sorted out later. In the 1855 Wairarapa earthquake, the end of the Wairau valley subsided by over a metre. Wairau Valley School is a full primary school with a decile rating of 8. A school first opened in the Wairau valley in 1861
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Te Rauparaha
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Te Rauparaha was a Māori rangatira and war leader of the Ngāti Toa tribe who took a leading part in the Musket Wars. He was influential in the sale of land to the New Zealand Company and was a participant in the Wairau Affray in Marlborough. From 1807, muskets became the weapon of choice and partly changed the character of tribal warfare, in 1819 Te Rauparaha joined with a large war party of Ngāpuhi led by Tāmati Wāka Nene, they probably reached Cook Strait before turning back. Led by Te Rauparaha they began a retreat or migration southwards, conquering hapu. This campaign ended with Ngāti Toa controlling the southern part of the North Island and particularly the strategically placed Kapiti Island, which became the tribal stronghold for a period. Crossing in a flotilla of war canoes under cover of darkness and this decisive victory left Te Rauparaha and the Ngāti Toa able to dominate Kapiti and the adjacent mainland. Following the Battle of Wairoa Te Rauparaha began a series of almost annual campaigns into the South Island with the object in part of seizing the sources of the valuable mineral greenstone. Between 1827 and 1831 he was able to extend the control of Ngati Toa and his base for these sea-based raids remained Kapiti. During this period Pākehā whaling stations established in the region with Te Rauparahas encouragement. Some Māori women married Pākehā whalers and a lucrative trade of supplies for muskets was established, thereby increasing Te Rauparahas mana. By the early 1830s Te Rauparaha had defeated a branch of the Rangitane iwi in the Wairau Valley, Te Rauparaha married his daughter Te Rongo to an influential whaling captain Captain John William Dundas Blenkinsop to whom he sold land in the Wairau Valley for a whaling station. It is uncertain if Te Rauparaha understood the implications of the deed of sale that he signed. Te Rauparaha then hired the brig Elizabeth, captained by John Stewart, to himself and approximately 100 warriors to Akaroa Harbour with the aim of attacking the local tribe. Hidden below deck Te Rauparaha and his men captured the Ngai Tahu chieftain Tamaiharanui, his wife, several hundred of the Ngai Tahu were killed both on the Elizabeth and during a surprise landing the next morning. During the voyage back to Kapiti the chief strangled his own daughter Nga Roimata, Te Rauparaha was incensed and following their arrival at Kapiti the parents and other prisoners were killed, Tamaiharanui after prolonged torture. The last years of Te Rauparahas life saw the most dramatic changes, on 16 October 1839 the New Zealand Company expedition commanded by Col William Wakefield arrived at Kapiti. They were seeking to buy vast areas of land with a view to forming a permanent European settlement, Te Rauparaha sold them some land in the area that became known later as Nelson and Golden Bay. On 19 June of that year, he signed another copy of the treaty, Te Rauparaha soon became alarmed at the flood of British settlers and refused to sell any more of his land
17.
Robert FitzRoy
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Vice-Admiral Robert FitzRoy RN was an English officer of the Royal Navy and a scientist. He achieved lasting fame as the captain of HMS Beagle during Charles Darwins famous voyage, FitzRoys second expedition to Tierra del Fuego, FitzRoy was a pioneering meteorologist who made accurate daily weather predictions, which he called by a new name of his own invention, forecasts. In 1854 he established what would later be called the Met Office and he was an able surveyor and hydrographer. As Governor of New Zealand, serving from 1843 to 1845, Robert FitzRoy was born at Ampton Hall, Ampton, Suffolk, England, into the upper echelons of the British aristocracy and a tradition of public service. Through his father, General Lord Charles FitzRoy, Robert was a fourth great-grandson of Charles II of England, his grandfather was Augustus Henry FitzRoy. His mother, Lady Frances Stewart, was the daughter of the first Marquess of Londonderry and the half-sister of Viscount Castlereagh, from the age of four, Robert FitzRoy lived with his family at Wakefield Lodge, their Palladian mansion in Northamptonshire. Roberts half-brother Sir Charles FitzRoy later served as Governor of New South Wales, Governor of Prince Edward Island, in February 1818 at the age of 12, FitzRoy entered the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and in the following year he entered the Royal Navy. At the age of 14, he embarked as a voluntary student aboard the frigate HMS Owen Glendower, which sailed to South America in the middle of 1820 and he was promoted to midshipman while on the vessel. FitzRoy served on HMS Hind as a midshipman and he completed his course with distinction and was promoted lieutenant on 7 September 1824, having passed the examination with full numbers, the first to achieve this result. After serving on HMS Thetis, in 1828 he was appointed lieutenant to Rear-Admiral Sir Robert Waller Otway, commander-in-chief of the South American station. At that time Beagle, under Captain Pringle Stokes, was carrying out a survey of Tierra del Fuego. Pringle Stokes became severely depressed and fatally shot himself, under Lieutenant Skyring, the ship sailed to Rio de Janeiro, where Otway appointed FitzRoy as captain of the Beagle on 15 December 1828. By the ships return to England on 14 October 1830, FitzRoy had established his reputation as a surveyor, during the survey, some of his men were camping onshore when a group of Fuegian natives made off with their boat. His ship gave chase and, after a scuffle, the families were brought on board as hostages. Eventually FitzRoy held two boys, a girl and two men As it was not possible to put them ashore conveniently, he decided to civilise the savages, and the use of common tools before returning them as missionaries. The sailors gave them names, the girl was called Fuegia Basket, the boy Jemmy Button, the second boy was called Boat Memory. FitzRoy brought the four back with the ship to England, Boat Memory died following a smallpox vaccination. In early May 1831 FitzRoy stood as Tory candidate for Ipswich in the General Election and his hopes of obtaining a new posting and organising a missionary project to Tierra del Fuego appeared to be failing
18.
Blenheim, New Zealand
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Blenheim is the most populous town in the region of Marlborough, in the north east of the South Island of New Zealand. It has an population of 30,700. The surrounding area is known as a centre of New Zealands wine industry. It enjoys one of New Zealands sunniest climates, with hot, relatively dry summers, the relaxed lifestyle and the flourishing wine and gourmet food industry in Marlborough are enjoyed by both locals and visitors alike. Blenheim is named after the Battle of Blenheim, where led by John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough defeated a combined French. The sheltered coastal bays of Marlborough supported a small Māori population possibly as early as the 12th century, Māori in the Marlborough Region cultivated crops, including kumara and exploited marine resources. Although the early history of Marlborough was closely associated with the Nelson settlement, nineteen years after the original Nelson settlement the request of Marlborough settlers was granted, and Marlborough became a separate province in 1859. Marlborough squatters developed huge sheep runs that dominated the countryside, rivalling Canterburys sheep stations in size, on the Wairau Plain, the town is mostly flat with surrounding hills, which do not give as much protection from prevailing winds as might be expected. Open areas in and around Blenheim are hit quite hard by winds blowing from Cook Strait, Blenheim sits at the confluence of the Taylor and Ōpaoa rivers. It is in an active zone and experiences several earthquakes each year. The boundary between the Pacific plate and the Indo-Australian plate passes just north of Blenheim, summers are typically warm and dry while winters are normally cool and frosty with clear sunny days that follow. Snowfall is rare as it is sheltered from cold weather by the mountain ranges to the south. Thunderstorms are an uncommon occurrence due to the sheltered climate, there is a higher likelihood in summer, when afternoon heating can generate a buildup of clouds above the ranges. The highest recorded temperature is 37. 8C, Recorded on 23 February 1973, at the 2006 census, Blenheim had a population of 28,700, a change of 7. 0% since the 2001 census. The June 2016 estimate puts Blenheims population at 30,700, following the 2013 census, Blenheim became the countrys 17th main urban area, after Statistics New Zealand promoted the town from a secondary urban area. 21. 3% of people were under 15, compared with 22. 7% for New Zealand,16. 7% of people were 65 and over, compared with 12. 1% for New Zealand. 28. 7% of people 15 and over had a post-secondary-school qualification, most residents are of European origin, predominantly of British, Irish, German and Dutch descent. Small Māori, Pacific Island and Asian communities exist, ethnic diversity has increased in recent years with the arrival of large numbers of South Americans and Asians, who work in the expanding viticulture sector
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Nelson, New Zealand
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Nelson is a city on the eastern shores of Tasman Bay, and is the economic and cultural centre of the Nelson Region. Nelson is the oldest city in the South Island and the second-oldest settled city in New Zealand, Nelson city is bordered to the west and south-west by the Tasman District Council and the north-east, east and south-east by the Marlborough District Council. The city does not include Richmond, the areas second-largest settlement, Nelson City has a population of around 50,000, making it New Zealands 12th most populous city and the geographical centre of New Zealand. When combined with the town of Richmond which has close to 14,000 residents, Nelson is well known for its thriving local arts and crafts scene, Each year, the city hosts events popular with locals and tourists alike, such as the Nelson Arts Festival. The annual Wearable Art Awards began near Nelson and a local museum, Nelson was named in honour of the Admiral Horatio Nelson who defeated both the French and Spanish fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. Many roads and public areas around the city are named after people and ships associated with that battle, inhabitants of Nelson are referred to as Nelsonians. Nelsons Māori name, Whakatū, means build, raise, or establish, in an article to The Colonist newspaper on 16 July 1867, Francis Stevens described Nelson as The Naples of the Southern Hemisphere. Today, Nelson has the nicknames of Sunny Nelson due to its high sunshine hours per year or the Top of the South because of its geographic location, settlement of Nelson began about 700 years ago by Māori. There is evidence the earliest settlements in New Zealand are around the Nelson-Marlborough regions, the earliest recorded iwi in the Nelson district are the Ngāti Kuia, Ngāti Tumatakokiri, Ngāti Apa and Rangitane tribes. Raids from northern tribes in the 1820s, led by Te Rauparaha and his Ngāti Toa, soon decimated the local population, the New Zealand Company in London planned the settlement of Nelson. They intended to buy cheaply from the Māori some 200,000 acres which they planned to divide into one thousand lots, the Company earmarked future profits to finance the free passage of artisans and labourers and their families, and for the construction of public works. However, by September 1841 only about one third of the lots had sold, despite this the Colony pushed ahead, and land was surveyed by Frederick Tuckett. Three ships sailed from London under the command of Captain Arthur Wakefield, however, after some delay, Hobson allowed the Company to investigate the Tasman Bay area at the north end of the South Island. The Company selected the now occupied by Nelson City because it had the best harbour in the area. The Company secured a vague and undetermined area from the Māori for £800 that included Nelson, Waimea and this allowed the settlement to begin, but the lack of definition would prove the source of much future conflict. The three colony ships sailed into Nelson Haven during the first week of November 1841, within 18 months the Company had sent out 18 ships with 1052 men,872 women and 1384 children. However, fewer than ninety of the settlers had the capital to start as landowners, the early settlement of Nelson province included a proportion of German immigrants, who arrived on the ship Sankt Pauli and formed the nucleus of the villages of Sarau and Neudorf. These were mostly Lutheran Protestants with a number of Bavarian Catholics
20.
Edward Gibbon Wakefield
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Edward Gibbon Wakefield was a British politician. He is considered a key figure in the colonisation of South Australia. Wakefield, who in 1816 married Eliza Pattle, was the eldest son of Edward Wakefield and he was imprisoned for three years in 1827 for kidnapping a fifteen-year-old girl. Born in London, Great Britain, in 1796, Wakefield was educated in London and he was the brother of William Hayward Wakefield, Arthur Wakefield and Felix Wakefield. He served as a Kings Messenger, carrying diplomatic mail all about Europe during the stages of the Napoleonic Wars. In 1816, he ran off with a Miss Eliza Pattle, the now married couple, accompanied by the brides mother and various servants, moved to Genoa where Wakefield was again employed in a diplomatic capacity. Here, his first child, Nina, was born in 1817, the household returned to London in 1820 and a second child, Jerningham Wakefield, was born. Four days later Eliza died, and the two children were brought up by their aunt, Wakefields older sister, Catherine, although wealthy by contemporary standards, Wakefield was not satisfied. He wished to acquire an estate and enter Parliament, for this he needed more capital and he almost managed to wed yet another wealthy heiress in 1826 when he abducted 15-year-old Ellen Turner, after luring her from school with a false message about her mothers health. Wakefield was brought to trial for the known as the Shrigley abduction in 1827 and, along with his brother William. He then attempted to overturn his father-in-laws will and get his hands on the remainder of his wifes money. In 1831 Wakefield became involved in schemes to promote the colonisation of South Australia. He believed that many of the problems in Britain were caused by overcrowding and overpopulation. He set out to design a good colonisation scheme, one with a combination of labourers, artisans. The scheme was to be financed by the sale of land to the capitalists who would support the other classes of emigrants. It took several attempts to get the South Australia colony going, although initially Wakefield was a driving force, he found that as it came closer to reality he was allowed less and less influence. Eventually he was out almost completely whereupon he took offence. It was during this period that his daughter, Nina, died and he had taken her to Lisbon hoping the warmer climate would improve her health
21.
Tuamarina
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Tuamarina is a locality in Marlborough, New Zealand. State Highway 1 runs through the area, the Tuamarina River joins the Wairau River just south of the settlement. Picton is about 18 km to the north, and Blenheim is about 10 km to the south, the name is a corruption of the Māori word Tuamarino, which means the calm beyond. Dairy farming is the economic activity, and the Koromiko cheese factory won a number of awards before it was destroyed by fire in 2004. The Wairau Affray occurred in the area in 1843, resulting in 26 deaths, the Wairau Plain is prone to flooding, and river conservation is necessary to keep the river under control. Significant floods have occurred in the Tuamarina area, such as one in December 1939, tua Marina School is a coeducational full primary school with a decile rating of 7 and a roll of 86. The school celebrated its 100th anniversary in 1971
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Wellington
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Wellington is the capital and second most populous urban area of New Zealand, with 405,000 residents. It is at the tip of the North Island, between Cook Strait and the Rimutaka Range. Wellington is the population centre of the southern North Island and is the administrative centre of the Wellington Region. It is the worlds windiest city, with a wind speed of over 26 km/h. Situated near the centre of the country, Wellington was well placed for trade. In 1839 it was chosen as the first major planned settlement for British immigrants coming to New Zealand, the settlement was named in honour of the Arthur Wellesley, the first Duke of Wellington and victor of the Battle of Waterloo. As the nations capital since 1865, the New Zealand Government and Parliament, Supreme Court, despite being much smaller than Auckland, Wellington is also referred to as New Zealands cultural capital. The city is home to the National Archives, the National Library, architectural sights include the Government Building—one of the largest wooden buildings in the world—as well as the iconic Beehive. Wellington plays host to artistic and cultural organisations, including the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra. It has an urban culture, with many cafés, restaurants. One of the worlds most liveable cities, the 2014 Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranked Wellington 12th in the world, Wellingtons economy is primarily service-based, with an emphasis on finance, business services, and government. It is the centre of New Zealands film and special effects industries, Wellington ranks as one of New Zealands chief seaports and serves both domestic and international shipping. The city is served by Wellington International Airport, the third busiest airport in the country, Wellingtons transport network includes train and bus lines which reach as far as the Kapiti Coast and Wairarapa, and ferries connect the city to the South Island. Wellington takes its name from Arthur Wellesley, the first Duke of Wellington and victor of the Battle of Waterloo, his title comes from the town of Wellington in the English county of Somerset. One of the founders of the settlement, Edward Jerningham Wakefield, reported that the settlers took up the views of the directors with great cordiality, in Māori, Wellington has three names. In New Zealand Sign Language, the name is signed by raising the index, middle and ring fingers of one hand, palm forward, to form a W, and shaking it slightly from side to side twice. The citys location close to the mouth of the narrow Cook Strait leads to its vulnerability to strong gales, legends recount that Kupe discovered and explored the district in about the 10th century. The earliest date with hard evidence for Maori living in New Zealand is about 1280, European settlement began with the arrival of an advance party of the New Zealand Company on the ship Tory on 20 September 1839, followed by 150 settlers on the Aurora on 22 January 1840
23.
Impressment
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Impressment, colloquially, the press or the press gang, refers to the act of taking men into a military or naval force by compulsion, with or without notice. Navies of several nations used forced recruitment by various means, the large size of the British Royal Navy in the Age of Sail meant impressment was most commonly associated with Britain. The Royal Navy impressed many merchant sailors, as well as some sailors from other nations, people liable to impressment were eligible men of seafaring habits between the ages of 18 and 55 years. Non-seamen were impressed as well, though rarely, though the public opposed conscription in general, impressment was repeatedly upheld by the courts, as it was deemed vital to the strength of the navy and, by extension, to the survival of the realm. Impressment was essentially a Royal Navy practice, reflecting the size of the British fleet, Continental Navy did however apply a form of impressment during the American War of Independence. The impressment of seamen from American ships caused serious tensions between Britain and the United States in the leading up to the War of 1812. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1814, Britain ended the practice, later conscription was not limited to the Royal Navy, working and living conditions for the average sailor in the Royal Navy in the 18th century were harsh by modern standards. Naval pay was attractive in the 1750s, but towards the end of the century its value had been eroded by rising prices, sailors pay on merchant ships was somewhat higher during peacetime, and could increase to double naval pay during wartime. Until 19th century reforms improved conditions, the Royal Navy was additionally known to pay wages up to two years in arrears, and it always withheld six months pay to discourage desertion. Naval wages had been set in 1653, and were not increased until April 1797 after sailors on 80 ships of the Channel Fleet based at Spithead mutinied, despite this, there were many volunteers for naval service. Also the food supplied by the Navy was plentiful and good by the standards of the day. The main problem with recruitment, though, was a shortage of qualified seamen during wartime, privateers, the Royal Navy, and the Merchant Navy all competed for a small pool of ordinary and able seamen in wartime, and all three groups were usually short-handed. Volunteering also protected the sailor from creditors, as the law forbade collecting debts accrued before enlistment, the main disadvantage was that enlisted deserters who were recaptured would be hanged, whereas pressed men would simply be returned to service. Other records confirm similar percentages throughout the 18th century, average annual recruitment 1736–1783 All three groups also suffered high levels of desertion. In the 18th century, British desertion rates on naval ships averaged 25% annually, if a naval ship had taken a prize, a deserting seaman would also forfeit his share of the prize money. In a report on proposed changes to the RN written by Admiral Nelson in 1803, the Impress Service was formed to force sailors to serve on naval vessels. There was no concept of joining the navy as a fixed career-path for non-officers at the time since seamen remained attached to a ship only for the duration of its commission. They were encouraged to stay in the Navy after the commission, Impressment relied on the legal power of the King to call men to military service, as well as to recruit volunteers
24.
Special constable
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A special constable or special police constable is a law enforcement officer. Many police departments are complemented by a Special Constabulary which are referred to as constables or informally as specials. Special constables hold full police powers and hold the office of constable, Special Constables, as appointed under the Police Act 1901, have the same powers as Constables of the New South Wales Police Force. Similar provisions apply in other Australian states, inspectors of the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals are generally appointed as Special Constables. Members of police bands are also appointed as Special Constables, the NSW Police Force employs Special Constables as an armed internal security force. They also protect covert police locations and have a rapid deployment team with advanced firearms and defensive tactics training. Special Constables were used extensively in Canada prior to the Second World War to quell labour unrest, after the war, industrial relations became far less militant and many of the larger urban police forces created permanent auxiliary units. The most notorious use of Special Constables in Canadian history was during the Winnipeg General Strike of 1919, today, in Canada, the term Special Constable does not signify a police volunteer. Depending on the department some are members of a Special Constable Service as University, Housing, Special Constables for Federal Agencies are typically investigators for the Competition Bureau and Canadian Food Inspection Agency. Special Constable appointment is not a replacement for a police officer, the appointment confers limited authority and the jurisdictional police will still have overall law enforcement authority and responsibility regardless of the Special Constable. For example, on a university campus or a system, Special Constables may deal with crimes. Special Constables have the powers of an officer to enforce Federal Statutes. Special Constables are also utilized at many Ontario universities to provide a hybrid police-security service to their respective communities, in Ontario, Special Constables are generally not armed with firearms, the exception being police services and Niagara Parks Police. At times, provinces may need to swear in a police service to allow peace officer status. This is frequent with RCMP in Ontario as well as Sûreté du Québec in Quebec, cross jurisdictional issues can be alleviated with special constable appointments. The government may also appoint Special Constables, who only need the authority to serve summons and subpoenas, the Independent Investigations Office of British Columbia has entered into a Memorandum of Understanding with all of the agencies which use Special Constables across British Columbia. Volunteers with provincial and municipal police departments in Canada are called Reserve or Auxiliary Constables, Hong Kong Police Force and the Hong Kong Auxiliary Police Force are the only two police forces in Hong Kong during peacetime. However, the Chief Executive of Hong Kong can, pursuant to HK Laws, however, under section 41 of the same ordinance, Special Constables are not entitled to benefits, pays or pensions
25.
Brig
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A brig is a sailing vessel with two square-rigged masts. During the Age of Sail, brigs were seen as fast and they were especially popular in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Brigs fell out of use with the arrival of the ship because they required a relatively large crew for their small size and were difficult to sail into the wind. They are not to be confused with a brigantine, which has different rigging, in sailing, a full-rigged brig is a vessel with two square rigged masts. The main mast of a brig is the aft one, to improve maneuverability, the mainmast carries a small fore-and-aft sail. Behind the main sail there is a small fore-and-aft sail called the spanker or boom mainsail, on the foremast is a similar sail, called the trysail. Attached to the yards of square-rigged ships are smaller spars. These are called studding sails, and are used with fair, the wings are named after the sails to which they are fastened, i. e. the main studding sails, main top studding sails, and the main top gallant studding sails, etc. The brig’s foremast is smaller than the main mast, the fore mast holds a fore sail, fore top sail, fore top gallant sail, and fore royal. Between the fore mast and the bowsprit are the fore staysail, jib, all the yards are manipulated by a complicated arrangement of cordage named the running rigging. This is opposed to the rigging which is fixed, and keeps mast. A brig is generally built on a scale than a schooner. Brigs vary in length between 75 and 165 ft with tonnages up to 480, a notable exception being the famous designer Colin Mudies Little Brigs, which are only 10m long and weigh only 8 tonnes. Historically, most brigs were made of wood, although some later brigs were built with hulls, a brig made of pine in the 19th century was designed to last for about twenty years. The word brig has been used in the past as an abbreviation of brigantine, the brig actually developed as a variant of the brigantine. Re-rigging a brigantine with two square-rigged masts instead of one gave it greater sailing power, the square-rigged brigs advantage over the fore-and-aft rigged brigantine was that the sails, being smaller and more numerous, are more easily managed, and require fewer men or hands to work them. The variant was so popular that the term came to exclusively signify a ship with this type of rigging. By the 17th century the British Royal Navy defined brig as having two square rigged masts, Brigs were used as small warships carrying about 10 to 18 guns
26.
Waikanae
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Waikanae is a small town on New Zealands Kapiti Coast. The name is a Māori word meaning waters of the yellow-eyed mullet, the township lies about 60 kilometres north of Wellington, New Zealands capital city, between Paraparaumu, eight kilometres to the southwest, and Otaki,15 kilometres to the northeast. Another settlement called Waikanae Beach exists near Gisborne on the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand, Waikanae lies in a setting of open farmland and forest between the Tasman Sea and the rugged Tararua Ranges. Together with its settlement of Waikanae Beach, the township comprises a quiet locale. Just north of Waikanae is the community of Peka Peka. The area surrounding the township is notable for its 5-kilometre long beach and its river mouth opposite Kapiti Island. The Kapiti Island Nature Reserve includes the Waikanae Estuary Scientific Reserve, the Te Araroa Trail leads through Waikanae. The waters between Waikanae Beach and Kapiti Island comprise the Kapiti Marine Reserve, with whales and Hectors dolphins sometimes spotted on their routes through the narrow corridor. Inland, behind Waikanae, are the bush clad Hemi Matenga Reserve, the Tararua Ranges, a road through the valley over the Akatarawa Saddle provides a link with the Hutt Valley via Reikorangi and Cloustonville. The headwaters of the Waikanae River form where a number of streams converge in the inland Reikorangi Basin, from here the river runs through a gap in the foothills, across the coastal plain and sand dunes to the sea. Prior to human settlement the Waikanae coastal plain comprised wetlands divided by a pattern of natural waterways. The community draws its water from the source of the Waikanae River. Waikanae Beach is populated by terns, seagulls, oystercatchers, inland wetlands provide refuge for pukeko, crake and New Zealand dabchicks. White fronted herons and shags range across the coastal plain, the ready availability of both birdlife and seafood encouraged early Māori settlement of the area. Introduced species such as ducks and black swans have also flourished over the last century, Waikanae is backed by the heavily forested 330-hectare Hemi Matenga Reserve covering a range overlooking the township. Rising to 514 metres above sea level, the forest comprises one of the most extensive areas of woodland left in New Zealand. The reserve is named after its owner, Hemi Matenga Waipunahau of the Ngati Toa. It is traversed by several walking tracks and forms an extension of the Tararua Range, archaeological and ethnographical research suggests that Waikanae may have been first inhabited by the Waitaha moa-hunters as early as a thousand years ago
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North Island
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The North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui is one of the two main islands of New Zealand, separated from the slightly larger but much less populous South Island by Cook Strait. The islands area is 113,729 square kilometres, making it the worlds 14th-largest island and it has a population of 3,596,200. Twelve main urban areas are in the North Island, about 77% of New Zealands population lives in the North Island. Although the island has been known as the North Island for many years, in 2009 the New Zealand Geographic Board found that, along with the South Island, after a public consultation, the board officially named the island North Island or Te Ika-a-Maui in October 2013. In prose, the two islands of New Zealand are called the North Island and the South Island, with the definite articles. It is normal to use the preposition in rather than on, for example Hamilton is in the North Island, maps, headings, tables and adjectival expressions use North Island without the. According to Māori mythology, the North and South Islands of New Zealand arose through the actions of the demigod Māui, Māui and his brothers were fishing from their canoe when he caught a great fish and pulled it from the sea. While he was not looking his brothers fought over the fish and this great fish became the North Island and thus a Māori name for the North Island is Te Ika-a-Māui. The mountains and valleys are believed to have formed as a result of Māuis brothers hacking at the fish. Until the early 20th Century, an alternative Māori name for the North Island was Aotearoa, in present usage, Aotearoa is a collective name for New Zealand as a whole. The sub-national GDP of the North Island was estimated at US$102.863 billion in 2003, the island has an extensive flora and bird population, with numerous National Parks and other protected areas. Nine local government regions cover the North Island and all its adjacent islands, healthcare in the North Island is provided by fifteen District Health Boards. Organised around geographical areas of varying sizes, they are not coterminous with the Local Government Regions
28.
Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby
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He was known before 1834 as Edward Stanley, and from 1834 to 1851 as Lord Stanley. He is one of only four British Prime Ministers to have three or more separate periods in office, however his ministries all lasted less than two years, and totalled 3 years 280 days. Historian Frances Walsh says it was, Derby who educated the party and acted as its strategist to pass the last great Whig measure, the 1867 Reform Act. It was his greatest achievement to create the modern Conservative Party in the framework of the Whig constitution, Stanley was born to Lord Stanley and his wife, Charlotte Margaret née Hornby, the daughter of the Reverend Geoffrey Hornby. The Stanleys were a long-established and very wealthy landowning family whose residence was Knowsley Hall in Lancashire. Stanley was educated at Eton College and at Christ Church, Oxford, in 1822 Edward Stanley, as he was then, was elected to Parliament in the rotten borough of Stockbridge as a Whig, the traditional party of his family. In 1824, however, he alienated his Whig colleagues by voting against Joseph Humes motion for an investigation into the Established Protestant Church of Ireland. When the Whigs returned to power in 1830, Stanley became Chief Secretary for Ireland in Lord Greys Government, as Chief Secretary Stanley pursued a series of coercive measures which frequently brought him into conflict with the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Anglesey. In 1833, Stanley moved up to the important position of Secretary of State for War. Stanley, a conservative Whig, broke with the ministry over the reform of the Church of Ireland in 1834, the term Derby Dilly was coined by Irish Nationalist leader Daniel OConnell. Joining the Conservatives, Stanley again served as Colonial Secretary in Sir Robert Peels second government in 1841, in 1844 he was summoned to the House of Lords as Lord Stanley of Bickerstaffe in his fathers Barony of Stanley by Writ of Acceleration. He broke with the Prime Minister again in 1845, this time over the repeal of the Corn Laws and he thereafter led the protectionist faction of the Conservative Party. In 1851 he succeeded his father as Earl of Derby, the party system was in a state of flux when the Conservatives left office in 1846, the outstanding issues being the question of Ireland and the unresolved franchise. The protectionists had a core of leaders, of whom Disraeli was a leading light, but in opposition the party was still in-fighting, although Disraeli was determined to heal rifts. Derby formed a minority Government in February 1852 following the collapse of Lord John Russells Whig Government, in this new ministry, Benjamin Disraeli would be appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer. With many senior Conservative ministers having followed Peel, Derby was forced to appoint many new men to office – of the Cabinet only three were pre-existing Privy Counsellors. When the aged Duke of Wellington, by then very deaf, heard the list of inexperienced Cabinet Ministers being read aloud in the House of Lords, from then this government would be known as the Who. Traditionally Derbys ministries were thought in hindsight to have been dominated by Disraeli, however recent research suggests that this was not always the case, especially in the governments conduct of foreign policy
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William Williams (bishop)
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To be distinguished from William Williams in Khasi Hills India William Williams was the first Anglican Bishop of Waiapu and the father and grandfather of two others. Williams was consecrated as the Bishop of Waiapu on 3 April 1859 at the meeting of the General Synod at Wellington, Williams led the Church Missionary Society missionaries in translating the Bible into Māori and he also published an early dictionary and grammar of the Māori language. Williams was born in Nottingham to Thomas and Mary Williams on 18 July 1800 and his paternal grandfather was the Reverend Thomas Williams, a Congregational minister at the Independent Chapel of Gosport. After the death of Williams father in 1804, his mother moved with her children to Southwell. William Williams was educated at Moravian school, Fairfield, Manchester then at Southwell Grammar School under the Revd E. Footit, Williams completed an apprenticeship to a Mr Forster, a Southwell surgeon. Williams was influenced by the Rev. Edward Garrard Marsh to become an Anglican in February 1818, William entered Magdalen Hall, in 1822, as a prospective CMS trainee. He left Oxford in 1824 with a BA in classics, on 26 September 1824 he was ordained as a deacon of the Church of England. In 1825 he entered the Church Missionary Society College, Islington with the intention of following his brother, Henry, on 11 July 1825, Williams married Jane Nelson of Newark-on-Trent, Nottinghamshire, a teacher at his mothers school. On 12 August they embarked on the Sir George Osborne to sail to Sydney, Australia, then on to Paihia, Bay of Islands, where they arrived on 25 March 1826. Williams and his wife had nine children, Mary, born 12 April 1826, married Samuel Williams Jane Elizabeth, born 23 October 1827, married Henry Williams, in 1862 Leonard Williams was appointed to be Archdeacon of Waiapu. In 1895 Leonard Williams became the third Bishop of Waiapu, on his arrival in Paihia, Williams became a teacher of the boys at the school for children of CMS families. Williams had a talent for the study of the Māori language, after 1826 he took over responsibility for leading the CMS missionaries in further translation of the Bible and other Christian literature. In 1833 further parts of the Maori Bible were published, the Church Missionary Press was established in Paihia. After 1844 the Rev. Robert Maunsell also worked with Williams on the translation of the Bible, Williams concentrated on the New Testament and Maunsell worked on the Old Testament, portions of which were published in 1840 with the full translation completed in 1857. William Gilbert Puckey also collaborated with Williams on the translation of the New Testament, Williams published the Dictionary of the New Zealand Language and a Concise Grammar in 1844. In April 1833, seven Ngāti Porou men and five women arrived in the Bay of Island on the whaler Elizabeth and they had been made prisoner when the captain of the whaler left Waiapu, after a confrontation with the Ngāti Porou. In the Bay of Islands they were delivered to Ngāpuhi chiefs to become slaves, Williams, his brother Henry and Alfred Nesbit Brown persuaded the Ngāpuhi to give up the slaves. An attempt was made to them on the schooner Active although a gale defeated that attempt
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Church Mission Society
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Founded in 1799, CMS has attracted over nine thousand men and women to serve as mission partners during its 200-year history. The society has given its name CMS to a number of daughter organisations around the world. The Baptist Missionary Society was formed in 1792 and the London Missionary Society was formed in 1795 to represent various evangelical denominations and their number included Charles Simeon, Basil Woodd, Henry Thornton, Thomas Babington and William Wilberforce. Wilberforce was asked to be the first president of the society, the treasurer was Henry Thornton and the founding secretary was Thomas Scott, a biblical commentator. Many of the founders were involved in creating the Sierra Leone Company. In 1802 Josiah Pratt was appointed secretary, a position he held for until 1824, the first missionaries went out in 1804. They came from the Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Württemberg and had trained at the Berlin Seminary, the name Church Missionary Society began to be used and in 1812 the society was renamed The Church Missionary Society. The West Africa mission was extended to Sierra Leone, Samuel Ajayi Crowther, a Yoruba by birth, was selected to accompany the missionary James Schön on the Niger expedition of 1841. Crowther was the missionary to Yorubaland in 1844 and the Niger in 1857. West Indies, The CMS started work in Antigua and expanded to other islands, by 1838 the CMS had congregations of 8,000, with 13 ordained missionaries,23 lay teachers and 70 schools. In about 1848 a shortage of funds resulted in the CMS withdrawing from the West Indies, New Zealand, The Revd Samuel Marsden became the chaplain of the penal colony at Paramatta, Australia in 1874. India, William Carey, the founder of the Baptist Missionary Society was the pioneer of the Evangelical, the CMS Mission in India began in 1814 when 7 missionaries arrived, two were placed at Chennai, two at Bengal and three at Travancore. The Indian missions were extended in the years to a number of locations including Agra, Meerut district, Varanasi, Mumbai, Tirunelveli, Kolkata, Telugu Country. While the Revolt of 1857 resulted in damage to the missions in the North West Provinces, after the revolt the CMS expanded its missions to Oudh, Allahbad, the Santhal people, and to Kashmir. Sri Lanka, Four CMS missionaries were sent to Ceylon in 1817, in 1850 a mission station was established at Colombo. In 1822 the CMS appointed West to head the mission in what was known as the Red River Colony in what is now the province of Manitoba. He was succeeded in 1823 by the Revd David Jones who was joined by the Revd W. Cockram, the mission worked among the Cree, Ojibwe, Chippewa, and Gwichin of the upper west Great Plains. Egypt and Ethiopia, Five missionaries were sent to Egypt in 1825, the missionaries were expelled from Abyssinia in 1844 following the Siege of Khartoum and the death of General Gordon
31.
George Grey
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Sir George Grey, KCB was a British soldier, explorer, Governor of South Australia, twice Governor of New Zealand, Governor of Cape Colony, the 11th Premier of New Zealand and a writer. By political philosophy a Gladstonian liberal and Georgist, Grey eschewed the class system for the life of Aucklands new governance he helped to establish. Grey was born in Lisbon, Portugal, the son of Bvt. Lieutenant-Colonel George Grey, of the 30th Regiment of Foot, who was killed at the Battle of Badajoz in Spain just a few days before. His mother, Elizabeth Anne née Vignoles, on the balcony of her hotel in Lisbon and she was the daughter of a retired soldier turned Irish clergyman, Major later Rev. John Vignoles. Greys grandfather was Owen Wynne Gray, Greys uncle was John Gray, who was Owen Wynne Grays son from his second marriage. Grey was sent to the Royal Grammar School, Guildford in Surrey, early in 1830, he was gazetted ensign in the 83rd Regiment of Foot. In 1830, his regiment having been sent to Ireland, he developed much sympathy with the Irish peasantry whose misery made an impression on him. He was promoted lieutenant in 1833 and obtained a certificate at the examinations of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. In 1837, at the age of 25, Grey led a catastrophically ill-prepared expedition of exploration of north-west Australia – only one man of his party had seen northern Australia before. It was at that time believed that a great river entered the Indian Ocean from the north-west of Australia, others joined the party at Cape Town, and early in December they landed at Hanover Bay. Wrecked, almost drowned, and completely lost, with Grey speared in the hip in a skirmish with Aborigines and they were picked up by the Beagle and Lynher and taken to Mauritius to recover. At about this time, Grey became one of the few Europeans to learn the Noongar language of south-west Western Australia, on 2 November 1839 at King George Sound, Grey married Eliza Lucy Spencer, daughter of the late Government Resident. Their only child, born in 1841 in South Australia, died aged 5 months and it was not a happy marriage. She lived a life of misery until old age brought a formal reunion, Grey adopted Annie Maria Matthews in 1861, following the death of her father, his half-brother, Sir Godfrey Thomas. She married Seymour Thorne George on 3 December 1872 on Kawau Island, Grey was the third Governor of South Australia, from 1841 to 1845, as a replacement for George Gawler, under whose stewardship the colony had become bankrupt. Gawler was also responsible for the illegal retribution exacted by Major OHalloran on an Aboriginal tribe. Grey served as Governor of New Zealand twice, from 1845 to 1853 and he was arguably the most influential figure during the European settlement of New Zealand during much of the 19th century
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
