1.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
President of the United States
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Incumbent
Barack Obama since January 20, 2009 (2009-01-20)
President of the United States
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Presidential Seal
President of the United States
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Obama signing legislation at the
Resolute desk
President of the United States
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Abraham Lincoln, the 16th President of the United States, successfully preserved the
Union during the
American Civil War
2.
Lyndon B. Johnson
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A Democrat from Texas, he previously served as a United States Representative from 1937 to 1949 and then as a United States Senator from 1949 to 1961. He spent six years as Senate Majority Leader, two as Senate Minority Leader, and two more as Senate Majority Whip, Johnson ran for the Democratic nomination in the 1960 presidential election. Although unsuccessful, he was chosen by then-Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts to be his running mate and they went on to win a close election over Richard Nixon and Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. Johnson was sworn in as Vice President on January 20,1961. Two years and ten months later, on November 22,1963 and he successfully ran for a full term in the 1964 election, winning by a landslide over Republican opponent Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona. He is one of four people who have served as President, Vice President, Senator. Johnson was renowned for his personality and the Johnson treatment. Assisted in part by an economy, the War on Poverty helped millions of Americans rise above the poverty line during his administration. With the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, Johnson escalated American involvement in the Vietnam War. In 1964, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which granted Johnson the power to use force in Southeast Asia without having to ask for an official declaration of war. The number of American military personnel in Vietnam increased dramatically, from 16,000 advisors in non-combat roles in 1963 to 550,000 in early 1968, American casualties soared and the peace process bogged down. Growing unease with the war stimulated a large, angry antiwar movement based especially on university campuses in the U. S. and abroad. Johnson faced further troubles when summer riots broke out in most major cities after 1965, while he began his presidency with widespread approval, support for Johnson declined as the public became upset with both the war and the growing violence at home. In 1968, the Democratic Party factionalized as antiwar elements denounced Johnson, Republican Richard Nixon was elected to succeed him, as the New Deal coalition that had dominated presidential politics for 36 years collapsed. After he left office in January 1969, Johnson returned to his Texas ranch, historians argue that Johnsons presidency marked the peak of modern liberalism in the United States after the New Deal era. Johnson is ranked favorably by some historians because of his policies and the passage of many major laws, affecting civil rights, gun control, wilderness preservation. Lyndon Baines Johnson was born on August 27,1908, near Stonewall, Texas, in a farmhouse on the Pedernales River. Johnson had one brother, Sam Houston Johnson, and three sisters, Rebekah, Josefa, and Lucia, the nearby small town of Johnson City, Texas, was named after LBJs cousin, James Polk Johnson, whose forebears had moved west from Oglethorpe County, Georgia. Johnson had English, German, and Ulster Scots ancestry and he was maternally descended from pioneer Baptist clergyman George Washington Baines, who pastored eight churches in Texas, as well as others in Arkansas and Louisiana
Lyndon B. Johnson
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Johnson in 1964
Lyndon B. Johnson
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Lyndon Johnson with his trademark cowboy hat—age seven
Lyndon B. Johnson
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Johnson's boss, U.S. Rep. Richard Kleberg
Lyndon B. Johnson
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LCDR Johnson, March 1942
3.
Executive order (United States)
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Executive orders are orders issued by United States Presidents and directed towards officers and agencies of the Federal government of the United States. Executive orders have the force of law, based on the authority derived from statute or the Constitution itself. The ability to such orders is also based on express or implied Acts of Congress that delegate to the President some degree of discretionary power. The United States Constitution does have a provision that explicitly permits the use of executive orders, the term executive power in Article II, Section 1, Clause 1 of the Constitution is not entirely clear. The term is mentioned as direction to take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed and is part of Article II, Section 3, the consequence of failing to comply possibly being removal from office. The U. S. Specifically, such orders must be rooted in Article II of the US Constitution or enacted by the congress in statutes. Attempts to block such orders have been successful at times when such orders exceeded the authority of the president or could be handled through legislation. Other types of orders issued by the Executive are generally classified simply as administrative rather than executive orders. Initially they took no set form, consequently, such orders varied as to form and substance. The most famous executive order was by President Abraham Lincoln when he issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, Political scientist Brian R. Dirck states, The Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order, itself a rather unusual thing in those days. Executive orders are simply presidential directives issued to agents of the department by its boss. Until the early 1900s, executive orders went mostly unannounced and undocumented and this changed when the Department of State instituted a numbering scheme in 1907, starting retroactively with United States Executive Order 1 issued on October 20,1862, by President Abraham Lincoln. President Trumans Executive Order 10340 in Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer,343 US579 placed all steel mills in the country under federal control. This was found invalid because it attempted to make law, rather than clarify or act to further a law put forth by the Congress or the Constitution, Presidents since this decision have generally been careful to cite which specific laws they are acting under when issuing new executive orders. Wars have been fought upon executive order, including the 1999 Kosovo War during Bill Clintons second term in office, however, all such wars have had authorizing resolutions from Congress. President Truman issued 907 executive orders, with 1,081 orders by Theodore Roosevelt,1,203 orders by Calvin Coolidge, Franklin D. Roosevelt has the distinction of making a record 3,522 executive orders. Prior to 1932, uncontested executive orders had determined such issues as national mourning on the death of a president, and the lowering of flags to half-staff. President Franklin Roosevelt issued the first of his 3,522 executive orders on March 6,1933, declaring a bank holiday, Executive Order 6102 forbade the hoarding of gold coin, bullion and gold certificates
Executive order (United States)
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Leland-Boker Authorized Edition of the
Emancipation Proclamation, printed in June 1864 with a presidential signature
4.
Assassination of John F. Kennedy
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On November 22,1963, John F. Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States, was fatally shot in Dallas, Texas while riding in a motorcade in Dallas Dealey Plaza, at 12,30 p. m. Fatally shot by Lee Harvey Oswald, he was traveling with his wife, Jacqueline, Texas Governor John Connally, Kennedys death marked the fourth and most recent assassination of an American President. The Committee was not able to identify any individuals or groups involved with the conspiracy, in addition, the HSCA found that the original federal investigations were seriously flawed in respect of information-sharing and the possibility of conspiracy. As recommended by the HSCA, the evidence indicating conspiracy was subsequently re-examined and rejected. However, Kennedys assassination is still the subject of debate and has spawned numerous conspiracy theories. Polling in 2013 showed that 60% of Americans believe that a group of conspirators was responsible for the assassination, President Kennedy traveled to Texas to smooth over frictions in the Democratic Party between liberals Ralph Yarborough and Don Yarborough and conservative John Connally. A presidential visit to the state of Texas was first agreed upon by Lyndon B. Johnson, President John F. Kennedys vice president, and Texas native, President Kennedys trip to Dallas was first announced to the public in September 1963. The exact motorcade route was finalized on November 18 and announced to the public a few days before November 22, the White House staff informed the Secret Service that the President would arrive there via a short flight from Carswell Air Force Base in Fort Worth to Dallas Love Field. Leaving from Dallas Love Field,45 minutes had been allotted for the motorcade to reach the Trade Mart at an arrival time of 12,15 p. m. The actual route was chosen to be a meandering 10-mile route between the two places, which could be driven slowly in the allotted time, on November 14, both men attended a meeting at Love Field and drove over the route that Sorrels believed best suited for the motorcade. From Love Field, the route passed through a portion of Dallas, through Downtown along Main Street. The planned route to the Trade Mart was widely reported in Dallas newspapers several days before the event, for the benefit of people who wished to view the motorcade. The route on Main Street precluded a direct turn onto the Fort Worth Turnpike exit, the Texas School Book Depository was situated at this corner of Houston and Elm. Three vehicles were used for Secret Service and police protection in the Dallas motorcade, the first car, an unmarked white Ford, carried Dallas Police Chief Jesse Curry, Secret Service Agent Win Lawson, Sheriff Bill Decker and Dallas Field Agent Forrest Sorrels. The second car, a 1961 Lincoln Continental convertible, held driver Agent Bill Greer, SAIC Roy Kellerman, Governor John Connally, Nellie Connally, President Kennedy, Secret Service agents Clint Hill, Jack Ready, Tim McIntyre and Paul Landis rode on the running boards. By the time the motorcade reached Dealey Plaza, they were five minutes away from their planned destination. At 12,30 p. m. President, you cant say Dallas doesnt love you and those were the last words ever spoken by John F. Kennedy
Assassination of John F. Kennedy
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An
aerial view of
Dealey Plaza showing the route of President Kennedy's motorcade
Assassination of John F. Kennedy
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President Kennedy with his wife, Jacqueline, and
Texas Governor John Connally and his wife, Nellie, in the
presidential limousine, minutes before the President's assassination
Assassination of John F. Kennedy
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Ike Altgens ' photo of the Presidential limousine taken between the first and second shots that hit President Kennedy. President Kennedy's left hand is in front of his throat and Mrs. Kennedy's left hand is holding his arm.
Assassination of John F. Kennedy
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Polaroid photo by
Mary Ann Moorman taken a fraction of a second after the fatal shot (detail).
5.
John F. Kennedy
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Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and his New Frontier domestic program was largely enacted as a memorial to him after his death. Kennedy also established the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, Kennedys time in office was marked by high tensions with Communist states. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18 over President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in Cuba, a failed attempt was made at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro in April 1961. He subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. After military service in the United States Naval Reserve in World War II and he was elected subsequently to the U. S. Senate and served as the junior Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President, and Republican presidential candidate, Richard Nixon in the 1960 U. S, at age 43, he became the youngest elected president and the second-youngest president. Kennedy was also the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president, to date, Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president and the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22,1963, Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested that afternoon and determined to have fired the shots that hit the President from a sixth floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby fatally shot Oswald two days later in a jail corridor, then-Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded Kennedy after he died in the hospital. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, the majority of Americans alive at the time of the assassination, and continuing through 2013, believed that there was a conspiracy and that Oswald was not the only shooter. Since the 1960s, information concerning Kennedys private life has come to light, including his health problems, Kennedy continues to rank highly in historians polls of U. S. presidents and with the general public. His average approval rating of 70% is the highest of any president in Gallups history of systematically measuring job approval and his grandfathers P. J. Kennedy and Boston Mayor John F. Fitzgerald were both Massachusetts politicians. All four of his grandparents were the children of Irish immigrants, Kennedy had an elder brother, Joseph Jr. and seven younger siblings, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, and Ted. Kennedy lived in Brookline for ten years and attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School through 4th grade. In 1927, the Kennedy family moved to a stately twenty-room, Georgian-style mansion at 5040 Independence Avenue in the Hudson Hill neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx and he attended the lower campus of Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys, from 5th to 7th grade. Two years later, the moved to 294 Pondfield Road in the New York City suburb of Bronxville, New York. The Kennedy family spent summers at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in September 1930, Kennedy—then 13 years old—attended the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury, in September 1931, Kennedy attended Choate, a boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut, for 9th through 12th grade
John F. Kennedy
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John F. Kennedy
John F. Kennedy
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The Kennedy family at
Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in 1931 with Jack at top left in white shirt. Ted was born the following year.
John F. Kennedy
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Lieutenant (junior grade) John F. Kennedy (standing at right) with his PT-109 crew, 1943.
John F. Kennedy
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Kennedy on his navy patrol boat, the
PT-109, 1943.
6.
Lee Harvey Oswald
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Lee Harvey Oswald was an American former U. S. Marine who assassinated President John F. Kennedy on November 22,1963. Shortly after being discharged from the Marine Corps, Oswald defected to the Soviet Union in October 1959 and he lived in the Belarusian city of Minsk until June 1962, at which time he returned to the United States with Marina, his Russian wife, eventually settling in Dallas. Following Kennedys assassination, Oswald was initially arrested for the murder of police officer J. D. Tippit, Oswald was later charged with the murder of Kennedy. He denied shooting anybody, saying that he was a patsy, two days later, while being transferred from the city jail to the county jail, Oswald was fatally shot by Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby in full view of television cameras broadcasting live. In September 1964, the Warren Commission concluded that Oswald acted alone in assassinating Kennedy by firing three shots from the Texas School Book Depository and this conclusion was supported by previous investigations carried out by the FBI, the Secret Service, and the Dallas Police Department. The assassination has spawned numerous conspiracy theories, Oswald was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, on October 18,1939 to Robert Edward Lee Oswald, Sr. and Marguerite Frances Claverie. Robert Oswald died of an attack two months before Lee was born. Lees elder brother Robert, Jr. was also a former Marine, through Marguerites first marriage to Edward John Pic, Jr. Lee and Robert Jr. were the half-brothers of Air Force veteran John Edward Pic. In 1944, Marguerite moved the family from New Orleans to Dallas, Texas, Oswald entered the 1st grade in 1945 and over the next half-dozen years attended several different schools through the 6th grade in the Dallas and Fort Worth areas. Oswald took an IQ test in the 4th grade and scored 103, on achievement tests in, he twice did best in reading, as a child, Oswald was described by several people who knew him as withdrawn and temperamental. In August 1952, when Oswald was 12, his mother took him to New York City where they lived for a time with Oswalds half-brother. Oswald and his mother were asked to leave after an argument in which Oswald allegedly struck his mother. Oswald attended the 7th grade in the Bronx, New York, but was often truant, the reformatory psychiatrist, Dr. Dr. Hartogs detected a personality pattern disturbance with schizoid features and passive-aggressive tendencies and recommended continued treatment. In January 1954, Oswalds mother returned to New Orleans, taking Oswald with her, in New Orleans, Oswald completed the 8th and 9th grades. He entered the 10th grade in 1955 but quit school after one month, after leaving school, Oswald worked for several months as an office clerk and messenger in New Orleans. In July 1956, Oswalds mother moved the family to Fort Worth, Texas, a few weeks later in October, Oswald quit school at age 17 to join the Marines, he never received a high school diploma. By the age of 17, he had resided at 22 different locations, though the young Oswald had trouble spelling and may have had a reading-spelling disability, he read voraciously. By age 15, he claimed to be a Marxist, writing in his diary, I was looking for a key to my environment, I had to dig for my books in the back dusty shelves of libraries
Lee Harvey Oswald
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Photo taken in
Minsk, Commission Exhibit 2892
Lee Harvey Oswald
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Oswald when he served in the US Marine Corps
Lee Harvey Oswald
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Apartment building where Oswald lived in Minsk
Lee Harvey Oswald
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Oswald rented an apartment in this building in
Uptown New Orleans c. May–September 1963.
7.
Jack Ruby
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Jack Leon Ruby was an American, originally from Chicago, Illinois. Who lived in Dallas, Texas where he owned a nightclub, on November 24,1963, he fatally shot Lee Harvey Oswald while the latter was in police custody after being charged with assassinating U. S. President John F. Kennedy two days earlier. A Dallas jury found him guilty of murdering Oswald, and Ruby was sentenced to death, Rubys conviction was later appealed and he was granted a new trial. However, on January 3,1967, as the date for his new trial was being set, Ruby became ill in his prison cell and died of a pulmonary embolism from lung cancer. Jack Ruby was born Jacob Leon Rubenstein on March 25,1911 in Chicago as the son of Joseph Rubenstein and Fannie Turek Rutkowski, Ruby was the fifth of his parents 10 surviving children and grew up in the Maxwell Street area of Chicago. He had a childhood and adolescence, which was marked by juvenile delinquency. On June 6,1922, at the age of 11, Ruby eventually skipped school enough times that he spent time at the Institute of Juvenile Research. From his early childhood, Ruby was nicknamed Sparky by those who knew him and his sister, Eva Grant, said that he acquired the nickname because he resembled a slow-moving horse named Spark Plug or Sparky in a contemporary comic strip. She stated that he didnt like the nickname and was quick to fight anyone who called him that, other accounts say that the name was directly connected with his quick temper. In the 1940s, Ruby frequented race tracks in Illinois and California and he was drafted in 1943 and served in the U. S. Army Air Forces during World War II, working as an aircraft mechanic at U. S. bases until 1946. He had a record and was promoted to Private First Class. Upon discharge, on February 21,1946, Ruby returned to Chicago, in 1947, Ruby moved to Dallas where he and his brothers soon afterward shortened their surnames from Rubenstein to Ruby. The stated reason for this was that the name Rubenstein was too long, Ruby later went on to manage various nightclubs, strip clubs, and dance halls. Among the strippers Ruby befriended was Candy Barr, Ruby developed close ties to many Dallas Police officers who frequented his nightclubs, where he provided them with free liquor, prostitutes and other favors. Trafficante operated major casinos in Cuba and was imprisoned after Fidel Castro came to power. Ruby was never married, nor did he have any children, evidence given to the Warren Commission claimed that Jack Ruby had been involved in the underworld activities of illegal gambling, narcotics, and prostitution. A1956 FBI report stated that their informant Eileen Curry reported that in January of that year, she moved to Dallas with her boyfriend, James Breen, after jumping bond on narcotics charges. Former Dallas County Sheriff Steve Guthrie told the FBI that he believed Ruby operated some prostitution activities, Dallas disc jockey Kenneth Dowe testified that Ruby was known around the station for procuring women for different people who came to town
Jack Ruby
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Ruby around 1960
Jack Ruby
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Ruby about to shoot Oswald who is being escorted by Dallas police detectives
Jim Leavelle and L. C. Graves.
Jack Ruby
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Dallas Police Department mugshot.
Jack Ruby
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Jack Ruby, Westlawn Cemetery
8.
Chief Justice of the United States
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The Chief Justice of the United States is the head of the United States federal court system and the chief judge of the Supreme Court of the United States. The Chief Justice is one of nine Supreme Court justices, the eight are the Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States. From 1789 until 1866, the office was known as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the Chief Justice also serves as a spokesperson for the judicial branch. The Chief Justice leads the business of the Supreme Court and presides over oral arguments, when the court renders an opinion, the Chief Justice—when in the majority—decides who writes the courts opinion. The Chief Justice also has significant agenda-setting power over the courts meetings, in the case of an impeachment of a President of the United States, which has occurred twice, the Chief Justice presides over the trial in the Senate. In modern tradition, the Chief Justice also has the duty of administering the oath of office of the President of the United States. The first Chief Justice was John Jay, the 17th and current Chief Justice is John G. Roberts, Jr. The office was known as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and is still informally referred to using that title. However,28 U. S. C. §1 specifies that the title is Chief Justice of the United States, the title was changed from Chief Justice of the Supreme Court by Congress in 1866 at the suggestion of the sixth Chief Justice, Salmon P. Chase. Chase wished to emphasize the Supreme Courts role as a branch of government. The first Chief Justice commissioned using the new title was Melville Fuller in 1888, use of the previous title when referring to Chief Justices John Jay through Roger B. Taney is technically correct, as that was the title during their time on the court. The other eight members of the court are officially Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States, the Chief Justice is the only member of the court to whom the Constitution refers as a Justice, and only in Article I. Article III of the Constitution refers to all members of the Supreme Court simply as Judges, the Chief Justice is nominated by the President of the United States and confirmed to sit on the Court by the United States Senate. The salary of the Chief Justice is set by Congress, the Constitution prohibits Congress from lowering the salary of any judge, including the Chief Justice, while that judge holds office. As of 2015, the salary is $258,100 per year, which is higher than that of the Associate Justices. Three serving Associate Justices have received promotions to Chief Justice, Edward Douglass White in 1910, Harlan Fiske Stone in 1941, Associate Justice Abe Fortas was nominated to the position of Chief Justice of the United States, but his nomination was filibustered by Senate Republicans in 1968. Despite the failed nomination, Fortas remained an Associate Justice until his resignation the following year, there have been 21 individuals nominated for Chief Justice, of whom 17 have been confirmed by the Senate, although a different 17 have served
Chief Justice of the United States
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Incumbent
John G. Roberts, Jr. since September 29, 2005
Chief Justice of the United States
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Chief Justice of the United States
Chief Justice of the United States
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John Jay, by
Gilbert Stuart
Chief Justice of the United States
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John Marshall, the fourth and longest serving Chief Justice.
9.
Earl Warren
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Earl Warren was an American jurist and politician, who served as the 30th Governor of California and later the 14th Chief Justice of the United States. Warren is the person elected to three consecutive terms as Governor of California, and with those three elected terms he is second only to Jerry Brown for total gubernatorial wins in California. Before holding these positions, he was the District Attorney for Alameda County, California, Warren was the nominee of the Republican Party for Vice President in 1948, as the running mate of Thomas E. Dewey. He was appointed to chair what became known as the Warren Commission, which was formed to investigate the 1963 assassination of President John F. Kennedy. Earl Warren was born in Los Angeles, on March 19,1891, to Mathias H. Warren, a Norwegian immigrant whose family name was Varren, and his wife, Crystal. Mathias Warren was an employee of the Southern Pacific Railroad. After he was blacklisted for joining in a strike, the moved to Bakersfield, California. Matthias worked in a repair yard, and Earl had summer jobs in railroading. Earl Warren grew up in Bakersfield, where he attended Washington Junior High and his father was murdered there by an unknown person during a robbery. In 1912 Warren graduated with a B. A. in political science from the University of California, in 1914 he earned his J. D. at the University of California, Berkeley School of Law. He was a member of The Gun Club secret society, and the Sigma Phi Society, as an undergraduate, Warren also played clarinet in the Cal Band. Warren maintained a friendship with fellow Cal student Robert Gordon Sproul. In 1948, at the Republican National Convention, Sproul would nominate Warren for Vice President, Warren was admitted to the California bar in 1914. Warren worked a year for Associated Oil Company in San Francisco, then joined Robinson & Robinson, in August 1917, Warren enlisted in the U. S. Army for World War I service. Assigned to the 91st Division at Camp Lewis, Washington, 1st Lieutenant Earl Warren was discharged in 1918. After the war, he served as a clerk of the Judicial Committee for the 1919 Session of the California State Assembly, then as the Deputy City Attorney in Oakland, Warren came to the attention of powerful Republican Joseph R. Knowland, publisher of The Oakland Tribune. He was strongly influenced by California Governor Hiram Johnson and other leaders of the Progressive Era to oppose corruption, in 1925, Warren was appointed as the District Attorney of Alameda County. Warren was re-elected to three four-year terms, Warren vigorously investigated allegations that a deputy sheriff was taking bribes in connection with street-paving arrangements
Earl Warren
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Earl Warren
Earl Warren
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Warren as Governor of California
Earl Warren
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Governor Warren meets a young "gold miner" as part of the California centennials, 1948–50
10.
Nicholas Katzenbach
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Nicholas deBelleville Nick Katzenbach was an American lawyer who served as United States Attorney General during the Lyndon B. Johnson administration. Katzenbach was born in Philadelphia and raised in Trenton and his parents were Edward L. Katzenbach, who served as Attorney General of New Jersey, and Marie Hilson Katzenbach, who was the first female president of the New Jersey State Board of Education. His uncle, Frank S. Katzenbach, served as Mayor of Trenton, New Jersey and he was named after his mothers great-great-grandfather, Nicholas de Belleville, a French physician who accompanied Kazimierz Pułaski to America and settled in Trenton in 1778. Katzenbach was raised an Episcopalian, and was partly of German descent and he attended Phillips Exeter Academy and was accepted into Princeton University. Katzenbach was a junior at Princeton in 1941, enlisting right after Pearl Harbor, assigned as a navigator in the 381st Bomb Squadron, 310th Bomb Group in North Africa. His B-25 Mitchell Bomber was shot down February 23,1943 and he spent over two years as a prisoner of war in Italian and German POW camps, including Stalag Luft III, the site of the Great Escape, which Katzenbach assisted in. He read extensively as a prisoner, and ran an informal class based on Principles of Common Law and he received his B. A. cum laude from Princeton University in 1945. He received an LL. B. cum laude from Yale Law School in 1947, from 1947 to 1949, he was a Rhodes Scholar at Balliol College, Oxford. On June 8,1946 Katzenbach married Lydia King Phelps Stokes, in a ceremony officiated by her uncle, Anson Phelps Stokes and her father was Harold Phelps Stokes, a newspaper correspondent and secretary to Herbert Hoover. Katzenbach was admitted to the New Jersey bar in 1950 and the Connecticut bar in 1955 and he was an associate in the law firm of Katzenbach, Gildea and Rudner in 1950. From 1950 to 1952 he was attorney-advisor in the Office of General Counsel to the Secretary of the Air Force. He served in the U. S. Department of Justice as Assistant Attorney General of the Office of Legal Counsel in 1961-1962 and as Deputy Attorney General from 1962 to 1965. President Johnson appointed Katzenbach the 65th Attorney General of the United States on February 11,1965 and he then served as Under Secretary of State from 1966 to 1969. In September 2008 Katzenbach published Some of It Was Fun, Working with RFK and LBJ, on June 11,1963 Katzenbach was a primary participant in one of the most famous incidents of the Civil Rights struggle. This became known as the Stand in the Schoolhouse Door, wallace stood aside only after being confronted by Katzenbach, accompanied by federal marshals and the Alabama National Guard. Katzenbach has been credited with providing advice after the assassination of John F. Kennedy that led to the creation of the Warren Commission. On November 25,1963, he sent a memo to Johnsons White House aide Bill Moyers recommending the creation of a Presidential Commission to investigate the assassination, to combat speculation of a conspiracy, Katzenbach said the results of the FBIs investigation should be made public. He wrote, in part, The public must be satisfied that Oswald was the assassin, four days after Katzenbachs memo, Johnson appointed some of the nations most prominent figures, including the Chief Justice of the United States, to the Commission
Nicholas Katzenbach
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Nicholas Katzenbach
Nicholas Katzenbach
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Alabama Governor
George Wallace (in front of door) standing defiantly against desegregation while being confronted by Deputy U.S. Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach (standing opposite Wallace) at the
University of Alabama.
Nicholas Katzenbach
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Vice President
11.
White House
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The White House is the official residence and principal workplace of the President of the United States, located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D. C. It has been the residence of every U. S. president since John Adams in 1800, the term White House is often used to refer to actions of the president and his advisers, as in The White House announced that. The residence was designed by Irish-born architect James Hoban in the Neoclassical style, construction took place between 1792 and 1800 using Aquia Creek sandstone painted white. When Thomas Jefferson moved into the house in 1801, he added low colonnades on each wing that concealed stables and storage. In 1814, during the War of 1812, the mansion was set ablaze by the British Army in the Burning of Washington, destroying the interior, reconstruction began almost immediately, and President James Monroe moved into the partially reconstructed Executive Residence in October 1817. Exterior construction continued with the addition of the semi-circular South portico in 1824, because of crowding within the executive mansion itself, President Theodore Roosevelt had all work offices relocated to the newly constructed West Wing in 1901. Eight years later in 1909, President William Howard Taft expanded the West Wing and created the first Oval Office, in the main mansion, the third-floor attic was converted to living quarters in 1927 by augmenting the existing hip roof with long shed dormers. A newly constructed East Wing was used as an area for social events. East Wing alterations were completed in 1946, creating additional office space, by 1948, the houses load-bearing exterior walls and internal wood beams were found to be close to failure. Under Harry S. Truman, the rooms were completely dismantled. Once this work was completed, the rooms were rebuilt. The Executive Residence is made up of six stories—the Ground Floor, State Floor, Second Floor, the property is a National Heritage Site owned by the National Park Service and is part of the Presidents Park. In 2007, it was ranked second on the American Institute of Architects list of Americas Favorite Architecture, in May 1790, New York began construction of Government House for his official residence, but he never occupied it. The national capital moved to Philadelphia in December 1790, the July 1790 Residence Act named Philadelphia, Pennsylvania the temporary national capital for a 10-year period while the Federal City was under construction. The City of Philadelphia rented Robert Morriss city house at 190 High Street for Washingtons presidential residence, the first president occupied the Market Street mansion from November 1790 to March 1797, and altered it in ways that may have influenced the design of the White House. As part of an effort to have Philadelphia named the permanent national capital, Pennsylvania built a much grander presidential mansion several blocks away. President John Adams also occupied the Market Street mansion from March 1797 to May 1800, on Saturday, November 1,1800, he became the first president to occupy the White House. The Presidents House in Philadelphia became a hotel and was demolished in 1832, the Presidents House was a major feature of Pierre Charles LEnfants plan for the newly established federal city, Washington, D. C
White House
–
Top: the northern facade, facing
Lafayette Square Bottom: the southern facade, facing
The Ellipse
White House
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First Presidential Mansion:
Samuel Osgood House, Manhattan, New York. Occupied by Washington: April 1789 - February 1790.
White House
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Second Presidential Mansion:
Alexander Macomb House, Manhattan, New York. Occupied by Washington: February - August 1790.
White House
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Third Presidential Mansion:
President's House, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Occupied by Washington: November 1790 – March 1797. Occupied by Adams: March 1797 – May 1800.
12.
Bill Moyers
–
Billy Don Bill Moyers is an American journalist and political commentator. He served as White House Press Secretary in the Johnson administration from 1965 to 1967 and he also worked as a network TV news commentator for ten years. Moyers has been involved with public broadcasting, producing documentaries. He has won awards and honorary degrees for his investigative journalism. He has become known as a trenchant critic of the corporately structured U. S. news media. Born Billy Don Moyers in Hugo in Choctaw County in southeastern Oklahoma, he is the son of John Henry Moyers, a laborer, Moyers was reared in Marshall, Texas. He began his career at 16 as a cub reporter at the Marshall News Messenger in Marshall in East Texas. In college, he studied journalism at the North Texas State College in Denton, in 1954, then-US Senator Lyndon B. Johnson employed him as a summer intern and eventually promoted him to manage Johnsons personal mail. Soon after, Moyers transferred to the University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, in 1956, he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Journalism. While in Austin, Moyers served as assistant news editor for KTBC radio and television stations, owned by Lady Bird Johnson, during the academic year 1956–1957, he studied issues of church and state at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland as a Rotary International Fellow. In 1959, he completed a Master of Divinity degree at the Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary in Fort Worth, Moyers served as Director of Information while attending SWBTS. He was also a Baptist pastor in Weir in Williamson County, Moyers planned to enter a Doctor of Philosophy program in American Studies at the University of Texas. During Senator Johnsons unsuccessful bid for the 1960 Democratic U. S. S, during the Kennedy Administration, Moyers was first appointed as associate director of public affairs for the newly created Peace Corps in 1961. He served as Deputy Director from 1962 to 1963, when Lyndon B. Johnson took office after the Kennedy assassination, Moyers became a special assistant to Johnson, serving from 1963 to 1967. Moyers is the last surviving person identifiable in the photograph taken of Johnsons first inauguration on Air Force One and he played a key role in organizing and supervising the 1964 Great Society legislative task forces and was a principal architect of Johnsons 1964 presidential campaign. Moyers acted as the Presidents informal chief of staff from October 1964 until 1966, from July 1965 to February 1967, he also served as White House press secretary. After the resignation of White House Chief of Staff Walter Jenkins because of a misdemeanor in the run up to the 1964 election. Goldwater himself only referred to the Jenkins incident off the record, the Church Committee stated in 1975 that Moyers has publicly recounted his role in the incident, and his account is confirmed by FBI documents
Bill Moyers
–
Moyers on May 24, 2005
Bill Moyers
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President Johnson (right) meets with special assistant Moyers in the
White House Oval Office, 1963
Bill Moyers
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Moyers giving a press conference at the
White House in 1965
13.
John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories
–
Numerous conspiracy theories have been put forth to explain the circumstances surrounding the assassination of John F. Kennedy. These include accusations of involvement of the CIA, the Mafia, Johnson, Cuban President Fidel Castro, the KGB, or even some combination thereof. Some conspiracy theories claim that the United States government covered up crucial information in the aftermath of the assassination. Former Los Angeles District Attorney Vincent Bugliosi estimated that a total of 42 groups,82 assassins, in 1964, the Warren Commission concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald was the only person responsible for assassinating Kennedy. Later, several other prominent experts refuted the committees assessment of the recordings in a series of rigorous tests, in addition, the recordings were found to have originated from a DPD officers microphone other than what had originally been thought, effectively discrediting the acoustical evidence. Other federal and municipal investigations have been conducted, most of which support the conclusions reached in the Warren Commission Report, nonetheless, a significant percentage of Americans polled still indicate a belief in some sort of conspiracy. Within two hours, Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested for the murder of Dallas policeman J. D. Tippit, shortly after 1,30 am, Saturday, Oswald was arraigned for murdering President Kennedy as well. On Sunday, November 24, at 11,21 a. m. nightclub owner Jack Ruby fatally shot Oswald as he was being transferred from the city jail to the county jail. Immediately after the shooting, many suspected that the assassination was part of a larger plot. Rubys shooting of Oswald compounded initial suspicions, among conspiracy theorists, Mark Lane has been described as writing the first literary shot with his article, Defense Brief for Oswald, in the December 19,1963, edition of the National Guardian. Published in May 1964, has credited as the first book alleging a conspiracy. In 1964, the Warren Commission concluded that Oswald acted alone, the HSCA concluded that at least four shots were fired with a high probability that two gunmen fired at the President, and that a conspiracy was probable. The HSCA stated that the Warren Commission failed to investigate adequately the possibility of a conspiracy to assassinate the President, the Ramsey Clark Panel and the Rockefeller Commission both supported the Warren Commissions conclusions. According to author John McAdams, The greatest and grandest of all conspiracy theories is the Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory, others have frequently referred to it as the mother of all conspiracies. The number of books written about the assassination of Kennedy has been estimated to be in the range of 1,000 to 2,000, according to Vincent Bugliosi, 95% of those books are pro-conspiracy and anti-Warren Commission. Author David Krajicek describes Kennedy assassination enthusiasts as belonging to conspiracy theorists on one side, public opinion polls have consistently shown that a majority of Americans believe there was a conspiracy to kill President Kennedy. However, on the question of a government cover-up, different polls show both a minority and majority of Americans who believe the government engaged in one and these same polls also show that there is no agreement on who else may have been involved. A2003 Gallup Poll reported that 75% of Americans do not believe that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone and that same year an ABC News poll found that 70% of respondents suspected that the assassination involved more than one person
John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories
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Handbill circulated on November 21, 1963, one day before the assassination.
John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories
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President John F. Kennedy,
Jackie Kennedy,
Nellie Connally, and
Texas Governor John Connally, minutes before the assassination
John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories
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Dealey Plaza in 2003.
John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories
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The wooden fence on the grassy knoll, where many researchers believe another gunman stood.
14.
National Archives Building
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The National Archives Building, known informally as Archives I, is the original headquarters of the National Archives and Records Administration. It is located north of the National Mall at 700 Pennsylvania Avenue, Northwest, Washington, the Rotunda entrance is on Constitution Avenue, while the research entrance is on Pennsylvania Avenue. It holds the original copies of the three main formative documents of the United States and its government, the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and it also hosts an original version of the 1297 Magna Carta confirmed by Edward I. These are displayed to the public in the chamber of the National Archives. Once inside the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom, there are no lines to see the individual documents, photography is not permitted in the National Archives Museum. Photography with natural light is permitted in research rooms, from its founding, the U. S. federal government has documented its policies and decisions, but for almost 150 years it had virtually no method or place to safeguard historically important records. During those years, officials occasionally decried federal neglect, or too often, fires destroyed important documents, by the end of the 19th century, a few architects had even submitted plans to the government for an archives or a hall of records. By the early 20th century an organized effort aimed at creating the National Archives began and this program led to the design and construction of buildings within the Federal Triangle. Secretary of the Treasury Andrew W. Mellon gave the responsibility for designing the Triangle grouping to a Board of Architectural Consultants. Louis A. Simon, the Supervisory Architect of the Treasury Department, drafted a design for the Archives. In late 1927, preliminary drawings of the individual Triangle buildings were incorporated into a presentation of the entire project. The drawings became the basis for a scale model that was publicly unveiled in April 1929. The next month, after examining the model, the Commission of Fine Arts was highly critical of Simons design for an archives, commissioners suggested that the noted architect John Russell Pope be added to the Board of Architectural Consultants and that he design the National Archives. Pope was asked to join when the death of a board created a vacancy. Popes architectural vision transformed both the location and design of the National Archives Building and he successfully proposed relocating the Archives to the block between Seventh and Eighth Streets, a site he believed demanded a monumental building such as the National Archives. In place of Simons design, Popes National Archives was to be a neoclassical temple befitting an institution dedicated to American history, ground was broken for the National Archives on September 5,1931, by the Assistant Secretary of the Treasury, Ferry K. Heath. By the time President Herbert Hoover laid the cornerstone of the building in February 1933, because the massive structure was to be constructed above an underground stream,8,575 piles had been driven into the unstable soil, before pouring a huge concrete bowl as a foundation. Another difficulty arose over the choice of building materials, ultimately, as in the other Federal Triangle buildings, limestone was used for the exterior superstructure and granite for the base
National Archives Building
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National Archives Building
National Archives Building
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Archives of the United States of America
National Archives Building
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Close up of the National Archives Building facade
National Archives Building
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Sculpture "Guardianship" by
James Earle Fraser, 1935, outside NARA
15.
Richard Russell, Jr.
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Richard Brevard Russell Jr. was an American politician from Georgia. C. in 1971. As a Senator, he was a candidate for President of the United States in the 1948 Democratic National Convention, and the 1952 Democratic National Convention. Russell was a founder and leader of the coalition that dominated Congress from 1937 to 1963. He was for decades a leader of Southern opposition to the civil rights movement, Russell was born in Winder, Georgia, the fourth child of 15 children of Ina and Richard Brevard Russell, a prominent lawyer and later chief justice of the Supreme Court of Georgia. The younger Russell graduated in 1914 from the Seventh District Agricultural and Mechanical School in Powder Springs, Georgia, and from Gordon Institute in Barnesville, Georgia, Russell then enrolled in the University of Georgia School of Law in 1915 and earned a Bachelor of Laws degree in 1918. While at UGA, he was a member of the Phi Kappa Literary Society, Russell served briefly in the United States Navy near the end of World War I, and was discharged after the Armistice. In 1919, he set up a law practice with his father in Winder and he was elected to the Georgia House of Representatives, serving as its speaker. His meteoric rise was capped by election, at age 33, as Governor of Georgia and he was sworn in by his father, who had become supreme court justice of Georgia 9 years before. He was a governor who reorganized the bureaucracy, promoted economic development in the midst of the Great Depression. Condemning the Georgia prison system as inhumane and it became a popular movie, but Russell demanded extradition. New Jersey refused, and Russell was attacked from all quarters, during his long tenure in the Senate, Russell served as chairman on Committee on Immigration, Committee on Manufactures, Committee on Armed Services, and Committee on Appropriations. As the senior Senator, he became President pro tempore of the Senate during the 91st, Russell at first supported the New Deal and in 1936, he defeated the demagogic Governor Eugene Talmadge by defending the New Deal as good for Georgia. By 1937, however, Russell became a leader of the conservative coalition and he was the chief sponsor of the National School Lunch Act of 1946 with the dual goals of providing proper nutrition for all children and of subsidizing agriculture. He ran as a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1952, winning widespread newspaper acclaim. During World War II, he was known for his position towards Japan. He held that Japan should not be treated with more lenience than Germany, Russell was a highly respected senatorial colleague and skilled legislator. Russell chaired the Senate investigation into the firing of General Douglas MacArthur, military historians have printed transcripts of the hearings to instruct on the proper relationship between civilian and military officials in a democracy. Johnson assiduously cultivated Russell through all of their joint Senate years, Russells support for first-term senator Lyndon Johnson paved the way for Johnson to become Senate Majority Leader
Richard Russell, Jr.
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Richard Russell, Jr.
Richard Russell, Jr.
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Russell on the receiving end of
"The Treatment" from President
Lyndon B. Johnson in 1963.
Richard Russell, Jr.
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A statue of Russell is placed in the rotunda of the
Russell Senate Office Building.
16.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
Democratic Party (United States)
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Andrew Jackson was the first Democratic
President of the United States
Democratic Party (United States)
Democratic Party (United States)
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The three leaders of the Democratic party during the first half of the 20th century: President
Woodrow Wilson (nominated in 1912 and '16) Sec. of State
William J. Bryan (nominated in 1896, 1900 and 1908),
Josephus Daniels,
Breckinridge Long,
William Phillips, and
Franklin D. Roosevelt (nominated for VP in 1920 and for president in 1932, 36,'40 and 44)
Democratic Party (United States)
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John F. Kennedy,
35th President of the United States (1961–1963)
17.
Georgia (U.S. state)
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Georgia is a state in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1733, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies, named after King George II of Great Britain, Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2,1788. It declared its secession from the Union on January 19,1861 and it was the last state to be restored to the Union, on July 15,1870. Georgia is the 24th largest and the 8th most populous of the 50 United States, from 2007 to 2008,14 of Georgias counties ranked among the nations 100 fastest-growing, second only to Texas. Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South, Atlanta is the states capital, its most populous city and has been named a global city. Georgia is bordered to the south by Florida, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina, to the west by Alabama, the states northern part is in the Blue Ridge Mountains, part of the Appalachian Mountains system. Georgias highest point is Brasstown Bald at 4,784 feet above sea level, Georgia is the largest state entirely east of the Mississippi River in land area. Before settlement by Europeans, Georgia was inhabited by the mound building cultures, the British colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe on February 12,1733. The colony was administered by the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America under a charter issued by King George II. The Trustees implemented a plan for the colonys settlement, known as the Oglethorpe Plan. In 1742 the colony was invaded by the Spanish during the War of Jenkins Ear, in 1752, after the government failed to renew subsidies that had helped support the colony, the Trustees turned over control to the crown. Georgia became a colony, with a governor appointed by the king. The Province of Georgia was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution by signing the 1776 Declaration of Independence, the State of Georgias first constitution was ratified in February 1777. Georgia was the 10th state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24,1778, in 1829, gold was discovered in the North Georgia mountains, which led to the Georgia Gold Rush and an established federal mint in Dahlonega, which continued its operation until 1861. The subsequent influx of white settlers put pressure on the government to land from the Cherokee Nation. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law, sending many eastern Native American nations to reservations in present-day Oklahoma, including all of Georgias tribes. Despite the Supreme Courts ruling in Worcester v. Georgia that ruled U. S. states were not permitted to redraw the Indian boundaries, President Jackson and the state of Georgia ignored the ruling. In 1838, his successor, Martin Van Buren, dispatched troops to gather the Cherokee
Georgia (U.S. state)
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A girl spinner in a Georgia cotton mill, 1909.
Georgia (U.S. state)
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Flag
Georgia (U.S. state)
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Road to
Brasstown Bald
Georgia (U.S. state)
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Jekyll Island
18.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
United States Senate
–
United States Senate
United States Senate
–
Seal of the U.S. Senate
United States Senate
–
The Senate side of the
United States Capitol in Washington, D.C.
United States Senate
–
A typical Senate desk
19.
John Sherman Cooper
–
John Sherman Cooper was a politician, jurist, and diplomat from the U. S. state of Kentucky. He served three non-consecutive, partial terms in the United States Senate before being elected to two terms in 1960 and 1966. He also served as U. S. Ambassador to India from 1955 to 1956, Coopers first political service was as a member of the Kentucky House of Representatives from 1927 to 1929. In 1930, he was elected county judge of Pulaski County, after a failed gubernatorial bid in 1939, he joined the U. S. Army in 1942. During World War II, he earned the Bronze Star Medal for reorganizing the Bavarian judicial system after the victory in Europe. While still in Germany, he was elected judge for Kentuckys 28th district. He returned home to accept the judgeship, which he held for less than a year before resigning to seek election to A. B, happy Chandlers vacated seat in the U. S. Senate. He won the seat by 41,823 votes, the largest victory margin by any Republican for any office in Kentucky up to that time, during his first term in the Senate, Cooper voted with the majority of his party just 51% of the time. Cooper was again elected to a term in the Senate in 1952. The popular Cooper appeared likely to be re-elected in 1954 until the Democrats nominated former Vice-President Alben W. Barkley, Cooper lost the general election and was appointed Ambassador to India by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1955. Barkley died in 1956, and Eisenhower requested that Cooper seek Barkleys open seat, Cooper reluctantly acquiesced and was elected to serve the rest of Barkleys term. In 1960, Cooper was re-elected, securing his first full, newly elected President John F. Kennedy – Coopers former Senate colleague – chose Cooper to conduct a secret fact-finding mission to Moscow and New Delhi. Following Kennedys assassination in November 1963, President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed Cooper to the Warren Commission to investigate the assassination. Cooper soon became an opponent of Johnsons decision to escalate U. S. military involvement in the Vietnam War. After Coopers re-election in 1966, he worked with Idaho Democrat Frank Church on a series of amendments designed to de-fund further U. S. military operations in the region. These amendments were hailed as the first serious attempt by Congress to curb presidential authority over operations during an ongoing war. Aging and increasingly deaf, Cooper did not seek re-election in 1972 and his last acts of public service were as Ambassador to East Germany from 1974 to 1976 and as an alternate delegate to the United Nations in 1981. He died in a Washington, D. C. retirement home on February 21,1991, John Sherman Cooper was born August 23,1901, in Somerset, Kentucky
John Sherman Cooper
–
John Sherman Cooper
John Sherman Cooper
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Signature
John Sherman Cooper
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Senator Happy Chandler's resignation to become Baseball Commissioner prompted Cooper's first run for the U.S. Senate.
John Sherman Cooper
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Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Cooper became close friends.
20.
Republican Party (United States)
–
The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883. The Republicans supported the pietistic Protestants who demanded Prohibition, nevertheless, by 1890 the Republicans had agreed to the Sherman Antitrust Act and the Interstate Commerce Commission in response to complaints from owners of small businesses and farmers
Republican Party (United States)
–
Abraham Lincoln, the first Republican U.S. President (1861–1865).
Republican Party (United States)
–
Theodore Roosevelt,
26th President of the United States (1901–1909)
Republican Party (United States)
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Dwight Eisenhower,
34th President of the United States (1953–1961)
Republican Party (United States)
–
Richard Nixon,
37th President of the United States (1969–1974)
21.
Kentucky
–
Kentucky, officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Kentucky is one of four U. S. states constituted as a commonwealth, originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States, Kentucky is known as the Bluegrass State, a nickname based on the bluegrass found in many of its pastures due to the fertile soil. One of the regions in Kentucky is the Bluegrass Region in central Kentucky. In 1776, the counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains became known as Kentucky County, the precise etymology of the name is uncertain, but likely based on an Iroquoian name meaning the meadow or the prairie. Kentucky is situated in the Upland South, a significant portion of eastern Kentucky is part of Appalachia. Kentucky borders seven states, from the Midwest and the Southeast, West Virginia lies to the east, Virginia to the southeast, Tennessee to the south, Missouri to the west, Illinois and Indiana to the northwest, and Ohio to the north and northeast. Only Missouri and Tennessee, both of which border eight states, touch more, Kentuckys northern border is formed by the Ohio River and its western border by the Mississippi River. The official state borders are based on the courses of the rivers as they existed when Kentucky became a state in 1792, for instance, northbound travelers on U. S.41 from Henderson, after crossing the Ohio River, will be in Kentucky for about two miles. Ellis Park, a racetrack, is located in this small piece of Kentucky. Waterworks Road is part of the land border between Indiana and Kentucky. Kentucky has a part known as Kentucky Bend, at the far west corner of the state. It exists as an exclave surrounded completely by Missouri and Tennessee, Road access to this small part of Kentucky on the Mississippi River requires a trip through Tennessee. The epicenter of the powerful 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes was near this area, much of the outer Bluegrass is in the Eden Shale Hills area, made up of short, steep, and very narrow hills. The Jackson Purchase and western Pennyrile are home to several bald cypress/tupelo swamps, located within the southeastern interior portion of North America, Kentucky has a climate that can best be described as a humid subtropical climate. Temperatures in Kentucky usually range from daytime summer highs of 87 °F to the low of 23 °F. The average precipitation is 46 inches a year, Kentucky experiences four distinct seasons, with substantial variations in the severity of summer and winter. The highest recorded temperature was 114 °F at Greensburg on July 28,1930 while the lowest recorded temperature was −37 °F at Shelbyville on January 19,1994, due to its location, Kentucky has a moderate humid subtropical climate, with abundant rainfall
Kentucky
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Narrow country roads bounded by stone and wood plank fences are a fixture in the Kentucky
Bluegrass region.
Kentucky
Kentucky
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Kentucky's regions (click on image for color-coding information.)
Kentucky
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The
Eastern Kentucky Coalfield is known for its rugged terrain.
22.
Hale Boggs
–
Thomas Hale Boggs Sr. was an American Democratic politician and a member of the U. S. House of Representatives from New Orleans, Louisiana. He was the House majority leader and a member of the Warren Commission, in 1972, while he was still Majority Leader, the twin engine airplane in which Boggs was traveling disappeared over a remote section of Alaska. The airplane presumably crashed and was never found, congressman Nick Begich, of Alaska, was also presumed killed in the same accident. Born in Long Beach in Harrison County on the Mississippi Gulf Coast, Boggs was educated at Tulane University where he received a degree in journalism in 1934. He first practiced law in New Orleans but soon became a leader in the movement to break the power of the machine of U. S. Senator Huey Pierce Long, Jr. who was assassinated in 1935, Long had previously broken the power of New Orleans politicians in 1929. A Democrat, Boggs was elected to the U. S. House for the Second District, at the time he was elected he was, at twenty-six, the youngest member of Congress. After an unsuccessful bid in 1942, Boggs joined the United States Navy as an ensign. He served the remainder of World War II, after the war, Boggs began his political comeback. He was again elected to Congress in 1946 and was then re-elected thirteen times, once just after he disappeared, in 1951, Boggs launched an ill-fated campaign for governor of Louisiana. By 1951, the ASU was thought to be a Communist front, Boggs avoided the question and attacked both Grace and Perez for conducting a smear campaign against him. In his book, The Big Lie, author Garry Boulard suggests strongly that Boggs was a member of the ASU, Boggs finished third in the balloting for governor early in 1952. The Boggs candidate for lieutenant governor, C. E, cap Barham of Ruston, prevailed in a runoff election against future Governor John McKeithen. The Boggs choice for register of lands, Ellen Bryan Moore of Baton Rouge. Moore defeated Mary Evelyn Dickerson, future state treasurer in the second McKeithen administration, other newspapers supporting Boggs were the since defunct Monroe Morning World and the functioning Monroe News-Star. The New Orleans Times-Picayune endorsed not Boggs for governor but instead the fourth-place primary candidate, James M. McLemore, both Ott and Conner were eliminated in the primary. The Boggs Act of 1952, sponsored by Hale Boggs, set mandatory sentences for drug-related offenses, a first-offense conviction for marijuana possession carried a minimum sentence of 2 to 10 years with a fine of up to $20,000. In 1960, the Republican Elliot Ross Buckley, a cousin of William F. Buckley Jr. challenged Boggs, the Kennedy-Johnson ticket easily won in Louisiana that year
Hale Boggs
–
President
Lyndon B. Johnson with House Majority Whip Boggs
Hale Boggs
–
Hale Boggs
23.
Louisiana
–
Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Louisiana is the 31st most extensive and the 25th most populous of the 50 United States and its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the state in the U. S. with political subdivisions termed parishes. The largest parish by population is East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana is bordered by Arkansas to the north, Mississippi to the east, Texas to the west, and the Gulf of Mexico to the south. Much of the lands were formed from sediment washed down the Mississippi River, leaving enormous deltas and vast areas of coastal marsh. These contain a rich southern biota, typical examples include birds such as ibis, there are also many species of tree frogs, and fish such as sturgeon and paddlefish. In more elevated areas, fire is a process in the landscape. These support a large number of plant species, including many species of orchids. Louisiana has more Native American tribes than any other state, including four that are federally recognized, ten that are state recognized. Before the American purchase of the territory in 1803, the current Louisiana State had been both a French colony and for a period, a Spanish one. In addition, colonists imported numerous African people as slaves in the 18th century, many came from peoples of the same region of West Africa, thus concentrating their culture. Louisiana was named after Louis XIV, King of France from 1643 to 1715, when René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle claimed the territory drained by the Mississippi River for France, he named it La Louisiane. The suffix -ana is a Latin suffix that can refer to information relating to an individual, subject. Thus, roughly, Louis + ana carries the idea of related to Louis, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist 250 million years ago when there was but one supercontinent, Pangea. As Pangea split apart, the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico opened, Louisiana slowly developed, over millions of years, from water into land, and from north to south. The oldest rocks are exposed in the north, in such as the Kisatchie National Forest. The oldest rocks date back to the early Tertiary Era, some 60 million years ago, the history of the formation of these rocks can be found in D. Spearings Roadside Geology of Louisiana. The sediments were carried north to south by the Mississippi River
Louisiana
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Louisiana entrance sign off
Interstate 20 in
Madison Parish east of
Tallulah.
Louisiana
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Flag
Louisiana
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Aerial view of Louisiana wetland habitats.
Louisiana
–
A field of yellow wildflowers in
Saint Bernard Parish, Louisiana
24.
United States House of Representatives
–
The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
United States House of Representatives
–
United States House of Representatives
United States House of Representatives
–
Seal of the House
United States House of Representatives
–
Republican
Thomas Brackett Reed, occasionally ridiculed as "Czar Reed", was a U.S. Representative from
Maine, and
Speaker of the House from 1889 to 1891 and from 1895 to 1899.
United States House of Representatives
–
House Speaker
Nancy Pelosi, Majority Leader
Steny Hoyer, and Education and Labor Committee Chairman
George Miller confer with President
Barack Obama at the
Oval Office in 2009.
25.
Gerald Ford
–
Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr. was an American politician who served as the 38th President of the United States from 1974 to 1977, following the resignation of Richard Nixon. Prior to this he served eight months as the 40th Vice President of the United States, before his appointment to the vice presidency, Ford served 25 years as U. S. Representative from Michigans 5th congressional district, the nine of them as the House Minority Leader. As President, Ford signed the Helsinki Accords, marking a move toward détente in the Cold War, with the conquest of South Vietnam by North Vietnam nine months into his presidency, U. S. involvement in Vietnam essentially ended. Domestically, Ford presided over the worst economy in the four decades since the Great Depression, with growing inflation, one of his most controversial acts was to grant a presidential pardon to President Richard Nixon for his role in the Watergate scandal. During Fords presidency, foreign policy was characterized in procedural terms by the increased role Congress began to play, in the Republican presidential primary campaign of 1976, Ford defeated former California Governor Ronald Reagan for the Republican nomination. Arthur not to be elected in his own right, following his years as President, Ford remained active in the Republican Party. After experiencing health problems, he died at home on December 26,2006, Ford lived longer than any other U. S. president –93 years and 165 days – while his 895-day presidency was the shortest of all presidents who did not die in office. Gerald Rudolph Ford was born Leslie Lynch King Jr. on July 14,1913, at 3202 Woolworth Avenue in Omaha, Nebraska, where his parents lived with his paternal grandparents. His mother was Dorothy Ayer Gardner and his father was Leslie Lynch King Sr. a wool trader, Dorothy separated from King just sixteen days after her sons birth. She took her son with her to the Oak Park, Illinois, home of her sister Tannisse and brother-in-law, from there, she moved to the home of her parents, Levi Addison Gardner and Adele Augusta Ayer, in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Dorothy and King divorced in December 1913, she gained custody of her son. Fords paternal grandfather Charles Henry King paid child support until shortly before his death in 1930, Ford later said his biological father had a history of hitting his mother. James M. Ford later told confidantes that his father had first hit his mother on their honeymoon for smiling at another man. After two and a half years with her parents, on February 1,1916, Dorothy married Gerald Rudolff Ford and they then called her son Gerald Rudolff Ford, Jr. The future president was never adopted, and did not legally change his name until December 3,1935. He was raised in Grand Rapids with his three half-brothers from his mothers marriage, Thomas Gardner Tom Ford, Richard Addison Dick Ford. Ford also had three half-siblings from the marriage of Leslie King, Sr. his biological father, Marjorie King, Leslie Henry King
Gerald Ford
–
Ford in August 1974
Gerald Ford
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Eagle Scout Gerald Ford (circled in red) in 1929;
Michigan Governor Fred W. Green at far left, holding hat
Gerald Ford
–
Ford as a center on the University of Michigan
football team, 1933
Gerald Ford
–
The Gunnery officers of the
USS Monterey. Ford is second from the right, in the front row.
26.
Michigan
–
Michigan /ˈmɪʃᵻɡən/ is a state in the Great Lakes and Midwestern regions of the United States. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, Michigan is the tenth most populous of the 50 United States, with the 11th most extensive total area. Its capital is Lansing, and its largest city is Detroit, Michigan is the only state to consist of two peninsulas. The Lower Peninsula, to which the name Michigan was originally applied, is noted to be shaped like a mitten. The Upper Peninsula is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, the two peninsulas are connected by the Mackinac Bridge. The state has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the world, being bounded by four of the five Great Lakes, as a result, it is one of the leading U. S. states for recreational boating. Michigan also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds, a person in the state is never more than six miles from a natural water source or more than 85 miles from a Great Lakes shoreline. What is now the state of Michigan was first settled by Native American tribes before being colonized by French explorers in the 17th century, the area was organized as part of the larger Northwest Territory until 1800, when western Michigan became part of the Indiana Territory. Eventually, in 1805, the Michigan Territory was formed, which lasted until it was admitted into the Union on January 26,1837, the state of Michigan soon became an important center of industry and trade in the Great Lakes region and a popular immigrant destination. Though Michigan has come to develop an economy, it is widely known as the center of the U. S. automotive industry. When the first European explorers arrived, the most populous tribes were Algonquian peoples, which include the Anishinaabe groups of Ojibwe, Odaawaa/Odawa, the three nations co-existed peacefully as part of a loose confederation called the Council of Three Fires. The Ojibwe, whose numbers are estimated to have been between 25,000 and 35,000, were the largest, French voyageurs and coureurs des bois explored and settled in Michigan in the 17th century. The first Europeans to reach what became Michigan were those of Étienne Brûlés expedition in 1622, the first permanent European settlement was founded in 1668 on the site where Père Jacques Marquette established Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan as a base for Catholic missions, missionaries in 1671–75 founded outlying stations at Saint Ignace and Marquette. Jesuit missionaries were received by the areas Indian populations, with relatively few difficulties or hostilities. In 1679, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle built Fort Miami at present-day St. Joseph, in 1691, the French established a trading post and Fort St. Joseph along the St. Joseph River at the present day city of Niles. The hundred soldiers and workers who accompanied Cadillac built a fort enclosing one arpent, cadillacs wife, Marie Thérèse Guyon, soon moved to Detroit, becoming one of the first European women to settle in the Michigan wilderness. The town quickly became a major fur-trading and shipping post, the Église de Saint-Anne was founded the same year
Michigan
–
Père Marquette and the Indians (1869), Wilhelm Lamprecht
Michigan
–
Flag
Michigan
–
Approximate area of Michigan highlighted in
Guillaume de L'Isle 's 1718 map
Michigan
–
Lumbering pines in the late 1800s
27.
Allen Welsh Dulles
–
Allen Welsh Dulles was an American diplomat and lawyer who became the first civilian Director of Central Intelligence and its longest-serving director to date. As head of the Central Intelligence Agency during the early Cold War, he oversaw the 1954 Guatemalan coup détat, Operation Ajax, the Lockheed U-2 aircraft program, following the assassination of John F. Kennedy, Dulles was one of the members of the Warren Commission. Between his stints of government service, Dulles was a lawyer and partner at Sullivan & Cromwell. His older brother, John Foster Dulles, was the Secretary of State during the Eisenhower Administration, Dulles was born on April 7,1893, in Watertown, New York, one of five children of Presbyterian minister Allen Macy Dulles, and his wife, Edith F. His maternal grandfather was John W. Foster, who was Secretary of State under Benjamin Harrison, while his uncle by marriage, Robert Lansing served as Secretary of State under Woodrow Wilson. Dulles was uncle to Avery Dulles, a Jesuit priest, theologian, and cardinal of the Catholic Church, Dulles graduated from Princeton University, where he participated in the American Whig–Cliosophic Society, and entered the diplomatic service in 1916. In 1920, he married Clover Todd, according to his sister, Eleanor, Dulles had at least a hundred extramarital affairs, including some during his tenure with the CIA. In 1921, while at the US Embassy in Istanbul, he had involvement in exposing the infamous Protocols of the Elders of Zion as a forgery. Dulles unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the US State Department to publicly denounce the forgery, initially assigned to Vienna, he was transferred to Bern, Switzerland along with the rest of the embassy personnel shortly before the U. S. entered the First World War. Later in life Dulles claimed to have been telephoned by the then obscure Vladimir Lenin, after recovering from the 1918 flu pandemic he was assigned to the American delegation at the Paris Peace Conference, along with his older brother Foster. From 1922-6, he served five years as chief of the Near East division of the Department of State. In 1926, he earned a law degree from George Washington University Law School and took a job at Sullivan and Cromwell and he became a director of the Council on Foreign Relations in 1927, the first new director since the Councils founding in 1921. He was the Councils secretary from 1933 to 1944, during the late 1920s and early 1930s, he served as legal adviser to the delegations on arms limitation at the League of Nations. There he had the opportunity to meet with Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Maxim Litvinov, as a result of Dulles efforts, the Berlin office was closed and the firm ceased to conduct business in Nazi Germany. S. Dulles collaborated with Hamilton Fish Armstrong, the editor of Foreign Affairs magazine and they concluded that diplomatic, military, and economic isolation, in a traditional sense, were no longer possible in an increasingly interdependent international system. Dulles helped a number of German Jews, such as the banker Paul Kemper and he was assisted in intelligence-gathering activities by Gero von Schulze-Gaevernitz, a German emigrant. Dulles also received information from Fritz Kolbe, a German diplomat. Kolbe supplied secret documents regarding active German spies and plans regarding the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter, Dulles was involved in Operation Sunrise, secret negotiations in March 1945 to arrange a local surrender of German forces in northern Italy
Allen Welsh Dulles
–
Allen Dulles
Allen Welsh Dulles
–
CIA ID Card of Allen Dulles
Allen Welsh Dulles
–
Kennedy presents the National Security Medal to Dulles, November 28, 1961
28.
Director of Central Intelligence
–
The DCI then ran the Central Intelligence Group, a predecessor of the CIA. The office of DCI thus predates the establishment of the Central Intelligence Agency, the CIA was created by the National Security Act of 1947, which formally defined the duties of the Director of Central Intelligence. This 1947 Act also created the National Security Council, until April 2005, the DCI was often referred to colloquially as the CIA Director, even though he was head of both the CIA and the broader Intelligence Community. After the September 11,2001, terrorist attacks on the United States and the subsequent investigation by the 9/11 Commission and that movement prompted the passage of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act in December 2004, which split the DCIs duties among two new offices. The Office of the Director of National Intelligence would serve as head of the Intelligence Community, the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency would serve as chief administrator of the CIA. The reorganization took effect on April 21,2005, the 19th and last DCI, Porter J. Goss became the first director of the CIA, while John Negroponte became the first DNI. Status Rear Admiral Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter was the first Director of Central Intelligence who served as Director of the Central Intelligence Agency and those operations, however, were initially conducted by other agencies such as the Office of Policy Coordination. During the first years of its existence, other branches of the U. S. Federal government did not exercise very much supervision over the Central Intelligence Agency and those Soviet organizations also had domestic responsibilities. The rapid expansion of the CIA, and a sense of independence under the Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles exacerbated the problem of the U. S. Intelligence Communitys freedom from independent review, after the armed landing of Cuban exiles in the Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba in 1961, President Kennedy discharged and replaced Dulles. His autobiography is more noteworthy for giving insight into the mindset of key people in the field than it is in giving a description of the CIA. President John F. Kennedy exercised greater supervision, and he appointed a Republican with an engineering background. McCone, despite a lack of intelligence agency background, is considered one of the most competent DCIs. The agency stepped up its activity in Southeast Asia under President Lyndon Johnson, McCone resigned from his position of DCI in April 1965, believing himself to have been unappreciated by President Johnson. McCones final policy memorandum to Johnson argued that expansion of the War in Vietnam would arouse national and world discontent over the war, before it defeated the North Vietnamese regime. Raborn, a naval officer who directed the design and development of the entire Polaris ballistic missile submarine system, had a somewhat short. His background included no foreign relations experience, and intelligence experience only concerning naval operations, CIA historians have said Raborn did not take to the DCI job, in their opinion. Raborn resigned as the DCI on June 30,1966, having served for fourteen months
Director of Central Intelligence
–
The 16-foot (5 m) diameter granite CIA seal in the lobby of the original headquarters building.
Director of Central Intelligence
–
The entrance of the CIA Headquarters.
29.
Central Intelligence Agency
–
As one of the principal members of the U. S. Intelligence Community, the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is focused on providing intelligence for the President. Though it is not the only U. S. government agency specializing in HUMINT and it exerts foreign political influence through its tactical divisions, such as the Special Activities Division. Despite transferring some of its powers to the DNI, the CIA has grown in size as a result of the September 11 attacks. In 2013, The Washington Post reported that in fiscal year 2010, the CIA has increasingly expanded its roles, including covert paramilitary operations. One of its largest divisions, the Information Operations Center, has shifted focus from counter-terrorism to offensive cyber-operations, when the CIA was created, its purpose was to create a clearinghouse for foreign policy intelligence and analysis. Today its primary purpose is to collect, analyze, evaluate, and disseminate foreign intelligence, warning/informing American leaders of important overseas events, with Pakistan described as an intractable target. Counterintelligence, with China, Russia, Iran, Cuba, the Executive Office also supports the U. S. military by providing it with information it gathers, receiving information from military intelligence organizations, and cooperates on field activities. The Executive Director is in charge of the day to day operation of the CIA, each branch of the military service has its own Director. The Directorate has four regional groups, six groups for transnational issues. There is a dedicated to Iraq, regional analytical offices covering the Near East and South Asia, Russia and Europe, and the Asian Pacific, Latin American. The Directorate of Operations is responsible for collecting intelligence. The name reflects its role as the coordinator of intelligence activities between other elements of the wider U. S. intelligence community with their own HUMINT operations. This Directorate was created in an attempt to end years of rivalry over influence, philosophy, in spite of this, the Department of Defense recently organized its own global clandestine intelligence service, the Defense Clandestine Service, under the Defense Intelligence Agency. This Directorate is known to be organized by regions and issues. The Directorate of Science & Technology was established to research, create, many of its innovations were transferred to other intelligence organizations, or, as they became more overt, to the military services. For example, the development of the U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft was done in cooperation with the United States Air Force, the U-2s original mission was clandestine imagery intelligence over denied areas such as the Soviet Union. It was subsequently provided with signals intelligence and measurement and signature intelligence capabilities, subsequently, NPIC was transferred to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
Central Intelligence Agency
–
John Brennan, the current
director of the Central Intelligence Agency
Central Intelligence Agency
–
Seal of the Central Intelligence Agency
Central Intelligence Agency
–
Aerial view of the Central Intelligence Agency headquarters,
Langley, Virginia
Central Intelligence Agency
–
The 111 stars on the
CIA Memorial Wall in the original CIA headquarters, each representing a CIA officer killed in action.
30.
John J. McCloy
–
John Jay McCloy, was an American lawyer and banker who served as Assistant Secretary of War during World War II. After the war he served as president of the World Bank, High Commissioner for Germany, chairman of Chase Manhattan Bank, and chairman of the Council on Foreign Relations. He later became a prominent United States presidential adviser, served on the Warren Commission, McCloy was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the son of John J. McCloy and Anna McCloy. His father was an insurance man who died when the son was five. His mother was a hairdresser in Philadelphia, with many high-society clients and his original name was John Snader McCloy. It was later changed to John Jay McCloy, probably to sound more aristocratic, McCloy was educated at the Peddie School in New Jersey, and Amherst College from which he graduated in 1916. He was a student who excelled at tennis and moved smoothly among the sons of the nations elite. McCloy was a brother of Beta Theta Pi Fraternity at Amherst where he was initiated as Roll No.330, McCloy enrolled in Harvard Law School in 1916, and he was an average student. He was profoundly influenced by his experience at the Plattsburg Preparedness camps, when the US entered the war in 1917, he joined the Army in May and was trained at Plattsburg, New York and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Artillery on August 15,1917. He was promoted to first lieutenant on December 29, in May 1918 he was assigned as an aide to Brigadier General G. H. Preston - commander of the 160th Field Artillery Brigade of the 85th Division. He sailed for France for service with the American Expeditionary Force in France on July 29,1918 and he saw combat service in the last weeks of the war, as commander of an artillery battery during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. After the armistice of November 1918, he was transferred to General Headquarters of the AEF in Chaumont, Haute-Marne, France and he was then sent to the Advance General Headquarters in Trier, Germany and was promoted to captain on June 29. McCloy returned to the US on July 20 and resigned from the Army on August 15,1919 and he then returned to Harvard where he received his LL. B. degree in 1921. McCloy went to New York to become an associate in the firm of Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft and he moved to Cravath, Henderson, & de Gersdorff in 1924, where he worked with many wealthy clients, such as the St. Paul Railroad. In 1934 McCloy found new evidence allowing him to re-open an action for damages against Germany for the destruction caused by the 1916 Black Tom explosion. He did a deal of work for corporations in Nazi Germany and advised the major German chemical combine I. G. Farben. By the time he left for government service in 1940, McCloy earned about $45,000 a year and had savings of $106,000 and his involvement in litigation over a World War I sabotage case gave him a strong interest in intelligence issues and in German affairs. L Once the war started, McCloy was a voice in setting US military priorities
John J. McCloy
–
John J. McCloy
John J. McCloy
–
Ulm School of Design (Hochschule für Gestaltung - HfG Ulm) 1953-68
31.
World Bank
–
The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to countries of the world for capital programs. It comprises two institutions, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and the International Development Association, the World Bank is a component of the World Bank Group, which is part of the United Nations system. The World Banks stated official goal is the reduction of poverty, the president of the World Bank is, traditionally, an American. The World Bank and the IMF are both based in Washington, D. C. and work closely with each other, although many countries were represented at the Bretton Woods Conference, the United States and United Kingdom were the most powerful in attendance and dominated the negotiations. Before 1974 the reconstruction and development loans provided by the World Bank were relatively small, the Banks staff were aware of the need to instill confidence in the bank. Fiscal conservatism ruled, and loan applications had to meet strict criteria, the first country to receive a World Bank loan was France. The Banks president at the time, John McCloy, chose France over two other applicants, Poland and Chile, the loan was for US$250 million, half the amount requested, and it came with strict conditions. France had to agree to produce a budget and give priority of debt repayment to the World Bank over other governments. World Bank staff closely monitored the use of the funds to ensure that the French government met the conditions. In addition, before the loan was approved, the United States State Department told the French government that its members associated with the Communist Party would first have to be removed, the French government complied with this diktat and removed the Communist coalition government - the so-called tripartisme. Within hours, the loan to France was approved, when the Marshall Plan went into effect in 1947, many European countries began receiving aid from other sources. Faced with this competition, the World Bank shifted its focus to non-European countries, in 1960, the International Development Association was formed, providing soft loans to developing countries. From 1974 to 1980 the bank concentrated on meeting the needs of people in the developing world. The size and number of loans to borrowers was greatly increased as loan targets expanded from infrastructure into social services and these changes can be attributed to Robert McNamara, who was appointed to the presidency in 1968 by Lyndon B. Johnson. McNamara implored bank treasurer Eugene Rotberg to seek out new sources of capital outside of the banks that had been the primary sources of funding. Rotberg used the bond market to increase the capital available to the bank. One consequence of the period of poverty alleviation lending was the rise of third world debt. From 1976 to 1980 developing world debt rose at an annual rate of 20%
World Bank
–
John Maynard Keynes (right) and
Harry Dexter White, the "founding fathers" of both the World Bank and the
International Monetary Fund (IMF).
World Bank
–
The Gold Room at the
Mount Washington Hotel where the IMF and World Bank were established
World Bank
–
The
World Bank Group headquarters bldg. in
Washington, D.C.
World Bank
–
Jim Yong Kim, the current President of the World Bank Group
32.
J. Lee Rankin
–
James Lee Lee Rankin was the 31st United States Solicitor General. Rankin was born in Hartington, Nebraska, the son of Herman P. and he attended public schools, and earned both his undergraduate and law degree from the University of Nebraska–Lincoln. In 1930 Rankin was admitted to the bar in Nebraska and began the practice of law in Lincoln, known for his straightforward, quiet, and friendly demeanor, Rankin, loved to tend roses, play the piccolo, and was an enthusiastic amateur photographer. In 1935, he became a partner and worked with the firm for over 20 years, Rankin served as Solicitor General from 1956 to 1961. In 1952, Rankin managed the Dwight Eisenhower for President campaign in Nebraska and in 1953, in 1953, he was appointed Assistant Attorney General in charge of the Office of Legal Counsel. Accordingly, he suggested the plan by local school districts submitted desegregation plans to federal judges in their states. In addition, Rankin argued a great range of important cases before the Supreme Court. He was instrumental in resolving conflicting claims among Western states to the Colorado River, on August 14,1956, Rankin was appointed U. S. In response to lawsuits in many states arising out of legislative reapportionment fights, he developed the Justice Department’s position that led to the principle of one man and he was credited with redrafting and editing the commission’s voluminous report into a work of polished prose. Subsequently, Rankin practiced law in New York City until the 1970s, upon retirement, Rankin and his wife of 63 years, Gertrude, moved to Weston, Connecticut, where they had a summer home. In 1993, they relocated to their home in Los Gatos, Rankin died on June 26,1996 in Santa Cruz, California. He is interred at Santa Cruz Memorial Park in Santa Cruz
J. Lee Rankin
–
J. Lee Rankin
33.
William T. Coleman, Jr.
–
William Thaddeus Bill Coleman Jr. was an American attorney and politician. Coleman was the fourth United States Secretary of Transportation, from March 7,1975, to January 20,1977, as an attorney, Coleman played a major role in significant civil rights cases. At the time of his death, Coleman was the oldest living former Cabinet member, Coleman was born to William Thaddeus Coleman Sr. and Laura Beatrice Coleman in Germantown, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Colmans mother came from six generations of Episcopal ministers, including an operator of the Underground Railroad, duBois and Langston Hughes would visit the family’s home for dinner. When Coleman attempted to join the swim team he was again suspended. Coleman’s swim team coach wrote him a letter of recommendation and he was accepted into the University of Pennsylvania. He graduated summa cum laude from the University of Pennsylvania with a B. A. in history in 1941, there, he was elected to the Phi Beta Kappa Society. He was elected to the Pi Gamma Mu international honor society in 1941, Coleman was also a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity. Colman was accepted to the Harvard Law School but left in 1943 to enlist in the Army Air Corps, instead, Coleman spent the war defending the accused in court-martials. After the war, Coleman returned to Harvard Law, where he became the first black staff member accepted to the Harvard Law Review, and graduated first in his class and magna cum laude in 1946. He began his career in 1947, serving as law clerk to Judge Herbert F. Goodrich of the U. S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit. He was the first African American to serve as a Supreme Court law clerk, fellow clerks, including Elliot Richardson, would have difficulty finding restaurant where they could eat together. Coleman was hired by the New York law firm of Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, board of Education, in which the U. S. Supreme Court held racial segregation in public schools to be unconstitutional. He served as a member of the NAACPs national legal committee, director and member of its executive committee, Coleman was also a member of President Dwight D. Eisenhowers Committee on Government Employment Policy and a consultant to the U. S. The Commission sent Coleman as an investigator and he met with Castro on a boat off the coast of Cuba. Castro denied any involvement in the assassination of President Kennedy during Colemans three-hour questioning, Coleman reported the results of his investigation and interview with Castro directly to Commission Chairman Earl Warren, the Chief Justice of the United States. Coleman was co-counsel to the petitioners in McLaughlin v. Florida, in 1969, he was a member of the U. S. delegation to the twenty-fourth session of the United Nations General Assembly. Coleman was also a member of the National Commission on Productivity, Coleman served in the boardrooms of PepsiCo, IBM, Chase Manhattan Bank, and Pan American World Airways
William T. Coleman, Jr.
–
William Coleman
William T. Coleman, Jr.
–
Coleman being sworn in at the
Court of Military Commission Review. He is the third individual from the left.
William T. Coleman, Jr.
–
Secretary of State
34.
Arlen Specter
–
Arlen Specter was an American lawyer and politician who served as United States Senator from Pennsylvania. Specter was a Democrat from 1951 to 1965, then a Republican from 1965 until 2009, first elected in 1980, he represented his state in the Senate for 30 years. Specter was born in Wichita, Kansas, to emigrant Russian Jewish parents and he graduated from the University of Pennsylvania and served with the United States Air Force during the Korean War. Specter later graduated from Yale Law School and opened a law firm with Marvin Katz, Specter served as assistant counsel for the Warren Commission investigating the assassination of John F. Kennedy and helped devise the single-bullet theory. In 1965, Specter was elected District Attorney of Philadelphia, a position that he would hold until 1973, during his 30-year senate career, Specter staked out a spot in the political center. In 2006, he was selected by Time as one of Americas Ten Best Senators, Specter lost his reelection bid in 2010 to Joe Sestak in the primary election, who then lost to Pat Toomey in the general election. Toomey succeeded Specter on January 3,2011, diagnosed with Hodgkins lymphoma in early 2005, he continued his work in the Senate while undergoing chemotherapy. He later died of complications of lymphoma on October 14,2012. Specter was born in Wichita, Kansas, the youngest child of Lillie and Harry Specter, Specter was Jewish, and wrote in his memoir, Passion for Truth, that his fathers family was the only Jewish family in the village. The family lived at 940 South Emporia Street in Wichita before moving to Russell, Kansas, Russell is also the hometown of fellow politician Bob Dole. Specter said that his father weighed items from his junkyard on a scale owned by Doles father Doran Dole and he said his brother Morton and Doles brother Kenny were contemporaries and friends. Specters father served in the U. S. infantry during World War I, during the Great Depression, Specters father was a fruit peddler, a tailor, and a junkyard owner. After graduating from Russell High School, Arlen Specter studied first at the University of Oklahoma and he transferred to the University of Pennsylvania, majored in international relations, and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1951. While at Penn, Specter was a member of the Pi Lambda Phi fraternity, Specter said the family moved to Philadelphia when his sister Shirley was of a marriageable age because there were no other Jews in Russell. In 1953, he married Joan Levy, in 1979, she was elected to one of the two allotted minority party at-large seats on the Philadelphia City Council. She held the seat for four terms, until she was defeated for re-election in 1995 by Frank Rizzo, Specter graduated from Yale Law School in 1956, while serving as editor of the Yale Law Journal. Afterward, Specter opened a law practice, Specter & Katz, with Marvin Katz, Specter became an assistant district attorney under District Attorney James C. Crumlish, Jr. and was a member of the Democratic Party, in 1965, Specter ran for Philadelphia district attorney against his former boss, incumbent James C
Arlen Specter
–
Arlen Specter
Arlen Specter
–
Specter reproducing the assumed alignment of the single bullet theory
Arlen Specter
–
Specter while he was being interviewed by
Margot Adler for an episode of
Justice Talking on "Presidential signing statements."
Arlen Specter
–
Specter campaigning for re-election
35.
United States Department of Justice
–
The department was formed in 1870 during the Ulysses S. Grant administration. In its early years, the DOJ vigorously prosecuted Ku Klux Klan members, the Department of Justice administers several federal law enforcement agencies including the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Drug Enforcement Administration. The department has responsibility to investigate instances of fraud, to represent the United States in legal matters such as in the Supreme Court. The department also has responsibilities to review actions of law enforcement conduct by the Violent Crime Control. The Department is headed by the United States Attorney General, who is nominated by the President, the current Attorney General is Jeff Sessions. The U. S. Attorney General was initially a one-person and it was established by the Judiciary Act of 1789, but this grew with the bureaucracy. At one time the Attorney General gave legal advice to the U. S. Congress as well as the President, until March 3,1853, the salary of the Attorney General was set by statute at less than the amount paid to other Cabinet members. Early Attorneys General supplemented their salary by engaging in private practice of law. Following unsuccessful efforts to put the Attorney Generals Office on a footing, in 1869. On February 19,1868, Lawrence introduced a bill in Congress to create the Department of Justice, President Ulysses S. Grant then signed the bill into law on June 22,1870. The Department of Justice officially began operations on July 1,1870, just prior to the Civil War, in February 1861, the Confederate States of America established a Department of Justice. Grant appointed Amos T. Akerman as Attorney General and Benjamin H. Bristow as Americas first Solicitor General, both Akerman and Bristow used the Department of Justice to vigorously prosecute Ku Klux Klan members in the early 1870s. In the first few years of Grants first term in there were 1000 indictments against Klan members with over 550 convictions from the Department of Justice. The result was a decrease in violence in the South. Akerman gave credit to Grant and told a friend that no one was better or stronger then Grant when it came to prosecuting terrorists. Akermans successor, George H. Williams, in December 1871, the law did create a new office, that of Solicitor General, to supervise and conduct government litigation in the Supreme Court of the United States. In 1884, control of federal prisons was transferred to the new department, new facilities were built, including the penitentiary at Leavenworth in 1895, and a facility for women located in West Virginia, at Alderson was established in 1924. The U. S. Department of Justice building was completed in 1935 from a design by Milton Bennett Medary, upon Medarys death in 1929, the other partners of his Philadelphia firm Zantzinger, Borie and Medary took over the project
United States Department of Justice
–
The
Robert F. Kennedy Building in August 2006. The building serves as the headquarters of the U.S. Department of Justice.
United States Department of Justice
–
Seal of the United States Department of Justice
36.
Allen Dulles
–
Allen Welsh Dulles was an American diplomat and lawyer who became the first civilian Director of Central Intelligence and its longest-serving director to date. As head of the Central Intelligence Agency during the early Cold War, he oversaw the 1954 Guatemalan coup détat, Operation Ajax, the Lockheed U-2 aircraft program, following the assassination of John F. Kennedy, Dulles was one of the members of the Warren Commission. Between his stints of government service, Dulles was a lawyer and partner at Sullivan & Cromwell. His older brother, John Foster Dulles, was the Secretary of State during the Eisenhower Administration, Dulles was born on April 7,1893, in Watertown, New York, one of five children of Presbyterian minister Allen Macy Dulles, and his wife, Edith F. His maternal grandfather was John W. Foster, who was Secretary of State under Benjamin Harrison, while his uncle by marriage, Robert Lansing served as Secretary of State under Woodrow Wilson. Dulles was uncle to Avery Dulles, a Jesuit priest, theologian, and cardinal of the Catholic Church, Dulles graduated from Princeton University, where he participated in the American Whig–Cliosophic Society, and entered the diplomatic service in 1916. In 1920, he married Clover Todd, according to his sister, Eleanor, Dulles had at least a hundred extramarital affairs, including some during his tenure with the CIA. In 1921, while at the US Embassy in Istanbul, he had involvement in exposing the infamous Protocols of the Elders of Zion as a forgery. Dulles unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the US State Department to publicly denounce the forgery, initially assigned to Vienna, he was transferred to Bern, Switzerland along with the rest of the embassy personnel shortly before the U. S. entered the First World War. Later in life Dulles claimed to have been telephoned by the then obscure Vladimir Lenin, after recovering from the 1918 flu pandemic he was assigned to the American delegation at the Paris Peace Conference, along with his older brother Foster. From 1922-6, he served five years as chief of the Near East division of the Department of State. In 1926, he earned a law degree from George Washington University Law School and took a job at Sullivan and Cromwell and he became a director of the Council on Foreign Relations in 1927, the first new director since the Councils founding in 1921. He was the Councils secretary from 1933 to 1944, during the late 1920s and early 1930s, he served as legal adviser to the delegations on arms limitation at the League of Nations. There he had the opportunity to meet with Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Maxim Litvinov, as a result of Dulles efforts, the Berlin office was closed and the firm ceased to conduct business in Nazi Germany. S. Dulles collaborated with Hamilton Fish Armstrong, the editor of Foreign Affairs magazine and they concluded that diplomatic, military, and economic isolation, in a traditional sense, were no longer possible in an increasingly interdependent international system. Dulles helped a number of German Jews, such as the banker Paul Kemper and he was assisted in intelligence-gathering activities by Gero von Schulze-Gaevernitz, a German emigrant. Dulles also received information from Fritz Kolbe, a German diplomat. Kolbe supplied secret documents regarding active German spies and plans regarding the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter, Dulles was involved in Operation Sunrise, secret negotiations in March 1945 to arrange a local surrender of German forces in northern Italy
Allen Dulles
–
Allen Dulles
Allen Dulles
–
CIA ID Card of Allen Dulles
Allen Dulles
–
Kennedy presents the National Security Medal to Dulles, November 28, 1961
37.
Associated Press
–
The Associated Press is an American multinational nonprofit news agency headquartered in New York City that operates as a cooperative, unincorporated association. The AP is owned by its contributing newspapers and radio and television stations in the United States, all of which stories to the AP. Most of the AP staff are members and are represented by the Newspaper Guild, which operates under the Communications Workers of America. As of 2007, news collected by the AP was published and republished by more than 1,700 newspapers, in addition to more than 5,000 television, the photograph library of the AP consists of over 10 million images. The AP operates 243 news bureaus in 120 countries and it also operates the AP Radio Network, which provides newscasts twice hourly for broadcast and satellite radio and television stations. Many newspapers and broadcasters outside the United States are AP subscribers, as part of their cooperative agreement with the AP, most member news organizations grant automatic permission for the AP to distribute their local news reports. The AP employs the inverted pyramid formula for writing that enables the news outlets to edit a story to fit its available publication area without losing the storys essentials. Cutbacks at rival United Press International in 1993 left the AP as the United States primary news service, although UPI still produces and distributes stories and photos daily. Other English-language news services, such as the BBC, Reuters, some historians believe that the Tribune joined at this time, documents show it was a member in 1849. The New York Times became a member shortly after its founding in September 1851, initially known as the New York Associated Press, the organization faced competition from the Western Associated Press, which criticized its monopolistic news gathering and price setting practices. The revelations led to the demise of the NYAP and in December 1892, when the AP was founded, news became a salable commodity. The invention of the press allowed the New York Tribune in the 1870s to print 18,000 papers per hour. During the Civil War and Spanish–American War, there was a new incentive to print vivid, Melville Stone, who had founded the Chicago Daily News in 1875, served as AP General Manager from 1893 to 1921. He embraced the standards of accuracy, impartiality, and integrity, the cooperative grew rapidly under the leadership of Kent Cooper, who built up bureau staff in South America, Europe and, the Middle East. He introduced the telegraph typewriter or teletypewriter into newsrooms in 1914, in 1935, AP launched the Wirephoto network, which allowed transmission of news photographs over leased private telephone lines on the day they were taken. This gave AP a major advantage over other media outlets. While the first network was only between New York, Chicago, and San Francisco, eventually AP had its network across the whole United States, in 1945, the Supreme Court of the United States held in Associated Press v. The decision facilitated the growth of its main rival United Press International, AP entered the broadcast field in 1941 when it began distributing news to radio stations, it created its own radio network in 1974
Associated Press
–
The AP headquarters in October 2008, located at
450 West 33rd Street, in
New York City.
Associated Press
–
Associated Press
Associated Press
–
Logo on the former AP Building in New York City
Associated Press
–
The APTN Building in London
38.
United States Secret Service
–
The United States Secret Service is a federal law enforcement agency under the U. S. Department of Homeland Security. Until 2003, the Service was part of the U. S. Department of the Treasury, the Secret Services initial responsibility was to investigate counterfeiting of U. S. currency, which was rampant following the U. S. Civil War. The agency then evolved into the United States first domestic intelligence and counterintelligence agency, the Secret Service has two primary missions, investigation of financial crimes and physical protection of designated protectees. After the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley, Congress also directed the Secret Service to protect the President of the United States, Protection remains the other key mission of the United States Secret Service. From 1997 until 2013, legislation became effective limiting Secret Service protection to former Presidents, President Barack Obama signed legislation reversing this limit and reinstating lifetime protection on January 10,2013. The Secret Service investigates thousands of incidents a year of individuals threatening the President of the United States, the Director of Secret Service is appointed by the President of the United States. With a reported one third of the currency in circulation being counterfeit at the time, Chief William P. Wood was sworn in by Secretary of the Treasury Hugh McCulloch. It was commissioned in Washington, D. C. as the Secret Service Division of the Department of the Treasury with the mission of suppressing counterfeiting, the legislation creating the agency was on Abraham Lincolns desk the night he was assassinated. At the time, the other federal law enforcement agencies were the United States Park Police. Post Office Departments Office of Instructions and Mail Depredations, and the U. S. Marshals Service, the Marshals did not have the manpower to investigate all crime under federal jurisdiction, so the Secret Service began to investigate everything from murder to bank robbery to illegal gambling. After the assassination of President William McKinley in 1901, Congress informally requested that the Secret Service provide presidential protection, a year later, the Secret Service assumed full-time responsibility for presidential protection. In 1902, William Craig became the first Secret Service agent to die while serving, the Secret Service was the first U. S. domestic intelligence and counterintelligence agency. Domestic intelligence collection and counterintelligence responsibilities were vested in the Federal Bureau of Investigation upon the FBIs creation in 1908, the Secret Service assisted in arresting Japanese American leaders and in the Japanese American internment during World War II. Secret Service is not a part of the U. S, on October 16, the day of the summit, Burnham discovered a man holding a concealed palm pistol standing at the El Paso Chamber of Commerce building along the procession route. Burnham signaled a Texas Ranger, Private C. R. Moore, in 1950, President Harry S. Truman was residing in Blair House while the White House, across the street, was undergoing renovations. On November 1,1950, two Puerto Rican nationalists, Oscar Collazo and Griselio Torresola, approached Blair House with the intent to assassinate President Truman, Collazo and Torresola opened fire on Private Leslie Coffelt and other White House Police officers. Though mortally wounded by three shots from a 9 mm German Luger to his chest and abdomen, Private Coffelt returned fire, as of 2017, Coffelt is the only member of the Secret Service killed while protecting a US president against an assassination attempt. Collazo was also shot, but survived his injuries and served 29 years in prison before returning to Puerto Rico in late 1979, in 1968, as a result of Robert F. Kennedys assassination, Congress authorized protection of major presidential and vice presidential candidates and nominees
United States Secret Service
–
Secret Service Special Agents and Special Officers (foreground) protecting the
President of the United States,
George W. Bush in 2007.
United States Secret Service
–
Logo of the U.S. Secret Service
United States Secret Service
–
Secret Service agents providing security for
Pope Benedict XVI in Washington, D.C.
United States Secret Service
–
Secret Service agents in response to the assassination attempt of
Ronald Reagan by
John Hinckley, Jr. on March 30, 1981
39.
National Archives
–
National archives are the archives of a nation-state. The concept evolved in various nations at the dawn of modernity based on the impact of nationalism upon bureaucratic processes of paperwork retention. From the Middle Ages into the Early Modern period archives generated by royal and clerical institutions retained proofs of political and genealogical claims as a bastion of authenticity. The emerging Enlightenment concept of studying history as a rather than as literature was influenced by Leopold von Ranke. In the late 18th Century, the storage of old records was divided, business records in the archives courantes went the way of records management while documents of cultural import in the archives historiques formed the core of Western-conceived archives. As the popularity of archives increased as a function of substantiating historical narratives, for example, the National Historical Archive of Spain as created excluded contemporary records in favor of documenting defunct institutions as a matter of national heritage. Historian Nicholas Dirks has said that national archives are the site of state monumentality. The 19th Century centralization of archives, precursor to the 20th Centurys nationalism, has been opposed by some, historian Craig Robertson posits that archives do not neutrally store documents, rather, objects captured through archival practices are transformed into knowledge. The concept of the archivist as a custodian of records originated in the late 19th Century and was championed by no less than Hilary Jenkinson and this contrasted with the prior practice of archives serving to embellish the histories of politicians and other wealthy patrons. The retention of records in a national archive would then become a universal bureaucratic norm rather than the retention of a few records for a predetermined purpose. Jenkinson also specified that rather than holding source documents piecemeal, that the integrity of an organic archive group must be maintained, political impact on the administration of archives has been common in both dictatorships and democracies. Anecdotes from former Soviet Republics such as Uzbekistan evince this mentality of politicization of national archives, the National Archives of France was created informally on July 29,1789 by the Revolutionaries to document the prior ancien régime. The crowns Treasury of Charters as well as records from the clergy were collected for historical value as those parties were deemed irrelevant to French society. Thus the National Archives served to house practical documents from the First Republic onwards while the National Library of France became the center of historical study, the changing view of the 19th Century began merging the two concepts of the historically important records and the bureaucratic transactional records. Archivists trained at the French National School of Paleography and Archival Studies were charged with maintaining records as a factor of accountability to the public, is a fit inmate for a National Archive Establishment. He characterized the combination like a melange of the Manuscripts Commission and the Public Record Office, the National Archives were formed in 2003, as a merger of the much older Public Record Office and the Historical Manuscripts Commission. The records of England originate in the Chancery Archives and the tax accounting records of the Pipe rolls, the Memoranda Rolls of the Exchequer, without the funding to archive this mass of records, many were destroyed in the early 19th Century. The English Public Record Office Act 1877 specified the date of 1715
National Archives
–
"Although the most basic and essential task of a national archives is to serve the interests of the government itself, and to preserve and make available evidence protecting the rights of citizens, it has other responsibilities of far-reaching importance. Foremost among these is its role as a source of enlightenment an improvement for all segments of society."
National Archives
–
Since its creation, the Archives Nationales has been purposed to making records available to the people.
National Archives
–
Bernardino Rivadavia said the "conservation of the archives of a country assures without doubt for history the most accurate materials and documents relating to it."
40.
Freedom of Information Act (United States)
–
The Freedom of Information Act,5 U. S. C. §552, is a freedom of information law that allows for the full or partial disclosure of previously unreleased information. The Act defines agency records subject to disclosure, outlines mandatory disclosure procedures and this amendment was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, despite his misgivings, on July 4,1966, as indicated by its long title, FOIA was actually extracted from its original home in Section 3 of the Administrative Procedure Act. Section 3 of the APA, as enacted in 1946, gave agencies broad discretion concerning the publication of governmental records, the amendment required agencies to publish their rules of procedure in the Federal Register,5 U. S. C. In addition, §522 requires every agency, upon any request for records which, reasonably describes such records to make such records promptly available to any person. If an agency improperly withholds any documents, the court has jurisdiction to order their production. The Federal Governments Freedom of Information Act should not be confused with the different, many of those state acts may be similar but not identical to the federal act. This push built on existing principles and protocols of government administration already in place, others, though—most notably President Lyndon B. Johnson—believed that certain types of unclassified government information should remain secret. The Privacy Act of 1974 was passed as a measure to ensure the security of government documents increasingly kept on private citizens. The act explicitly applies only to executive branch government agencies and these agencies are under several mandates to comply with public solicitation of information. In this way, there is recourse for one seeking information to go to a court if suspicion of illegal tampering or delayed sending of records exists. The nine current exemptions to the FOIA address issues of sensitivity, the law came about because of the determination of Congressman John E. Moss of California. Moss was the chairman of the Government Information Subcommittee and it took Moss 12 years to get the Freedom of Information Act through Congress successfully. Much of the desire for government transparency stemmed from the Department of Defense and they determined that the misuse of government classification of documents was causing insiders to leak documents that were marked confidential. The committee also determined that the lowest rung of the confidentiality ladder confidential should be removed and they deemed that secret and top secret covered National security adequately. The Moss Committee took it upon itself to reform confidentiality policy and implement punishments for the overuse of classification by officials, the FOIA has been changed repeatedly by both the legislative and executive branches
Freedom of Information Act (United States)
–
Freedom of Information Act requests have led to the release of information such as this letter by J. Edgar Hoover about surveillance of ex-Beatle
John Lennon. A 25-year battle by historian
Jon Wiener based on FOIA, with the assistance of lawyers from the
ACLU, eventually resulted in the release of documents like this one.
Freedom of Information Act (United States)
–
Freedom of Information Act
41.
Assassination Records Review Board
–
The President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection Act of 1992, or the JFK Records Act, is a public law passed by the United States Congress, effective October 26,1992. It directed the National Archives and Records Administration to establish a collection of records to be known as the President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection. The final report of the Acts Assassination Records Review Board partially credited the conclusions in Oliver Stones 1991 film JFK with the passage of the Act. The definition of assassination record was left broad by the Act and determined in practice by the ARRB, Kennedy and investigations of or inquiries into the assassination. This was supplemented with coverage of all government records relating to investigations of the assassination, the ARRB determined that agencies could not object to disclosure solely on grounds of non-relevance, stating that the ARRB is responsible for making decisions that determine relevance. The Board met for four years, from October 1,1994 to September 30,1998, when the Act was passed in 1992,98 percent of all Warren Commission documents had been released to the public. By the time the Board disbanded, all Warren Commission documents, except income tax returns, had released to the public. The ARRB collected evidence starting in 1992, then produced its report in 1998. The ARRB was not enacted to determine why or by whom the murder was committed but to collect, after the enactment of the federal law that created the ARRB, the Board collected a large amount of documents and took testimony of those who had relevant information of the events. The Committee finished its work in 1998 and in its final report, some of the information was gathered by way of testimony from witnesses that had eyewitness knowledge of the events. For example, the Board interviewed the physicians who treated the presidents massive head wound at Parkland Hospital in Dallas and this was a highly trained team of emergency care physicians, some of whom testified in secret before the Warren Commission. These transcripts have now also made public. Other information consists of a number of documents from the FBI. By ARRB law, all existing assassination-related documents will be public by October 2017. At the moment,40,000 documents are not fully available to the public. In 2013, the ARRBs former chairman John R, subsequent work by researchers, using other records that were released by the board, demonstrates that these records should be made public. Tunheim said in a interview that It really was an example of treachery. If fooled us on that, they may have fooled us on other things, President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection
Assassination Records Review Board
–
President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection Act of 1992
42.
Sanitization (classified information)
–
Sanitization is the process of removing sensitive information from a document or other message, so that the document may be distributed to a broader audience. When the intent is secrecy protection, such as in dealing with classified information, sanitization attempts to reduce the classification level. When the intent is privacy protection, it is often called data anonymization, originally, the term sanitization was applied to printed documents, it has since been extended to apply to computer media and the problem of data remanence as well. Redaction in its sense is the blacking out or deletion of text in a document. It is intended to allow the selective disclosure of information in a document while keeping other parts of the document secret, typically the result is a document that is suitable for publication or for dissemination to others than the intended audience of the original document. For example, when a document is subpoenaed in a court case, alternatively opaque cover up tape or redaction tape, opaque, removable adhesive tape in various widths, may be applied before photocopying. This is a process with only minor security risks. The exact length of the text also remains recognizable, which may help in guessing plausible wordings for shorter redacted sections. Where computer-generated proportional fonts were used, even more information can leak out of the section in the form of the exact position of nearby visible characters. Secure redacting is a far more complicated problem with computer files, Word processing formats may save a revision history of the edited text that still contains the redacted text. In some file formats, unused portions of memory are saved that may contain fragments of previous versions of the text. Effective redaction of electronic documents requires the removal of all relevant text or image data from the document file, redaction usually requires a marking of the redacted area with the reason that the content is being restricted. US government documents being released under the Freedom of Information Act are marked with exemption codes that denote the reason why the content has been withheld, the US National Security Agency published a guidance document which provides instructions for redacting PDF files. Printed documents which contain classified or sensitive information frequently contain a great deal of information which is less sensitive, there may be a need to release the less sensitive portions to uncleared personnel. The printed document will consequently be sanitized to obscure or remove the sensitive information, maps have also been redacted for the same reason, with highly sensitive areas covered with a slip of white paper. In some cases, sanitizing a classified document removes enough information to reduce the classification from a level to a lower one. In other cases, like the NSA report on the USS Liberty incident, computer documents are more difficult to sanitize. In many cases, when information in a system is modified or erased
Sanitization (classified information)
–
A
US government document that has been redacted prior to release.
Sanitization (classified information)
–
A heavily
redacted page from a lawsuit filed by the ACLU —
American Civil Liberties Union v. Ashcroft
Sanitization (classified information)
43.
John A. McCone
–
John Alexander McCone was an American businessman and politician who served as Director of Central Intelligence from 1961 to 1965, during the height of the Cold War. John A. McCone was born in San Francisco, California on January 4,1902 and his father ran iron foundries across California, a business started in Nevada in 1860 by McCones grandfather. He graduated from the University of California, Berkeley in 1922 with a B. S. in Mechanical Engineering, beginning his career in Los Angeles Llewellyn Iron Works. He rose swiftly and in 1929, when several works merged to become the Consolidated Steel Corporation and he also worked for the ITT corporation. McCones political affiliation was with the Republican Party, in 1958, he became chairman of the U. S. Hersh writes that President John F, after the disaster of the Bay of Pigs Invasion, president John F. Kennedy forced the resignation of CIA director Allen Dulles and some of his staff. McCone replaced Dulles as DCI on November 29,1961 and he married Mrs. Theiline McGee Pigott on August 29,1962 at St. Annes Chapel of the Sacred Heart Villa in Seattle, Washington. Hamilton accepted, but when a problem developed at the Agency for International Development, thus Kennedy, urged on by his brother Robert, turned to McCone. He was a key figure in the Executive Committee of the National Security Council during the October 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. The telegram was so named because McCone sent it while on his honeymoon in Paris, France, accompanied not only by his bride, Theiline McGee Pigott but by a CIA cipher team. While McCone was DCI, the CIA was involved in many covert plots, including ones involving Laos, Ecuador, Brazil and he apparently disapproved of Operation Mongoose, the plot to assassinate Fidel Castro. He would later tell DCI Stansfield Turner that the CIA actions in Chile were the work of Richard Helms, McCone would later work for ITT. McCone represented the CIAs opposition to U. S, in 1964 he was awarded the Hoover Medal. McCone resigned from his position of DCI in April 1965, believing himself to be unappreciated by President Lyndon B, johnson, who, he complained, would not read his reports, including on the need for full-fledged inspections of Israeli nuclear facilities. I therefore urge that as we deploy additional troops, which I believe necessary, we hit the north harder. In my opinion, we should strike their petroleum supplies, electric power installations, I am not talking about bombing centers of population or killing innocent people, though there will of course be some casualties. I am proposing to tighten the tourniquet on North Vietnam so as to make the Communists pause to weigh the losses they are taking against their prospects for gains. We should make it hard for the Viet Cong to win in the south, I believe this course of action holds out the greatest promise we can hope for in our effort to attain our ultimate objective of finding a political solution to the Vietnam problem
John A. McCone
–
John Alexander McCone
44.
Fidel Castro
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Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz was a Cuban revolutionary and politician who governed the Republic of Cuba as Prime Minister from 1959 to 1976 and then as President from 1976 to 2008. Politically a Marxist–Leninist and Cuban nationalist, he served as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba from 1961 until 2011. Under his administration, Cuba became a one-party socialist state, industry and business were nationalized, born in Birán, Oriente as the son of a wealthy Spanish farmer, Castro adopted leftist anti-imperialist politics while studying law at the University of Havana. After a years imprisonment, he traveled to Mexico where he formed a revolutionary group, returning to Cuba, Castro took a key role in the Cuban Revolution by leading the Movement in a guerrilla war against Batistas forces from the Sierra Maestra. After Batistas overthrow in 1959, Castro assumed military and political power as Cubas Prime Minister, adopting a Marxist–Leninist model of development, Castro converted Cuba into a one-party, socialist state under Communist Party rule, the first in the Western Hemisphere. Policies introducing central economic planning and expanding healthcare and education were accompanied by control of the press. These actions, coupled with Castros leadership of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1979 to 1983 and Cubas medical internationalism, following the Soviet Unions dissolution in 1991, Castro led Cuba into its Special Period and embraced environmentalist and anti-globalization ideas. In the 2000s he forged alliances in the Latin American pink tide—namely with Hugo Chávezs Venezuela—and signed Cuba up to the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas, in 2006 he transferred his responsibilities to Vice-President Raúl Castro, who was elected to the presidency by the National Assembly in 2008. Castro is a world figure. His supporters view him as a champion of socialism and anti-imperialism whose revolutionary regime advanced economic, critics view him as a dictator whose administration oversaw human-rights abuses, the exodus of a large number of Cubans, and the impoverishment of the countrys economy. He was decorated with various awards and significantly influenced various individuals. In 1960 Castro was bestowed with the Grand Slam Silver Trophy in the prestigious Ernest Hemingway International Billfishing Tournament after he caught a sailfish, Castro was born out of wedlock at his fathers farm on August 13,1926. His father, Ángel Castro y Argiz, was a migrant to Cuba from Galicia, aged six, Castro was sent to live with his teacher in Santiago de Cuba, before being baptized into the Roman Catholic Church at the age of eight. Being baptized enabled Castro to attend the La Salle boarding school in Santiago, in 1945 he transferred to the more prestigious Jesuit-run El Colegio de Belén in Havana. Although Castro took an interest in history, geography and debating at Belén, he did not excel academically, in 1945, Castro began studying law at the University of Havana. Admitting he was illiterate, he became embroiled in student activism. In 1947, Castro joined the Party of the Cuban People, a charismatic figure, Chibás advocated social justice, honest government, and political freedom, while his party exposed corruption and demanded reform. Though Chibás came third in the 1948 general election, Castro remained committed to working on his behalf, in later years anti-Castro dissidents accused him of committing gang-related assassinations at the time, but these remain unproven
Fidel Castro
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Castro on a visit to Washington D.C. in 1959
Fidel Castro
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Castro intended to overthrow the presidency of General
Fulgencio Batista (left, with
U.S. Army Chief of staff Malin Craig, in 1938).
Fidel Castro
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Fidel Castro under arrest after the Moncada attack
Fidel Castro
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Fidel's brother Raúl (left) and friend Guevara (right).
45.
Single-bullet theory
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According to the single-bullet theory, a three-centimeter -long copper-jacketed lead-core 6. If so, this bullet traversed 15 layers of clothing,7 layers of skin, and approximately 15 inches of tissue, struck a necktie knot, removed 4 inches of rib, and shattered a radius bone. The bullet was found on a gurney in the corridor at the Parkland Memorial Hospital, in Dallas, the Warren Commission found that this gurney was the one that had borne Governor Connally. This bullet became a key Commission exhibit, identified as CE399 and its copper jacket was completely intact. While the bullets nose appeared normal, the tail was compressed laterally on one side, in its conclusion, the Warren Commission found persuasive evidence from the experts that a single bullet caused the Presidents neck wound and all the wounds in Governor Connally. Most pro- and anti-conspiracy theorists believe that the theory is essential to the Warren Commissions conclusion that Oswald acted alone. The single-bullet theory has been contentious, the first preliminary report on the assassination, issued by the FBI on December 9,1963, said, “Three shots rang out. Two bullets struck President Kennedy, and one wounded Governor Connally. ”After the report was written, the FBI concluded, therefore, that the governor had been struck by a separate bullet. The Warren Commission commenced study of the Zapruder film, the only film to capture the entire assassination sequence. In their initial viewing of the film, Connally seemed to be reacting to being struck between frames 235 and 240, several assistant counsels, upon viewing the film for the first time, concluded there had to be two assassins. On April 14 and 21, two conferences were held at the Commission to determine when, exactly, the president and governor were struck. Therefore, if Governor Connally was in the path of the bullet it would have struck him, strong indications for that this occurred are provided by the facts that. If the first bullet did not strike Governor Connally, it should have ripped up the car but it apparently did not. ”However, the stated, given the relatively undamaged condition of the bullet presumed to have done this, CE399. On May 24, the FBI and Secret Service reenacted the shooting in Dallas, agents acting as the president and the governor sat in a car of approximately the same dimensions of the presidential limousine, which was unavailable for the re-creation. Adjustments to measurements were made to account for the differences in the vehicles, positions were recreated by matching them to particular frames of the Zapruder film, calibrated with other films and photographs taken that day. With the agents in position, photographs were taken from the sniper’s nest of the Texas School Book Depository. An oak tree partially obscured the line of sight until frame 210, so the Commission concluded that “the President was not hit until at least frame 210 and that he was probably hit by frame 225. ”Other evidence, such as the nature of Connally’s back wound was also cited by the Commission as corroborating the theory. Russell requested that his opposition to the theory be stated in a footnote in the report. ”Smith’s communication with the Dallas UPI office was less than a minute after the shots were heard
Single-bullet theory
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CE399 side view
Single-bullet theory
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CE399 base view
Single-bullet theory
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Diagram of bullet's path from
HSCA report
Single-bullet theory
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Drawing depicting the back wound of President Kennedy. Made from an autopsy photograph.
46.
Robert Kennedy
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Robert Francis Bobby Kennedy, commonly known by his initials RFK, was an American politician from Massachusetts. He served as the United States junior senator from New York from January 1965 until his assassination in June 1968. He was previously the 64th U. S. Attorney General from January 1961 to September 1964, serving under his older brother President John F. Kennedy and his successor, Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and is seen as an icon of modern American liberalism. After serving in the United States Naval Reserve as a Seaman Apprentice from 1944 to 1946, Kennedy graduated from Harvard University, prior to entering public office, he worked as a correspondent for The Boston Post and as an assistant counsel to the Senate committee chaired by Joe McCarthy. Kennedy was the manager for his brother John in the 1960 presidential election. He was appointed Attorney General after the election and served as the closest adviser to the president from 1961 to 1963. His tenure is best known for its advocacy for the Civil Rights Movement, the fight against organized crime and the Mafia, after his brothers assassination, he remained in office in the Johnson administration for a few months. He left to run for the United States Senate in New York in 1964, in 1968, Kennedy was a leading candidate for the Democratic nomination for the presidency, he appealed especially to poor, African-American, Hispanic, Catholic and young voters. Robert F. Kennedy was born on November 20,1925, in Brookline, Massachusetts and his older brothers were Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. and John F. Jack Kennedy, who was elected the 35th President of the United States in 1960. His younger brother was longtime United States Senator Edward M. Ted Kennedy, all four of his grandparents were children of Irish immigrants. His father was a businessman and a leading Irish Catholic figure in the Democratic Party. After he stepped down as ambassador to the United Kingdom in 1940, Joe Sr. focused his attention on his oldest son, Joseph Jr. expecting that he would enter politics and be elected president. He also urged the children to examine and discuss current events in order to propel them to public service. After Joseph Jr. was killed during World War II, the senior Kennedys hopes fell on his son, John. Joseph Sr. had the money and connections to play a role in the familys political ambitions. Kennedys older brother John was often bedridden by illness and, as a result, although he made little effort to get to know his younger brother during his childhood, John would take him for walks and regale him with the stories of heroes and adventures he had read. One of their favorite authors was John Buchan, who wrote The Thirty-Nine Steps, John sometimes referred to Robert as Black Robert due to his prudishness and disposition. He described his position in the hierarchy by saying, When you come from that far down
Robert Kennedy
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Kennedy appearing before the Platform Committee, 1964
Robert Kennedy
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The Kennedy family at
Hyannisport in 1931 with Robert on bottom left in jacket. Ted was born the following year.
Robert Kennedy
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Robert,
Ted, and
President John F. Kennedy outside the
Oval Office in 1963.
Robert Kennedy
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Kennedy speaking to a civil rights crowd in front of the
Justice Department on June 14, 1963.
47.
Ramsey Clark
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William Ramsey Clark is an American lawyer, activist and former federal government official. A progressive, New Frontier liberal, he occupied senior positions in the United States Department of Justice under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson, notably serving as United States Attorney General from 1967 to 1969, previously he was Deputy Attorney General from 1965 to 1967 and Assistant Attorney General from 1961 to 1965. As Attorney General he was known for his vigorous opposition to the penalty, his aggressive support of civil liberties and civil rights. Clark supervised the drafting of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, Clark was born in Dallas, Texas on December 18,1927. His father, prominent jurist Tom C, Clark, was also a United States Attorney General and later became a Supreme Court Justice. His mother, Mary Jane, was the daughter of a prominent Texas judge and lawyer, while at the University of Texas, he was a member of the Delta Tau Delta International Fraternity. He was admitted to the Texas bar in 1950, and was admitted to practice before the Supreme Court of the United States in 1956, from 1951 to 1961, Clark practiced law as an associate and partner in the law firm of Clark, Reed and Clark. In 1967, President Lyndon B. Johnson nominated him to be Attorney General of the United States and he was confirmed by the Senate and took the oath of office on March 2. But there also was speculation that one of the reasons that contributed to Johnson making the appointment was the expectation that Clarks father, Clark, would resign from the Supreme Court to avoid a conflict of interest. Johnson wanted a vacancy to be created on the Court so he could appoint Thurgood Marshall, the elder Clark resigned from the Supreme Court on June 12,1967, creating the vacancy Johnson apparently desired. Clark served in the Attorney General until Johnsons term as President ended on January 20,1969, Clark played an important role in the history of the Civil Rights Movement. Supervised the drafting and executive role in passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and Civil Rights Act of 1968. As Attorney General during part of the Vietnam War, Clark oversaw the prosecution of the Boston Five for “conspiracy to aid and abet draft resistance. ”Four of the five were convicted, including pediatrician Dr. Benjamin Spock and Yale chaplain William Sloane Coffin Jr. In addition to his government work, during this period Clark was also director of the American Judicature Society, following his term as Attorney General Clark worked as a law professor and was active in the anti-Vietnam War movement. He visited North Vietnam in 1972 as a protest against the bombing of Hanoi and he was also associated with the New York law firm Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison before resigning to run for political office. In 1974, Clark was nominated in the Democratic primary for U. S, senator from New York defeating the partys designee Lee Alexander, but losing the election to the incumbent Jacob K. Javits. In 1976, Clark again sought the Democratic nomination for the U. S. Senate, more recently, Clark has been praised by progressives and criticized by conservatives in equal measure for his left-wing political views and publications
Ramsey Clark
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Ramsey Clark at the White House in February 1968.
Ramsey Clark
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Attorney General Clark & President
Lyndon B. Johnson in 1967.
Ramsey Clark
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Ramsey Clark visiting
Nandigram,
India. November 2007
Ramsey Clark
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Ramsey Clark speaks to the March 20, 2010, anti-war protest in
Washington, D.C.
48.
House Select Committee on Assassinations
–
The United States House of Representatives Select Committee on Assassinations was established in 1976 to investigate the assassinations of John F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King, Jr. The HSCA completed its investigation in 1978 and issued its report the following year. The HSCA determined, based on evidence, that the probable conspiracy did not involve the governments of the Soviet Union or Cuba. The committee also stated that the conspiracy did not involve any organized group, anti-Castro group, nor the FBI, CIA. Several forces contributed to the formation of the HSCA, with the growing body of assassination conspiracy material, public trust in the findings of the Warren Commission report was dropping. The Hart-Schweiker and Church Committee hearings had recently revealed CIA ties to other assassinations, the committee was both controversial and divided among itself. The first chairman, Thomas N. Downing of Virginia retired in January 1977 and was replaced by Henry B. Gonzalez on February 2,1977. Gonzalez and Chief Counsel Richard A. Sprague had irreconcilable disagreements over control of the committee, budget and investigative techniques, Sprague also resigned, in part to increase the chances of Congress voting to reconstitute the HSCA for the new two-year congressional term. Spragues like-minded deputy Robert K. Tanenbaum also resigned shortly thereafter, Louis Stokes replaced Gonzalez as chairman and G. Robert Blakey was appointed as Chief Counsel and Staff Director to replace Sprague. Thomas N. Downing, First Chairman Henry B, several lines of inquiry were followed to both reaffirm the single shooter/single-bullet theory as well as to disprove specific conspiracy theory allegations. The HSCA concluded that scientific studies of assassination-related evidence do not preclude the possibility of two gunmen firing at the President. Additionally, the location of the shooter was determined using trajectory analysis, the origin of the rifle bullets was calculated using the location of the presidential limousine and its occupants combined with the bullet wounds found on the president and governor. A team of experts were used to answer several questions related to the photographic evidence of the case. Forensic anthropologists as well as photographic and radiographic experts, based on anatomical details, verified that JFK’s autopsy photos. Forensic anthropologists were also used to verify that all relevant photographs of Lee Harvey Oswald were of one person. They verified that the photos depicted the same rifle found in the Texas school book depository building after the crime. The panel of experts were also used to verify the authenticity of the assassination-related photos and to analyze for any tampering or fakery. The HSCAs Forensic Pathology Panel included Michael Baden, John I, coe, Joseph H. Davis, George S. Loquvam, Charles S. Petty, Earl Rose, Werner Spitz, Cyril Wecht, and James T. Weston
House Select Committee on Assassinations
–
Meeting of the House Select Committee on Assassinations
49.
Dealey Plaza
–
Dealey Plaza /ˈdiːliː/, in the historic West End district of downtown Dallas, Texas, is the location of the assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22,1963. Dealey Plaza is a Dallas city park, built on donated by early Dallas philanthropist. It was completed in 1940 as a WPA project on the west edge of downtown Dallas where three streets converge to pass under a bridge known locally as the triple underpass. The plaza is named for George Bannerman Dealey, a leader and early publisher of The Dallas Morning News. Monuments outlining the plaza honor previous prominent Dallas residents and predate President John F. Kennedys visit by many years, the actual monument honoring President Kennedy, in the form of a cenotaph, is one block away. Dealey Plaza is bounded on the south, east, and north sides by 100+ foot tall buildings, there is also a grassy knoll on the northwest side of the plaza. At the plazas west perimeter is an underpass beneath a railroad bridge. Today, the plaza is typically visited daily by tourists, the Sixth Floor Museum now occupies the top two floors of the seven-story former Book Depository. Since 1989, more than six people have visited the museum. Therefore, nothing of significance has been torn down or rebuilt in the immediate area, visitors to Dealey Plaza today will see street lights and street signs that were in use in 1963, though some have been moved to different locations and others removed entirely. Buildings immediately surrounding the plaza have not been changed since 1963, in late 2003, the city of Dallas approved construction project plans to restore Dealey Plaza to its exact appearance on November 22,1963. As of 2004, voters had approved US$500,000 of the $3,000,000 needed, the first phase of the restoration, which spent $700,000 for repair work and plumbing along Houston Streets, was completed in 2008. The grassy knoll is a small, sloping hill inside the plaza that became well-known following the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the knoll was above Kennedy and to his right during the assassination on November 22,1963. These words were repeated on national television by Walter Cronkite in his second CBS News bulletin. The city of Dallas has lost the cases all 82 times. Dealey, Jerry T. D in the Heart of Texas, Dealey Plaza live cam MU. edu, Dallas to Dealey, The History of Dallas and Dealey Plaza. MU. edu, The Man Who Named the Grassy Knoll, Dealey Plaza, scaled map — by Donald Roberdeau. Assassinationscience. com, Composite panorama of Dealey Plaza, by John Costella, using Zapruder film frames, Dallas Police Department photos taken in 1963, and photos by Jack White
Dealey Plaza
–
Dealey Plaza Historic District
Dealey Plaza
–
National Historic Landmark plaque at Dealey Plaza.
Dealey Plaza
–
The Grassy Knoll and Bryan pergola on the north side of Elm Street
50.
Grassy knoll
–
Dealey Plaza /ˈdiːliː/, in the historic West End district of downtown Dallas, Texas, is the location of the assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22,1963. Dealey Plaza is a Dallas city park, built on donated by early Dallas philanthropist. It was completed in 1940 as a WPA project on the west edge of downtown Dallas where three streets converge to pass under a bridge known locally as the triple underpass. The plaza is named for George Bannerman Dealey, a leader and early publisher of The Dallas Morning News. Monuments outlining the plaza honor previous prominent Dallas residents and predate President John F. Kennedys visit by many years, the actual monument honoring President Kennedy, in the form of a cenotaph, is one block away. Dealey Plaza is bounded on the south, east, and north sides by 100+ foot tall buildings, there is also a grassy knoll on the northwest side of the plaza. At the plazas west perimeter is an underpass beneath a railroad bridge. Today, the plaza is typically visited daily by tourists, the Sixth Floor Museum now occupies the top two floors of the seven-story former Book Depository. Since 1989, more than six people have visited the museum. Therefore, nothing of significance has been torn down or rebuilt in the immediate area, visitors to Dealey Plaza today will see street lights and street signs that were in use in 1963, though some have been moved to different locations and others removed entirely. Buildings immediately surrounding the plaza have not been changed since 1963, in late 2003, the city of Dallas approved construction project plans to restore Dealey Plaza to its exact appearance on November 22,1963. As of 2004, voters had approved US$500,000 of the $3,000,000 needed, the first phase of the restoration, which spent $700,000 for repair work and plumbing along Houston Streets, was completed in 2008. The grassy knoll is a small, sloping hill inside the plaza that became well-known following the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the knoll was above Kennedy and to his right during the assassination on November 22,1963. These words were repeated on national television by Walter Cronkite in his second CBS News bulletin. The city of Dallas has lost the cases all 82 times. Dealey, Jerry T. D in the Heart of Texas, Dealey Plaza live cam MU. edu, Dallas to Dealey, The History of Dallas and Dealey Plaza. MU. edu, The Man Who Named the Grassy Knoll, Dealey Plaza, scaled map — by Donald Roberdeau. Assassinationscience. com, Composite panorama of Dealey Plaza, by John Costella, using Zapruder film frames, Dallas Police Department photos taken in 1963, and photos by Jack White
Grassy knoll
–
Dealey Plaza Historic District
Grassy knoll
–
National Historic Landmark plaque at Dealey Plaza.
Grassy knoll
–
The Grassy Knoll and Bryan pergola on the north side of Elm Street
