1.
Watchmaker analogy
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The watchmaker analogy or watchmaker argument is a teleological argument. By way of an analogy, the argument states that design implies a designer, others, however, consider the watchmaker analogy to be compatible with evolutionary creation, opining that the two concepts are not mutually exclusive. The watchmaker analogy consists of the comparison of some natural phenomenon to a watch, the complex inner workings of a watch necessitate an intelligent designer. As with a watch, the complexity of X necessitates a designer, the scientific revolution nurtured a growing awareness that there were universal laws of nature at work that ordered the movement of the world and its parts. With these laws perfectly in place, events have unfolded according to the prescribed plan, for Sir Isaac Newton, the regular motion of the planets made it reasonable to believe in the continued existence of God. Like Newton, René Descartes viewed the cosmos as a time machine operating according to fixed laws. Watches and timepieces have been used as examples of complicated technology in philosophical discussions, for example, Cicero, Voltaire and René Descartes all used timepieces in arguments regarding purpose. The watchmaker analogy, as described here, was used by Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle in 1686, Paley used the watchmaker analogy in his book Natural Theology, or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity collected from the Appearances of Nature, published in 1802. In it, Paley wrote that if a pocket watch is found on a heath, it is most reasonable to assume that someone dropped it, Paley went on to argue that the complex structures of living things and the remarkable adaptations of plants and animals required an intelligent designer. He believed the world was the creation of God and showed the nature of the creator. According to Paley, God had carefully designed even the most humble and insignificant organisms and he believed, therefore, that God must care even more for humanity. Paley recognised that there is suffering in nature and nature appears to be indifferent to pain. His way of reconciling that with his belief in a benevolent God was to assume that life had more pleasure than pain, William Paley taught the works of Joseph Butler and appears to have built on Butlers 1736 design arguments of inferring a designer from evidence of design. Butler noted, As the manifold Appearances of Design and of final Causes, in the Constitution of the World, the appearances of Design and of final Causes in the constitution of nature as really prove this acting agent to be an intelligent Designer. Ten thousand Instances of Design, cannot but prove a Designer, rousseau also mentioned the watchmaker theory. Let us compare the special ends, the means, the relations of every kind, then let us listen to the inner voice of feeling. Unless the eyes are blinded by prejudices, can fail to see that the visible order of the universe proclaims a supreme intelligence. What sophisms must be together before we fail to understand the harmony of existence
2.
Loupe
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A loupe is a simple, small magnification device used to see small details more closely. Loupes are also called hand lenses, three basic types of loupes exist, Simple lenses, generally used for low-magnification designs because of high optical aberration. Compound lenses, generally used for higher magnifications to control optical aberration, loupes are used in a number of industries, notably the jewelry trade, watchmaking, photography, printing, dentistry, education and ophthalmology. Loupes are also used in academia and life sciences, such as geology and biology, amateur naturalists may also find a hand lens or a loupe a useful tool when looking at or identifying species. They are also used in numismatics and stamp collecting, jewelers typically use a monocular, handheld loupe in order to magnify gemstones and other jewelry that they wish to inspect. A 10× magnification is good to use for inspecting jewelry and hallmarks and is the Gemological Institute of Americas standard for grading diamond clarity. Stones will sometimes be inspected at higher magnifications than 10×, although the depth of field, the accepted standard for grading diamonds is therefore that inclusions and blemishes visible at 10× impact the clarity grade. Loupes are employed to assist watchmakers in assembling mechanical watches, typical magnifications for viewing slides full-frame depend on image format,35 mm frames are best viewn at ca. 5×, while ca. 3× is optimal for viewing medium format slides, often, a 10× loupe is used to examine critical sharpness. Photographers using large format cameras use a loupe to view the ground glass image to aid in focusing. DSLR camera users also use loupes to help to identify dust and other particles on the sensor, offset and flexographic printing see frequent use of loupes in order to carefully analyze how ink lies on paper. Strippers use loupes in order to register film separations to one another, pressmen use them to check registration of colors, estimate dot-gain, and diagnose issues with roller pressure and chemistry based on the shape of individual dots and rosettes. Dental loupes aid dentists, hygienists, and dental therapists to devise accurate diagnose of oral conditions, additionally, loupes can improve dentists posture which can decrease occupational strain. Dental caries, also known as cavities, are most accurately identified by visual and tactile examination of a clean, magnification enables dentists to improve their ability to differentiate between a stain and a cavity. Cavities are rated and scored based on their visual presentation, if magnification is too high diagnosis becomes difficult due to the small field of view. Ideal magnification for diagnostic purposes is up to 2×, treatment of dental caries, periodontal disease, and pulpal disease are aided by magnification. The dental specialty of endodontics has performed the vast majority of research regarding magnification in dentistry, treatment of periodontal disease is achieved by removing calculus deposits, plaque and therefore bacteria which causes inflammation and subsequently bone destruction. In severe cases, surgery to reduce pocket depth is indicated, periodontists and hygienists must visualize plaque and calculus to remove it
3.
Artisan
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Artisans practice a craft and may through experience and aptitude reach the expressive levels of an artist. The adjective artisanal is sometimes used in describing hand-processing in what is viewed as an industrial process. Thus, artisanal is sometimes used in marketing and advertising as a word to describe or imply some relation with the crafting of handmade food products, such as bread. Many of these have traditionally been handmade, rural or pastoral goods but are now commonly made on a larger scale with automated mechanization in factories. Artisans were the dominant producers of products prior to the Industrial Revolution. In ancient Greece, artisans were drawn to agoras and often built workshops nearby, during the Middle Ages, the term artisan was applied to those who made things or provided services. It did not apply to unskilled manual labourers, Artisans were divided into two distinct groups, those who operated their own businesses and those who did not. Those who owned their businesses were called masters, while the latter were the journeymen, one misunderstanding many people have about this social group is that they picture them as workers in the modern sense, employed by someone. The most influential group among the artisans were the masters, the business owners, the owners enjoyed a higher social status in their communities. Shokunin is a Japanese word for artisan or craftsman, which implies a pride in ones own work. In the words of shokunin Tashio Odate, Shokunin means not only having technical skill, a social obligation to work his best for the general welfare of the people, obligation both material and spiritual. Applied art Artist Arts and Crafts movement Caste — Tarkhan Guild Handicraft The dictionary definition of artisan at Wiktionary History of Artisans
4.
Watch
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A watch is a small timepiece intended to be carried or worn by a person. It is designed to keep working despite the motions caused by the persons activities, a wristwatch is designed to be worn around the wrist, attached by a watch strap or other type of bracelet. A pocket watch is designed for a person to carry in a pocket, watches evolved in the 17th century from spring-powered clocks, which appeared as early as the 14th century. During most of its history the watch was a device, driven by clockwork, powered by winding a mainspring. In the 1960s the electronic quartz watch was invented, which was powered by a battery, by the 1980s the quartz watch had taken over most of the market from the mechanical watch. Today most inexpensive and medium-priced watches, used mainly for timekeeping, have quartz movements, various extra features, called complications, such as moon-phase displays and the different types of tourbillon, are sometimes included. Modern watches often display the day, date, month and year, time-related features such as timers, chronographs and alarm functions are common. Some modern designs incorporate calculators, GPS and Bluetooth technology or have heart-rate monitoring capabilities, some watches use radio clock technology to regularly correct the time. Developments in the 2010s include smartwatches, which are elaborate computer-like electronic devices designed to be worn on a wrist and they generally incorporate timekeeping functions, but these are only small fractions of what the smartwatch can do. The study of timekeeping is known as horology, watches evolved from portable spring-driven clocks, which first appeared in 15th century Europe. Watches werent widely worn in pockets until the 17th century, one account says that the word watch came from the Old English word woecce which meant watchman, because it was used by town watchmen to keep track of their shifts at work. Another says that the term came from 17th century sailors, who used the new mechanisms to time the length of their shipboard watches, the increased accuracy of the balance wheel focused attention on errors caused by other parts of the movement, igniting a two-century wave of watchmaking innovation. The first thing to be improved was the escapement, the verge escapement was replaced in quality watches by the cylinder escapement, invented by Thomas Tompion in 1695 and further developed by George Graham in the 1720s. The British had predominated in watch manufacture for much of the 17th and 18th centuries, aaron Lufkin Dennison started a factory in 1851 in Massachusetts that used interchangeable parts, and by 1861 it was running a successful enterprise incorporated as the Waltham Watch Company. The concept of the wristwatch goes back to the production of the very earliest watches in the 16th century, elizabeth I of England received a wristwatch from Robert Dudley in 1571, described as an arm watch. The oldest surviving wristwatch is one made in 1806 and given to Joséphine de Beauharnais, from the beginning, wrist watches were almost exclusively worn by women, while men used pocket-watches up until the early 20th century. The Garstin Company of London patented a Watch Wristlet design in 1893, officers in the British Army began using wristwatches during colonial military campaigns in the 1880s, such as during the Anglo-Burma War of 1885. In continental Europe Girard-Perregaux and other Swiss watch makers began supplying German naval officers with wrist watches in about 1880 and these early models were essentially standard pocket-watches fitted to a leather strap but, by the early 20th century, manufacturers began producing purpose-built wristwatches
5.
Master craftsman
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A master craftsman or master tradesman was a member of a guild. In the European guild system, only masters and journeymen were allowed to be members of the guild, an aspiring master would have to pass through the career chain from apprentice to journeyman before he could be elected to become a master craftsman. He would then have to produce a sum of money and a masterpiece before he could join the guild. If the masterpiece was not accepted by the masters, he was not allowed to join the guild, originally, holders of the academic degree of Master of Arts were also considered, in the Medieval universities, as master craftsmen in their own academic field. The Guild of Master Craftsmen continues a tradition established by the guilds of medieval Europe, the earliest of these were frith or peace guilds - groups bonded together for mutual protection following the breakdown of the kins, which were groups related by blood ties. The world-renowned College of Arms in London awarded the coat of arms of The Guild of Master Craftsmen in 1992, the southern keep of Lewes Castle, which overlooks the Guild’s headquarters, is featured above the helmet as the crest. While guilds as such do not exist, many trades continue the apprentice-journeyman-master model, carpenters, electricians, pipefitters and plumbers are notable examples. The terms Master Mariner and harbormaster reflect the fact that the holders of positions were originally Master craftsman in the Seamens Guild. Further derived from harbormaster is stationmaster, though no longer existed when railways came into being. In Germany, the craftsman is the highest professional qualification in crafts and is a state-approved grade. The qualification includes theoretical and practical training in the craft as well as business, additionally, it implies the qualification to train apprentices. These qualifications prepare the Meister for running their own business or alternatively for higher positions at a company, the status of master craftsmen is regulated in the German Gesetz zur Ordnung des Handwerks. While privileged guilds have been abolished in Germany, the ranks of apprentice, journeyman, for security-relevant crafts, e. g. electricians and chimney sweeps, any business in the trade has to be run by a master craftsman or has to employ at least one Meister. Journeymen and master craftsmen are by law members of their regional chamber of crafts. The chamber organizes vocational training and oversees the examination of the journeymen, if these requirements are fulfilled, the candidate can take courses for the Meisterprüfung. The duration of the courses takes 4 to 6 years depending on the craft, the examination includes theoretical, practical and oral parts and takes 5 to 7 days. In some crafts, the creation of a masterpiece is also part of the examination, the German Meister qualifies the holder to study for a bachelors degree at University, whether the Meister holds a regular university entrance qualification or not. According to the German Qualifications Framework, the Meisterbrief is at the level as a bachelors degree, even though it is not an academic degree
6.
Machining
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Machining is any of various processes in which a piece of raw material is cut into a desired final shape and size by a controlled material-removal process. Exactly what the part of the definition implies can vary. Machining is a part of the manufacture of metal products, but it can also be used on materials such as wood, plastic, ceramic. A person who specializes in machining is called a machinist, a room, building, or company where machining is done is called a machine shop. Machining can be a business, a hobby, or both, much of modern-day machining is carried out by computer numerical control, in which computers are used to control the movement and operation of the mills, lathes, and other cutting machines. The precise meaning of the term machining has evolved over the past one, in the 18th century, the word machinist simply meant a person who built or repaired machines. This persons work was mostly by hand, using processes such as the carving of wood. At the time, millwrights and builders of new kinds of engines, such as James Watt or John Wilkinson, the noun machine tool and the verb to machine did not yet exist. Around the middle of the 19th century, the words were coined as the concepts that they described evolved into widespread existence. Therefore, during the Machine Age, machining referred to the machining processes, such as turning, boring, drilling, milling, broaching, sawing, shaping, planing, reaming. In current usage, the term machining without qualification usually implies the traditional machining processes, the three principal machining processes are classified as turning, drilling and milling. Other operations falling into miscellaneous categories include shaping, planing, boring, broaching and sawing, turning operations are operations that rotate the workpiece as the primary method of moving metal against the cutting tool. Lathes are the machine tool used in turning. Milling operations are operations in which the tool rotates to bring cutting edges to bear against the workpiece. Milling machines are the machine tool used in milling. Drilling operations are operations in which holes are produced or refined by bringing a rotating cutter with cutting edges at the lower extremity into contact with the workpiece, drilling operations are done primarily in drill presses but sometimes on lathes or mills. Burnishing is an example of a miscellaneous operation, burnishing produces no swarf but can be performed at a lathe, mill, or drill press. An unfinished workpiece requiring machining will need to have some material cut away to create a finished product, a finished product would be a workpiece that meets the specifications set out for that workpiece by engineering drawings or blueprints
7.
Clockmaker
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A clockmaker is an artisan who makes and/or repairs clocks. Since almost all clocks are now factory-made, most modern clockmakers only repair clocks, modern clockmakers may be employed by jewellers, antique shops, and places devoted strictly to repairing clocks and watches. The trade requires fine motor coordination as clockmakers must frequently work on devices with small gears, originally, clockmakers were master craftsmen who designed and built clocks by hand. A qualified clockmaker can typically design and make a piece for a clock without access to the original component. Clockmakers generally do not work on watches, the skills and tools required are different enough that watchmaking is a field, handled by another specialist. The earliest use of the term clokkemaker is said to date from 1390, from the beginning in the 15th century through the 17th century, clockmaking was considered the leading edge, most technically advanced trade existing. Historically, the best clockmakers often also built instruments, as for a long time they were the only craftsmen around trained in designing precision mechanical apparatus. In one example, the harmonica was invented by a young German clockmaker, prior to 1800 clocks were entirely handmade, including all their parts, in a single shop under a master clockmaker. Examples of these complex movements can be seen in the many longcase clocks constructed in the 16th and 17th centuries. By the 19th century, clock parts were beginning to be made in factories, but the skilled work of designing, assembling. By the 20th century, interchangeable parts and standardized designs allowed the clock to be assembled in factories. As the art of making clocks became widespread and distinguished. There are many guilds where clockmakers meet to buy, sell and get clocks to repair from customers, early clockmakers fashioned all the intricate parts and wheelwork of clocks by hand, using hand tools. They developed specialized tools to help them, balance Truing Caliper, This device was used in fashioning the wheels and gearwork of the clock, to make sure the wheel, particularly the balance wheel was balanced and circular. The pivots of the wheel were mounted in the caliper, an index arm was moved next to the edge and the wheel was spun to see if the edge was true. Die/Screw Plate, The die plate was used to cut threads on small screws and it had a number of threaded die holes of different sizes for making different threads. A piece of wire was inserted in a hole and turned to cut a thread on the end, then a head would be formed on the other end of the wire to make a screw. File, Hardened steel files were used to shape the metal before it was used to make, there were many variations of files
8.
Clock
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A clock is an instrument to measure, keep, and indicate time. The word clock is derived from the Celtic words clagan and clocca meaning bell, a silent instrument missing such a striking mechanism has traditionally been known as a timepiece. In general usage today a clock refers to any device for measuring and displaying the time, Watches and other timepieces that can be carried on ones person are often distinguished from clocks. The clock is one of the oldest human inventions, meeting the need to measure intervals of time shorter than the natural units, the day, the lunar month. Devices operating on several physical processes have been used over the millennia, a sundial shows the time by displaying the position of a shadow on a flat surface. There is a range of duration timers, an example being the hourglass. Water clocks, along with the sundials, are possibly the oldest time-measuring instruments, spring-driven clocks appeared during the 15th century. During the 15th and 16th centuries, clockmaking flourished, the next development in accuracy occurred after 1656 with the invention of the pendulum clock. A major stimulus to improving the accuracy and reliability of clocks was the importance of precise time-keeping for navigation, the electric clock was patented in 1840. The development of electronics in the 20th century led to clocks with no clockwork parts at all, the timekeeping element in every modern clock is a harmonic oscillator, a physical object that vibrates or oscillates at a particular frequency. This object can be a pendulum, a fork, a quartz crystal. Analog clocks usually indicate time using angles, Digital clocks display a numeric representation of time. Two numeric display formats are used on digital clocks, 24-hour notation. Most digital clocks use electronic mechanisms and LCD, LED, or VFD displays, for convenience, distance, telephony or blindness, auditory clocks present the time as sounds. There are also clocks for the blind that have displays that can be read by using the sense of touch, some of these are similar to normal analog displays, but are constructed so the hands can be felt without damaging them. The evolution of the technology of clocks continues today, the study of timekeeping is known as horology. The apparent position of the Sun in the sky moves over the course of a day, shadows cast by stationary objects move correspondingly, so their positions can be used to indicate the time of day. A sundial shows the time by displaying the position of a shadow on a flat surface, sundials can be horizontal, vertical, or in other orientations
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Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
10.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
11.
Technician
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A technician is a worker in a field of technology who is proficient in the relevant skills and techniques, with a relatively practical understanding of the theoretical principles. Though less socially prestigious than a white collar professional, technicians play as major support roles in such as engineering, accountancy, nursing, medicine, architecture. For instance, a technician is viewed of lower social status. Experienced technicians in a specific tool domain typically have intermediate understanding of theory, as such, technicians are generally better versed in technique compared to average laymen and even general professionals in that field of technology. Technicians may be classified as highly skilled workers or at times semi-skilled workers. They may be working in a variety of fields. An engineering technician in the UK is a skilled, highly educated occupation requiring 5–8 years post high school training in a formal apprenticeship. Grey-collar worker Technical school Tradesperson Vocational education
12.
Apprenticeship
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An apprenticeship is a system of training a new generation of practitioners of a trade or profession with on-the-job training and often some accompanying study. Apprenticeship also enables practitioners to gain a license to practice in a regulated profession, Apprenticeships typically last 3 to 7 years. People who successfully complete an apprenticeship reach the journeyman or professional level of competence. In early modern usage, the clipped form prentice was common, the system of apprenticeship first developed in the later Middle Ages and came to be supervised by craft guilds and town governments. A master craftsman was entitled to employ young people as a form of labour in exchange for providing food, lodging. Most apprentices were males, but female apprentices were found in such as seamstress, tailor. Apprentices usually began at ten to fifteen years of age, in Coventry those completing seven-year apprenticeships with stuff merchants were entitled to become freemen of the city. Subsequently, governmental regulation and the licensing of technical colleges and vocational education formalized and bureaucratized the details of apprenticeship, Australian Apprenticeships encompass all apprenticeships and traineeships. They cover all sectors in Australia and are used to achieve both entry-level and career upskilling objectives. There were 470,000 Australian Apprentices in-training as at 31 March 2012, Australian Government employer and employee incentives may be applicable, while State and Territory Governments may provide public funding support for the training element of the initiative. Australian Apprenticeships combine time at work with formal training and can be full-time, part-time or school-based, Australian Apprentice and Traineeship services are dedicated to promoting retention, therefore much effort is made to match applicants with the right apprenticeship or traineeship. This is done with the aid of aptitude tests, tips, information and resources on potential apprenticeship and traineeship occupations are available in over sixty industries. The distinction between the terms apprentices and trainees lies mainly around traditional trades and the time it takes to gain a qualification, Australia also has a fairly unusual safety net in place for businesses and Australian Apprentices with its Group Training scheme. It is a safety net, because the Group Training Organisation is the employer and provides continuity of employment and it lasts two to four years – the duration varies among the 250 legally recognized apprenticeship trades. About 40 percent of all Austrian teenagers enter apprenticeship training upon completion of compulsory education and this number has been stable since the 1950s. The five most popular trades are, Retail Salesperson, Clerk, Car Mechanic, Hairdresser, there are many smaller trades with small numbers of apprentices, like EDV-Systemtechniker which is completed by fewer than 100 people a year. The Apprenticeship Leave Certificate provides the apprentice with access to two different vocational careers, the person responsible for overseeing the training inside the company is called Lehrherr or Ausbilder. An Ausbilder must prove he has the qualifications needed to educate another person
13.
Guild
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A guild /ɡɪld/ is an association of artisans or merchants who control the practice of their craft in a particular town. The earliest types of guild were formed as confraternities of tradesmen and they were organized in a manner something between a professional association, trade union, a cartel, and a secret society. A lasting legacy of traditional guilds are the guildhalls constructed and used as meeting places, an important result of the guild framework was the emergence of universities at Bologna, Oxford and Paris, they originated as guilds of students as at Bologna, or of masters as at Paris. Usually the founders were free independent master craftsmen who hired apprentices, there were several types of guilds, including the two main categories of merchant guilds and craft guilds but also the frith guild and religious guild. In many cases became the governing body of a town. The Freedom of the City, effective from the Middle Ages until 1835, gave the right to trade, Trade guilds arose in the 14th century as craftsmen united to protect their common interest. The occasion for these oaths were drunken banquets held on December 26, gregory of Tours tells a miraculous tale of a builder whose art and techniques suddenly left him, but were restored by an apparition of the Virgin Mary in a dream. Michel Rouche remarks that the story speaks for the importance of practically transmitted journeymanship, in France, guilds were called corps de métiers. According to Viktor Ivanovich Rutenburg, Within the guild itself there was little division of labour. Thus, according to Étienne Boileaus Book of Handicrafts, by the century there were no less than 100 guilds in Paris. In Catalan towns, specially at Barcelona, guilds or gremis were a basic agent in the society, a shoemakers guild is recorded in 1208. In England, specifically in the City of London Corporation, more than 110 guilds, referred to as companies, survive today. Other groups, such as the Worshipful Company of Tax Advisers, have been formed far more recently, membership in a livery company is expected for individuals participating in the governance of The City, as the Lord Mayor and the Remembrancer. The guild system reached a state in Germany circa 1300 and held on in German cities into the 19th century. In the 15th century, Hamburg had 100 guilds, Cologne 80, the latest guilds to develop in Western Europe were the gremios of Spain, e. g. Valencia or Toledo. Not all city economies were controlled by guilds, some cities were free, in order to become a Master, a Journeyman would have to go on a three-year voyage called Journeyman years. The practice of the Journeyman years still exists in Germany and France, in Ghent, as in Florence, the woolen textile industry developed as a congeries of specialized guilds. The appearance of the European guilds was tied to the emergent money economy, before this time it was not possible to run a money-driven organization, as commodity money was the normal way of doing business
14.
Worshipful Company of Clockmakers
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The Worshipful Company of Clockmakers is one of the Livery Companies of the City of London. The Clockmakers were formed by a Royal Charter in 1631, originally, no person was allowed to sell clocks unless they were a member of the Company. However, such requirements have since relaxed and later removed. The Company now exists as an institution, as do a majority of Livery Companies. The Company museum was housed in the London Guildhall Library. The collection includes John Harrisons clock H5, since 2015 the collection has been rehoused in the Science Museum in London. The new display was opened by HRH Princess Anne on 22nd October 2015. The Companys archive and library are still kept at the Guildhall Library. The Clockmakers Company ranks sixty-first in the order of precedence for Livery Companies and its motto is Tempus Rerum Imperator, Latin for Time is the commander of things. It is shown in the About Google Web Accelerator page, british Horological Institute Clockmakers Museum The Clockmakers Company
15.
Horology
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Horology is the art and/or science of measuring time. Ancient Sanskrit language has a similar word hora meaning hour and this word is also used as a measurement of time. Clocks, watches, clockwork, sundials, hourglasses, clepsydras, timers, time recorders, marine chronometers, people interested in horology are called horologists. That term is used both by people who deal professionally with timekeeping apparatus, as well as aficionados and scholars of horology, horology and horologists have numerous organizations, both professional associations and more scholarly societies. There are many museums and several specialized libraries devoted to the subject. One example is the Royal Greenwich Observatory, which is also the source of the Prime Meridian, one of the more comprehensive museums dedicated to horology is the Musée international dhorlogerie in La Chaux-de-Fonds. The Musée dHorlogerie du Locle is smaller but located nearby, one of the better horological museums in Germany is the Deutsches Uhrenmuseum in Furtwangen im Schwarzwald, in the Black Forest. The two leading specialised horological museums in North America are the National Watch and Clock Museum in Columbia, Pennsylvania, the eastern French city of Besançon has the Musée du Temps in the historic Palais Grenvelle. An example of a devoted to one particular type of clock is the Cuckooland Museum in the UK. One of the most comprehensive horological libraries open to the public is the National Watch, other good horological libraries providing public access are at the Musée international dhorlogerie in Switzerland, at the Deutsches Uhrenmuseum in Germany, and at the Guildhall Library in London. Another museum dedicated to clocks is the Willard House and Clock Museum in Grafton, Massachusetts. A
16.
Ringsted
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Ringsted is a city located centrally in the Danish island of Zealand. It is the seat of a municipality of the same name, Ringsted is approximately 60 km from Copenhagen. Ringsted Station is the last station before trains bound for Funen and Jutland diverge from trains bound for Lolland-Falster, Ringsted is one of Denmarks busiest transit cities. The city is located in the middle of Zealand, connecting both the southern parts of Zealand as well as Funen and Jutland with the Copenhagen area. Danish Tramway Museum of Skjoldenæsholm, near Jystrup, St. Bendts Church — a Romanesque, former Benedictine, abbey church containing numerous tombs of medieval Danish royalty. Ringsted was the site of Sjællands Landsting during the Middle Ages, in 1805 it moved to Copenhagen and was renamed Østre Landsret, and is still active under this name. In 1131, Canute Lavard was killed in Haraldsted forest, leading to outbreaks of civil war, the town arms goes back to 1421. There has been discussion about what it portrays. The traditional answer is at the top the hand of God, the city officially interprets the three figures as Saint Canute Lavard, King Eric Plovpenning, and Saint Benedict of Nursia. The church was consecrated in 1170, in front of the church is the spacious town square leading to the shopping streets with shops and boutiques for every taste. Ringsted features two shopping centers named RingStedet and Ringsted Outlet Center, Ringsted also has a wide selection of cafes and restaurants, as well as two local breweries. During the summer months, a mobile tourist office is opened in the town square, jørgen Roed, painter Poul Ruders, composer P. C
17.
William Paley
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William Paley was an English clergyman, Christian apologist, philosopher, and utilitarian. Paley was born in Peterborough, England, and was educated at Giggleswick School, of which his father was headmaster and he graduated in 1763 as senior wrangler, became fellow in 1766, and in 1768 tutor of his college. He was also a supporter of the American colonies during the revolutionary war. In 1776 Paley was presented to the rectory of Musgrave in Westmorland and he was subsequently made vicar of Dalston in 1780, near the bishops palace at Rose Castle. In 1782 he became the Archdeacon of Carlisle, in 1782 Edmund Law, otherwise the mildest of men, was most particular that Paley should add a book on political philosophy to the moral philosophy, which Paley was reluctant to write. The book was published in 1785 under the title of The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy and it passed through fifteen editions in the authors lifetime. Paley strenuously supported the abolition of the trade, and his attack on slavery in the book was instrumental in drawing greater public attention to the practice. In 1789, a speech he gave on the subject in Carlisle was published, Some have said this book was the most original of Paleys works. It was followed in 1794 by the celebrated View of the Evidences of Christianity and he died on 25 May 1805 and is buried in Carlisle Cathedral with his two wives. His second son was the architect Edward Graham Paley and his grandson was the classical scholar Frederick Apthorp Paley, Paleys Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy was one of the most influential philosophical texts in late Enlightenment Britain. It was cited in several debates over the corn laws in Britain and in debates in the US Congress. The book remained a set textbook at Cambridge well into the Victorian era, portraits of Paley and Darwin face each other at Christ College still today. Paley is also remembered for his contributions to the philosophy of religion, utilitarian ethics, in 1802, he published Natural Theology, or, Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity, his last book. The main thrust of his argument was that Gods design of the whole creation could be seen in the happiness, or well-being. Paleys argument is built mainly around anatomy and natural history, in making his argument, Paley employed a wide variety of metaphors and analogies. Perhaps the most famous is his analogy between a watch and the world, historians, philosophers and theologians often call this the Watchmaker analogy. Building on this analogy, Paley presents examples from planetary astronomy. To bolster his views he cites the work of his old friend John Law, the germ of the idea is to be found in ancient writers who used sundials and Ptolemaic epicycles to illustrate the divine order of the world
18.
God
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In monotheism, God is conceived of as the Supreme Being and principal object of faith. The concept of God as described by most theologians includes the attributes of omniscience, omnipotence, omnipresence, divine simplicity, many theologians also describe God as being omnibenevolent and all loving. Furthermore, some religions attribute only a purely grammatical gender to God, incorporeity and corporeity of God are related to conceptions of transcendence and immanence of God, with positions of synthesis such as the immanent transcendence of Chinese theology. God has been conceived as personal or impersonal. In theism, God is the creator and sustainer of the universe, while in deism, God is the creator, in pantheism, God is the universe itself. In atheism, God is not believed to exist, while God is deemed unknown or unknowable within the context of agnosticism, God has also been conceived as the source of all moral obligation, and the greatest conceivable existent. Many notable philosophers have developed arguments for and against the existence of God, there are many names for God, and different names are attached to different cultural ideas about Gods identity and attributes. In the ancient Egyptian era of Atenism, possibly the earliest recorded monotheistic religion, this deity was called Aten, premised on being the one true Supreme Being and creator of the universe. In the Hebrew Bible and Judaism, He Who Is, I Am that I Am, in the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, God, consubstantial in three persons, is called the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. In Judaism, it is common to refer to God by the titular names Elohim or Adonai, in Islam, the name Allah is used, while Muslims also have a multitude of titular names for God. In Hinduism, Brahman is often considered a concept of God. In Chinese religion, God is conceived as the progenitor of the universe, intrinsic to it, other religions have names for God, for instance, Baha in the Baháí Faith, Waheguru in Sikhism, and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism. The earliest written form of the Germanic word God comes from the 6th-century Christian Codex Argenteus, the English word itself is derived from the Proto-Germanic * ǥuđan. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European form * ǵhu-tó-m was likely based on the root * ǵhau-, in the English language, the capitalized form of God continues to represent a distinction between monotheistic God and gods in polytheism. The same holds for Hebrew El, but in Judaism, God is also given a proper name, in many translations of the Bible, when the word LORD is in all capitals, it signifies that the word represents the tetragrammaton. Allāh is the Arabic term with no plural used by Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and Jews meaning The God, Ahura Mazda is the name for God used in Zoroastrianism. Mazda, or rather the Avestan stem-form Mazdā-, nominative Mazdå and it is generally taken to be the proper name of the spirit, and like its Sanskrit cognate medhā, means intelligence or wisdom. Both the Avestan and Sanskrit words reflect Proto-Indo-Iranian *mazdhā-, from Proto-Indo-European mn̩sdʰeh1, literally meaning placing ones mind, Waheguru is a term most often used in Sikhism to refer to God
19.
Teleological argument
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It is an argument in natural theology. The earliest recorded versions of this argument are associated with Socrates in ancient Greece, Socratic philosophy influenced the development of the Abrahamic religions in many ways, and the teleological argument has a long association with them. In the Middle Ages, Islamic theologians such as Al-Ghazali used the argument, although it was rejected as unnecessary by Quranic literalists, later, the teleological argument was accepted by Saint Thomas Aquinas and included as the fifth of his Five Ways of proving the existence of God. In early modern England clergymen such as William Turner and John Ray were well-known proponents, in the early 18th century, William Derham published his Physico-Theology, which gave his demonstration of the being and attributes of God from his works of creation. From the beginning, there have been criticisms of the different versions of the teleological argument. Also starting already in classical Greece, two approaches to the argument developed, distinguished by their understanding of whether the natural order was literally created or not. The non-creationist approach starts most clearly with Aristotle, although many thinkers, such as the Neoplatonists, the Neoplatonists did not find the teleological argument convincing, and in this they were followed by medieval philosophers such as Al-Farabi and Avicenna. Later, Averroes and Thomas Aquinas considered the argument acceptable, religious thinkers in Judaism, Hinduism, Confucianism, Islam and Christianity also developed versions of the teleological argument. Later, variants on the argument from design were produced in Western philosophy, Anaxagoras is the first person who is definitely known to have explained such a concept using the word nous. Aristotle reports an earlier philosopher from Clazomenae named Hermotimus who had taken a similar position, amongst Pre-Socratic philosophers before Anaxagoras, other philosophers had proposed a similar intelligent ordering principle causing life and the rotation of the heavens. For example Empedocles, like Hesiod much earlier, described cosmic order and living things as caused by a version of love. In his Philebus 28c Plato has Socrates speak of this as a tradition, saying that all philosophers agree—whereby they really exalt themselves—that mind is king of heaven, and later states that the ensuing discussion confirms the utterances of those who declared of old that mind always rules the universe. Xenophons report in his Memorabilia might be the earliest clear account of an argument that there is evidence in nature of intelligent design. In Platos Phaedo, Socrates is made to say just before dying that his discovery of Anaxagoras concept of a cosmic nous as the cause of the order of things, was an important turning point for him. But he also expressed disagreement with Anaxagoras understanding of the implications of his own doctrine, Socrates complained that Anaxagoras restricted the work of the cosmic nous to the beginning, as if it were uninterested and all events since then just happened because of causes like air and water. Socrates, on the hand, apparently insisted that the demiurge must be loving. Plato has a character explain the concept of a demiurge with supreme wisdom, Platos teleological perspective is also built upon the analysis of a priori order and structure in the world that he had already presented in The Republic. The story does not propose creation ex nihilo, rather, the demiurge made order from the chaos of the cosmos, Platos student and friend Aristotle, continued the Socratic tradition of criticising natural scientists such as Democritus who sought to explain everything in terms of matter and chance motion
20.
Richard Dawkins
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Clinton Richard Dawkins FRS FRSL is an English ethologist, evolutionary biologist and author. He is a fellow of New College, Oxford, and was the University of Oxfords Professor for Public Understanding of Science from 1995 until 2008. Dawkins first came to prominence with his 1976 book The Selfish Gene, in 2006, he founded the Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science. Dawkins is an atheist, and is known for his criticism of creationism. In The Blind Watchmaker, he argues against the watchmaker analogy, instead, he describes evolutionary processes as analogous to a blind watchmaker in that reproduction, mutation, and selection are unguided by any designer. In The God Delusion, Dawkins contends that a supernatural creator almost certainly does not exist and he opposes the teaching of creationism in schools. Dawkins was born in Nairobi, then in British Kenya, on 26 March 1941 and he is the son of Jean Mary Vyvyan and Clinton John Dawkins, who was an agricultural civil servant in the British Colonial Service in Nyasaland. His father was called up into the Kings African Rifles during World War II and returned to England in 1949 and his father had inherited a country estate, Over Norton Park in Oxfordshire, which he farmed commercially. Dawkins considers himself English and lives in Oxford, England, both his parents were interested in natural sciences, and they answered Dawkinss questions in scientific terms. Dawkins describes his childhood as a normal Anglican upbringing, and that left me with nothing. From 1954 to 1959 Dawkins attended Oundle School in Northamptonshire, an English public school with a distinct Church of England flavour, while at Oundle Dawkins read Bertrand Russells Why I Am Not a Christian for the first time. He studied zoology at Balliol College, Oxford, graduating in 1962, while there and he continued as a research student under Tinbergens supervision, receiving his MA and DPhil degrees by 1966, and remained a research assistant for another year. Tinbergen was a pioneer in the study of behaviour, particularly in the areas of instinct, learning and choice. From 1967 to 1969, he was an assistant professor of zoology at the University of California, during this period, the students and faculty at UC Berkeley were largely opposed to the ongoing Vietnam War, and Dawkins became involved in the anti-war demonstrations and activities. He returned to the University of Oxford in 1970 as a lecturer, in 1990, he became a reader in zoology. He held that professorship from 1995 until 2008, since 1970, he has been a fellow of New College, Oxford and he is now an emeritus fellow. In 1991, he gave the Royal Institution Christmas Lectures for Children on Growing Up in the Universe and he has also edited several journals, and has acted as editorial advisor to the Encarta Encyclopedia and the Encyclopedia of Evolution. He is listed as an editor and a columnist of the Council for Secular Humanisms Free Inquiry magazine
21.
The Blind Watchmaker
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He also presents arguments to refute certain criticisms made on his first book, The Selfish Gene. An unabridged audiobook edition was released in 2011, narrated by Richard Dawkins, in his choice of the title for this book, Dawkins refers to the watchmaker analogy made famous by William Paley in his 1802 book Natural Theology. To dispel the idea that complexity cannot arise without the intervention of a creator, in making this journey, he points to several creatures whose various seeing apparatus are, whilst still useful, living examples of intermediate levels of complexity. He demonstrates this by the example of the weasel program, the program displayed a two dimensional shape made up of straight black lines, the length, position, and angle of which were defined by a simple set of rules and instructions. Adding new lines based on these rules offered a set of possible new shapes. The chosen mutation would then be the basis for generation of biomorph mutants to be chosen from. Thus, the user, by selection, could steer the evolution of biomorphs and this process often produced images which were reminiscent of real organisms for instance beetles, bats, or trees. He dubbed this insight the evolution of evolvability, must already have been vastly complex in the first place. He calls this postulating organized complexity without offering an explanation and he notes that analogies with computer programs have their limitations, but are still useful. Ghiselin observes that Dawkins is NOT content with rebutting creationists but goes on to press home his arguments against alternative theories to neo-Darwinism and he thinks the book fills the need to know more about evolution that others would conceal from them. He concludes that Readers who are not outraged will be delighted and he notes that Dawkins demolishes several weak arguments, such as the argument from personal incredulity. He denies that Dawkinss computer exercises and arguments from gradual change show that forms of life could have evolved. Willard concludes by arguing that in writing this book, Dawkins is not functioning as a scientist in the line of Darwin, the engineer Theo Jansen read the book in 1986 and became fascinated by evolution and natural selection. Since 1990 he has been building kinetic sculptures, the Strandbeest, the journalist Dick Pountain described Sean B. Carrolls 2005 account of developmental biology, Endless Forms Most Beautiful, as the most important popular science book since The Blind Watchmaker. New York, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc, evolution for those that have ears. We Are All Contraptions – review by Michael Ghiselin
22.
Evolution
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Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. Evolutionary processes give rise to biodiversity at every level of organisation, including the levels of species, individual organisms. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the LUCA of all living on Earth. The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite, to microbial mat fossils, existing patterns of biodiversity have been shaped both by speciation and by extinction. More than 99 percent of all species that lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates of Earths current species range from 10 to 14 million, more recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described. In the mid-19th century, Charles Darwin formulated the theory of evolution by natural selection. This teleonomy is the quality whereby the process of natural selection creates and preserves traits that are fitted for the functional roles they perform. The processes by which the changes occur, from one generation to another, are called evolutionary processes or mechanisms, the four most widely recognized evolutionary processes are natural selection, genetic drift, mutation and gene migration. Natural selection and genetic drift sort variation, mutation and gene migration create variation, consequences of selection can include meiotic drive, nonrandom mating and genetic hitchhiking. In the early 20th century the modern evolutionary synthesis integrated classical genetics with Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection through the discipline of population genetics, the importance of natural selection as a cause of evolution was accepted into other branches of biology. Moreover, previously held notions about evolution, such as orthogenesis, evolutionism, evolutionary computation, a sub-field of artificial intelligence, involves the application of Darwinian principles to problems in computer science. The proposal that one type of organism could descend from another type goes back to some of the first pre-Socratic Greek philosophers, such as Anaximander, such proposals survived into Roman times. The poet and philosopher Lucretius followed Empedocles in his masterwork De rerum natura, in contrast to these materialistic views, Aristotelianism considered all natural things as actualisations of fixed natural possibilities, known as forms. This was part of a teleological understanding of nature in which all things have an intended role to play in a divine cosmic order. In the 17th century, the new method of modern science rejected the Aristotelian approach, however, this new approach was slow to take root in the biological sciences, the last bastion of the concept of fixed natural types. The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 explicitly recognized the nature of species relationships. Other naturalists of this time speculated on the change of species over time according to natural laws
23.
Alan Moore
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Alan Moore is an English writer primarily known for his work in comic books including Watchmen, V for Vendetta and From Hell. Frequently described as the best graphic novel writer in history, he has been recognised by his peers. Moore started writing for British underground and alternative fanzines in the late 1970s before achieving success publishing comic strips in such magazines as 2000 AD, during that decade, Moore helped to bring about greater social respectability for comics in the United States and United Kingdom. He prefers the term comic to graphic novel, despite his own personal objections, his books have provided the basis for a number of Hollywood films, including From Hell, The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, V for Vendetta, and Watchmen. Moore has also referenced in popular culture, and has been recognised as an influence on a variety of literary and television figures including Neil Gaiman, Joss Whedon. Moore was born on 18 November 1953, at St Edmonds Hospital in Northampton to a family who he believed had lived in the town for several generations. He grew up in a part of Northampton known as The Boroughs, an area with a lack of facilities and high levels of illiteracy. I didnt know there was anything else. He lived in his house with his parents, brewery worker Ernest Moore and he read omnivorously from the age of five, getting books out of the local library, and subsequently attended Spring Lane Primary School. In the late 1960s Moore began publishing his own poetry and essays in fanzines, eventually setting up his own fanzine, through Embryo, Moore became involved in a group known as the Northampton Arts Lab. The Arts Lab subsequently made significant contributions to the magazine and he began dealing the hallucinogenic LSD at school, being expelled for doing so in 1970 – he later described himself as one of the worlds most inept LSD dealers. Whilst continuing to live in his parents home for a few years, he moved through various jobs, including cleaning toilets. In late 1973, he met and began a relationship with Northampton-born Phyllis Dixon, soon marrying, they moved into a new council estate in the towns eastern district while he worked in an office for a sub-contractor of the local gas board. Moore felt that he was not being fulfilled by this job, abandoning his office job, he decided to instead take up both writing and illustrating his own comics. He had already produced a couple of strips for several alternative fanzines and magazines, mouse for the local paper Anon, and St. Pancras Panda, a parody of Paddington Bear, for the Oxford-based Back Street Bugle. Alongside this, he and Phyllis, with their newborn daughter Leah, not long after this, in 1979 he also began publishing a new comic strip known as Maxwell the Magic Cat in the Northants Post, under the pseudonym of Jill de Ray. Earning a further £10 a week from this, he decided to sign off of social security, to learn more about how to write a successful comic-book script, he asked advice from his friend, comic-book writer Steve Moore, whom he had known since he was fourteen. Interested in writing for 2000AD, one of Britains most prominent comic magazines, Alan Moore then submitted a script for their long running, while the first few were rejected, Grant advised Moore on improvements, and eventually accepted the first of many
24.
Graphic novel
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A graphic novel is a book made up of comics content. Although the word normally refers to long fictional works, the term graphic novel is applied broadly and includes fiction, non-fiction. It is distinguished from the comic book, which is used for comics periodicals. Fan historian Richard Kyle coined the term graphic novel in an essay in the November 1964 issue of the comics fanzine Capa-Alpha, the Book Industry Study Group began using graphic novel as a category in book stores in 2001. In the publishing trade, the term extends to material that would not be considered a novel if produced in another medium. Collections of comic books that do not form a story, anthologies or collections of loosely related pieces. The term is sometimes used to distinguish between works created as standalone stories, in contrast to collections or compilations of a story arc from a comic book series published in book form. As the exact definition of the novel is debated, the origins of the form are open to interpretation. The Adventures of Obadiah Oldbuck is the oldest recognized American example of comics used to this end, the first American edition was published in 1842 by Wilson & Company in New York City using the original printing plates from the 1841 edition. Another early predecessor is Journey to the Gold Diggins by Jeremiah Saddlebags by brothers J. A. D. and D. F. Read, inspired by The Adventures of Obadiah Oldbuck. In 1894 Caran dAche broached the idea of a novel in a letter to the newspaper Le Figaro. In the United States there is a tradition of reissuing previously published comic strips in book form. In 1897 the Hearst Syndicate published such a collection of The Yellow Kid by Richard Outcault, the 1920s saw a revival of the medieval woodcut tradition, with Belgian Frans Masereel cited as the undisputed king of this revival. American Lynd Ward also worked in this tradition, publishing Gods Man, in 1929, the 1940s saw the launching of Classics Illustrated, a comic-book series that primarily adapted notable, public domain novels into standalone comic books for young readers. In 1947 Fawcett Comics published Comics Novel #1, Anarcho, Dictator of Death, by the late 1960s, American comic book creators were becoming more adventurous with the form. Gil Kane and Archie Goodwin self-published a 40-page, magazine-format comics novel, savage in 1968—the same year Marvel Comics published two issues of The Spectacular Spider-Man in a similar format. Meanwhile, in continental Europe, the tradition of collecting serials of popular strips such as The Adventures of Tintin or Asterix led to long-form narratives published initially as serials. By 1969, the author John Updike, who had entertained ideas of becoming a cartoonist in his youth, addressed the Bristol Literary Society, on the death of the novel
25.
Watchmen
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Watchmen is an American comic-book limited series published by DC Comics in 1986 and 1987, and collected in 1987. The series was created by a British collaboration consisting of writer Alan Moore, artist Dave Gibbons, Watchmen originated from a story proposal Moore submitted to DC featuring superhero characters that the company had acquired from Charlton Comics. As Moores proposed story would have many of the characters unusable for future stories. Moore used the story as a means to reflect contemporary anxieties and to deconstruct, the story focuses on the personal development and moral struggles of the protagonists as an investigation into the murder of a government-sponsored superhero pulls them out of retirement. Creatively, the focus of Watchmen is on its structure, Gibbons used a nine-panel grid layout throughout the series and added recurring symbols such as a blood-stained smiley face. Structured, at times, as a narrative, the story skips through space, time. In the same manner, entire scenes and dialogue have parallels with others through synchronicity, coincidence, the BBC described it as The moment comic books grew up. After a number of attempts to adapt the series into a feature film, a video game series, Watchmen, The End Is Nigh, was released in the same year to coincide with the films release. In 2012, DC Comics published Before Watchmen, a comic-book series acting as a prequel to the original Watchmen series, without Moore and Gibbons involvement. Watchmen, created by writer Alan Moore and artist Dave Gibbons, was first published as a 12-issue maxiseries from DC Comics, cover-dated September 1986 to October 1987. In February 1988, DC published a limited-edition, slipcased hardcover volume, produced by Graphitti Design, in 2005, DC released Absolute Watchmen, an oversized slipcased hardcover edition of the series in DCs Absolute Edition format. Assembled under the supervision of Dave Gibbons, Absolute Watchmen included the Graphitti materials and that December DC published a new printing of Watchmen issue #1 at the original 1986 cover price of $1.50 as part of its Millennium Edition line. In 2012, DC launched a line, with various creative teams producing the characters early adventures before the events of the graphic novel. In 1985, DC Comics acquired a line of characters from Charlton Comics, during that period, writer Alan Moore contemplated writing a story that featured an unused line of superheroes that he could revamp, as he had done in his Miracleman series in the early 1980s. Moore reasoned that MLJ Comics Mighty Crusaders might be available for such a project, Moore used this premise and crafted a proposal featuring the Charlton characters titled Who Killed the Peacemaker, and submitted the unsolicited proposal to DC managing editor Dick Giordano. Giordano was receptive to the proposal, but opposed the idea of using the Charlton characters for the story, Moore said, DC realized their expensive characters would end up either dead or dysfunctional. Instead, Giordano persuaded Moore to continue with new characters, Moore had initially believed that original characters would not provide emotional resonance for the readers, but later changed his mind. Artist Dave Gibbons, who had collaborated with Moore on previous projects, I rang Alan up, saying I’d like to be involved with what he was doing
26.
Doctor Manhattan
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Doctor Manhattan is a fictional character who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics. He debuted in the novel miniseries Watchmen, published in 1986 and 1987. Doctor Manhattan was created by writer Alan Moore with artist Dave Gibbons, following his reanimation, he was immediately pressed into service by the United States government, who gave him the name Doctor Manhattan, after the Manhattan Project. He is the character in the story that possesses actual superpowers. The Watchmen series has been noted for addressing issues and questions. He is often used as an example of a posthuman god, reception towards the character is positive, and he has appeared and has been mentioned in various forms of media. Billy Crudup portrays Doctor Manhattan in the 2009 film adaptation directed by Zack Snyder, Doctor Manhattan later appears in the Before Watchmen comic book prequel, with his own individual issue miniseries. In 2016, Doctor Manhattan became the first Watchmen character to be included in the main DC continuity, during the DC Rebirth event, Doctor Manhattan was partly based on DC Comics Captain Atom who in Moores original proposal was surrounded by the shadow of nuclear threat. However, the writer found he could do more with Manhattan as a a supreme super-hero than he ever could have with Captain Atom, Moore sought to delve into nuclear physics and quantum physics in constructing the character of Dr. Manhattan. The writer believed that a living in a quantum universe would not perceive time with a linear perspective. Moore also wanted to avoid creating a character like Spock from Star Trek, so he sought for Dr. Manhattan to retain human habits and to grow away from them. Gibbons had created the blue character Rogue Trooper, and explained he reused the blue skin motif for Doctor Manhattan as it resembles skin tonally, Moore incorporated the color into the story, and Gibbons noted the rest of the comics color scheme made Manhattan unique. Moore recalled that he was unsure if DC would allow the creators to depict the character as fully nude, Dr. Manhattans forehead is marked with the atomic structure of hydrogen, which he put on himself, declining a helmet with the atom symbol. Jonathan Osterman was born in 1929 and his father was a watchmaker, and Jon planned to follow in his footsteps. When the US drops the bomb on Hiroshima, Jon is sixteen. Jon Osterman attends Princeton University from 1948–58 and graduates with a Ph. D. in atomic physics, here he meets Janey Slater, a fellow researcher, they eventually become lovers. During a trip to New Jersey in July 1959, Jon, janeys watchband breaks, and the watch is damaged when a fat man steps on it. Jon decides that he can repair the watch, and tells Janey so, while Jon is inside the test chamber retrieving his coat the door closes, automatically locking as a safety feature
27.
Heroes (TV series)
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Heroes is an American psychological thriller science fiction television drama series created by Tim Kring that appeared on NBC for four seasons from September 25,2006 through February 8,2010. The series emulates the style and storytelling of American comic books, using multi-episode story arcs that build upon a larger. The series was produced by Tailwind Productions in association with Universal Media Studios and it was filmed primarily in Los Angeles, California. Four complete seasons aired, ending on February 8,2010, the second season of Heroes attracted an average of 13.1 million viewers in the U. S. and marked NBCs sole series among the top 20 ranked programs in total viewership for the 2007–2008 season. Heroes has earned a number of awards and nominations, including Primetime Emmy Awards, Golden Globes, Peoples Choice Awards, and British Academy Television Awards. An online extension of the series, Heroes 360 Experience, later rebranded as Heroes Evolutions, was created to explore the Heroes universe, other official Heroes media include magazines, action figures, tie-in and interactive websites, a mobile game, a novel, clothing and other merchandise. A 13-episode miniseries entitled Heroes Reborn premiered on NBC on September 24,2015, additionally, comic book writer Cullen Bunn will be writing an ongoing comic book continuing Heroes, called Heroes, Season Five, a release date and artist has yet to be determined. Originally, Kring designed the series to have an ever-shifting cast, in its first season, the show features an ensemble cast of twelve main characters making it the third largest cast in American primetime television behind Desperate Housewives and Lost. In episode eleven of the first season, Jack Coleman, who portrays Noah Bennet, was upgraded from a role to become the twelfth full-time cast member. Simone Deveaux was the first major character to be written out, DL became a guest star after the events of the first seasons finale, making two appearances throughout season two. Isaac Mendez was also written out, dying at the hands of Sylar, Two recurring characters from season one, Sylar, portrayed by Zachary Quinto, and Ando Masahashi, portrayed by James Kyson Lee, were upgraded to main characters in season two. Starting in season two, recurring character Angela Petrelli, portrayed by Cristine Rose, was promoted to a main character, Elle, Adam, and Micah were removed from the main cast. Monica Dawson did not appear after scenes including her were cut, Niki was also written out but actress Ali Larter remained on the show portraying a new character Tracy Strauss, Nikis triplet sister with the power to freeze objects with a touch. For season four, a new character Samuel Sullivan, portrayed by Robert Knepper, was added, originally cast as a recurring part, the part was changed to a starring role. Deanne Bray was also added as Emma Coolidge, the woman who had enhanced synesthesia including the ability to create a siren song. The plot of Heroes is designed to be told in a way similar to the way books are told. Each season of Heroes contains one or two volumes, there are several main story lines in each volume. As the main plots develop, smaller, more stories are told within them
28.
Sylar
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Gabriel Gray, more commonly known by his pseudonym Sylar, is a fictional character and a primary antagonist of the NBC drama Heroes. Portrayed by Zachary Quinto, he is a serial killer who targets other superhumans in order to steal their powers. He served as the villain of the first season and then as a recurring antagonist. TV Guide included him in their 2013 list of The 60 Nastiest Villains of All Time, in an interview with series creator Tim Kring, it is asked if Sylar eats brains, and he merely states Thats the popular speculation. Theres a connection between the powers and the brain, and Sylar has found it, the question is addressed in the season three premiere, when he is depicted in the act of acquiring Claire Bennets regenerative powers through examination of her brain with his hands. When Claire asks him the question, he sounds surprised. The writers never bridged the gap between the early insinuations regarding what Sylar does with the brains and the final incarnation they reveal in his encounter with Claire. Prior to Quintos first appearance in the episode Seven Minutes to Midnight, Quinto himself played the role with his face hidden in the same way until Six Months Ago. In the second episode of the first season, Dont Look Back, his voice is heard in a phone conversation on Chandra Sureshs answering machine. Part of this conversation is heard again in Six Months Ago, Sylar was raised as the son of a watchmaker, but was indoctrinated by his mothers repeated assertions to believe that he was special and deserved more in life. This and the imperative to acquire new abilities are what drive him to kill the victims with powers. Taking the name Sylar from a brand, he has shed all connections to his former life as Gabriel Gray to the point where he angrily lashes out at anyone who calls him Gabriel. In addition to the above, Sylar shows a lack of empathy. This was seen with Mohinder Suresh, when Sylar tried to impersonate Zane Taylor, Sylars dominant trait was his innate desire to be recognized as special and admired. This was fueled by his mothers disappointment in him for perceived failure and his own feelings that he did not get a chance to choose his destiny. He spent his life hoping to learn something extraordinary about himself, Sylar is repeatedly shown as desperately looking for a family and parental figures due to his own unhappy home life, desperately wanting to be loved. The flip side of this is that he can react with violence when his emotional needs are exploited by others. Sylar is also known for his voracious appetite and he can constantly be seen snacking or looking for food and he has even taken time during his murders to eat, such as when he reacted with joy at a birthday cake of the woman he just killed
29.
The Mote in God's Eye
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The Mote in Gods Eye is a science fiction novel by American writers Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle, first published in 1974. The story is set in the distant future of Pournelles CoDominium universe, the title of the novel is a wordplay on the Biblical The Mote and the Beam parable and is the nickname of a star. The Mote in Gods Eye was nominated for the Hugo, Nebula, robert A. Heinlein, who gave the authors extensive advice on the novel, described the story as possibly the finest science fiction novel I have ever read. In the year AD3017, humanity is slowly recovering from a civil war that tore apart the first Empire of Man. The Second Empire is busy establishing control over the remnants of its predecessor, another passenger is Lady Sandra Bright Sally Fowler, the niece of an Imperial senator and a traumatized former prisoner of the rebels. New Caledonia is the capital of the Trans-Coalsack sector, on the side of the Coalsack Nebula from Earth. Also in the sector is a red supergiant star known as Murchesons Eye, associated with it is a yellow Sun-like star, which from New Caledonia appears in front of the Eye. Since some see the Eye and the Coalsack as the face of God, human ships use the Alderson Drive, which allows them to travel instantaneously between Alderson points in specific star systems. Approaching New Caledonia, MacArthur is ordered to investigate when an alien spacecraft, after the spacecraft fires upon MacArthur, Blaine has its main capsule detached from the sail and taken aboard. Its sole occupant, a brown and white furred creature, is found dead, after much debate, MacArthur and the battleship Lenin are sent to the star from which the alien ship came, the Mote. MacArthur carries civilian researchers to make first contact with the aliens, admiral Kutuzov, aboard Lenin, has strict orders to avoid all contact with the aliens and ensure that human technology does not fall into their hands. The Moties seem friendly and have advanced technology that they are willing to trade, although they also possess the Alderson Drive, none of their ships have ever returned. This is because, unknown to the Moties, the Motes only Alderson exit point lies within the layers of the star Murchesons Eye. Human warships can survive there for a time because of their protective Langston Fields. The Moties are an old species, native to a planet that the humans label Mote Prime, the first taken aboard MacArthur is an Engineer, possessing amazing technical abilities, but limited speech and free will. It brings along a pair of tiny Watchmakers as helpers, some days later, a delegation of Mediators arrive. Their specialty is communication and negotiation, the Mediators invite the humans to send a party to Mote Prime. After some debate, the invitation is accepted, each person in this group acquires a Fyunch, a Mediator who studies their subject and tries to learn how to think like them
30.
Larry Niven
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Laurence van Cott Niven —known as Larry Niven—is an American science fiction writer. His best-known work is Ringworld, which received Hugo, Locus, Ditmar, the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America named him the 2015 recipient of the Damon Knight Memorial Grand Master Award. His work is hard science fiction, using big science concepts. It also often includes elements of fiction and adventure stories. His fantasy includes the series The Magic Goes Away, rational fantasy dealing with magic as a non-renewable resource, Niven was born in Los Angeles. He briefly attended the California Institute of Technology and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in mathematics from Washburn University, Topeka, Kansas and he did a year of graduate work in mathematics at the University of California at Los Angeles. On September 6,1969, he married Marilyn Joyce Fuzzy Pink Wisowaty, Niven is the author of numerous science fiction short stories and novels, beginning with his 1964 story The Coldest Place. In this story, the coldest place concerned is the side of Mercury. In addition to the Nebula award in 1970 and the Hugo and Locus awards in 1971 for Ringworld and he won the same award in 1972, for Inconstant Moon, and in 1975 for The Hole Man. In 1976, he won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette for The Borderland of Sol, Niven has also written for the DC Comics character Green Lantern including in his stories hard science fiction concepts such as universal entropy and the redshift effect. The Ringworld series is part of the Tales of Known Space, Niven has also written a logical fantasy series The Magic Goes Away, which utilizes an exhaustible resource called mana to power a rule-based technological magic. The Draco Tavern series of short stories take place in a more light-hearted science fiction universe, much of his writing since the 1970s has been in collaboration, particularly with Jerry Pournelle and Steven Barnes, but also Brenda Cooper and Edward M. Lerner. The ideas genesis came from Nivens attempts to imagine a more efficient version of a Dyson Sphere, Niven used this as a core plot element in the sequel novel, The Ringworld Engineers. This idea proved influential, serving as an alternative to a full Dyson Sphere that required fewer assumptions and this was further developed by Iain M. Banks in his Culture series, which features about 1/100th ringworld–size megastructures called Orbitals that orbit a star rather than encircling it entirely. Alastair Reynolds also uses ringworlds in his 2008 novel House of Suns, the Ringworld-like namesake of the Halo video game series is the eponymous Halo megastructure/superweapon. The 2013 film Elysium also featured a similar structure, the original release of Magic, The Gathering paid homage to Larry Niven on a card called Nevinyrrals Disk, with Nevinyrral being Larry Niven spelled backwards. Subsequent sets have featured no new cards featuring Nevinyrral, although the character is sporadically quoted on the text of various cards. Netrunner paid a homage to Larry Niven with the card Nevinyrral
31.
Survivor (film)
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Survivor is a 2015 British-American spy thriller film directed by James McTeigue and written by Philip Shelby. The film stars Milla Jovovich, Pierce Brosnan and Dylan McDermott, the film was released in the United States on May 29,2015 in a limited release and through video on demand. It was released in the United Kingdom on June 5,2015, johnny Talbot, an American soldier serving in Afghanistan, is captured by terrorists and forced to witness the execution of his comrade, Ray. Kate Abbott is a Diplomatic Security Service agent working for the American Embassy in London, Bill is Johnnys father, and is being blackmailed under threat of Johnnys death. He is delayed attending the party when he returns to his desk to delete records of the visas he has approved for terrorists entering the United States, Kate survives the bombing when she leaves the restaurant to get a last-minute present for Bill. Nobody knows the Watchmakers appearance, as he has had lots of plastic surgery over the years and her efforts uncover a plan to detonate another bomb at Times Square in New York City during the New Years Eve celebrations. As she carries out her own investigation, she is attacked by Bill, meanwhile, the Watchmaker uses a Steyr HS.50 cal sniper rifle to fire an incendiary round into a sphere filled with explosive gas atop the Tower Hamlets, a large tower block of apartments. Later, the Watchmaker reveals that he is aware that his clients purpose for the Times Square attack is not terrorism and he intends to bet against the stock market and make millions when the stock market reopens. The Watchmaker demands half the profits, threatening to cancel the attack, the Watchmaker leaves for New York. Dr Emil Balan, is motivated to avenge his wifes death when her visa to the U. S. was delayed. In New York, he coordinates filling the New Years Eve ball with explosive gas, the Watchmakers job is to shoot the sphere and ignite the gas. Balan meets the Watchmater on top of a rise a few blocks from Times Square. The Watchmaker kills Balan, removing any connection back to him, Kate deduces the plot and finds the Watchmaker, moments away from triggering the bomb. After a struggle, she manages to throw the Watchmaker off the side of the building and he falls to his death on the stroke of midnight. Her suspicion about Balan is vindicated and her name is cleared and she receives a call from Sam, who has recovered from recent injuries, congratulating her. Milla Jovovich as Katherine Kate Abbott, a DSS/Foreign Service officer at the US Embassy in London, Pierce Brosnan as Nash / The Watchmaker, a world renowned assassin. Dylan McDermott as Sam Parker, Abbotts superior at the US Embassy in London, angela Bassett as Maureen Crane, the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom. Robert Forster as Bill Talbot, a senior United States Foreign Service officer at the US Embassy in London, James DArcy as Inspector Paul Anderson, a Counter Terrorism Command officer in the Metropolitan Police Service
32.
Pierce Brosnan
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Pierce Brendan Brosnan OBE is an Irish actor, film producer, and activist who after leaving comprehensive school at age 16, began training in commercial illustration. He then went on to train at the Drama Centre in London for three years, following a stage acting career he rose to popularity in the television series Remington Steele, which blended the genres of romantic comedy, drama, and detective procedural. After the conclusion of Remington Steele, Brosnan appeared in such as the Cold War spy film The Fourth Protocol. In 1994, Brosnan became the actor to portray secret agent James Bond in the Eon Productions film series. He lent his likeness for Bond in the video games James Bond 007, Nightfire and James Bond 007, during this period, he also took the lead in other films including the epic disaster adventure film Dantes Peak and the remake of the heist film The Thomas Crown Affair. In 1996, along with Beau St. Clair, Brosnan formed Irish DreamTime, in later years, he has become known for his charitable work and environmental activism. He was married to Australian actress Cassandra Harris from 1980 until her death in 1991 and he married American journalist and author Keely Shaye Smith in 2001, and became an American citizen in 2004, holding dual citizenship in the U. S. and Ireland. He has earned two Golden Globe Award nominations, first for the television miniseries Nancy Astor and next for the comedy film The Matador. Brosnan was born in Our Lady of Lourdes Hospital in Drogheda, County Louth, Ireland, the child of Thomas Brosnan, a carpenter. He lived in Navan, County Meath for 12 years and considers it his home town and he went to Primary School in St. Annes Primary School, Navan. Brosnans father abandoned the family when Pierce was an infant, when he was four years old, his mother moved to London to work as a nurse. From that point on, he was brought up by his grandparents, Philip. After their deaths, he lived with an aunt and then an uncle and he was educated at Elliott School, now known as Ark Putney Academy, a coeducational secondary school with academy status in South West London. According to Brosnan, Childhood was fairly solitary, I grew up in a very small town called Navan in County Meath. He left when I was an infant and I was left in the care of my mother and my grandparents. To be Catholic in the 50s, and to be Irish Catholic in the 50s, and have a marriage which was not there, a father who was not there, consequently, the mother and she took the bold steps to go away and be a nurse in England. Basically wanting a life for her and myself. My mother came home once a year, twice a year, Brosnan was brought up in a Roman Catholic family and educated in a local school run by the de la Salle Brothers while serving as an altar boy
33.
Ferdinand Berthoud
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Ferdinand Berthoud was a Swiss watchmaker and scientist. He was awarded the title of Master Watchmaker in Paris in 1753 and he occupied the position of Horologist-Mechanic by appointment to the King and the Navy and left behind him an exceptionally broad body of work, notably in the field of marine chronometers. He succeeded the pioneering work of Henry Sully, at the kings insistence he travelled to England to view the chronometers of John Harrison. Together with his rival, Pierre Le Roy, Berthoud contributed to the development of the chronometer. He was made a member of the Institute of France and elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1764, among other works he wrote Essai sur lhorlogerie in 1763. He died in 1807 at his home in Groslay near Montmorency and he had married twice, firstly Mademoiselle Chati of Cean, and then Mademoiselle Dumoustier of Saint Quentin, but had no children. His business passed to his nephew, Louis Berthoud, Ferdinand Berthoud settled in Paris on April 16,1745 at the age of 18, a move that enabled him to perfect his knowledge of the watchmaking-clockmaking profession. He is generally considered to have entered the workshop of Julien Le Roy, Ferdinand Berthoud rapidly acquired a reputation for technical competence and achieved recognition for his innovations in his field. Ferdinand Berthoud published his first specialised book in 1759, entitled L’art de conduire et de régler les pendules et les montres and this was a popular scientific work that proved a great success and was translated into several languages and then repeatedly re-edited during the 18th and 19th centuries. On December 13,1760, Ferdinand Berthoud submitted to the French Royal Academy of Science a Mémoire sur les principes de construction d’une Horloge de Marine,1, whose construction was completed at the start of 1761. He made marine clocks to calculate longitude at sea, in 1764, by order of the King, the Academy charged two of its members, Duhamel du Monceau and Abbot Chappe d’Auteroche with putting the Marine Chronometer No.3 by Ferdinand Berthoud to trial at sea. They set off from Brest aboard the corvette L’Hirondelle on October 7 that year, the mission report, read by Abbot Chappe d’Auteroche to the Academy on November 14, was never published, an exceptional occurrence. Ferdinand Berthoud was appointed Horloger du roi in 1770 and he was also named a member of the Institute right from the time of its creation in 1795. Berthoud had meanwhile become a member of the Royal Society on February 16,1764 and he is regarded as one of the inventors of the marine chronometer that served to determine longitude at sea necessary to navigation. His nephew Louis Berthoud, also distinguished himself as a horologist, Ferdinand Berthoud married Henriette Chatry de La Fosse, and later Marie Adélaïde Dumoustier. ”He seized the possibility of making his research known at the Royal Academy of Science by submitting a sealed document describing a new construction. On December 4,1753, the King of France ordered that he should be granted the title of master, authorising him to open a workshop on the Rue de Harlay, in 1754, the master horologist once again submitted his inventions to the Academy. One was his first marine chronometer project and this two-fold commitment enabled him to swiftly establish himself in the scientific circles of his era. Several articles of the Encyclopaedia supervised by Diderot were entrusted to him, in 1759, he published a popular work that would prove a success, L’Art de conduire et de régler les pendules et les montres
34.
Abraham-Louis Breguet
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Abraham-Louis Breguet, born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland, was a horologist who made many innovations in the course of a career in watchmaking in France. In his lifetime he was considered the leading watchmaker of his day, alongside his friend and contemporary John Arnold, Breguet is now widely acknowledged as one of the greatest horologists of all time. One of his famous ancestors was the Swiss Jean Breguet a Protestant pastor in Neuchâtel very much influenced by the ideas of Jean Calvin and he is the founder of the Breguet company, which is now the luxury watch division of the Swiss Swatch Group. Breguet was born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland to Jonas-Louis Breguet and Suzanne-Marguerite Bollein, Breguets father died in 1758, when he was ten, and his formal schooling ended when he was 12. Breguets mother remarried to Joseph Tattet, who came from a family of watchmakers, at this time the Court had a great influence on the trade and the best watchmakers established themselves around Versailles. Unfortunately, Marie met an end, either through murder or suicide. How he managed this in the period between his parents deaths and the establishment of his business is unknown, Breguet was allowed to marry in 1775 after finishing his apprenticeship. He and his bride, Cécile Marie-Louise LHuillier, set up their home, ca.1812 the firms address was 79, quai de lHorloge du Palais, although Salomons speculated that this might have been merely a change of number and name, not of actual location. By the year of Breguets death in 1823 the firm also had a shop at 4, place de la Bourse, the firm later moved to Rue de la Paix and in the early 20th century to 2, rue Édouard-VII. Breguet invented innovative escapements, including the tourbillon, automatic winding mechanisms, within ten years Breguet had commissions from the aristocratic families of France and even the French queen, Marie-Antoinette. He met Abraham-Louis Perrelet in Switzerland and became a Master Clockmaker in 1784, in 1787 Abraham-Louis established a partnership with Xavier Gide, which lasted until 1791. Ca.1792 the Duke of Orléans went to England and met John Arnold, Europes leading watch, the Duke showed Arnold a clock made by Breguet, who was so impressed that he immediately travelled to Paris and asked Breguet to accept his son as an apprentice. As Breguets fame gradually increased he became friendly with revolutionary leader Jean-Paul Marat, Salomons biography records that Marat and Breguet were at the house of a mutual friend one day when an angry crowd gathered outside, shouting Down with Marat. But Breguet contrived their escape by disguising Marat as an old woman and he remained there for two years, during which time he worked for King George III. When the political scene in France stabilised, Breguet returned to Paris, in 1795 Breguet returned to Paris with many ideas for innovations in watch and clock making. He set up again in Quai de lHorloge and quickly established a reputation among the new wealthy classes in the Empire. Breguet met another watchmaker Louis Moinet, recognised his worth at once, from 1811 on, Moinet became Breguets personal adviser. Breguet became a member of the Board of Longitude in 1814 and he entered the French Academy of Sciences in 1816 as a full member, and received the Chevalier of the Legion of Honour from the hands of Louis XVIII in 1819
35.
Cartier (jeweler)
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Société Cartier is a French luxury goods conglomerate company. The company designs, manufactures, distributes and sells jewellery and watches, founded in Paris, France in 1847 by Louis-François Cartier, the company remained under family control until 1964. The company maintains its headquarters in Paris and is now a wholly owned subsidiary of the Compagnie Financière Richemont SA. Cartier is well known for its jewellery and wrist watches, including the Bestiary, the diamond necklace created for Bhupinder Singh the Maharaja of Patiala and the Santos wristwatch of 1904. Cartier has a history of sales to royalty and celebrities. For example, Kate Middleton. King Edward VII of England referred to Cartier as the jeweller of kings, for his coronation in 1902, Edward VII ordered 27 tiaras and issued a royal warrant to Cartier in 1904. Similar warrants soon followed from the courts of Spain, Portugal, Russia, Siam, Greece, Serbia, Belgium, Romania, Egypt, Albania, Monaco, Louis-François Cartier founded Cartier in Paris in 1847 when he took over the workshop of his master. In 1874, Louis-François son Alfred Cartier took over the company, but it was Alfreds sons Louis, Pierre and Jacques, in 1904, the Brazilian pioneer aviator, Alberto Santos-Dumont complained to his friend Louis Cartier of the unreliability and impracticality of using pocket watches while flying. Cartier designed a flat wristwatch with a square bezel. This watch was liked by not only Santos-Dumont but also many other customers and this was Cartiers first mens wristwatch. Louis retained responsibility for the Paris branch, moving to the Rue de la Paix in 1899, in 1907, Cartier signed a contract with Edmond Jaeger, who agreed to exclusively supply the movements for Cartier watches. By this time, Cartier had branches in London, New York, the Baignoire and Tortue models were introduced in 1912, followed by the Tank model in 1917. This, designed by Louis Cartier, was inspired from the newly introduced tanks on the Western Front and this line too has survived, with over thirty varieties made since. In the early 1920s, Cartier formed a joint company with Edward Jaeger to produce movements solely for Cartier, thus was the European watch and clock company born, although Cartier continued to use movements from other makers. Cartier watches can be found with movements from Vacheron Constantin, Audemars Piguet, Movado, Pierre Cartier established the New York City branch in 1909, moving in 1917 to 653 Fifth Avenue, the Neo-Renaissance mansion of Morton Freeman Plant and designed by architect C. P. H. Cartier acquired the mansion from the Plants in exchange for $100 in cash, among the Cartier team was Charles Jacqueau, who joined Louis Cartier in 1909 for the rest of his life, and Jeanne Toussaint, who was Director of Fine Jewellery from 1933. After the death of Pierre in 1964, Jean-Jacques Cartier, Claude Cartier, in 1972, a group of investors led by Joseph Kanoui bought Cartier Paris. President Robert Hocq, who created the phrase Les Must de Cartier with Alain Dominique Perrin, General Director, in 1974 and 1976 respectively, the group repurchased Cartier London and Cartier New York
36.
George Daniels (watchmaker)
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George Daniels, CBE, DSc, FBHI, FSA, AHCI was a British horologist who was considered to be the best in the world during his lifetime. He was one of the few modern watchmakers who built complete watches by hand, but it was his creation of the coaxial escapement for which he is most remembered. The movement, which removed the need to add a lubricant, has been used by Omega in their highest-grade watches since 1999, Daniels was born in Sunderland in 1926. His mother was unmarried so she fled London and travelled north, after Daniels was born he and his mother returned to London, where she married Daniels father. He suffered a childhood and spent most of his time on the streets. In 1944, Daniels entered the British Army, he already had an interest in watches, on leaving the army in 1947 with a gratuity of £50, he bought some tools and got a job as a watch repairer. From studying horology at night classes, he became a Fellow of the British Horological Institute, after a decade of hard work, Daniels opened his first watch repair and cleaning shop in 1960 in London. It was a friend named Sam Clutton who introduced Daniels to the upscale timepiece market, in 1968, Daniels constructed – for £2,000 – his first pocket watch for Clutton. When his friend showed the piece to collectors, it created great interest. Five years later, Daniels bought the back for £8,000. In 2012, it sold at auction in the United States for $285,000, throughout his career, Daniels made signature timepieces for personally selected clients, stating I never made watches for people if I didnt care for them. The watches, which cost tens of thousands of pounds, took more than 2,500 hours to make and his signature was to give them clear and clean dials with subsidiary dials interwoven with the main chapter ring. After much experimentation, Daniels had designed a new type of escapement by 1974. The mechanism, which was first unveiled in 1976 and patented in 1980, was called the coaxial escapement and its design avoided the need to add oil to the escapement because the mechanism operated with very low friction. Traditional escapements had to use lubricants but this caused problems with accuracy as oil thickened over time. But coaxial escapement used radial friction instead of sliding friction making lubricants unnecessary, Daniels mechanism has since been described as the most important development in horology in the past 250 years. Although the horological industry was first introduced to the concept in 1976, Daniels escapement was met by scepticism and it was not until the 1980s that Swatch Group chairman Nicolas Hayek adopted the concept using it in his upmarket Omega brand. The company unveiled – to great acclaim – its first automatic watch using Daniels coaxial escapement at the 1999 Basel Watch, Daniels, who was a member of the Swiss Académie Horlogère des Créateurs Indépendants, continued to make watches well into later life
37.
John Harrison
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John Harrison was a self-educated English carpenter and clockmaker who invented the marine chronometer, a long-sought-after device for solving the problem of calculating longitude while at sea. His solution revolutionized navigation and greatly increased the safety of long-distance sea travel, the problem he solved was considered so important following the Scilly naval disaster of 1707 that the British Parliament offered financial rewards of up to £20,000 under the 1714 Longitude Act. Harrison came 39th in the BBCs 2002 public poll of the 100 Greatest Britons, John Harrison was born in Foulby, near Wakefield in the West Riding of Yorkshire, the first of five children in his family. His father worked as a carpenter at the nearby Nostell Priory estate, a house on the site of what may have been the family home bears a blue plaque. In around 1700, the Harrison family moved to the Lincolnshire village of Barrow upon Humber, following his fathers trade as a carpenter, Harrison built and repaired clocks in his spare time. Legend has it that at the age of six, while in bed with smallpox, he was given a watch to amuse himself and he spent hours listening to it and he also had a fascination for music, eventually becoming choirmaster for Barrow parish church. Harrison built his first longcase clock in 1713, at the age of 20, the mechanism was made entirely of wood, which was a natural choice of material for a joiner. The second is also in the Science Museum in London, and the third is at Nostell Priory in Yorkshire, in the early 1720s, Harrison was commissioned to make a new turret clock at Brocklesby Park, North Lincolnshire. The clock still works, and like his previous clocks has a movement of oak. Unlike his early clocks, it incorporates some features to improve timekeeping. Between 1725 and 1728, John and his brother James, also a skilled joiner, the grid-iron pendulum was developed during this period. These precision clocks are thought by some to have been the most accurate clocks in the world at the time and they are the direct link to the Harrisons sea clocks. Number 1, now in a collection, belonged to the Time Museum, USA, until the museum closed in 2000. Number 2 is in the Leeds City Museum, Number 3 is in the Worshipful Company of Clockmakers collection. Harrison was a man of many skills and he used these to improve the performance of the pendulum clock. He invented the pendulum, consisting of alternating brass and iron rods assembled so that the thermal expansions and contractions essentially cancel each other out. Another example of his genius was the grasshopper escapement – a control device for the step-by-step release of a clocks driving power. Developed from the escapement, it was almost frictionless, requiring no lubrication because the pallets were made from wood
38.
Peter Henlein
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Peter Henlein, a locksmith and clockmaker of Nuremberg, Germany, is often considered the inventor of the watch. He was one of the first craftsmen to make small ornamental Taschenuhren, portable clocks which were worn as pendants or attached to clothing. Many sources also credit him as the inventor of the mainspring. Little is known about Henleins life and he apparently apprenticed in his youth as a locksmith. At the time, locksmiths were among the few craftsmen with the skills and tools to enter the new field of clockmaking, on September 7,1504, he was involved in a brawl in which a fellow locksmith, George Glaser, was killed. He sought asylum at a local Franciscan monastery, where he stayed for four years, in 1509 he became a master in the citys locksmith guild. He became known as a maker of small portable ornamental spring-powered brass clocks, very rare and expensive and he is mentioned in the citys records as the supplier of small spring-driven clocks, which were given as gifts to important people. He was supposedly the first craftsman to build clockworks into Bisamköpfe, for example a Nuremberg paper records that in 1524 he was paid 15 florins for a gilt musk-ball watch. He also built a clock for Lichtenau castle in 1541. This was made into a 1939 film, and his likeness appeared on a 1942 German stamp. However, although he was a notable and talented clockmaker, there were other clockmakers making small clocks at the time, the mainspring which made portable clocks possible, often attributed to him, actually appeared in the early 15th century, almost a century before his work. Perhaps the most that was said of him by his peers comes from Johann Neudorfer in 1547 shortly after his death, Henlein was very nearly the first of those who invented how to put small clocks into little boxes. History of watches Jürgen Abeler In Sachen Peter Henlein, wuppertaler Uhrenmuseum, Wuppertal 1980 Maren Winter Der Stundensammler. A scholarly Essay in, Jahresschrift 2015 - Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer Chronometrie -Band 54, published by Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer Chronometrie, Nuernberg, ISBN 978-3-923422-23-4 Pictures of watches from Peter Henleins time Peter Henlein, Pomander Watch Anno 1505
39.
Antide Janvier
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Antide Janvier was a French clockmaker. Antide Janvier was born in a village in the Jura, and learned the basics of his trade from his father, and was educated in Latin, Greek, mathematics and astronomy by a local abbé. At age 15 he built an astronomical sphere which he presented to the Academy of Sciences of Besançon, which won him wide admiration and he gained a reputation as a maker of ingenious and complicated clocks, including many astronomical clocks and clocks showing the tides. He was also famous for his double pendulum clocks, also called Resonance clocks and he eventually became Louis XVIs royal clockmaker. After the French Revolution he spent time in prison because of this association and then fell on hard times. He sold his watches and equipment and designs to Abraham-Louis Breguet, following the restoration of the monarchy under Charles X, he was awarded a small pension beginning in 1826, but died in poverty and obscurity. The largest, publicly-accessible, collection of Antide Janviers masterworks is in the Musée Paul Dupuy in Toulouse, Antide Janvier, Celestial clockmaker by Michel Hayard,1995. Antide Janvier, Celestial clockmaker by Michel Hayard,2010 - Second edition completed and enlarged
40.
Thomas Mudge (horologist)
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Thomas Mudge was an English horologist who invented the lever escapement, the greatest single improvement ever applied to pocket watches. Thomas Mudge was the son of Zachariah Mudge, headmaster and clergyman. He was born in Exeter, but when he was young, the moved to Bideford. Thomas attended the school and, when 14 or 15, was sent to London to be apprenticed to George Graham. Graham’s business was situated in Water Lane, Fleet Street, when Mudge qualified as a watchmaker in 1738 he began to be employed by a number of important London retailers. He is known to have made at least five watches for Ferdinand, in 1748 Mudge set himself up in business at 151 Fleet Street, and began to advertise for work as soon as his old master, George Graham, died in 1751. He rapidly acquired a reputation as one of England’s outstanding watchmakers, in 1753 he married Abigail Hopkins of Oxford, with whom he had two sons. In 1765 he published the book, Thoughts on the Means of Improving Watches, in 1770, due to ill-health Mudge, quit active business and left London to live in Plymouth with his brother Dr John Mudge. He sent the first of these for trial in 1774, and was awarded 500 guineas for his design and he completed two others in 1779 in the continuing attempt to satisfy the increasingly difficult requirements set by the Board of Longitude. They were tested by the Astronomer Royal, Nevil Maskelyne, there followed a controversy in which it was claimed that Maskelyne had not given them a fair trial. A similar controversy had arisen when John Harrison had been denied the full amount of the 1714 prize by the Board of Longitude, in 1770 George III purchased a large gold watch produced by Mudge, that incorporated his lever escapement. This he presented to his wife, Queen Charlotte, and it remains in the Royal Collection at Windsor Castle. In 1776 Mudge was appointed watchmaker to the king, in 1789 his wife, Abigail died. Thomas Mudge died at the home of his son, Thomas, at Newington Butts. He was buried at St Dunstan-in-the-West, Fleet Street
41.
Nicolas Mathieu Rieussec
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Nicolas Mathieu Rieussec was a French watchmaker. The Rieussec family’s birthplace was the town of Lespinassière, Nicolas was the son of Joseph Rieussec, a merchant born in the 18th century in Lespinassière, in Languedoc, then one of the largest provinces in the kingdom of France. Today, Lespinassière is located in Aude, one of the five départements of the Languedoc-Roussillon region, Joseph Rieussec was in Paris at the end of 1778, although no one knows when he left his birthplace, the town of Lespinassière, for the kingdom’s capital. His wife, Jeanne Michateau, was expecting, on January 20,1779, she gave birth to their first son, Nicolas Joseph. On July 20,1781, a few years before the outbreak of a revolution that was to lead to an upheaval in France and all of Europe, the baby was baptised three days after his birth in the parish of Sainte-Marie du Temple. Nicolas Mathieu Bogganio, a banker residing on the Rue des Victoires in Paris, stood godfather, Joseph Rieussec held a literary salon. On an unknown date, probably between 1786 and 1788, he remarried Cécile Paillard, the family grew with the arrival of a third child, Lucile Clotilde Cécile, born on October 25,1788. Some may be astonished that Nicolas Mathieu was born in Paris and it is true that several sources put his birth in Toulouse, sometimes on September 1,1781, which is not supported by a single document. In contrast, the royal warrant naming Nicolas Mathieu a Watchmaker to the King, is accompanied by a certificate from the registry of the Sainte-Marie-du-Temple parish in Paris. Still a minor, young Rieussec was set up as a watchmaker at no,14, Rue du Marché-Palu, on the Île de la Cité. The Almanac du commerce de Paris pour l’an XIII, i. e.1805, lists 190 watchmakers, in contrast, five years later, he is listed among the 222 watchmakers in Paris. Married to Anne Marie Delan, he had a son named Joseph-Ferdinand, born on December 15,1804, two years later, Rieussec became a widower. His wife, born July 21,1780, died on May 1,1806, less than a year later, on February 7,1807, Nicolas Mathieu married Marie Pierrette Flore Bourdin in Sainte-Marguerite church. The year 1815 and Waterloo arrived, during which Napoleon and his Empire was swept away in defeat, with the royalty restored, the throne passed to a Bourbon, Louis XVIII, brother of the late Louis XVI, who had been guillotined in 1793. All indications are that the new king did not consider Rieussec to be a follower of Napoleon. From 1817 on, Rieussec practiced his profession at no, curiously, he also had a currency exchange there for an indeterminate period of time. That same year, the young watchmaker began to gain recognition when he was named a Watchmaker to the King in a warrant dated January 31,1817. ”In 1817, there were already five Watchmakers to the King in Paris, Lepaute, Le Roy, Lépine, Robin. It was not by chance that this honour had been obtained, since 1815/1816, Nicolas Mathieu had been entrusted with “maintenance of the clocks for the Minister of the King’s Household, ” or in other words the Royal Furniture Depository
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Thomas Tompion
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Thomas Tompion was an English clockmaker, watchmaker and mechanician who is still regarded to this day as the Father of English Clockmaking. Tompions work includes some of the most historic and important clocks and watches in the World, a plaque commemorates the house he shared on Fleet Street with his equally famous pupil and successor George Graham. Thomas Tompion was born around 1639 and was baptized on 25 July 1639 in Northill, Bedfordshire, the Worshipful Company of Clockmakers maintains the family cottage in Ickwell, his home hamlet in the parish of Northill. He was the eldest son of a blacksmith, also named Thomas Tompion, very little of his earlier years is known. The first reference to Tompion in London is recorded around the end of 1670 in Water Lane off Fleet Street and his early clockmaking style shows a strong connection with Joseph Knibb. This is of interest as Tompions most important early patron was the scientist Robert Hooke who may well have known the Knibb family, Hookes relationship with Tompion was the key to his success as it opened doors to royal patronage as well as giving him access to the latest technology. Tompions excellence was based on the design of his productions as well as the high quality of the materials used. This together with the skills of the workmen he employed gave him an unrivalled reputation throughout the known world. Many of these workmen had French and Dutch Huguenot origins, for example Daniel and Nicholas Delander, Henry Callot and Charles Molyns, the latter possibly related to the family Windmills. Importantly, those Huguenots who worked for him in the sphere of arts were able to execute Tompions demands for the high quality workmanship on which he founded his unrivalled reputation. Tompion was an member of the Clockmakers Company of London — he joined in 1671. When the Royal Observatory was established in 1676, King Charles II selected Tompion to create two identical clocks based on Hookes idea of a long pendulum swinging in a very small arc. These were fixed in the Octagon room, each was driven by an escapement designed by Richard Towneley. They proved to be accurate and were instrumental in achieving the correct calculations needed for astronomical observations. Due to his relationship with the scientist Robert Hooke he made some of the first watches with balance springs, several different kinds were experimented with, including an early type with double balances geared together in order to eliminate errors of motion. One of these was made for King Charles II and was signed Robert Hooke invent, william Derham mentions this in his book The Artificial Clockmaker. This watch, it seems, has not survived, the final form of balance spring arrangement used by Tompion was a plain spiral with a single balance, indeed the same arrangement employed by Christiaan Huygens in watches made for him by Thuret. A few of Tompions early spiral balance spring movements were also of a specification to the Huygens/Thuret pattern as they had a standing barrel
