1.
East Budleigh
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East Budleigh is a small village in East Devon, England. The villages of Yettington, Colaton Raleigh, and Otterton lie to the west, north and east of East Budleigh, with the seaside town of Budleigh Salterton about two miles south. Until the River Otter to the east silted up, the village was a town and port, it was still being used by ships in the 15th century. Sir Walter Raleigh was born in nearby Hayes Barton in c.1552, the 14th-century church contains attractive pew ends including one bearing the Raleigh coat of arms. In 2006 a life-size bronze statue of Raleigh by sculptor Vivien Mallock was unveiled by the Duke of Kent and is positioned at the top of the close to the church. The cost of £30,000 was met by British American Tobacco, governor Roger Conant, founder of Salem, Massachusetts and the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, was born in East Budleigh in 1592 to Richard Conant. East Budleigh had a station that was situated between the village and Otterton, which was closed in 1967. Salem Chapel, East Budleigh Media related to East Budleigh at Wikimedia Commons
2.
Devon
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Devon, also known as Devonshire, which was formerly its common and official name, is a county of England, reaching from the Bristol Channel in the north to the English Channel in the south. It is part of South West England, bounded by Cornwall to the west, Somerset to the northeast, combined as a ceremonial county, Devons area is 6,707 km2 and its population is about 1.1 million. Devon derives its name from Dumnonia, which, during the British Iron Age, Roman Britain, the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain resulted in the partial assimilation of Dumnonia into the Kingdom of Wessex during the eighth and ninth centuries. The western boundary with Cornwall was set at the River Tamar by King Æthelstan in 936, Devon was constituted as a shire of the Kingdom of England thereafter. The north and south coasts of Devon each have both cliffs and sandy shores, and the bays contain seaside resorts, fishing towns. The inland terrain is rural, generally hilly, and has a low density in comparison to many other parts of England. Dartmoor is the largest open space in southern England at 954 km2, to the north of Dartmoor are the Culm Measures and Exmoor. In the valleys and lowlands of south and east Devon the soil is fertile, drained by rivers including the Exe, the Culm, the Teign, the Dart. As well as agriculture, much of the economy of Devon is linked with tourism, in the Brittonic, Devon is known as Welsh, Dyfnaint, Breton, Devnent and Cornish, Dewnens, each meaning deep valleys. One erroneous theory is that the suffix is due to a mistake in the making of the original letters patent for the Duke of Devonshire. However, there are references to Defenascire in Anglo-Saxon texts from before 1000 AD, the term Devonshire may have originated around the 8th century, when it changed from Dumnonia to Defenascir. Kents Cavern in Torquay had produced human remains from 30–40,000 years ago, Dartmoor is thought to have been occupied by Mesolithic hunter-gatherer peoples from about 6000 BC. The Romans held the area under occupation for around 350 years. Devon became a frontier between Brittonic and Anglo-Saxon Wessex, and it was absorbed into Wessex by the mid 9th century. This suggests the Anglo-Saxon migration into Devon was limited rather than a movement of people. The border with Cornwall was set by King Æthelstan on the east bank of the River Tamar in 936 AD, the arrival of William of Orange to launch the Glorious Revolution of 1688 took place at Brixham. Devon has produced tin, copper and other metals from ancient times, Devons tin miners enjoyed a substantial degree of independence through Devons Stannary Parliament, which dates back to the 12th century. The last recorded sitting was in 1748, agriculture has been an important industry in Devon since the 19th century
3.
Kingdom of England
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In the early 11th century the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, united by Æthelstan, became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway. The completion of the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown, from the accession of James I in 1603, the Stuart dynasty ruled England in personal union with Scotland and Ireland. Under the Stuarts, the kingdom plunged into war, which culminated in the execution of Charles I in 1649. The monarchy returned in 1660, but the Civil War had established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without the consent of Parliament and this concept became legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. From this time the kingdom of England, as well as its state the United Kingdom. On 1 May 1707, under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707, the Anglo-Saxons referred to themselves as the Engle or the Angelcynn, originally names of the Angles. They called their land Engla land, meaning land of the English, by Æthelweard Latinized Anglia, from an original Anglia vetus, the name Engla land became England by haplology during the Middle English period. The Latin name was Anglia or Anglorum terra, the Old French, by the 14th century, England was also used in reference to the entire island of Great Britain. The standard title for all monarchs from Æthelstan until the time of King John was Rex Anglorum, Canute the Great, a Dane, was the first king to call himself King of England. In the Norman period Rex Anglorum remained standard, with use of Rex Anglie. The Empress Matilda styled herself Domina Anglorum, from the time of King John onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of Rex or Regina Anglie. In 1604 James VI and I, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, the English and Scottish parliaments, however, did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707. The kingdom of England emerged from the unification of the early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms known as the Heptarchy, East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Sussex. The Viking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms, and native Anglo-Saxon life in general, the English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by King Æthelstan in 927 CE. During the Heptarchy, the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as Bretwalda, the decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful. It absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825, the kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century. In 827, Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore, in 886, Alfred the Great retook London, which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that all of the English people not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred, asser added that Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly
4.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
5.
Oriel College, Oxford
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Oriel College is a constituent college of the University of Oxford in Oxford, England. Located in Oriel Square, the college has the distinction of being the oldest royal foundation in Oxford, in recognition of this royal connection, the college has also been known as Kings College and Kings Hall. The reigning monarch of the United Kingdom is the official Visitor of the College, the original medieval foundation set up by Adam de Brome, under the patronage of Edward II, was called the House or Hall of the Blessed Mary at Oxford. The first design allowed for a Provost and ten Fellows, called scholars, and the College remained a body of graduate Fellows until the 16th century. During the English Civil War, Oriel played host to high-ranking members of the Kings Oxford Parliament, the College has nearly 40 Fellows, about 300 undergraduates and some 160 graduates, the student body having roughly equal numbers of men and women. Oriels notable alumni include two Nobel laureates, prominent Fellows have included founders of the Oxford Movement, among Oriels more notable possessions are a painting by Bernard van Orley and three pieces of medieval silver plate. In 1329, the college received by royal grant a large house belonging to the Crown, known as La Oriole and it is from this property that the college acquired its common name, Oriel, the name was in use from about 1349. The word referred to an oratoriolum, or oriel window, forming a feature of the earlier property, the arrangement was cancelled in 1450. In 1643 a general obligation was imposed on Oxford colleges to support the Royalist cause in the English Civil War. The King called for Oriels plate, and almost all of it was given, the total weighing 29 lb.0 oz.5 dwt. of gilt, and 52 lb.7 oz.14 dwt. of white plate. In the same year the College was assessed at £1 of the sum of £40 charged on the colleges. When the Oxford Parliament was assembled during the Civil War in 1644, Oriel housed the Executive Committee of the Privy Council, following the defeat of the Royalist cause, the University was scrutinised by the Parliamentarians, and five of the eighteen Oriel Fellows were removed. In 1673 James Davenant, a Fellow since 1661, complained to William Fuller, then Bishop of Lincoln, Bishop Fuller appointed a commission that included the Vice-Chancellor, Peter Mews, the Dean of Christ Church, John Fell, and the Principal of Brasenose, Thomas Yates. During the early 1720s, a struggle began between the Provost and the Fellows, culminating in a lawsuit. In 1721, Henry Edmunds was elected as a Fellow by 9 votes to 3, his election was rejected by Provost George Carter, and on appeal, by the Visitor, Edmund Gibson, then Bishop of Lincoln. The Provost continued to reject candidates, fuelling discontent among the Fellows, the jury decided for the Fellows, supporting the original charter of Edward II. In the early 19th century, the zeal of Provosts John Eveleigh. The group was disgusted by the then Church of England and sought to revive the spirit of early Christianity, tension arose in College since Provost Edward Hawkins was a determined opponent of the Movement
6.
Elizabeth Raleigh
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Elizabeth Bess Raleigh, née Throckmorton, was Sir Walter Raleighs wife and a Gentlewoman of the Privy Chamber to Queen Elizabeth I of England. Their secret marriage precipitated a period of royal disfavour for both her and her husband. Elizabeth, known also as Bess, was the daughter of the diplomat Sir Nicholas Throckmorton and Anne Throckmorton, Bess and her brother Arthur were courtiers to Elizabeth I. Bess is said to have intelligent, forthright, passionate. In due course, she and Raleigh, at least 11 years her senior, the boy was christened Damerei, after Sir Walters claimed ancestors, the DAmeries. Damerei is believed to have died of the plague during infancy, Weir states that Queen Elizabeth first became aware in May 1592 of the secret marriage and of Damereis birth, despite Bess and Sir Walters denials. The couple had married without royal permission, but, significantly, Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, was in on the secret and acting as godfather to the Raleighs son. Once the queen found out, she first placed Bess and Raleigh under house arrest, then sent them to the Tower of London, in June 1592. Raleigh was released from the Tower in August 1592 and Bess in December 1592, at which time she joined her husband at Sherborne Castle, Elizabeth expected the couple to sue for pardon, but they refused to, and Raleigh remained out of favour for five years. The couple remained devoted to other, although, according to Weir. The Raleighs second son, Walter, was born in 1593 at Sherborne, the couples third son was born in January 1605, by which time Raleigh was a prisoner in the Tower of London. Named Carew, which was both Bess mothers maiden name and the name of one of Raleighs brothers, he was christened within the walls of the Tower in the church of St Peter ad Vincula. An account from 1740 claims that, after Bess death, Raleighs head was returned to his tomb in St Margarets, Westminster. However, even if this were true, it unclear where Raleighs body was buried, it may have been released to Bess, as per her request, or even sent to Exeter. Through both her parents, Bess had connections to Henry VIII and her father, Nicholas Throckmorton, was the cousin of Henrys sixth wife, Queen Catherine Parr. Anne Carew, Elizabeths mother, was the daughter of Nicholas Carew, Nicholas had been a close friend of Henrys, from childhood until his execution in 1539. However, there exist no contemporaneous references to a possibility that any of Elizabeths children were fathered by Henry, bessie Throckmorton is a major character in Edward Germans operetta Merrie England. In the film The Virgin Queen, Elizabeth Throckmorton is portrayed by Joan Collins, Elizabeth Throckmorton is the subject of Rosemary Sutcliffs novel Lady in Waiting
7.
Landed gentry
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Landed gentry is a largely historical British social class consisting of land owners who could live entirely from rental income. It was distinct from, and socially below, the aristocracy or peerage and they often worked as administrators of their own lands, while others became public, political and armed forces figures. The decline of this privileged class largely stemmed from the 1870s agricultural depression, by the late 19th century, the term was also applied to peers such as the Duke of Westminster who lived on landed estates. The book series Burkes Landed Gentry recorded the members of this class, successful burghers often used their accumulated wealth to buy country estates, with the aim of establishing themselves as landed gentry. Knights, originally a rank, this status was increasingly awarded to civilians as a reward for service to the Crown. Holders have the right to be addressed as Sir as are baronets, but unlike baronet, Esquires, originally men aspiring to knighthood, were the principal attendants on a knight. After the Middle Ages the title of Esquire - Esq. - became an honour that could be conferred by the Crown, gentlemen, possessors of a social status recognised as a separate title by the Statute of Additions of 1413. Generally men of birth or rank, good social standing, and wealth. The term landed gentry, although used to mean nobility. Once identical, eventually these terms became complementary, in the sense that their definitions began to fill in parts of what the other lacked, the historical term gentry by itself, so Peter Coss argues, is a construct that historians have applied loosely to rather different societies. Any particular model may not fit a specific society, yet a single definition nevertheless remains desirable, the phrase landed gentry referred in particular to the untitled members of the landowning upper class. The most stable and respected form of wealth has historically been land, the primary meaning of landed gentry encompasses those members of the land owning classes who are not members of the peerage. It was a designation, one belonged to the landed gentry if other members of that class accepted one as such. However, during the 19th century, as the new rich of the Industrial Revolution became more and more numerous and politically powerful, from the late 16th-century, the gentry emerged as the class most closely involved in politics, the military and law. It provided the bulk of Members of Parliament, with many gentry families maintaining political control in a locality over several generations. Owning land was a prerequisite for suffrage in county constituencies until the Reform Act 1832, until then, Members of the landed gentry were upper class, this was a highly prestigious status. Particular prestige was attached to those who inherited landed estates over a number of generations and these are often described as being from old families. Titles are often considered central to the class, but this is certainly not universally the case
8.
Richard Grenville
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His ship, the Revenge, met 53 Spanish war ships near Flores in the Azores. He and his crew fought the fifty three in a running battle. Many Spanish ships were sunk or so badly damaged that they had to retire from the battle, the Revenge was boarded three times and each time the boarders were seen off. Grenville was also a soldier, a merchant fleet owner, privateer, colonizer. He took part in the early English attempts to settle the New World and his non-military offices included Member of Parliament for Cornwall, High Sheriff of County Cork from 1569–70 and Sheriff of Cornwall in 1576–77. He was the grandfather of Sir Bevil Grenville of English Civil War fame, whose son was John Granville, the ancient Grenville family were lords of the manors of Bideford in Devon and of Stowe, Kilkhampton in Cornwall. He was a cousin of Sir Walter Raleigh and the privateer and explorer Humphrey Gilbert, Grenvilles birthplace is believed to have been at Bideford. His father died when he was an infant, aged 3, and his mother remarried to Thomas Arundell of Clifton Arundell House, at age 17 Grenville began law studies at the Inner Temple. As a minor, Grenville was elected to Parliament for Dunheved, Launceston, upon encountering Sir Edmound Unton, Fulke Greville, Robert Bannister, mother, and Thomas Allen, yeoman, Grenville ran Robert Bannister through with his sword, then left him to die. Grenville and company were outlawed for three months and then pardoned for Public duelling and manslaughter, just in time to resume his seat in Parliament, at age 21 he inherited his grandfathers estates at Stowe in Cornwall, and Bideford and Buckland Abbey in Devon, England. In 1565 Grenville married Mary St Leger, daughter of Sir John St Ledger and he was appointed High Sheriff of Cork c.1568. In pursuit of his career, with his West Country cousins, Godolphins, Carews, Killigrews, Champernownws, Basets. Grenville fought against the Turks in Hungary for the Holy Roman Emperor, after petitioning Elizabeth I in 1565 to leave England for service abroad to a foreign prince. Grenville and his West Country cousins paid for and recruited a troop of West Countrymen to accompany them, in 1569, he arrived in Ireland with Sir Warham St. Leger to arrange for the settlement of lands in the Barony of Kerricurrihy. These had been mortgaged to St Leger by Gerald Fitzgerald, 15th Earl of Desmond, at about this time Grenville also seized lands for colonisation at Tracton, to the west of Cork harbour. Sir Peter Carew had asserted his claim to lands in south Leinster, St Leger settled nearby, and Humphrey Gilbert pushed westward from Idrone along the Blackwater River. All of these English efforts to take land in the south of Ireland led to bitter disputes. They escalated into the first of the Desmond rebellions, led by James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald, as Sheriff of Cork, Grenville witnessed the rebellion in which Fitzmaurice, along with the Earl of Clancar, James Fitzedmund Fitzgerald, Edmund Fitzgibbon, and others, attacked Tracton
9.
Humphrey Gilbert
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He was a uterine half-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh and a cousin of Sir Richard Grenville. Gilbert was the son of Otho Gilbert of Compton, Greenway and Galmpton, all in Devon. His brothers Sir John Gilbert and Adrian Gilbert, and his half-brothers Carew Raleigh and Sir Walter Raleigh, were prominent during the reigns of Queen Elizabeth I. Catherine Champernowne was a niece of Kat Ashley, Elizabeths governess, Gilberts uncle, Sir Arthur Champernowne, involved him in the plantation of Ireland between 1566 and 1572. Gilberts mentor was Sir Henry Sidney and he was educated at Eton College and the University of Oxford, where he learned to speak French and Spanish and studied war and navigation. He went on to reside at the Inns of Chancery in London in about 1560–1561, Gilberts Latin mottoes, Quid Non and Mutare vel Timere Sperno, indicate his chosen philosophy. Gilbert was present at the siege of Newhaven in Havre-de-Grâce, Normandy, by July 1566 he was serving in Ireland under the command of Sir Henry Sidney against Shane ONeill, but was sent to England later in the year with dispatches for the Queen. At that point he took the opportunity of presenting the Queen with his A Discourse of a Discoverie for a New Passage to Cataia, Gilbert was described as of higher stature than of the common sort, and of complexion cholerike. Certain contemporaries speculated that he was a pederast, after the assassination of Shane ONeill in 1567 he was appointed Governor of Ulster and served as a member of the Irish Parliament. In April 1569 he proposed the establishment of a presidency and council for the province, and pursued the notion of a settlement around Baltimore. Gilberts actions in the south of Ireland played a significant part in the outbreak of the first of the Desmond Rebellions. Sir Peter Carew, his Devonshire kinsman, was pursuing a provocative, violence spread in a confusion from Leinster and across the province of Munster, when the Geraldines of Desmond, led by James FitzMaurice FitzGerald, rose against the incursion. Gilbert was then created Colonel by Lord Deputy Sidney and was charged with the pursuit of FitzGerald, after that initial success, he marched unopposed through Kerry and Connello, taking 30 to 40 castles. During the three weeks of this campaign, all Irish were treated without quarter and put to the sword, greate terrour to the people when thei sawe the heddes of their dedde fathers, brothers, children, kindsfolke, and freinds. John Perrot used a practice at Kilmallock a few years later. Gilbert is also said to have sent Captain Apsley into Kerry to inspire terror, once Ormond had returned from England and called in his brothers, the Geraldines found themselves outgunned. In December 1569, after one of the rebels had surrendered, Gilbert was knighted at the hands of Sidney in the ruined FitzMaurice camp. A month after Gilberts return to England FitzMaurice retook Kilmallock with 120 soldiers, defeating the garrison, in 1570 Gilbert returned to England, where he married Anne Ager, daughter of John Ager of Otterden, who would bear him six sons and one daughter
10.
Tobacco
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Tobacco is a product prepared from the leaves of the tobacco plant by curing them. The plant is part of the genus Nicotiana and of the Solanaceae family, while more than 70 species of tobacco are known, the chief commercial crop is N. tabacum. The more potent variant N. rustica is also used around the world, Tobacco contains the alkaloid nicotine, which is a stimulant. Dried tobacco leaves are used for smoking in cigarettes, cigars, pipe tobacco. They can be consumed as snuff, chewing tobacco, dipping tobacco. Tobacco use is a factor for many diseases, especially those affecting the heart, liver. In 2008, the World Health Organization named tobacco as the single greatest preventable cause of death. The English word tobacco originates from the Spanish and Portuguese word tabaco, the precise origin of this word is disputed, but it is generally thought to have derived at least in part, from Taino, the Arawakan language of the Caribbean. In Taino, it was said to either a roll of tobacco leaves or to tabago. Tobacco has long used in the Americas, with some cultivation sites in Mexico dating back to 1400–1000 BC. Many Native American tribes have traditionally grown and used tobacco, traditionally, tobacco is seen as a gift from the Creator, with the ceremonial tobacco smoke carrying ones thoughts and prayers to the Creator. Following the arrival of the Europeans to the Americas, tobacco became popular as a trade item. Hernández de Boncalo, Spanish chronicler of the Indies, was the first European to bring seeds to the Old World in 1559 following orders of King Philip II of Spain. These seeds were planted in the outskirts of Toledo, more specifically in a known as Los Cigarrales named after the continuous plagues of cicadas. Before the development of lighter Virginia and white burley strains of tobacco, small quantities were smoked at a time, using a pipe like the midwakh or kiseru or smoking newly invented waterpipes such as the bong or the hookah. The alleged benefits of tobacco also account for its considerable success, Tobacco smoking, chewing, and snuffing became a major industry in Europe and its colonies by 1700. Tobacco has been a major crop in Cuba and in other parts of the Caribbean since the 18th century. In the late 19th century, cigarettes became popular, James Bonsack created a machine that automated cigarette production
11.
Protestantism
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Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
12.
Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
13.
Killua Castle
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Killua Castle, and the nearby Raleigh Obelisk, are situated near Clonmellon, County Westmeath, Ireland. The present house was built in about 1780 by Sir Benjamin Chapman and consisted of a hall, dining room, oval drawing room, breakfast parlour and front, there was also a stable yard, barn and haggard. From here, the Chapmans administered the surrounding lands of some 9,000 acres in the 18th century. In a ruinous condition, it is currently being renovated, killua Castle and its surrounding lands were granted around 1667 to Benjamin Chapman, a captain in Cromwells army, having been confiscated from the Knights Hospitallers of St. John. On his death the estate passed to his son, William. Benjamin died in 1779 and was succeeded by his son Benjamin, the present structure was built in 1780 by Sir Benjamin Chapman, 1st Baronet after demolishing the original castle. He also completed the castellation and erected the Raleigh obelisk nearby and he was succeeded in 1837 by his son Sir Montagu Chapman, 3rd Baronet, who was lost at sea off the coast of Australia in 1852. Montagus brother Benjamin, the 4th baronet, inherited, from whom it passed to his son Montagu Richard, Montagu Richard died childless in 1907 and his widow, a cousin, divided the estate between the four legitimate daughters of her brother Sir Thomas Chapman, 7th Baronet. The house and the remaining 1,200 acres of land were sold in 1949, until recently the house was an ivy-clad roofless ruin. The obelisk, erected in 1810 by Sir Thomas Chapman some 200m to 300m from the house, however, it is uncertain who is initially responsible of the first potato plantation in Ireland, even though Raleigh is frequently credited with this milestone in Irish history. The obelisk has been restored through a grant from the Irish Georgian Society. A Genealogical and Heraldic Dictionary of the Peerage and Baronetage of the British Empire
14.
County Westmeath
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County Westmeath is a county in Ireland. It is in the province of Leinster and is part of the Midlands Region and it originally formed part of the historic Kingdom of Meath. It was named Mide because kingdom was located in middle of Ireland, Westmeath County Council is the government for the county, the capital is Mullingar. The population of the county is 88,396, following the failure of male heirs, the Lordship was split between de Lacys great-granddaughters. The western part was awarded to Margery and her husband, John de Verdun, son of Walter de Lacy while the eastern part, the official establishment of County Westmeath dates to 1543, and it was named after the kingdom of Mide. Westmeath is the 20th largest of Irelands 32 counties by area and it is the sixth largest of Leinster’s 12 counties in size and eighth largest in terms of population. It was named after the kingdom and province of Meath. Westmeath was shired under The Counties of Meath and Westmeath Act of 1543, the summit of Mullaghmeen is the highest point in County Westmeath. At just 258 metres this makes it the lowest county top in Ireland, the head office of Westmeath County Council is located in Mullingar. The three electoral areas of Westmeath are Athlone, Mullingar-Coole and Mullingar-Kilbeggan, the Local Government Act 1898, provided the framework for the establishment of County Councils throughout Ireland. The first meeting of Westmeath County Council was held on 22 April 1899, westmeaths population growth has been stronger than the national average. After the Great Famine, the population of Westmeath declined dramatically and it stabilized in the middle of the 20th century, and has continued to grow. Westmeaths proximity to Dublin with good facilities and frequent rail service has made commuting popular. County Westmeath saw a decline in population during 18th and 19th century, the largest town in the county is Athlone, followed by the County town Mullingar. Westmeath is the largest county by population in the Irish Midlands, important commercial and marketing centres include Moate, Kilbeggan, Kinnegad, Ballinahown, Delvin, Rochfortbridge, Killucan and Castlepollard. According to the 2011 census 51. 9% of Westmeath households have at least one Irish speaker, Westmeath is one of oldest counties in Ireland to have census in 1841. Some of the records of that census have been digitized and maintained by the National Archives of Ireland. According to the latest census of April 2011 Westmeath had a population of 86,164 and it was also revealed by central statistics office that despite being overall increase in population, rural population still faced declination. The population of age was 6,882, of primary school going age was 10,111
15.
Siege of Smerwick
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The Siege of Smerwick took place at Ard na Caithne in 1580, during the Second Desmond Rebellion in Ireland. A 400–500 strong force of Papal soldiers captured the town but were forced to retreat to nearby Dún an Óir, the defenders eventually surrendered and most of them were then massacred on the orders of the English commander, the Lord Deputy of Ireland, Arthur Grey. James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald landed a small Papal invasion force in July 1579, initiating the Second Desmond rebellion and this unleashed a war that lasted three years. San Giuseppe had no choice but to retreat to the fort at Dún an Óir, ormonde retreated, leaving a small party to keep Dún an Óir under surveillance. On 5 November, a force led by Admiral William Winter arrived at Smerwick Harbour, replenishing the supplies of Grey, who was camped at Dingle. On 7 November, Grey laid siege to the Smerwick garrison, the English forces began the artillery barrage on Dun an Oir on the morning of the 8 November, which rapidly broke down the improvised defences of the fort. After a three-day siege, the commander di San Giuseppe surrendered on 10 November 1580, accounts vary on whether they had been granted quarter. Grey ordered the massacre of the forces, sparing only the commanders. Grey claimed that he insisted that surrender without preconditions and put themselves at his mercy. An agreement was made for an unconditional surrender the next morning. The following morning, an English force entered the fort to secure and guard armaments, Greys account in his despatch says Then put I in certain bands, who straight fell to execution. Greys forces spared those of rank, Those that I gave life unto, I have bestowed upon the captains. According to these versions Grey promised the garrison their lives in return for their surrender, the few that were spared suffered a worse fate. They were offered if they would renounce their Catholic faith, on refusal their arms. They were left in agony for a day and night and then hanged, according to the English writer John Hooker in his Supply to the Irish Chronicle written in 1587, the bands ordered to carry out the executions were led by Captain Raleigh and Captain Mackworth. Richard Bingham, future commander of Connacht, was present and described events in a letter to the Earl of Leicester, the poet Edmund Spenser, then secretary to the Lord Deputy, is also thought to have been present. The veracity of accounts was long disputed, until a local field known as Gort na gCeann was investigated by 21st-century archaeologists. Three decades later, when Raleigh had fallen from favour, his involvement with this massacre was brought against him as a charge in one of his trials
16.
Elizabeth I of England
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Elizabeth I was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife, who was executed two and a half years after Elizabeths birth. Annes marriage to Henry VIII was annulled, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate, edwards will was set aside and Mary became queen, deposing Lady Jane Grey. During Marys reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels, in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel. She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers, led by William Cecil, one of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was to evolve into the Church of England and it was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir to continue the Tudor line. She never did, despite numerous courtships, as she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity. A cult grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, in government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been. One of her mottoes was video et taceo, in religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the powers of France and Spain. She only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, by the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war with Spain. Englands defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 associated Elizabeth with one of the greatest military victories in English history, Elizabeths reign is known as the Elizabethan era. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler, towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Such was the case with Elizabeths rival, Mary, Queen of Scots, after the short reigns of Elizabeths half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity. Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace and was named after both her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Elizabeth Howard and she was the second child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive infancy. Her mother was Henrys second wife, Anne Boleyn, at birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to the throne of England. She was baptised on 10 September, Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, the Marquess of Exeter, the Duchess of Norfolk, Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536, four months after Catherine of Aragons death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession, eleven days after Anne Boleyns execution, Henry married Jane Seymour, who died shortly after the birth of their son, Prince Edward, in 1537
17.
Letters patent
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Letters patent can be used for the creation of corporations or government offices, or for the granting of city status or a coat of arms. Letters patent are issued for the appointment of representatives of the Crown, such as governors and governors-general of Commonwealth realms, in the United Kingdom they are also issued for the creation of peers of the realm. A particular form of letters patent has evolved into the modern patent granting exclusive rights in an invention. e, the opposite of letters patent are letters close, which are personal in nature and sealed so that only the recipient can read their contents. Letters patent are thus comparable to other kinds of open letter in that their audience is wide, letters patent are so named from the Latin verb pateo, to lie open, exposed, accessible. The originators seal was attached pendent from the document, so that it did not have to be broken in order for the document to be read. Thus letters patent do not equate to a letter but rather to any form of document, deed, contract, letter, despatch, edict, decree. Letters patent are a form of open or public proclamation and an exercise of extra-parliamentary power by a monarch or president. Prior to the establishment of Parliament, the monarch ruled absolutely by the issuing of his written orders. They can thus be contrasted with the Act of Parliament, which is in effect an order by Parliament. No explicit government approval is contained within letters patent, only the seal or signature of the monarch, in their original form they were simply written instructions or orders from the sovereign, whose order was law, which were made public to reinforce their effect. According to the United Kingdom Ministry of Justice, there are 92 different types of letters patent. The Patent Rolls are made up of copies of English royal letters patent. In 1634, during the Thirty Years War, the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II became convinced that his general Albrecht von Wallenstein was plotting treason, on 24 January 1634 the Emperor signed a secret patent removing him from his command. Finally an open patent, charging Wallenstein with high treason, was signed on 18 February, in the patent, Ferdinand II ordered to have Wallenstein brought under arrest to Vienna, dead or alive. On the basis of patent, several of Wallensteins officers assassinated him and were rewarded by the Emperor. The form of patent for creating peerages has been fixed by the Crown Office Order 1992. Part III of the schedule lays down nine pro forma texts for creating various ranks of the peerage, lords of appeal in ordinary, gender-specific differences are highlighted in italics. In Commonwealth realms, letters patent are issued under the powers of the head of state
18.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
19.
Lady-in-waiting
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A lady-in-waiting or Court Lady is a female personal assistant at a court, royal or feudal, attending on a royal woman or a high-ranking noblewoman. Historically, in Europe, a lady-in-waiting was often a noblewoman from a family in good society, although she may or may not have received compensation for the service she rendered, a lady-in-waiting was considered more of a companion to her mistress than a servant. In courts where polygamy was practiced, a lady was formally available to the monarch for sexual services. Lady-in-waiting or court lady is often a term for women whose relative rank, title. The development of the office of lady-in-waiting in Europe is connected to that of the development of a royal court, in the late 12th-century, the queens of France are confirmed to have had their own household, and noblewomen are mentioned as ladies-in-waiting. A number of tribes and cultural areas in the African continent, within certain traditional states of the Bini and Yoruba peoples in Nigeria, the queen mothers and high priestesses were considered ritually male due to their social eminence. Due to this fact, they were often attended on by women who belonged to their harems in much the way as their actually male counterparts were served by women who belonged to theirs. This resulted in a mix of Burgundian and Spanish customs when the Austrian court model was created, the first rank of the female courtiers was the Obersthofmeisterin, who was second in rank after the empress herself, and responsible for all the female courtiers. Second rank belonged to the ayas, essentially governesses of the imperial children, the rest of the female noble courtiers consisted of the Hoffräulein, unmarried females from the nobility who normally served temporarily until marriage. The Hoffräulein could sometimes be promoted to Kammerfräulein, the Austrian court model was the role model for the princely courts in Germany. The German court model in turn became the model of the early modern Scandinavian courts of Denmark. The Kingdom of Belgium was founded in 1830, after which a court was founded. The ladies-in waiting have historically been chosen by the Queen herself from among the Catholic noble houses of Belgium, the chief functions at court were undertaken by members of the higher nobility, involving much contact with the royal ladies. Belgian princesses were assigned a lady upon their 18th birthday, princess Clementine was given a Dame by her father, a symbolic act of adulthood. When the Queen entertains, the ladies welcome guests and assist the hostess in sustaining conversation and this system has formally remained roughly the same. However, in practice, many offices have since then left vacant. For example, in recent times, Maids of Honour have only appointed for coronations. The duties of ladies-in-waiting at the Tudor court were to act as royal companions, Tudor queens often had wide personal latitude in selection of their ladies-in-waiting
20.
Tower of London
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The Tower of London, officially Her Majestys Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, is a historic castle located on the north bank of the River Thames in central London. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the edge of the square mile of the City of London by the open space known as Tower Hill. It was founded towards the end of 1066 as part of the Norman Conquest of England. The White Tower, which gives the castle its name, was built by William the Conqueror in 1078 and was a resented symbol of oppression. The castle was used as a prison from 1100 until 1952, a grand palace early in its history, it served as a royal residence. As a whole, the Tower is a complex of buildings set within two concentric rings of defensive walls and a moat. There were several phases of expansion, mainly under Kings Richard the Lionheart, Henry III, the general layout established by the late 13th century remains despite later activity on the site. The Tower of London has played a prominent role in English history and it was besieged several times, and controlling it has been important to controlling the country. The Tower has served variously as an armoury, a treasury, a menagerie, the home of the Royal Mint, a record office. From the early 14th century until the reign of Charles II, in the absence of the monarch, the Constable of the Tower is in charge of the castle. This was a powerful and trusted position in the medieval period, in the late 15th century, the castle was the prison of the Princes in the Tower. Under the Tudors, the Tower became used less as a royal residence and this use has led to the phrase sent to the Tower. Executions were more commonly held on the notorious Tower Hill to the north of the castle, in the latter half of the 19th century, institutions such as the Royal Mint moved out of the castle to other locations, leaving many buildings empty. Anthony Salvin and John Taylor took the opportunity to restore the Tower to what was felt to be its medieval appearance, in the First and Second World Wars, the Tower was again used as a prison and witnessed the executions of 12 men for espionage. After the Second World War, damage caused during the Blitz was repaired, today, the Tower of London is one of the countrys most popular tourist attractions. Under the ceremonial charge of the Constable of the Tower, it is cared for by the charity Historic Royal Palaces and is protected as a World Heritage Site. The Tower was orientated with its strongest and most impressive defences overlooking Saxon London and it would have visually dominated the surrounding area and stood out to traffic on the River Thames. The castle is made up of three wards, or enclosures, the innermost ward contains the White Tower and is the earliest phase of the castle
21.
Sherborne
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Sherborne is a market town and civil parish in north west Dorset, in South West England. It is sited on the River Yeo, on the edge of the Blackmore Vale,6 miles east of Yeovil, the A30 road, which connects London to Penzance, runs through the town. In the 2011 census the population of Sherborne parish and the two wards was 9,523. 28. 7% of the population is aged 65 or older, much of the old town, including the abbey and many medieval and Georgian buildings, is built from distinctive ochre-coloured ham stone. The town is served by Sherborne railway station, the town was named scir burne by the Saxon inhabitants, a name meaning clear stream and is referred to as such in the Domesday book. Sherborne was made the capital of Wessex, one of the seven Saxon kingdoms of England, in 705 the diocese was split between Sherborne and Winchester, and King Ine founded an abbey for St Aldhelm, the first bishop of Sherborne. In 933, King Æthelstan granted land at Sherborne to the nuns of Shaftesbury Abbey under the condition that they would recite the Psalter once a year on All Saints day and say prayers for the king. The bishops seat was moved to Old Sarum in 1075 and the church at Sherborne became a Benedictine monastery, in the 15th century the church was burnt down during tensions between the town and the monastery, and rebuilt between 1425 and 1504 incorporating some of the Norman structure remains. In 1539 the monastery was bought by Sir John Horsey and became a conventional church, Sherborne was the centre of a hundred of the same name for many centuries. See the article Sherborne Abbey for more on the history of the abbey, in the 12th century Roger de Caen, Bishop of Salisbury and Chancellor of England, built a fortified palace in Sherborne. The palace was destroyed in 1645 by General Fairfax, and its ruins are owned by English Heritage, in 1594 Sir Walter Raleigh built an Elizabethan mansion in the grounds of the old palace, today known as Sherborne Castle. In the UK national parliament, Sherborne is within the West Dorset parliamentary constituency, in local government, Sherborne is administered by Dorset County Council at the highest tier, West Dorset District Council at the second tier, and Sherborne Town Council at the lowest tier. In national parliament and district elections, West Dorset is divided into 24 electoral wards. In county council elections, Dorset is divided into 42 electoral divisions, there has been a school in Sherborne since the time of King Alfred, who was educated there. The school was re-founded in 1550 as King Edwards grammar school, using some of the old abbey buildings, though it is now known simply as Sherborne School. The school remains one of the top independent schools in Britain, boasting numerous successful alumni, including Alan Turing, Jeremy Irons, Chris Martin, John le Carré, until 1992 there were also two grammar schools, Fosters School for Boys and Lord Digbys School for Girls. Both schools merged with local school to form The Gryphon School. Other well-established schools in the area include Sherborne Abbey Primary School, Sherborne Prep, Sherborne Girls, Sherborne International caters to international students
22.
Dorset
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Dorset /ˈdɔːrsᵻt/ is a county in South West England on the English Channel coast. The ceremonial county comprises the county, which is governed by Dorset County Council. Covering an area of 2,653 square kilometres, Dorset borders Devon to the west, Somerset to the north-west, Wiltshire to the north-east, the county town is Dorchester which is in the south. After the reorganisation of government in 1974 the countys border was extended eastward to incorporate the Hampshire towns of Bournemouth. Around half of the lives in the South East Dorset conurbation. The county has a history of human settlement stretching back to the Neolithic era. The Romans conquered Dorsets indigenous Celtic tribe, and during the early Middle Ages, the first recorded Viking raid on the British Isles occurred in Dorset during the eighth century, and the Black Death entered England at Melcombe Regis in 1348. During the Second World War, Dorset was heavily involved in the preparations for the invasion of Normandy, the former was the sailing venue in the 2012 Summer Olympics, and both have clubs or hire venues for sailing, Cornish pilot gig rowing, sea kayaking and powerboating. Dorset has a varied landscape featuring broad elevated chalk downs, steep limestone ridges, over half the county is designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Three-quarters of its coastline is part of the Jurassic Coast Natural World Heritage Site due to its geological and it features notable landforms such as Lulworth Cove, the Isle of Portland, Chesil Beach and Durdle Door. Agriculture was traditionally the major industry of Dorset but is now in decline, there are no motorways in Dorset but a network of A roads cross the county and two railway main lines connect to London. Dorset has ports at Poole, Weymouth and Portland, and an international airport, the county has a variety of museums, theatres and festivals, and is host to one of Europes largest outdoor shows. It is the birthplace of Thomas Hardy, who used the county as the setting of his novels. Dorset derives its name from the county town of Dorchester, the Romans established the settlement in the 1st century and named it Durnovaria which was a Latinised version of a Common Brittonic word possibly meaning place with fist-sized pebbles. It is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in AD845 and in the 10th century the countys archaic name, the first human visitors to Dorset were Mesolithic hunters, from around 8000 BC. The first permanent Neolithic settlers appeared around 3000 BC and were responsible for the creation of the Dorset Cursus, from 2800 BC onwards Bronze Age farmers cleared Dorsets woodlands for agricultural use and Dorsets high chalk hills provided a location for numerous round barrows. During the Iron Age, the British tribe known as the Durotriges established a series of forts across the county—most notably Maiden Castle which is one of the largest in Europe. The Romans arrived in Dorset during their conquest of Britain in AD43, Maiden Castle was captured by a Roman legion under the command of Vespasian, and the Roman settlement of Durnovaria was established nearby
23.
South America
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South America is a continent located in the western hemisphere, mostly in the southern hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the northern hemisphere. It may also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas, which is the used in nations that speak Romance languages. The reference to South America instead of other regions has increased in the last decades due to changing geopolitical dynamics. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean, North America and it includes twelve sovereign states, a part of France, and a non-sovereign area. In addition to this, the ABC islands of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Trinidad and Tobago, South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers. Its population as of 2005 has been estimated at more than 371,090,000, South America ranks fourth in area and fifth in population. Brazil is by far the most populous South American country, with more than half of the population, followed by Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela. In recent decades Brazil has also concentrated half of the regions GDP and has become a first regional power, most of the population lives near the continents western or eastern coasts while the interior and the far south are sparsely populated. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, the continents cultural and ethnic outlook has its origin with the interaction of indigenous peoples with European conquerors and immigrants and, more locally, with African slaves. Given a long history of colonialism, the majority of South Americans speak Portuguese or Spanish. South America occupies the portion of the Americas. The continent is delimited on the northwest by the Darién watershed along the Colombia–Panama border. Almost all of mainland South America sits on the South American Plate, South Americas major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin, and petroleum. These resources found in South America have brought high income to its countries especially in times of war or of rapid growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the concentration in producing one major export commodity often has hindered the development of diversified economies and this is leading to efforts to diversify production to drive away from staying as economies dedicated to one major export. South America is one of the most biodiverse continents on earth, South America is home to many interesting and unique species of animals including the llama, anaconda, piranha, jaguar, vicuña, and tapir. The Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity, containing a proportion of the Earths species. Brazil is the largest country in South America, encompassing around half of the land area
24.
El Dorado
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The legends surrounding El Dorado changed over time, as it went from being a man, to a city, to a kingdom, and then finally an empire. A second location for El Dorado was inferred from rumors, which inspired several unsuccessful expeditions in the late 1500s in search of a city called Manõa on the shores of Lake Parime, two of the most famous of these expeditions were led by Sir Walter Raleigh. In pursuit of the legend, Spanish conquistadors and numerous others searched Colombia, Venezuela, in the course of these explorations, much of northern South America, including the Amazon River, was mapped. By the beginning of the 19th century most people dismissed the existence of the city as a myth. The Muisca occupied the highlands of Cundinamarca and Boyacá departments of Colombia in two migrations from outlying areas, one starting ~1270 BCE, and a second between 800 BCE and 500 BCE. At those times, other ancient civilizations also flourished in the highlands. The Muisca Confederation was as advanced as the Aztec, Maya, in the mythology of the Muisca, Mnya the Gold or golden color, represents the energy contained in the trinity of Chiminigagua, which constitutes the creative power of everything that exists. Chiminigagua is related to Bachué, Cuza, Chibchacum, Bochica, the original narrative can be found in the rambling chronicle El Carnero of Juan Rodriguez Freyle. People gathered here to perform rituals and sacrifices mostly with gold, important lakes were Lake Guatavita, Lake Iguaque, Lake Fúquene, Lake Tota, the Siecha Lakes, Lake Teusacá and Lake Ubaque. El Dorado is applied to a story in which precious stones were found in fabulous abundance along with gold coins. The concept of El Dorado underwent several transformations, and eventually accounts of the myth were also combined with those of a legendary lost city. The resulting El Dorado myth enticed European explorers for two centuries, among the earliest stories was the one told on his deathbed by Juan Martinez, a captain of munitions for Spanish adventurer Diego de Ordaz, who claimed to have visited the city of Manoa. Martinez had allowed a store of gunpowder to fire and was condemned to death. The emperor, after he had him, knew him to be a Christian, and caused him to be lodged in his palace. He was brought all the way blindfold, led by the Indians, until he came to the entrance of Manoa itself. But Martinez, not desirous to stay, obtained the favour of Inga to depart, during the 16th and 17th centuries, Europeans, still fascinated by the New World, believed that a hidden city of immense wealth existed. Numerous expeditions were mounted to search for treasure, all which ended in failure. The illustration of El Dorados location on maps only made matters worse, the mythical city of El Dorado on Lake Parime was marked on numerous maps until its existence was disproved by Alexander von Humboldt during his Latin America expedition
25.
James VI and I
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James VI and I was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death. The kingdoms of Scotland and England were individual sovereign states, with their own parliaments, judiciary, and laws, though both were ruled by James in personal union. James was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, James succeeded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months, after his mother Mary was compelled to abdicate in his favour. Four different regents governed during his minority, which ended officially in 1578, in 1603, he succeeded the last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland, Elizabeth I, who died without issue. He continued to reign in all three kingdoms for 22 years, a period known after him as the Jacobean era, until his death in 1625 at the age of 58. After the Union of the Crowns, he based himself in England from 1603, only returning to Scotland once in 1617 and he was a major advocate of a single parliament for England and Scotland. In his reign, the Plantation of Ulster and British colonization of the Americas began, at 57 years and 246 days, Jamess reign in Scotland was longer than those of any of his predecessors. He achieved most of his aims in Scotland but faced difficulties in England, including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605. James himself was a scholar, the author of works such as Daemonologie, The True Law of Free Monarchies. He sponsored the translation of the Bible that would later be named after him, Sir Anthony Weldon claimed that James had been termed the wisest fool in Christendom, an epithet associated with his character ever since. Since the latter half of the 20th century, historians have tended to revise Jamess reputation and treat him as a serious, James was the only son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and her second husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Both Mary and Darnley were great-grandchildren of Henry VII of England through Margaret Tudor, Marys rule over Scotland was insecure, and she and her husband, being Roman Catholics, faced a rebellion by Protestant noblemen. James was born on 19 June 1566 at Edinburgh Castle, and as the eldest son and heir apparent of the monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and he was baptised Charles James or James Charles on 17 December 1566 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle. His godparents were Charles IX of France, Elizabeth I of England, Mary refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews, whom she referred to as a pocky priest, spit in the childs mouth, as was then the custom. The subsequent entertainment, devised by Frenchman Bastian Pagez, featured men dressed as satyrs and sporting tails, Jamess father, Darnley, was murdered on 10 February 1567 at Kirk o Field, Edinburgh, perhaps in revenge for Rizzios death. James inherited his fathers titles of Duke of Albany and Earl of Ross, Mary was already unpopular, and her marriage on 15 May 1567 to James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of murdering Darnley, heightened widespread bad feeling towards her. In June 1567, Protestant rebels arrested Mary and imprisoned her in Loch Leven Castle and she was forced to abdicate on 24 July 1567 in favour of the infant James and to appoint her illegitimate half-brother, James Stewart, Earl of Moray, as regent. The care of James was entrusted to the Earl and Countess of Mar, to be conserved, nursed, and upbrought in the security of Stirling Castle
26.
Treaty of London (1604)
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The Treaty of London, signed on 18 August O. S. 1604, concluded the nineteen-year Anglo-Spanish War, the negotiations took place at Somerset House in London and are sometimes known as the Somerset House Conference. After the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603, her successor, James I, James was an idealistic practitioner of Christian peace and unity and also the son and successor to Mary, Queen of Scots, whose execution had been a proximate cause of the conflict. The Anglo-Spanish War had been a complex and fluctuating conflict that also had connections with the Dutch Revolt, the French Wars of Religion, the treaty restored the status quo ante bellum. It amounted to an acknowledgement by Spain that its hopes of restoring Roman Catholicism in England were at an end, Spain was compelled to recognise the Protestant monarchy in England. In return, England ended its financial and military support for the Dutch rebellion, according to historian Germán Vázquez Chamorro who played down the English privateering attacks to the Spanish treasure fleet. Spain renounces intentions to restore Catholicism in England, an end to English wartime disruption to Spanish trans-atlantic shipping and colonial expansion. The English Channel opened to Spanish shipping, an end to English intervention in the Dutch Revolt, England withdraws military and financial support to the Dutch rebels. Ships of both countries, merchants or warships, could use the sea ports of the other party for refit. Fleets of less than eight ships did not even have to ask for permission, Spanish delegation Juan Fernández de Velasco, 5th Duke of Frías, Constable of Castile. Juan de Tassis, Count of Villa Mediana, delegation of the Spanish Netherlands Charles de Ligne, prince-count of Arenberg, Jean Richardot, President of the Brussels Privy Council. Text of the Treaty in Latin and English (main body incomplete only clauses 1,2,9, Text of the Treaty in English Text of the Treaty in Latin and Spanish Davenport, Frances Gardiner, & Paullin, Charles Oscar. European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies, The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd.2004 ISBN 1-58477-422-3, ISBN 978-1-58477-422-8 List of treaties
27.
Elizabethan era
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The Elizabethan era is the epoch in English history marked by the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. Historians often depict it as the age in English history. In terms of the century, the historian John Guy argues that England was economically healthier, more expansive. This golden age represented the apogee of the English Renaissance and saw the flowering of poetry, music, the era is most famous for theatre, as William Shakespeare and many others composed plays that broke free of Englands past style of theatre. It was an age of exploration and expansion abroad, while back at home and it was also the end of the period when England was a separate realm before its royal union with Scotland. The Elizabethan Age may be viewed especially highly when considered in light of the failings of the periods preceding Elizabeths reign, the Protestant/Catholic divide was settled, for a time, by the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, and parliament was not yet strong enough to challenge royal absolutism. England was also compared to the other nations of Europe. The Italian Renaissance had come to an end under the weight of Spanish domination of the peninsula, France was embroiled in its own religious battles due to significant Spanish intervention, that would only be settled in 1598 with the Edict of Nantes. The one great rival was Spain, which England clashed both in Europe and the Americas in skirmishes that exploded into the Anglo-Spanish War of 1585–1604 and this drained both the English Exchequer and economy that had been so carefully restored under Elizabeths prudent guidance. English commercial and territorial expansion would be limited until the signing of the Treaty of London the year following Elizabeths death, economically, the country began to benefit greatly from the new era of trans-Atlantic trade, persistent theft of Spanish treasure, and the African slave trade. The Victorian era and the early 20th century idealised the Elizabethan era, the Encyclopædia Britannica maintains that he long reign of Elizabeth I, 1558–1603, was Englands Golden Age. Merry England, in love with life, expressed itself in music and literature, in architecture and this idealising tendency was shared by Britain and an Anglophilic America. In popular culture, the image of those adventurous Elizabethan seafarers was embodied in the films of Errol Flynn, in response and reaction to this hyperbole, modern historians and biographers have tended to take a more dispassionate view of the Tudor period. Elizabethan England was not particularly successful in a military sense during the period, having inherited a virtually bankrupt state from previous reigns, her frugal policies restored fiscal responsibility. Her fiscal restraint cleared the regime of debt by 1574, and this general peace and prosperity allowed the attractive developments that Golden Age advocates have stressed. The Elizabethan Age was also an age of plots and conspiracies, frequently political in nature, high officials in Madrid, Paris and Rome sought to kill Elizabeth, a Protestant, and replace her with Mary, Queen of Scots, a Catholic. That would be a prelude to the recovery of England for Catholicism. In 1570, the Ridolfi plot was thwarted, in 1584, the Throckmorton Plot was discovered, after Francis Throckmorton confessed his involvement in a plot to overthrow the Queen and restore the Catholic Church in England
28.
John Everett Millais
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Sir John Everett Millais, 1st Baronet, PRA was an English painter and illustrator who was one of the founders of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. A child prodigy, at the age of eleven Millais became the youngest student to enter the Royal Academy Schools, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was founded at his family home in London, at 83 Gower Street. Millais became the most famous exponent of the style, his painting Christ in the House of His Parents generating considerable controversy, by the mid-1850s Millais was moving away from the Pre-Raphaelite style and developing a new and powerful form of realism in his art. His later works were successful, making Millais one of the wealthiest artists of his day. Millaiss personal life has played a significant role in his reputation. His wife Effie was formerly married to the critic John Ruskin, Millais was born in Southampton, England in 1829, of a prominent Jersey-based family. His parents were John William Millais and Emily Mary Millais, most of his early childhood was spent in Jersey, to which he retained a strong devotion throughout his life. The author Thackeray once asked him when England conquered Jersey, the family moved to Dinan in Brittany for a few years in his childhood. His mothers forceful personality was the most powerful influence on his early life and she had a keen interest in art and music, and encouraged her sons artistic bent, promoting the relocating of the family to London to help develop contacts at the Royal Academy of Art. He later said I owe everything to my mother and his prodigious artistic talent won him a place at the Royal Academy schools at the unprecedented age of eleven. While there, he met William Holman Hunt and Dante Gabriel Rossetti with whom he formed the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood in September 1848 in his home on Gower Street. Millaiss Christ in the House of His Parents was highly controversial because of its portrayal of a working class Holy Family labouring in a messy carpentry workshop. Later works were controversial, though less so. Millais achieved popular success with A Huguenot, which depicts a couple about to be separated because of religious conflicts. He repeated this theme in later works. All these early works were painted with great attention to detail, in paintings such as Ophelia Millais created dense and elaborate pictorial surfaces based on the integration of naturalistic elements. This approach has been described as a kind of pictorial eco-system, Mariana is a painting that Millais painted in 1850-51 based on the play Measure for Measure by William Shakespeare and the poem of the same name by Alfred, Lord Tennyson from 1830. In the play, the young Mariana was to be married and this style was promoted by the critic John Ruskin, who had defended the Pre-Raphaelites against their critics
29.
The Boyhood of Raleigh
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The Boyhood of Raleigh is a painting by John Everett Millais, which was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1871. It came to epitomise the culture of imperialism in late Victorian Britain and in British popular culture up to the mid-twentieth century. The painting depicts the young, wide-eyed Sir Walter Raleigh and his sitting on the beach by the Devonshire coast. He is listening to a story of life on the seas, the painting was influenced by an essay written by James Anthony Froude on Englands Forgotten Worthies, which described the lives of Elizabethan seafarers. It was also influenced by a contemporaneous biography of Raleigh. Millais travelled to Budleigh Salterton to paint the location, millaiss sons Everett and George modelled for the boys. The sailor was a professional model, Millais friend and biographer, the critic Marion Spielmann, stated that he was intended to be Genoese. He also argues that the sailor is pointing south towards the Spanish main, the painting has been parodied many times in political cartoons. In 1928 David Low published a cartoon showing the Earl of Birkenhead, Stanley Baldwin, in 1993 the Sunday Telegraph ran The Boyhood of Hurd and Major. Former Prime Minister Heath - whose hobby had been yachting - had taken Britain into the EEC during his premiership, the two elder statesmen described themselves as pro-European but opposed to British membership of the Single Currency. Elements of the picture appear on the cover of the Talk Talk album Its My Life, the painting is also reproduced in part on the cover of the 1982 single Almost With You/Life Speeds Up by The Church
30.
Dictionary of National Biography
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The Dictionary of National Biography is a standard work of reference on notable figures from British history, published from 1885. The updated Oxford Dictionary of National Biography was published on 23 September 2004 in 60 volumes and he approached Leslie Stephen, then editor of the Cornhill Magazine, owned by Smith, to become editor. Stephen persuaded Smith that the work should focus on subjects from the UK and its present, an early working title was the Biographia Britannica, the name of an earlier eighteenth-century reference work. The first volume of the Dictionary of National Biography appeared on 1 January 1885, in May 1891 Leslie Stephen resigned and Sidney Lee, Stephens assistant editor from the beginning of the project, succeeded him as editor. While much of the dictionary was written in-house, the DNB also relied on external contributors, by 1900, more than 700 individuals had contributed to the work. Successive volumes appeared quarterly with complete punctuality until midsummer 1900, when the series closed with volume 63, the year of publication, the editor and the range of names in each volume is given below. The supplements brought the work up to the death of Queen Victoria on 22 January 1901. The dictionary was transferred from its original publishers, Smith, Elder & Co. to Oxford University Press in 1917, until 1996, Oxford University Press continued to add further supplements featuring articles on subjects who had died during the twentieth century. The supplements published between 1912 and 1996 added about 6,000 lives of people who died in the century to the 29,120 in the 63 volumes of the original DNB. In 1993 a volume containing missing biographies was published and this had an additional 1,000 lives, selected from over 100,000 suggestions. Consequently, the dictionary was becoming less and less useful as a reference work, in 1966, the University of London published a volume of corrections, cumulated from the Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research. There were various versions of the Concise Dictionary of National Biography, the last edition, in three volumes, covered everyone who died before 1986. In the early 1990s Oxford University Press committed itself to overhauling the DNB, the new dictionary would cover British history, broadly defined, up to 31 December 2000. The research project was conceived as a one, with in-house staff co-ordinating the work of nearly 10,000 contributors internationally. Following Matthews death in October 1999, he was succeeded as editor by another Oxford historian, Professor Brian Harrison, in January 2000. The new dictionary, now known as the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, was published on 23 September 2004 in 60 volumes in print at a price of £7500, most UK holders of a current library card can access it online free of charge. In subsequent years, the print edition has been able to be obtained new for a lower price. At publication, the 2004 edition had 50,113 biographical articles covering 54,922 lives, a small permanent staff remain in Oxford to update and extend the coverage of the online edition
31.
Budleigh Salterton
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Budleigh Salterton is a small town on the coast in East Devon, England,15 miles south-east of Exeter. It is situated within the East Devon Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and it is a major part of the electoral ward of Budleigh. The ward population at the 2011 census was 5,967 and it has a designated area for naturists. Budleigh Salterton lies on the South West Coast Path, with clifftop routes eastwards to Sidmouth, the pebble beach and cliffs are part of the Jurassic Coast World Heritage site. Fairlynch Museum is housed in a listed, thatched marine cottage orné dating from 1811 and it covers the history and geology of the region, and opened in 1967, offering exhibitions and a local archive. It possesses a collection of period costumes. The town has a choir, which performs for charity. Budleigh Salterton lies on the B3178 and the B3179 ends on the edge of the town. It is served by three bus routes, The Coasthopper 157 to towns Exmouth and Sidmouth, the 357, the 58 every two hours to Exeter and the 57C to Exeter and Bicton College. Budleigh Salterton is home to the scenic East Devon Golf Club, the first team of the Budleigh Salterton Association Football Club plays in the South West Peninsula League Division One East. The club also has a team, a ladies team. In addition, there is a club, a rifle club. Budleigh Salterton Anglicans were originally served by a chapel of ease that came under the parish of All Saints, as the population grew, this was replaced in the 1890s by what became the parish church of St Peter in 1901. The church was damaged by enemy aircraft bombing on 17 April 1942. Today the Raleigh Mission Community at St Peter’s, Budleigh Salterton, the Roman Catholic Church is also dedicated to St Peter. The Temple Methodist Church was completed in 1904, to replace an earlier, smaller chapel dating from 1812, built by the bookseller James Lackington, there is a Baptist church in the town, whose congregation dates back to 1843. Writer Dame Hilary Mantel, author of Wolf Hall and Bring Up the Bodies and it is also the home of BBC Radio 4 comic character Giles Wemmbley-Hogg. Charles Warrell, creator of the I-Spy series of childrens books, in 2003, Budleigh Salterton featured in episode 3 of series 3 of Top Gear as the destination for a road test by Jeremy Clarkson of a Bentley Continental GT
32.
Kat Ashley
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Katherine Ashley, née Katherine Champernowne, was governess to Queen Elizabeth I and became her close friend in later life. She was known to the Queen as Kat, and it is by the name Kat Ashley that she is known to history. She should not be confused with her niece Katherine Champernowne, mother successively of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, the name derives from the manor of Cambernon in Normandy, the former feudal holding of the de Cambernon family. Kats niece was Joan Champernowne, who married Sir Anthony Denny, Groom of the Stool and most trusted servant to King Henry VIII, after Edward VIs birth, Elizabeth lost her nurse, Lady Bryan, who was transferred to the young Princes household. Katherine Champernowne was appointed as a gentlewoman to the then Lady Elizabeth in July 1536. In 1537, when Elizabeth was four, Katherine became her governess, evidently, Champernowne had been well educated for she taught Elizabeth astronomy, geography, history, mathematics, French, Flemish, Italian and Spanish. In addition, she taught Elizabeth pursuits such as needlework, embroidery, dancing, riding, by the age of six, Elizabeth was able to sew a beautiful cambric shirt as a gift for Edward VI. Sources state that Kat accustomed Elizabeth to the code of politeness. Elizabeth herself praised Kat’s early devotion to her studies by stating that Kat took great labour and pain in bringing of me up in learning, in 1545 Katherine married Sir John Ashley, Princess Elizabeths senior gentleman attendant. Sir John Ashley was a cousin of Elizabeths mother, Anne Boleyn, Katherine was over 40 years old at this date which heavily implies John Champernowne of Dartington is her father as Sir Philips wife Catherine Carew was only 10 in 1505. In 1543, Henry VIII had married Catherine Parr, Parr gave Elizabeth a more stable family life and brought Elizabeth to Court. However Henry died in 1547 and was succeeded by his son, Edward VI. Edwards uncles, Edward Seymour, shortly after Henry VIII died, Thomas Seymour investigated whether he could be permitted to marry either the Lady Mary or Elizabeth, he was refused. Seymour immediately began courting Catherine Parr, in her early 30s and still childless, Parr agreed to marry Seymour almost at once, only two months after Henrys death. Seymour and Parr were able to secure royal approval and lived in Chelsea with Kat, when Thomas Seymour began a flirtation with the 14-year-old Elizabeth, Kat Ashley first thought this amusing. However he entered Elizabeths bedroom in the morning in his nightshirt, eventually there was a major incident in which Kat said that Queen Catherine had caught Elizabeth in Seymours arms. Elizabeth was lectured about the need to protect her reputation, the rumors about Thomas Seymours flirtation with Elizabeth emerged in 1548 as his other political maneuvers were revealed. On 21 January 1549, Kat Ashley was arrested and taken to the Tower and she told her story and was found to have done nothing treasonous and was released thirteen days before Seymours execution. Despite detailed questioning, Katherine did not implicate Elizabeth in Seymours schemes, blanche Parry, second in the household, was Elizabeths Chief Gentlewoman while Kat was in prison
33.
Roman Catholic
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
34.
Mary I of England
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Mary I was the Queen of England and Ireland from July 1553 until her death. Her executions of Protestants led to the posthumous sobriquet Bloody Mary and she was the only child of Henry VIII by his first wife Catherine of Aragon to survive to adulthood. Her younger half-brother Edward VI succeeded their father in 1547, when Edward became mortally ill in 1553, he attempted to remove Mary from the line of succession because of religious differences. On his death their first cousin once removed, Lady Jane Grey, was proclaimed queen, Mary assembled a force in East Anglia and deposed Jane, who was ultimately beheaded. Mary was—excluding the disputed reigns of Jane and the Empress Matilda—the first queen regnant of England, in 1554, Mary married Philip of Spain, becoming queen consort of Habsburg Spain on his accession in 1556. Mary is remembered for her restoration of Roman Catholicism after her half-brothers short-lived Protestant reign, during her five-year reign, she had over 280 religious dissenters burned at the stake in the Marian persecutions. After her death in 1558, her re-establishment of Roman Catholicism was reversed by her younger half-sister and successor Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry, Mary was born on 18 February 1516 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, London. She was the child of King Henry VIII by his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Her mother had many miscarriages, before Marys birth, four previous pregnancies had resulted in a stillborn daughter and she was baptised into the Catholic faith at the Church of the Observant Friars in Greenwich three days after her birth. Her godparents included her great-aunt the Countess of Devon, Lord Chancellor Thomas Wolsey, Henry VIIIs cousin once removed, Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury, stood sponsor for Marys confirmation, which was held immediately after the baptism. The following year, Mary became a godmother herself when she was named as one of the sponsors of her cousin Frances Brandon, in 1520, the Countess of Salisbury was appointed Marys governess. Sir John Hussey, later Lord Hussey, was her chamberlain from 1530, in July 1520, when scarcely four and a half years old, she entertained a visiting French delegation with a performance on the virginals. By the age of nine, Mary could read and write Latin and she studied French, Spanish, music, dance, and perhaps Greek. Henry VIII doted on his daughter and boasted to the Venetian ambassador Sebastian Giustiniani, also, as the miniature portrait of her shows, Mary had, like both her parents, a very fair complexion, pale blue eyes and red or reddish-golden hair. She was also ruddy cheeked, a trait she inherited from her father, despite his affection for Mary, Henry was deeply disappointed that his marriage had produced no sons. By the time Mary was nine years old, it was apparent that Henry and Catherine would have no more children, in 1525, Henry sent Mary to the border of Wales to preside, presumably in name only, over the Council of Wales and the Marches. She was given her own based at Ludlow Castle and many of the royal prerogatives normally reserved for the Prince of Wales. Vives and others called her the Princess of Wales, although she was never technically invested with the title and she appears to have spent three years in the Welsh Marches, making regular visits to her fathers court, before returning permanently to the home counties around London in mid-1528
35.
Huguenots
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Huguenots are the ethnoreligious group of French Protestants who follow the Reformed tradition. It was used frequently to members of the French Reformed Church until the beginning of the 19th century. The term has its origin in 16th-century France, Huguenot numbers peaked near an estimated two million by 1562, concentrated mainly in the southern and western parts of France. As Huguenots gained influence and more openly displayed their faith, Catholic hostility grew, in spite of political concessions, a series of religious conflicts followed, known as the French Wars of Religion, fought intermittently from 1562 to 1598. The Huguenots were led by Jeanne dAlbret, her son, the future Henry IV, the wars ended with the Edict of Nantes, which granted the Huguenots substantial religious, political, and military autonomy. Huguenot rebellions in the 1620s prompted the abolishment of their political and they retained religious provisions of the Edict of Nantes until the rule of Louis XIV. Nevertheless, a minority of Huguenots remained and faced continued persecution under Louis XV. By the death of Louis XV in 1774, French Calvinism was almost completely wiped out, persecution of Protestants officially ended with the Edict of Versailles, signed by Louis XVI in 1787. Two years later, with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789 and they also spread to the Dutch Cape Colony in South Africa, the Dutch East Indies, the Caribbean, New Netherland, and several of the English colonies in North America. Small contingents of families went to Orthodox Russia and Catholic Quebec, a term used originally in derision, Huguenot has unclear origins. Geneva was John Calvins adopted home and the centre of the Calvinist movement, the label Huguenot was purportedly first applied in France to those conspirators involved in the Amboise plot of 1560, a foiled attempt to wrest power in France from the influential House of Guise. The move would have had the effect of fostering relations with the Swiss. Thus, Hugues plus Eidgenosse by way of Huisgenoten supposedly became Huguenot, a version of this complex hypothesis is promoted by O. I. A. Roche, who writes in his book, The Days of the Upright, A History of the Huguenots, that Huguenot is, a combination of a Dutch and a German word. Gallicised into Huguenot, often used deprecatingly, the word became, Some disagree with such double or triple non-French linguistic origins, arguing that for the word to have spread into common use in France, it must have originated in the French language. The Hugues hypothesis argues that the name was derived by association with Hugues Capet, king of France and he was regarded by the Gallicans and Protestants as a noble man who respected peoples dignity and lives. Janet Gray and other supporters of the hypothesis suggest that the name huguenote would be equivalent to little Hugos. It was in place in Tours that the prétendus réformés habitually gathered at night
36.
Inns of Court
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The Inns of Court in London are the professional associations for barristers in England and Wales. All barristers must belong to one such association and they have supervisory and disciplinary functions over their members. The Inns also provide libraries, dining facilities and professional accommodation, several centuries ago the Inns of Court were any of a sizable number of buildings or precincts where barristers traditionally lodged, trained and carried on their profession. The records of Grays Inn begin in 1569, but teaching is thought to have there in the late fourteenth century. The Inns are near the boundary of the City of London, nearby are the Royal Courts of Justice. Each Inn is a complex with a great hall, chapel, libraries, sets of chambers for many hundreds of barristers, and gardens. The layout is similar to that of an Oxbridge college, the chambers were originally used as residences as well as business premises by many of the barristers, but today, with a small number of exceptions, they serve as offices only. Each of the four Inns of Court has three grades of membership, students, barristers, and Masters of the Bench or benchers. The benchers constitute the body for each Inn and appoint new members from among existing barrister members. As a rule, any member of the Inn is eligible for appointment. Prospective students may choose which Inn to apply to for membership, an applicant may choose a particular Inn because he or she knows someone already a member, or it has a student association at their university. It makes no difference which Inn a barrister joins. The senior bencher of each Inn is the Treasurer, a position which is held for one year only, each Inn usually also has at least one Royal Bencher. They may also appoint Honorary Benchers, from academics, the world of politics, all prospective Bar School students must be a member of one of the four Inns, and must attend twelve qualifying sessions before being eligible to qualify as a barrister. Qualifying sessions traditionally comprise formal dinners followed by law-related talks, the Inns still retain the sole right to call qualified students to the bar, a right currently found in section 207 of the Legal Services Act 2007. The Inns disciplinary functions are carried out by a joint Council of the Inns of Court, barristers are prosecuted by the Bar Standards Board. The four Inns are near one another in central London, middle Temple and Inner Temple are liberties of the City of London, which means they are within the historic boundaries of the City but are not subject to its jurisdiction. They operate as their own local authorities and these two Inns neighbour each other and occupy the core of the Temple area
37.
Middle Temple
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It is located in the wider Temple area of London, near the Royal Courts of Justice, and within the City of London. In the 13th century, the Inns of Court originated as hostels and schools for student lawyers, the Middle Temple is the western part of The Temple, the headquarters of the Knights Templar until they were dissolved in 1312. The Temple Church still stands as a church of the Inner. Most of the Inn is occupied by offices, known as chambers. One of the Middle Temples main functions now is to provide education, Middle Temple Hall is at the heart of the Inn, and the Inns student members are required to attend a minimum of 12 qualifying sessions there. Qualifying sessions, formerly known as dinners, combine collegiate and educational elements and will combine an dinner or reception with lectures, debates, mooting. Middle Temple Hall is also a venue for banqueting, weddings, receptions. In recent years, it has become a much-used film location—the cobbled streets, historic buildings, william Shakespeares Twelfth Night received its first recorded performance here, at the feast Candlemas in 1602. Middle Temple Library possesses Emery Molyneuxs terrestrial and celestial globes, which are of particular historical cartographical value, Middle Temple is also one of the few remaining liberties, an old name for a geographic division. It is an independent extra-parochial area, historically not governed by the City of London Corporation, the Middle Temples functions as a local council are set out in the Temples Order 1971. It geographically falls within the boundaries and liberties of the City, some of the Inns buildings lie just outside the liberty of the Middle Temple and the Citys boundary, and are actually situated in the City of Westminster. Quadrant House was acquired by the Middle Temple in 1999 and after five years of conversion is now a barristers chambers and this lies outside the liberty but is within the City of London. List of members of Middle Temple Outer Temple Pump Court Middle Temple website
38.
Battle of Moncontour
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The Battle of Moncontour occurred on 3 October 1569 between the Catholic forces of King Charles IX of France and the Huguenots during the Third War of the French Wars of Religion. Coligny broke off the Siege of Poitou, and joined with German allies, moved south, henry, Duke of Anjou, attacked before Coligny could join with Gabriel, comte de Montgomery. The Swiss pikemen shattered the Huguenot landsknechts, Coligny regrouped, marched east into the Rhone and marched on Paris. French Wars of Religion The Cambridge Modern History, the Battle of Moncontour Voyage of the Battle of Moncontour,1569
39.
Frederick William Fairholt
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Frederick William Fairholt was an English antiquary and wood engraver. His father, who was of a German family, was a tobacco manufacturer and he then worked as a drawing-master, and later as a scene-painter. Ink copies made by him of figures from William Hogarths plates led to his being employed by Charles Knight on several of his illustrated publications and his first published literary work was a contribution to Hones Year-Book in 1831. His life was one of almost uninterrupted quiet labour, carried on until within a few days of death, several works on civic pageantry and some collections of ancient unpublished songs and dialogues were edited by him for the Percy Society in 1842. In 1844 he was elected fellow of the Society of Antiquaries and he published an edition of the dramatic works of John Lyly in 1858. These works are illustrated by numerous cuts, drawn on the wood by his own hand, Fairholt died in 1866 and is buried in Brompton Cemetery, London. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Fairholt. Up the Nile, and Home Again, history of Jewish coinage, and of money in the Old and New Testament, by Frederic W. Madden. With 254 woodcuts, and a plate of alphabets, by F. W. Fairholt, Works by Frederick William Fairholt at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Frederick William Fairholt at Internet Archive Costume in England, Vol.2, Frederick William Fairholt,1885, 3rd edn
40.
Desmond Rebellions
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The Desmond Rebellions occurred in 1569–1573 and 1579–1583 in the Irish province of Munster. They culminated in the destruction of the Desmond dynasty and the plantation or colonisation of Munster with English Protestant settlers, Desmond is the Anglicisation of the Irish Deasmumhain, meaning South Munster. The south of Ireland was dominated, as it had been for two centuries, by the Old English Butlers of Ormonde and the FitzGeralds of Desmond. Both families raised their own armed forces and imposed their own law, beginning in the 1530s, successive English administrations tried to expand English control over Ireland. His solution was the formation of lord presidencies—provincial military governors who would replace the local lords as military powers and keepers of the peace, the dynasties saw the presidencies as intrusions into their sphere of influence. Their interfamilial competition had seen the Butlers and FitzGeralds fight a battle against each other at Affane in County Waterford in 1565. in defiance of English law. Elizabeth I summoned the heads of houses to London to explain their actions. However, the treatment of the dynasties was not even-handed and this decapitated the natural leadership of the Munster Geraldines and left the Desmond earldom in the hands of a soldier, James FitzMaurice FitzGerald, the captain general of the Desmond military. FitzMaurice had little stake in a new demilitarised order in Munster and this ensured FitzMaurice the support of important Munster clans, notably MacCarthy Mór, OSullivan Beare and OKeefe, and two prominent Butlers, brothers of the Earl. Fitzmaurice himself had lost the land he had held at Kerricurrihy in County Cork and he was a devout Catholic, influenced by the counter-reformation, and saw the Protestant Elizabethan governors as his enemies. FitzMaurice had wider aims than simply the recovery of FitzGerald supremacy within the context of the English Kingdom of Ireland, before the rebellion, he secretly sent Maurice MacGibbon, Catholic Archbishop of Cashel, to seek military aid from Philip II of Spain. FitzMaurice first attacked the English colony at Kerrycurihy south of Cork city in June 1569, before attacking Cork itself, FitzMaurices force of 4,500 men went on to besiege Kilkenny, seat of the Earls of Ormonde, in July. In response, Sidney mobilised 600 English troops, who marched south from Dublin, thomas Butler, Earl of Ormonde, returned from London, where he had been at court, brought the Butlers out of the rebellion and mobilised Gaelic Irish clans antagonistic to the Geraldines. Together, Ormonde, Sidney and Humphrey Gilbert, appointed as governor of Munster, FitzMaurices forces broke up, as individual lords had to retire to defend their own territories. Gilbert, a half-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh, was the most notorious for terror tactics, killing civilians at random, Sidney forced FitzMaurice into the mountains of Kerry, from where he launched guerrilla attacks on the English and their allies. By 1570, most of FitzMaurices allies had submitted to Sidney, the most important, Donal MacCarthy Mór, surrendered in November 1569. Nevertheless, the campaign continued for three more years. In February 1571, John Perrot was made Lord President of Munster and he pursued FitzMaurice with 700 troops for over a year without success
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Youghal
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Youghal is a seaside resort town in County Cork, Ireland. Sitting on the estuary of the River Blackwater, in the past it was militarily and economically important, being built on the edge of a steep riverbank, the town has a distinctive long and narrow layout. At the 2011 census the population was 7,794, since 2000 the town has experienced a strong decline in its former extensive industrial base, but there are plans for revitalisation taking advantage of the towns unique assets. It remains a popular tourist destination, the name Youghal comes from the Irish Eochaill meaning yew woods, which were once plentiful in the area. Older anglicisations of this name include Youghall, Yoghel and Yochil, the area of Youghal was part of the Ui Liathain domain and fell under control of the Ui Meic Caille. The Anglo-Norman administration identified Youghal to Inchquin as the cantred Ui Glaissin a family of the Ui Meic Caille and the area adjoining it as the Barony Imokilly. Youghal is also the name of a townland in north County Tipperary, notable buildings in the town include Sir Walter Raleighs home Myrtle Grove and the St Marys Collegiate Church, thought to have been founded by St. Declan around 450. The church was rebuilt in Irish Romanesque style in about 750, and it is one of the few remaining medieval churches in Ireland to have remained in continuous use as a place of worship. The Vikings used Youghal as a base for their raids on monastic sites along the south coast of Ireland, since the 16th-century Plantation of Munster it has been the place of worship of the Church of Ireland congregation of Youghal and its surrounding areas. Even so, the area of Youghal is among the best-preserved in Ireland. The revenge killings that followed this included that a priest, Daniel ONeilan, OSF and he was fastened round the waist with a rope and thrown with weights tied to his feet from one of town-gates at Youghal, finally fastened to a mill-wheel and torn to pieces. The first record of the walls is a charter of 1275, granted by King Edward I, for their repair, Clock Gate Tower – In 1777, the towns Clock Gate Tower was built on the site of Trinity Castle, part of the towns fortifications. It was used as a prison during the rebellion of 1798, the military hanged suspects from a pole lashed from the lower windows to the corner of the first house on South Main Street. Thomas Gallagher was one of those hanged for trying to seduce a soldier from allegiance to his regiment, numerous forms of torture were conducted therein including thumb screws, pitch-cap, rack and flogging. The Clock Gate served the town as gaol and public gallows until 1837 when it was considered defective in several of the essential to the health of prisoners. It then became a home until 1959 when the last family left. Tyntes Castle – a late 15th-century urban tower house and it is almost the only fortified relic of the era now in Youghal. It was built by the Walsh family in 1602 and leased by the corporation to the Tynte family towards the end of the reign of King James I and it is shown in a map of Youghal dated 1663 as one of the defences of the town
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Lismore, County Waterford
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Lismore is an historic town in County Waterford, in the province of Munster, Ireland. Since December 2015 significant improvements to the frequency of the Local Link bus service are in effect, a bus shelter has also been provided in the town. There are now four services a day each way Mondays to Saturdays inclusive to Dungarvan via Cappoquin including a commuter service, connections to Waterford and Rosslare Europort can be made at Dungarvan. In the other there are four services to and from Tallow where connections can be made for Fermoy. On Saturdays a local bus company operate a service to Cork, on Sundays Bus Éireann route 366 links Lismore to Dungarvan and Waterford. This route only operates on Sundays and comprises a single journey in one direction, Lismore formerly had a rail station on the now dismantled Waterford to Mallow line and was served by the Cork to Rosslare boat train. The line and station closed in 1967 though the station is still extant, founded by Saint Mochuda, died 637, also known as Saint Carthage, first abbot of Lismore. The town is renowned for its ecclesiastical history and the scholarship of Lismore Abbey. The imposing Lismore Castle, situated on the site of the old monastery since medieval times, lies on a hill overlooking the town. It can trace an eight-hundred-year-old history linking the varied historic relations between England and Ireland, originally built following the arrival of Henry IIs son, Prince John, in the twelfth century, the castle was a bishops palace up to the sixteenth century. In 1627 the castle was the birthplace of the First Earls most famous son, Robert Boyle, Boyle was chased off his lands in Ireland during the Irish Rebellion of 1641, following which his sons recovered the family estates after suppression of the rebellion. The Book of Lismore and the Lismore Crozier, were discovered together in 1814 behind a doorway in Lismore Castle. The Book of Lismore is on display at Chatsworth House in Derbyshire, England, a notable resident born in the town who has described her early life in Lismore, is the internationally renowned travel writer and world touring cyclist, Dervla Murphy. Repose of Cúánna of Les Mór, Repose of Colmán grandson of Lítán, abbot of Les Mór. AI752.3 Repose of Mac Uige, abbot of Les Mór, tríchmech, abbot of Les Mór, rested, and Abnér, abbot of Imlech Ibuir. Repose of Rónán, bishop of Les Mór, aedan, abbot of Les Mór, rested. AI774.2 Suairlech, abbot of Les Mór, aI778.2 Repose of Airdmesach of Les Mór. AI783.3 Repose of Suairlech Ua Tipraiti in Les Mór, aI794.4 Violation of the Rule of Les Mór in the reign of Aedán Derg
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Munster
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Munster is one of the provinces of Ireland situated in the south of Ireland. In early Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a king of over-kings Irish, following the Norman invasion of Ireland, the ancient kingdoms were shired into counties for administrative and judicial purposes. In later centuries, local government legislation has seen further sub-division of the historic counties, Munster has no official function for local government purposes. For the purposes of the ISO, the province is listed as one of the provincial sub-divisions of the State, geographically, Munster covers a total area of 24,675 km2 and has a population of 1,246,088 with the most populated city being Cork. Other significant urban centres in the province include Limerick and Waterford, in the early centuries AD, Munster was the domain of the Iverni peoples and the Clanna Dedad familial line, led by Cú Roí and to whom the king Conaire Mór also belonged. In the 5th century, Saint Patrick spent several years in the area and founded Christian churches, during the Early Middle Ages, most of the area was part of the Kingdom of Munster, ruled by the Eóganachta dynasty. Prior to this, the area was ruled by the Dáirine and Corcu Loígde overlords from the early 7th century onwards, later rulers from the Eóganachta who would dominate a greater part of Ireland were Cathal mac Finguine and Feidlimid mac Cremthanin. Notable regional kingdoms and lordships of Early Medieval Munster were Iarmuman, Osraige, Uí Liatháin, Uí Fidgenti, Éile, Múscraige, Ciarraige Luachra, Corcu Duibne, Corcu Baiscinn, around this period Ossory broke away from Munster. The 10th century saw the rise of the Dalcassian clan, who had earlier annexed Thomond and their leaders were the ancestors of the OBrien dynasty and spawned Brian Boru, perhaps the most noted High King of Ireland, and several of whose descendants were also High Kings. By 1118 Munster had fractured into the Kingdom of Thomond under the OBriens, the Kingdom of Desmond under the MacCarthy dynasty, the three crowns of the flag of Munster represent these three late kingdoms. The OBrien of Thomond and MacCarthy of Desmond surrendered and regranted sovereignty to the Tudors in 1543 and 1565, the impactful Desmond Rebellions, led by the FitzGeralds, soon followed. By the mid-19th century much of the area was hit hard in the Great Famine, the province was affected by events in the Irish War of Independence in the early 20th century, and there was a brief Munster Republic during the Irish Civil War. The Irish leaders Michael Collins and earlier Daniel OConnell came from families of the old Gaelic Munster gentry, noted for its traditions in Irish folk music, and with many ancient castles and monasteries in the province, Munster is a tourist destination. During the fifth century, St. Patrick spent seven years founding churches and ordaining priests in Munster, but a fifth century bishop named Ailbe is the patron saint of Munster. In Irish mythology, a number of goddesses are associated with the province including Anann, Áine, Grian, Clíodhna, Aimend, Mór Muman, Bébinn, Aibell. Each is historically associated with certain septs of the nobility, the druid-god of Munster is Mug Ruith. The province has long had trading and cultural links with continental Europe, the tribe of Corcu Loígde had a trading fleet active along the French Atlantic coast, as far south as Gascony, importing wine to Munster. The Eóganachta had ecclesiastical ties with Germany, which show in the architecture of their capital at the Rock of Cashel
Lee, Sidney, ed. (1898). "Stucley, Lewis". Dictionary of National Biography. 55. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
