1.
Clothing
–
Clothing is fiber and textile material worn on the body. The wearing of clothing is mostly restricted to human beings and is a feature of all human societies. The amount and type of clothing worn depends on type, social. Some clothing types can be gender-specific, physically, clothing serves many purposes, it can serve as protection from the elements, and can enhance safety during hazardous activities such as hiking and cooking. It protects the wearer from rough surfaces, rash-causing plants, insect bites, splinters, thorns, Clothes can insulate against cold or hot conditions. Further, they can provide a barrier, keeping infectious. Clothing also provides protection from ultraviolet radiation, there is no easy way to determine when clothing was first developed, but some information has been inferred by studying lice. The body louse specifically lives in clothing, and diverge from head lice about 170 millennia ago, another theory is that modern humans are the only survivors of several species of primates who may have worn clothes and that clothing may have been used as long ago as 650 millennia. Other louse-based estimates put the introduction of clothing at around 42, the most obvious function of clothing is to improve the comfort of the wearer, by protecting the wearer from the elements. In hot climates, clothing provides protection from sunburn or wind damage, shelter usually reduces the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves, and other layers are normally removed when entering a warm home. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects, so that thinner materials, Clothing performs a range of social and cultural functions, such as individual, occupational and gender differentiation, and social status. In many societies, norms about clothing reflect standards of modesty, religion, gender, Clothing may also function as a form of adornment and an expression of personal taste or style. Clothing can and has in history been made from a wide variety of materials. Materials have ranged from leather and furs, to materials, to elaborate and exotic natural. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing, Clothing protects against many things that might injure the uncovered human body. Clothes protect people from the elements, including rain, snow, wind, however, clothing that is too sheer, thin, small, tight, etc. offers less protection. Clothes also reduce risk during activities such as work or sport, some clothing protects from specific environmental hazards, such as insects, noxious chemicals, weather, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances
Clothing
–
Clothing in history, showing (from top) Egyptians, Ancient Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Franks, and 13th through 15th century Europeans.
Clothing
–
A
baby wearing many items of
winter clothing:
headband,
cap, fur-lined
coat,
shawl and
sweater
Clothing
–
Former 3rd Duke of Fife wearing a traditional
Scottish kilt. (1984)
Clothing
–
Former
US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice and
Turkish President Abdullah Gül both wearing Western-style
business suits.
2.
Bride
–
A bride is a woman who is about to be married or who is newlywed. When marrying, the future spouse, or husband is usually referred to as the bridegroom or groom. In Western culture, a bride may be attended by one or more bridesmaids, the word may come from the Proto-Germanic verb root *brū-, meaning to cook, brew, or make a broth, which was the role of the daughter-in-law in primitive families. But Aoife Curran, in Ireland Legends And Folklore, suggests that the bride may be named for Saint Brigit. In Europe and North America, the attire for a bride is a formal dress. Usually, in the white wedding model, the dress is bought specifically for the wedding. For first marriages in Western countries, a wedding dress is usually worn, a tradition started by Queen Victoria. Today, Western brides frequently wear white, cream, or ivory dresses for any number of marriages, outside of Western countries, brides most commonly wear national dress. White wedding dresses are particularly uncommon in Asian traditions, because white is the color of mourning, in many Asian cultures, red is usual for brides, as this colour indicates vibrance and health and has over time been associated with brides. However, in modern times other colours may be worn, or Western styles preferred, regardless of colour in most Asian cultures bridal clothes are highly decorative, often covered with embroidery, beading or gold. In some traditions brides may wear more than one outfit, this is true for example in Japan, parts of India, particular styles of jewelry are often associated with bridal wear, for example wedding rings in most Western cultures, or chura in Punjabi Sikh culture. Hindu brides are presented with a mangalsutra during the wedding ceremony, wedding jewellery has traditionally been used to demonstrate the value of the brides dowry. In addition to the gown, brides wear a veil and carry a bouquet of flowers, a small heirloom such as a lucky coin. In Western countries, a bride may wear something old, something new, something borrowed, and something blue, the term bride appears in combination with many words, some of which are obsolete. Thus bridegroom is a married man, and bride-bell, bride-banquet are old equivalents of wedding-bells. Bridal, originally the wedding-feast itself, has grown into a general descriptive adjective, the cake-eating went out of fashion, but the wheat ears survived. In the Middle Ages they were either worn or carried by the bride, eventually it became the custom for the young girls to assemble outside the church porch and throw grains of wheat over the bride, and afterwards a scramble for the grains took place. In time the wheat-grains came to be cooked into thin dry biscuits, which were broken over the head, as is the custom in Scotland today
Bride
–
A bride in an elaborate wedding dress, USA 1929.
Bride
–
Bride and groom in traditional
Minangkabau clothing of
West Sumatera,
Indonesia. Since the culture is
matrilineal,that gives special status for women, the bride is decorated with gold coloured accessories to symbolize the wealth of their ancient kingdom.
Bride
–
Circa 1926. In the early 20th century it was not uncommon to see a bride wearing a darker-colored dress.
Bride
–
The woman to the far right is wearing a typical wedding dress from 1929. Up until the late 1930s wedding dresses reflected the styles of the day. From that time onward, wedding dresses have been based on Victorian ballgowns.
3.
Wedding
–
A wedding is a ceremony where two people are united in marriage. Wedding traditions and customs vary greatly between cultures, ethnic groups, religions, countries, and social classes, most wedding ceremonies involve an exchange of marriage vows by the couple, presentation of a gift, and a public proclamation of marriage by an authority figure. Special wedding garments are worn, and the ceremony is sometimes followed by a wedding reception. Music, poetry, prayers or readings from religious texts or literature are commonly incorporated into the ceremony. Some cultures have adopted the traditional Western custom of the wedding, in which a bride wears a white wedding dress. This tradition was popularized through the marriage of Queen Victoria, some say Victorias choice of a white gown may have simply been a sign of extravagance, but may have also been influenced by the values she held which emphasized sexual purity. Within the modern white wedding tradition, a dress and veil are unusual choices for a womans second or subsequent wedding. The use of a ring has long been part of religious weddings in Europe and America. Historian Vicki Howard points out that the belief in the ancient quality of the practice is most likely a modern invention, double ring ceremonies are also a modern practice, a grooms wedding band not appearing in the United States until the early 20th century. The kittel is worn only under the Chupah, and is removed before the reception, different wedding clothing around the world Music played at Western weddings includes a processional song for walking down the aisle either before or after the marriage service. An example of use is reported in the wedding of Nora Robinson. Selections by George Frideric Handel, perhaps most notably the Air from his Water Music as processional, the Bridal Chorus from Lohengrin by Richard Wagner, often used as the processional and commonly known as Here Comes the Bride. Richard Wagner is said to have been anti-Semitic, and as a result, johann Pachelbels Canon in D is an alternative processional. The Wedding March from Felix Mendelssohns incidental music for the Shakespeare play, A Midsummer Nights Dream, the Toccata from Charles-Marie Widors Symphony for Organ No. Segments of the Ode to Joy, the movement of Ludwig van Beethovens Ninth Symphony. Other alternative considerations include various contemporary melodies like Bob Marleys One Love which is performed by a steel drum band. Most religions recognize a union with established ceremonies and rituals. Some religions permit polygamous marriages or same-sex marriages, many Christian faiths emphasize the raising of children as a priority in a marriage
Wedding
–
A church wedding in Finland
Wedding
–
Hindu wedding (
India)
Wedding
–
Same-sex civil wedding (
United States)
Wedding
–
Roman Catholic white wedding (
Philippines)
4.
White wedding
–
A white wedding is a traditional formal or semi-formal wedding originating in Britain. The term originates from the colour of the wedding dress. The tradition of a wedding dress is commonly credited to Queen Victorias choice to wear a white court dress at her wedding to Prince Albert in 1840. Debutantes had long been required to wear white dresses for their first presentation at court. European and American brides had been wearing a plethora of colours, including blue, yellow, as accounts of Victorias wedding spread across the Atlantic and throughout Europe, elites followed her lead. After Queen Victorias and Prince Alberts wedding, the color white resembled wealth, worldwide, the color white has been associated with weddings and other significant life or spiritual events for millennia. In ancient Greece, white was the color of bridal joy, and brides not only wore white dresses and white flowers, in ancient Japan, white was also the color of purity and innocence. In Africa, the white is associated with deities and worship. In the Christian tradition, white clothes were worn at the time of baptism to represent spiritual purity, because of the limitations of laundering techniques before the later part of the 20th century, white dresses provided an opportunity for conspicuous consumption. Etiquette books then began to turn the practice into a tradition, the story put out about the wedding veil was that decorous brides were naturally too timid to show their faces in public until they were married. By the end of the 19th century the white dress was the garment of choice for brides on both sides of the Atlantic. However, middle-class British and American brides did not adopt the trend fully until after World War II, with increased prosperity in the 20th century, the tradition also grew to include the practice of wearing the dress only once. As historian Vicky Howard writes, f a bride wore white in the century, it was acceptable. Even Queen Victoria had her famous lace wedding dress re-styled for later use, the portrayal of weddings in Hollywood movies, particularly immediately after World War II, helped crystallize and homogenize the white wedding into a normative form. This wedding is considered the most influential white wedding of the 20th century. The traditional white wedding wasnt necessarily defined by the color of the dress only, the first edition of Brides Magazine was published in 1934 as a newspaper advertising insert called So Youre Going to Get Married. In a column titled To the Bride, and its rival Modern Bride began publishing in 1949, today a whole industry surrounds the provision of such weddings. They may also add optional features, such as a guest book or commemorative wedding leaflets and it is common to have a celebration after the wedding ceremony, normally featuring a large white wedding cake
White wedding
–
A
bride from the late 19th century wearing a black or dark coloured wedding dress
White wedding
–
Queen Victoria and Prince Albert on their return from the marriage service at St James's Palace, London, 10 February 1840.
White wedding
–
A bride in a contemporary white wedding dress with
train,
tiara and white
veil.
White wedding
–
The
bride and
groom stand at the altar during the wedding ceremony, surrounded by the
bridesmaids and
groomsmen.
5.
Middle Ages
–
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
Middle Ages
–
The
Cross of Mathilde, a
crux gemmata made for
Mathilde, Abbess of Essen (973–1011), who is shown kneeling before the Virgin and Child in the
enamel plaque. The body of Christ is slightly later. Probably made in
Cologne or
Essen, the cross demonstrates several medieval techniques:
cast figurative sculpture,
filigree, enamelling, gem polishing and setting, and the reuse of Classical
cameos and
engraved gems.
Middle Ages
–
A late Roman statue
depicting the four Tetrarchs, now in
Venice
Middle Ages
–
Coin of
Theodoric
Middle Ages
–
Mosaic showing
Justinian with
the bishop of
Ravenna, bodyguards, and courtiers
6.
Love
–
Love is a variety of different feelings, states, and attitudes that ranges from interpersonal affection to pleasure. It can refer to an emotion of an attraction and personal attachment. Love can also be a virtue representing human kindness, compassion and it may also describe compassionate and affectionate actions towards other humans, ones self or animals. Ancient Greeks identified four forms of love, kinship or familiarity, friendship, sexual and/or romantic desire, modern authors have distinguished further varieties of romantic love. Non-Western traditions have also distinguished variants or symbioses of these states, Love has additional religious or spiritual meaning—notably in Abrahamic religions. This diversity of uses and meanings combined with the complexity of the feelings involved makes love unusually difficult to consistently define, compared to other emotional states. Love in its various forms acts as a facilitator of interpersonal relationships and. Love may be understood as a function to human beings together against menaces. The word love can have a variety of related but distinct meanings in different contexts, cultural differences in conceptualizing love thus doubly impede the establishment of a universal definition. Although the nature or essence of love is a subject of frequent debate, abstractly discussed love usually refers to an experience one person feels for another. Love often involves caring for, or identifying with, a person or thing, including oneself, in addition to cross-cultural differences in understanding love, ideas about love have also changed greatly over time. Some historians date modern conceptions of love to courtly Europe during or after the Middle Ages. The complex and abstract nature of love often reduces discourse of love to a thought-terminating cliché, several common proverbs regard love, from Virgils Love conquers all to The Beatles All You Need Is Love. St. Thomas Aquinas, following Aristotle, defines love as to will the good of another, bertrand Russell describes love as a condition of absolute value, as opposed to relative value. Philosopher Gottfried Leibniz said that love is to be delighted by the happiness of another, meher Baba stated that in love there is a feeling of unity and an active appreciation of the intrinsic worth of the object of love. Biologist Jeremy Griffith defines love as unconditional selflessness, a person can be said to love an object, principle, or goal to which they are deeply committed and greatly value. People can also love material objects, animals, or activities if they invest themselves in bonding or otherwise identifying with those things, if sexual passion is also involved, then this feeling is called paraphilia. Interpersonal love refers to love human beings
Love
–
Archetypal lovers
Romeo and Juliet portrayed by
Frank Dicksee
Love
–
Fraternal love (Prehispanic sculpture from 250–900 AD, of
Huastec origin).
Museum of Anthropology in
Xalapa,
Veracruz,
Mexico
Love
–
Pair of Lovers. 1480–1485
Love
–
Grandmother and grandchild,
Sri Lanka
7.
Nobility
–
The privileges associated with nobility may constitute substantial advantages over or relative to non-nobles, or may be largely honorary, and vary from country to country and era to era. There is often a variety of ranks within the noble class. g, san Marino and the Vatican City in Europe. Hereditary titles often distinguish nobles from non-nobles, although in many nations most of the nobility have been un-titled, some countries have had non-hereditary nobility, such as the Empire of Brazil. The term derives from Latin nobilitas, the noun of the adjective nobilis. In modern usage, nobility is applied to the highest social class in pre-modern societies and it rapidly came to be seen as a hereditary caste, sometimes associated with a right to bear a hereditary title and, for example in pre-revolutionary France, enjoying fiscal and other privileges. Nobility is a historical, social and often legal notion, differing from high socio-economic status in that the latter is based on income. Being wealthy or influential cannot, ipso facto, make one noble, various republics, including former Iron Curtain countries, Greece, Mexico, and Austria have expressly abolished the conferral and use of titles of nobility for their citizens. Not all of the benefits of nobility derived from noble status per se, usually privileges were granted or recognised by the monarch in association with possession of a specific title, office or estate. Most nobles wealth derived from one or more estates, large or small and it also included infrastructure such as castle, well and mill to which local peasants were allowed some access, although often at a price. Nobles were expected to live nobly, that is, from the proceeds of these possessions, work involving manual labour or subordination to those of lower rank was either forbidden or frowned upon socially. In some countries, the lord could impose restrictions on such a commoners movements. Nobles exclusively enjoyed the privilege of hunting, in France, nobles were exempt from paying the taille, the major direct tax. In some parts of Europe the right of war long remained the privilege of every noble. During the early Renaissance, duelling established the status of a respectable gentleman, Nobility came to be associated with social rather than legal privilege, expressed in a general expectation of deference from those of lower rank. By the 21st century even that deference had become increasingly minimised, in France, a seigneurie might include one or more manors surrounded by land and villages subject to a nobles prerogatives and disposition. Seigneuries could be bought, sold or mortgaged, if erected by the crown into, e. g. a barony or countship, it became legally entailed for a specific family, which could use it as their title. Yet most French nobles were untitled, in other parts of Europe, sovereign rulers arrogated to themselves the exclusive prerogative to act as fons honorum within their realms. Nobility might be inherited or conferred by a fons honorum
Nobility
–
Detail from
Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry (The Very Rich Hours of the Duke of Berry), c. 1410, month of April
Nobility
–
Nobility offered protection in exchange for service
Nobility
–
French aristocrats, c. 1774
Nobility
–
A French political cartoon of the three orders of
feudal society (1789). The rural third estate carries the clergy and the nobility.
8.
Velvet
–
Velvet is a type of woven tufted fabric in which the cut threads are evenly distributed, with a short dense pile, giving it a distinctive feel. By extension, the word velvety means smooth like velvet, Velvet can be made from either synthetic or natural fibers. Velvet is woven on a loom that weaves two thicknesses of the material at the same time. The two pieces are cut apart to create the pile effect, and the two lengths of fabric are wound on separate take-up rolls. This complicated process meant that velvet was expensive to make before industrial power looms became available, Velvet is difficult to clean because of its pile, but modern dry cleaning methods make cleaning more feasible. Velvet pile is created by warp or vertical yarns and velveteen pile is created by weft or fill yarns, Velvet can be made from several different kinds of fibers, traditionally, the most expensive of which is silk. Much of the velvet sold today as silk velvet is actually a mix of rayon, Velvet made entirely from silk is rare and usually has market prices of several hundred US dollars per yard. Cotton is also used to make velvet, though this results in a less luxurious fabric. Velvet can also be made from such as linen, mohair. A cloth made by the Kuba people of the Democratic Republic of Congo from raffia is often referred to as Kuba velvet. More recently, synthetic velvets have been developed, mostly from polyester, nylon, viscose, acetate, a small percentage of spandex is sometimes added to give the final material a certain amount of stretch. Because of its softness and appearance as well as its high cost of production. Velvet was introduced to Baghdad during the rule of Harun al-Rashid by Kashmiri merchants, in the Mamluk era, Cairo was the worlds largest producer of velvet. Much of it was exported to Venice, Al-Andalus and the Mali Empire, musa I of Mali, the ruler of the Mali Empire, visited Cairo on his pilgrimage to Mecca. Many Arab velvet makers accompanied him back to Timbuktu, later Ibn Battuta mentions how Suleyman, the ruler of Mali, wore a locally produced complete crimson velvet caftan on Eid. During the reign of Mehmed II, assistant cooks wore blue-coloured dresses, conical hats, king Richard II of England directed in his will that his body should be clothed in velveto in 1399. Chiffon velvet, Very lightweight velvet on a silk or rayon chiffon base. Ciselé, Velvet where the pile uses cut and uncut loops to create a pattern, crushed, This type of velvet can be produced by pressing the fabric down in different directions
Velvet
–
Detail of a silk cut velvet with tartan pattern. Some of the stripes are voided, showing the plain-weave ground. c.1840.
Velvet
–
Illustration depicting the manufacture of velvet fabric
Velvet
–
Velvet with
Medici Arms, Florence or Venice, 1440–1500
Velvet
–
A
cope in pile-on-pile velvet.
9.
Silk
–
Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity, Silk is produced by several insects, but generally only the silk of moth caterpillars has been used for textile manufacturing. There has been research into other types of silk, which differ at the molecular level. Silk is mainly produced by the larvae of insects undergoing complete metamorphosis, Silk production also occurs in Hymenoptera, silverfish, mayflies, thrips, leafhoppers, beetles, lacewings, fleas, flies, and midges. Other types of arthropod produce silk, most notably various arachnids such as spiders, the word silk comes from Old English sioloc, from Greek σηρικός serikos, silken, ultimately from an Asian source. Several kinds of silk, which are produced by caterpillars other than the mulberry silkworm, have been known and used in China, South Asia. However, the scale of production was far smaller than for cultivated silks. Thus, the way to obtain silk suitable for spinning into textiles in areas where commercial silks are not cultivated was by tedious. Commercial silks originate from reared silkworm pupae, which are bred to produce a silk thread with no mineral on the surface. The pupae are killed by either dipping them in boiling water before the adult moths emerge or by piercing them with a needle. These factors all contribute to the ability of the cocoon to be unravelled as one continuous thread. Wild silks also tend to be difficult to dye than silk from the cultivated silkworm. Genetic modification of domesticated silkworms is used to facilitate the production of more types of silk. Silk fabric was first developed in ancient China, the earliest example of silk fabric is from 3630 BC, and it was used as wrapping for the body of a child from a Yangshao culture site in Qingtaicun at Xingyang, Henan. Legend gives credit for developing silk to a Chinese empress, Leizu, because of its texture and lustre, silk rapidly became a popular luxury fabric in the many areas accessible to Chinese merchants. Silk was in demand, and became a staple of pre-industrial international trade. In July 2007, archaeologists discovered intricately woven and dyed silk textiles in a tomb in Jiangxi province, Silk is described in a chapter on mulberry planting by Si Shengzhi of the Western Han
Silk
–
Four of the most important domesticated silk moths. Top to bottom:
Bombyx mori,
Hyalophora cecropia,
Antheraea pernyi,
Samia cynthia. From
Meyers Konversations-Lexikon (1885–1892)
Silk
–
Woven silk textile from tomb no 1. at
Mawangdui in
Changsha,
Hunan province,
China, from the
Western Han Dynasty, 2nd century BC
Silk
–
A painting depicting women inspecting silk, early 12th century, ink and color on silk, by
Emperor Huizong of Song.
Silk
–
Portrait of a silk merchant in Guangzhou,
Qing dynasty, from
Peabody Essex Museum
10.
Philippa of England
–
Philippa of England, also known as Philippa of Lancaster, was Queen of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway from 1406 to 1430 by marriage to Eric of Pomerania. She was the daughter of King Henry IV of England by his first spouse Mary de Bohun, Queen Philippa participated significantly in state affairs during the reign of her spouse, and served as regent of Denmark from 1423 to 1425. Philippa was born to Henry Bolingbroke and Mary de Bohun, at Peterborough Castle and her father became king in 1399. She is mentioned a couple of times during her childhood, in 1403, she was present at the wedding of her father. She mainly lived at Berkhamsted Castle and Windsor Castle, Queen Margaret could not agree to the terms and the marriage between Henry and Catherine never occurred. In 1405, however, a Scandinavian embassy composed of two envoys from each of the three Nordic Kingdoms arrived in England, and the marriage between Philippa and Eric was proclaimed. Philippa left England from Lynn in August 1406 with an entourage of male and female English nobles and arrived in Helsingborg in September, the wedding between Philippa and Eric of Pomerania took place on 26 October 1406 in Lund Cathedral. The wedding ceremony was followed by her coronation as Queen of the three Kingdoms, the festivities lasted until November, during which several men were knighted and Philippas dowry was officially received by the court chamberlain and clerics from the three Kingdoms. Philippa was in turn granted dower lands in all three Kingdoms, Närke and Örebro In Sweden, Fyn with Odense and Nasbyhoved in Danmark, Queen Philippa and King Eric lived in Kalmar Castle in Sweden with their court the first three years of their marriage. From 1409 onward, and particularly after the death of Queen Margaret in 1412, when Eric became King de facto and her particular interest in Sweden was Vadstena Abbey, which came to be a refuge for her and a base whenever she was in Sweden. Philippa herself likely saw Vadstena for the first time in 1408, during her second visit to Vadstena Abbey in January 1415, she followed the example of Queen Margaret and was accepted as a soror ab extra. Queen Philippa was actively involved in state affairs, by the Pomeranian Act of Succession of 1416, Eric named his cousin Bogusław IX of Pomerania as heir to the three Kingdoms if his marriage to Philippa remained childless. When Eric left to participate in warfare in Femern in 1420, Eric evidently had great trust in Philippa. Both ancient and modern authors give an account of her rule. It is said that in certain matters she was more efficient than Eric, however, scholars have largely accepted this judgment of the Queen without going into detail. In March 1422, she summoned and presided over a Council of the Estates in Vadstena, were she mediated in a dispute between noble fractions. She was often given power of attorney by Eric to handle Swedish affairs, during the pilgrimage of King Eric from 1423 until May 1425, Queen Philippa served as regent of the three kingdoms from Copenhagen. During which, in the autumn of 1424, she solved a dispute with the Hanseatic League by establishing a new convention concerning the validity of the coin-system, during her regency, she also summoned the Swedish Council of the Estates in Stockholm in the spring of 1425
Philippa of England
–
Philippa as imagined and painted by Swedish artist Reinhold Callmander in the 1890s on a window above her grave at Vadstena
Philippa of England
–
Philippa's grave at
Vadstena Abbey
11.
Tunic
–
A tunic is any of several types of garment for the body, usually simple in style, reaching from the shoulders to a length somewhere between the hips and the ankles. The name derives from the Latin tunica, the garment worn by both men and women in Ancient Rome, which in turn was based on earlier Greek garments that covered people around their waist. The Roman tunica was adopted by the Roman citizens in the 3rd century BC and it was worn by citizens and non-citizens alike, citizens, though, might wear it under the toga, especially at formal occasions. The length of the garment, the presence or lack of stripes, as well as their width and ornamentation, Roman senators, for example, used the Laticlavus, with broad purple stripes, and members of the equestrian class wore the Angusticlavia, with narrower stripes. Soldiers, slaves and manual workers generally had tunics to a little above the knee, the tunic or chiton was worn as a shirt or gown by both genders among the ancient Romans. The body garment was loose-fitting for males, usually beginning at the neck, a womans garment could be either close fitting or loose, beginning at the neck and extending over a skirt or skirts. Tunics were also worn in ancient Greece, whence the Roman version was adopted, later Greek and Roman tunics were an evolution from the very similar chiton, chitoniskos, and exomis all of which can be considered versions of the garment. In Ancient Greece, a persons tunic was decorated at the hem-line to represent the city-state in which he lived, similar tunics were eventually taken up by the Romans, and found their way into the Byzantine Empire. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the long sleeved Celto-Germanic tunic continued to be worn, being used by both Vikings and Normans, the garment continued as a general male garment into the Middle Ages, still being used in Norway as late as the 17th century. The tunic continued to be the basic garment of the Byzantine Romans of both throughout the medieval period. Except for the military or riding-dress, men and women of higher status wore tunics that came down to the ankles, tunics were often dyed or richly embroidered, although the plainer ones could be used when layering different types. Beyond the reduced empire, the continued to be worn with varying sleeve. Often reaching the knees or ankles, it was worn over underclothes consisting of a shirt. It may be accompanied by hose, wool and Linen were common fabrics used, though the wealthy sometimes wore fancy silk tunics, or a lesser fabric with silk trim. Tunics worn during the Early Middle Ages often featured decorative embroidery or tablet-woven braids along the neck, hem and this was the case, for instance, with tunics worn by both rich and poor Anglo-Saxons before the Norman Conquest. Around 1830, small boys began to be dressed in sashed or belted tunics over trousers, during the Crimean War in the 1850s, it was realized that the waist length jackets which had been worn by British soldiers since Napoleonic times were unsuitable for fighting in winter conditions. A new longer jacket was introduced which reached down to the mid thigh and this type of jacket soon became standard for most armies. In Western culture, its use primarily in a religious
Tunic
–
Wool
Coptic -
Byzantine tunic, small enough for a child (6th century AD) (
Walters Art Museum)
Tunic
–
Germanic tunic of the 4th Century, A.D. found at the
Thorsberg moor
Tunic
–
Tunic (Uncu), ca. 17th century, made in Peru,
Brooklyn Museum
12.
Cloak
–
Cloaks have been used by myriad historic societies, many climates favor wearing a full-body garment which is easily removed and does not constrain the wearer with sleeves. Over time cloak designs have changed to match fashion and available textiles. Cloaks generally fasten at the neck or over the shoulder, vary in length, from hip all the way down to the ankle, mid-calf being the normal length. They may have a hood, and may cover and fasten down the front. However, cloaks are almost always sleeveless, the word cloak comes from Old North French cloque meaning travelling cloak, from Medieval Latin clocca travelers cape, literally a bell, so called from the garments bell-like shape. Thus the word is related to the word clock, ancient Greeks and Romans were known to wear cloaks. Greek men and women wore the himation, from the Archaic through the Hellenistic periods, Romans would later wear the Greek-styled cloak, the pallium. The pallium was quadrangular, shaped like a square, and sat on the shoulders, Romans of the Republic would wear the toga as a formal display of their citizenship. It was denied to foreigners and was worn by magistrates on all occasions as a badge of office, the toga was claimed to have originated with Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome. Opera cloaks are made of quality materials such as wool or cashmere, velvet, ladies may wear a long cloak usually called a cape, or a full-length cloak. Gentlemen wear an ankle-length or full-length cloak, formal cloaks often have expensive, colored linings and trimmings such as silk, satin, velvet and fur. For example, they may grant the person wearing it invisibility as in the Harry Potter series by J. K. Rowling, alternatively, they may nullify magical projectiles, as the cloak of magic resistance in NetHack. In addition, the magical hide armor that Hercules made for himself from the skin of the Nemean Lion, at the end of Hercules first labor and this latter was notable because it was said to be impervious to all cutting and impact weapons. Figuratively, a cloak may be anything that disguises or conceals something, in many science fiction worlds such as Star Trek, there are cloaking devices, which provide a way to avoid detection or to make objects appear invisible. Because they keep a person hidden and conceal a weapon, the cloak and dagger has come to refer to espionage and secretive crimes. Cloak and dagger stories are thus mystery, detective, and crime stories of this, the vigilante duo of Marvel comics Cloak and Dagger is a reference to this. ISBN 0-8109-6317-5 Baumgarten, Linda, What Clothes Reveal, The Language of Clothing in Colonial and Federal America, ISBN 0-300-09580-5 Payne, Blanche, History of Costume from the Stone Age to the Twentysecond Century, Harper & Row,2965. No ISBN for this edition, ASIN B0006BMNFS Picken, Mary Brooks, The Fashion Dictionary, Funk and Bagnalls,1957
Cloak
–
Evening cloak or manteau, from Costume Parisien, 1823
Cloak
–
Cloak, 1580-1600
Victoria and Albert Museum no. 793-1901
Cloak
–
Couple hiding under the same cloak, fragment of an
Ancient Greek red-figure cup, ca. 525 BC–500 BC, found in Athens.
Louvre Museum, Paris.
13.
Squirrel
–
Squirrels are members of the family Sciuridae, a family that includes small or medium-size rodents. The squirrel family includes tree squirrels, ground squirrels, chipmunks, marmots, flying squirrels, Squirrels are indigenous to the Americas, Eurasia, and Africa, and were introduced by humans to Australia. The earliest known date from the Eocene period and are most closely related to the mountain beaver. That word squirrel, first attested in 1327, comes from the Anglo-Norman esquirel which is from the Old French escurel and this Latin word was borrowed from the Ancient Greek word σκίουρος, skiouros, which means shadow-tailed, referring to the bushy appendage possessed by many of its members. The native Old English word for the squirrel, ācweorna, survived only into Middle English before being replaced, Squirrels typically have slender bodies with bushy tails and large eyes. In general, their fur is soft and silky, although much thicker in some species than others, the color of squirrels is highly variable between—and often even within—species. In general, the limbs are longer than the fore limbs. Their paws include a poorly developed thumb, and have soft pads on the undersides. Unlike most mammals, Tree squirrels can descend a tree head-first and they do so by rotating their ankles 180 degrees so the hind paws are backward-pointing and can grip the tree bark. Squirrels live in almost every habitat from tropical rainforest to desert, avoiding only the high polar regions. They are predominantly herbivorous, subsisting on seeds and nuts, but many will eat insects, as their large eyes indicate, in general squirrels have an excellent sense of vision, which is especially important for tree-dwelling species. They also have very versatile and sturdy claws for grasping and climbing, many also have a good sense of touch, with vibrissae on their heads and limbs. The teeth of sciurids follow the typical rodent pattern, with large gnawing incisors that grow throughout life, the typical dental formula for sciurids is 1.0.1.31.0.1.3. Many juvenile squirrels die in the first year of life, adult squirrels can have a lifespan of 5 to 10 years in the wild. Some can survive 10 to 20 years in captivity, Squirrels breed once or twice a year and give birth to a varying number of young after three to six weeks, depending on species. The young are naked, toothless, and blind. In most species of squirrel, only the female looks after the young, in general, ground-dwelling species are social animals, often living in well-developed colonies, but the tree-dwelling species are more solitary. Squirrels cannot digest cellulose, so they must rely on foods rich in protein, carbohydrates, during these times, squirrels rely heavily on the buds of trees
Squirrel
Squirrel
–
Reaching out for food on a garden bird feeder, this squirrel can rotate its hind feet, allowing it to descend a tree head-first.
Squirrel
–
Skull of an
Oriental giant squirrel (genus Ratufa)—note the classic
sciuromorphous shape of the anterior
zygomatic region.
Squirrel
–
Several species of squirrels have
melanistic phases. In large parts of United States and Canada, the most common variety seen in urban areas is the melanistic form of the
eastern gray squirrel.
14.
Ermine
–
Originally from Eurasia, it crossed into North America some half million years ago, where it naturalized and joined the notably larger closely related native long-tailed weasel. The name ermine is often, but not always, used for the stoat in its white winter coat. In the late 19th century, stoats were introduced into New Zealand to control rabbits, the stoat is classed by the IUCN as least concern, due to its wide circumpolar distribution, and because it does not face any significant threat to its survival. It was nominated as one of the worlds top 100 worst invaders, Ermine luxury fur was used in the 15th century by Catholic monarchs, who sometimes used it as the mozzetta cape. It was also used in capes on images such as the Infant Jesus of Prague, the root word for stoat is likely either the Dutch word stout or the Gothic word stautan. This seems to come from the Lithuanian word šarmu, in Ireland, the stoat is referred to as a weasel, while in North America it is called a short-tailed weasel. A male stoat is called a dog, hob, or jack, the collective noun for stoats is either gang or pack. The stoat is the product of a process begun 5–7 million years ago, the stoats ancestors were larger than the current form, and underwent a reduction in size as they exploited the new food source. The stoat first arose in Eurasia, shortly after the long-tailed weasel arose as its image in North America 2 million years ago. The stoat thrived during the Ice Age, as its size and long body allowed it to easily operate beneath snow. The stoat and the long-tailed weasel remained separated until half a million years ago, combined phylogenetic analyses indicate the stoats closest living relative is the mountain weasel, though it is also closely related to the least weasel and long-tailed weasel. Its next closest relatives are the New World Colombian weasel and the Amazon weasel, as of 2005,37 subspecies are recognized. The stoat has a neck, the head being set exceptionally far in front of the shoulders. The trunk is cylindrical, and does not bulge at the abdomen. The greatest circumference of body is more than half its length. The skull, although similar to that of the least weasel, is relatively longer. The projections of the skull and teeth are developed. The eyes are round, black and protrude slightly, the whiskers are brown or white in colour, and very long
Ermine
–
Stoat
Ermine
–
Middle Russian stoat M. e. aestiva
Ermine
–
Irish stoat M. e. hibernica
Ermine
–
M. e. nippon
15.
Mary, Queen of Scots
–
Mary, Queen of Scots, also known as Mary Stuart or Mary I of Scotland, reigned over Scotland from 14 December 1542 to 24 July 1567. Mary, the surviving legitimate child of James V of Scotland, was six days old when her father died. She spent most of her childhood in France while Scotland was ruled by regents and he ascended the French throne as King Francis II in 1559, and Mary briefly became queen consort of France, until his death in December 1560. Widowed, Mary returned to Scotland, arriving in Leith on 19 August 1561, four years later, she married her first cousin, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, but their union was unhappy. In February 1567, his residence was destroyed by an explosion, James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, was generally believed to have orchestrated Darnleys death, but he was acquitted of the charge in April 1567, and the following month he married Mary. Following an uprising against the couple, Mary was imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle, on 24 July 1567, she was forced to abdicate in favour of James VI, her one-year-old son by Darnley. After an unsuccessful attempt to regain the throne, she fled southwards seeking the protection of her first cousin once removed, perceiving her as a threat, Elizabeth had her confined in various castles and manor houses in the interior of England. After eighteen and a half years in custody, Mary was found guilty of plotting to assassinate Elizabeth in 1586 and was beheaded the following year. Mary was born on 7 or 8 December 1542 at Linlithgow Palace, Scotland, to King James V and his French second wife and she was said to have been born prematurely and was the only legitimate child of James to survive him. She was the great-niece of King Henry VIII of England, as her paternal grandmother, Margaret Tudor, was Henry VIIIs sister. A popular legend, first recorded by John Knox, states that James, hearing on his deathbed that his wife had given birth to a daughter, ruefully exclaimed, It cam wi a lass and it will gang wi a lass. His House of Stewart had gained the throne of Scotland by the marriage of Marjorie Bruce, daughter of Robert the Bruce, to Walter Stewart, the crown had come to his family through a woman, and would be lost from his family through a woman. This legendary statement came true much later—not through Mary, but through her descendant Queen Anne, Mary was baptised at the nearby Church of St Michael shortly after she was born. As Mary was an infant when she inherited the throne, Scotland was ruled by regents until she became an adult. From the outset, there were two claims to the Regency, one from Catholic Cardinal Beaton, and the other from the Protestant Earl of Arran, Beatons claim was based on a version of the late kings will that his opponents dismissed as a forgery. Arran, with the support of his friends and relations, became the regent until 1554 when Marys mother managed to remove and succeed him. King Henry VIII of England took the opportunity of the regency to propose marriage between Mary and his own son, Prince Edward, hoping for a union of Scotland and England. The treaty provided that the two countries would remain separate and that if the couple should fail to have children the temporary union would dissolve
Mary, Queen of Scots
–
Portrait of Mary after
François Clouet, c. 1559
Mary, Queen of Scots
–
Signature
Mary, Queen of Scots
–
Both Mary and her father were born at
Linlithgow Palace.
Mary, Queen of Scots
–
Coin of 1553: obverse, coat of arms of Scotland; reverse, royal monogram
16.
Victorian era
–
The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
Victorian era
–
Queen Victoria, after whom the era is named
Victorian era
–
The Louth-London
Royal Mail travelling by train from
Peterborough East, 1845
Victorian era
–
A picture of
Leadenhall Street, London, c. 1837
Victorian era
–
The Poultry Cross,
Salisbury, painted by
Louise Rayner, c. 1870
17.
Victoria of the United Kingdom
–
Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
Victoria of the United Kingdom
–
Victoria wearing her
small diamond crown Photograph by
Alexander Bassano, 1882
Victoria of the United Kingdom
–
Victoria, aged four Painting by
Stephen Poyntz Denning, 1823
Victoria of the United Kingdom
–
Victoria with her spaniel Dash, 1833 Painting by
George Hayter
Victoria of the United Kingdom
–
Self-portrait, 1835
18.
Albert of Saxe-Coburg
–
Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was the husband of Queen Victoria. He was born in the Saxon duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld to a family connected to many of Europes ruling monarchs, at the age of 20, he married his first cousin, Queen Victoria, they had nine children. He was heavily involved with the organisation of the Great Exhibition of 1851, the Queen came to depend more and more on his support and guidance. Albert died at the young age of 42, plunging the Queen into deep mourning for the rest of her life. Upon Queen Victorias death in 1901, their eldest son succeeded as Edward VII, Albert was born at Schloss Rosenau, near Coburg, Germany, the second son of Ernest III, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and his first wife, Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. Alberts future wife, Victoria, was earlier in the same year with the assistance of the same midwife. Albert was baptised into the Lutheran Evangelical Church on 19 September 1819 in the Marble Hall at Schloss Rosenau with water taken from the local river, in 1825, Alberts great-uncle, Frederick IV, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, died. His death led to a realignment of Saxon duchies the following year and Alberts father became the first reigning duke of Saxe-Coburg, Albert and his elder brother, Ernest, spent their youth in a close companionship marred by their parents turbulent marriage and eventual separation and divorce. After their mother was exiled from court in 1824, she married her lover, Alexander von Hanstein, Count of Polzig and she presumably never saw her children again, and died of cancer at the age of 30 in 1831. The brothers were educated privately at home by Christoph Florschütz and later studied in Brussels, like many other German princes, Albert attended the University of Bonn, where he studied law, political economics, philosophy and the history of art. He played music and excelled at sport, especially fencing and riding and his tutors at Bonn included the philosopher Fichte and the poet Schlegel. By 1836, the idea of marriage between Albert and his cousin, Victoria, had arisen in the mind of their ambitious uncle Leopold, at this time, Victoria was the heiress presumptive to the British throne. Her father, Edward Augustus, Duke of Kent, the son of King George III, had died when she was a baby. Her mother the Duchess of Kent, was the sister of both Alberts father—the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha—and King Leopold. Leopold arranged for his sister, Victorias mother, to invite the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, William IV, however, disapproved of any match with the Coburgs, and instead favoured the suit of Prince Alexander, second son of the Prince of Orange. Victoria was well aware of the matrimonial plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes. Alexander, on the hand, she described as very plain. Victoria wrote to her uncle Leopold to thank him for the prospect of great happiness you have contributed to give me and he possesses every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy
Albert of Saxe-Coburg
–
Portrait by
Winterhalter, 1859
Albert of Saxe-Coburg
–
Albert (left) with his elder brother
Ernest and mother
Louise, shortly before her exile from court
Albert of Saxe-Coburg
–
Portrait by
John Partridge, 1840
Albert of Saxe-Coburg
–
Bookplate showing the
coat of arms of Albert, Prince Consort
19.
Wedding dress of Queen Victoria
–
The wedding dress of Queen Victoria was worn by Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom, at her wedding to Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha on 10 February 1840. She selected a white dress, which was considered a choice at a time when colours were more usual. The Honiton lace used for her wedding dress proved an important boost to Devon lace-making, Queen Victoria has been credited with starting the tradition of white weddings and white bridal gowns, although she was not the first royal to be married in white. The lace was designed by William Dyce, head of the then Government School of Design, and mounted on a white satin dress made by Mary Bettans. The plain, cream-coloured satin gown was made from fabric woven in Spitalfields, east London and this demonstrated support for English industry, particularly the cottage industry for lace. The handmade lace motifs were appliquéd onto cotton machine-made net, orange flower blossoms, a symbol of fertility, also trimmed the dress and made up Victorias wreath, which she wore instead of a tiara over her veil. The veil, which matched the flounce of the dress, was four yards in length and 0.75 yards wide and her jewellery consisted of diamond earrings and necklace, and a sapphire brooch given to her by Albert. The slippers she wore matched the colour of the dress. The train of the dress, carried by her bridesmaids, measured 18 feet long, Queen Victoria described her choice of dress in her journal thus, I wore a white satin dress, with a deep flounce of Honiton lace, an imitation of an old design. My jewels were my Turkish diamond necklace & earrings & dear Alberts beautiful sapphire brooch, while photography existed in 1840, the techniques were not yet fully developed. A series of photographs taken by Roger Fenton on 11 May 1854 of Victoria and Albert are often described as wedding or reenactment photographs, in 1847, Victoria commissioned Franz Xaver Winterhalter to paint a portrait of her wearing her wedding clothes as an anniversary present for Prince Albert. The portrait was also copied as a miniature by John Haslem. Victoria revisited the lace-makers to create the christening gown worn by her children, including Albert Edward and this gown was worn for the christening of all subsequent Royal babies until the baptism of James, Viscount Severn in 2008, when a replica was used for the first time. Victoria also wore her wedding lace mounted on the dresses she wore to the christenings of her nine children and she also wore it to the weddings of two of her children, her eldest daughter, Victoria, in 1858, and her youngest son, Leopold, in 1882. Her youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice, was permitted to wear it as part of her gown in 1885. Victoria also wore the lace to the wedding of her grandson George to Mary of Teck in 1893, when Victoria died, she was buried with her wedding veil over her face. In 2012 it was reported that while the dress itself had been conserved and displayed at Kensington Palace that year, wearing white was quickly adopted by wealthy, fashionable brides. The Godeys Ladys Book, commenting about a decade after Victorias wedding, wrote, Custom has decided, from the earliest ages, following the 2011 wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton, comparisons were drawn between the brides white wedding dress and Queen Victorias own
Wedding dress of Queen Victoria
–
Queen Victoria and Prince Albert on their return from the marriage service at St James's Palace, London, 10 February 1840. Engraved by S Reynolds after F Lock.
Wedding dress of Queen Victoria
–
Pair of white satin shoes worn by Queen Victoria on her wedding day
Wedding dress of Queen Victoria
–
Portrait painted by
Franz Xaver Winterhalter, 1847, as an anniversary present for Prince Albert
Wedding dress of Queen Victoria
–
Victoria wearing her wedding veil and lace for her Diamond Jubilee Portrait, 1897
20.
Honiton lace
–
Honiton lace is a type of bobbin lace made in Honiton, Devon. Historical Honiton lace designs focused on scrollwork and depictions of objects such as flowers. Honiton lace is a part lace and its ornate sprigs or motifs, complex patterns were created separately and then sewn into the net ground of the piece. Common sprigs include daisies, roses, shamrocks, ivy leaves, butterflies, lilies, camellias, convolvulus, poppies, briony, antwerp diamonds, trefoils, ferns, and acorns. The art of making lace is rumored to have brought to Honiton. An old tombstone in the town is inscribed with information about one James Rodge who is described as a “bone lace seller” who died in 1617, it is not known whether he emigrated from Flanders or not. In the early period, sprigs of various designs were worked separately from the net ground by hand, later, handmade Honiton lace became obsolete in light of the invention of machine-made net, which was much cheaper to produce. Not a leaf, nor a flower, was copied from nature. ”Handmade lacework had a resurgence in popularity in the 19th century when Queen Victoria ordered a Honiton lace bridal dress. The revival happened so quickly, and demand was so great, due to the massive demand, this cheaper work had simpler designs due to the necessary speed of production. Defining designs of lace at this time were “leaves, flowers, scrolls
Honiton lace
–
Honiton lace edging
Honiton lace
–
This wedding dress from 1865 is trimmed with Honiton lace.
Honiton lace
–
Needle lace
21.
Cloche hat
–
The cloche hat or simply cloche is a fitted, bell-shaped hat for women that was invented in 1908 by milliner Caroline Reboux, especially became popular from about 1922 to 1933. Its name is derived from cloche, the French word for bell, during the early twentieth century, the popularity and influence of cloche hats was at its peak. Couture houses like Lanvin and Molyneux opened ateliers to join milliners in manufacturing hats that precisely matched their clothing designs. The hats even shaped hairstyles, the Eton crop – the short, cloche hats were usually made of felt so that they conformed to the head, and were typically designed to be worn low on the forehead, with the wearers eyes only slightly below the brim. In later years, a summer cloche might be made from sisal or straw, cloches could also be made of beads or lace for evening wear, for cocktails, dancing or even for bridal wear. The contemporaneous Art Deco style often influenced the outline of the brim or the style of seams, by the end of the 1920s, it became fashionable to turn the brims on cloche hats upwards. This style remained prevalent until the hat became obsolete around 1933 or 34. Often, different styles of ribbons affixed to the hats indicated different messages about the wearer, the cloche enjoyed a second vogue in the 1960s. In the late 1980s, newly invented models of the cloche, such as Patrick Kellys version with a buttoned brim, made a minor resurgence. Cloche hats were also featured in the Fall 2007 collections of many designers, mushroom hat Salvation Army bonnet Notes Photographs of cloche hats from the 1920s at the University of Houston Digital Library, Photo 1, Photo 2, Photo 3
Cloche hat
–
Cloche hat as worn by silent film star
Vilma Bánky, 1927
Cloche hat
–
Evening wear cloche hat, 1920s
Cloche hat
–
Joan Crawford in a cloche, 1927
22.
White (colour)
–
White is an achromatic color, a color without hue. An incoming light to the eye that stimulates all its three types of color sensitive cone cells in nearly equal amounts results in white. White is one of the most common colors in nature, the color of sunlight, snow, milk, chalk, limestone, in many cultures white represents or signifies purity, innocence, and light, and is the symbolic opposite of black, or darkness. According to surveys in Europe and the United States, white is the color most often associated with perfection, the good, honesty, cleanliness, the beginning, the new, neutrality, and exactitude. In ancient Egypt and ancient Rome, priestesses wore white as a symbol of purity, in the Middle Ages and Renaissance a white unicorn symbolized chastity, and a white lamb sacrifice and purity, the widows of kings dressed in white rather than black as the color of mourning. It was also used in 20th century modern architecture as a symbol of modernity, simplicity. White is an important color for almost all world religions, the Pope, the head of the Roman Catholic Church, has worn white since 1566, as a symbol of purity and sacrifice. In Islam, and in the Shinto religion of Japan, it is worn by pilgrims, in Western cultures and in Japan, white is the most common color for wedding dresses, symbolizing purity and virginity. In many Asian cultures, white is also the color of mourning, the white color on television screens and computer monitors is created with the RGB color model by mixing red, green and blue light at equal intensities. The word white continues Old English hwīt, ultimately from a Common Germanic *χwītaz also reflected in OHG wîz, ON hvítr, the root is ultimately from Proto-Indo-European language *kwid-, surviving also in Sanskrit śveta to be white or bright and Slavonic světŭ light. The Icelandic word for white, hvítur, is derived from the Old Norse form of the word hvítr. Common Germanic also had the word *blankaz, borrowed into Late Latin as *blancus, the antonym of white is black. Some non-European languages have a variety of terms for white. The Inuit language has seven different words for seven different nuances of white, Japanese has six different words, depending upon brilliance or dullness, or if the color is inert or dynamic. White was one of the first colors used in art, the Lascaux Cave in France contains drawings of bulls and other animals drawn by paleolithic artists between 18,000 and 17,000 years ago. Paleolithic artists used calcite or chalk, they sometimes as a background, sometimes as a highlight, along with charcoal and red, in ancient Egypt, white was connected with the goddess Isis. The priests and priestesses of Isis dressed only in white linen, in Greece and other ancient civilizations, white was often associated with mothers milk. In Greek mythology, the chief god Zeus was nourished at the breast of the nymph Amalthea, in the Talmud, milk was one of four sacred substances, along with wine, honey, and the rose
White (colour)
White (colour)
White (colour)
White (colour)
23.
Ivory (color)
–
Ivory is an off-white color that resembles ivory, the material from which the teeth and tusks of animals is made. It has a slight tint of yellow. The first recorded use of ivory as a name in English was in 1385. The color ivory was included as one of the X11 colors when they were formulated in 1987, plants The ivory-colored cymbidium is a species of orchid. List of colors X11 color names
Ivory (color)
–
Carved ivory in
Sa'dabad Palace, Iran
Ivory (color)
–
Ivory gull
24.
Blue (color)
–
Blue is the colour between violet and green on the optical spectrum of visible light. Human eyes perceive blue when observing light with a wavelength between 450 and 495 nanometres, which is between 4500 and 4950 ångströms. Blues with a frequency and thus a shorter wavelength gradually look more violet, while those with a lower frequency. Pure blue, in the middle, has a wavelength of 470 nanometers, in painting and traditional colour theory, blue is one of the three primary colours of pigments, along with red and yellow, which can be mixed to form a wide gamut of colours. Red and blue mixed together form violet, blue and yellow together form green, Blue is also a primary colour in the RGB colour model, used to create all the colours on the screen of a television or computer monitor. The clear sky and the sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering. When sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the wavelengths are scattered more widely by the oxygen and nitrogen molecules. An optical effect called Tyndall scattering, similar to Rayleigh scattering, explains blue eyes, distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called atmospheric perspective. Blue has been used for art and decoration since ancient times and it is the most important color in Judaism. In the Middle Ages, cobalt blue was used to colour the stained glass windows of cathedrals, beginning in the 9th century, Chinese artists used cobalt to make fine blue and white porcelain. Blue dyes for clothing were made from woad in Europe and indigo in Asia, in 1828 a synthetic ultramarine pigment was developed, and synthetic blue dyes and pigments gradually replaced mineral pigments and vegetable dyes. Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Vincent van Gogh and other late 19th century painters used ultramarine and cobalt blue not just to depict nature, in the late 18th century and 19th century, blue became a popular colour for military uniforms and police uniforms. In the 20th century, because blue was associated with harmony, it was chosen as the colour of the flags of the United Nations. Surveys in the US and Europe show that blue is the colour most commonly associated with harmony, faithfulness, confidence, distance, infinity, the imagination, cold, and sometimes with sadness. In US and European public opinion polls it is the most popular colour, Blue is the colour of light between violet and green on the visible spectrum. Blues also vary in shade or tint, darker shades of blue contain black or grey, darker shades of blue include ultramarine, cobalt blue, navy blue, and Prussian blue, while lighter tints include sky blue, azure, and Egyptian blue. Today most blue pigments and dyes are made by a chemical process, the modern English word blue comes from Middle English bleu or blewe, from the Old French bleu, a word of Germanic origin, related to the Old High German word blao. In heraldry, the azure is used for blue
Blue (color)
–
Sky blue or pale
azure, mid-way on the RBG colour wheel between blue and cyan.
Blue (color)
–
Blue
Blue (color)
–
Extract of natural
indigo, the most popular blue dye before the invention of synthetic dyes. It was the colour of the first
blue jeans.
Blue (color)
–
A block of
lapis lazuli, originally used to make ultramarine.
25.
Virgin Mary
–
Mary, also known by various titles, styles and honorifics, was a 1st-century Galilean Jewish woman of Nazareth and the mother of Jesus, according to the New Testament and the Quran. The gospels of Matthew and Luke in the New Testament and the Quran describe Mary as a virgin, the miraculous birth took place when she was already betrothed to Joseph and was awaiting the concluding rite of marriage, the formal home-taking ceremony. She married Joseph and accompanied him to Bethlehem, where Jesus was born, the Gospel of Luke begins its account of Marys life with the Annunciation, when the angel Gabriel appeared to her and announced her divine selection to be the mother of Jesus. According to canonical gospel accounts, Mary was present at the crucifixion and is depicted as a member of the early Christian community in Jerusalem. According to the Catholic and Orthodox teaching, at the end of her life her body was assumed directly into Heaven. Mary has been venerated since Early Christianity, and is considered by millions to be the most meritorious saint of the religion and she is claimed to have miraculously appeared to believers many times over the centuries. The Eastern and Oriental Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Lutheran churches believe that Mary, there is significant diversity in the Marian beliefs and devotional practices of major Christian traditions. The Roman Catholic Church holds distinctive Marian dogmas, namely her status as the Mother of God, her Immaculate Conception, her perpetual virginity, many Protestants minimize Marys role within Christianity, based on the argued brevity of biblical references. Mary also has a position in Islam, where one of the longer chapters of the Quran is devoted to her. Marys name in the manuscripts of the New Testament was based on her original Aramaic name ܡܪܝܡ. The English name Mary comes from the Greek Μαρία, which is a form of Μαριάμ. Both Μαρία and Μαριάμ appear in the New Testament, in Christianity, Mary is commonly referred to as the Virgin Mary, in accordance with the belief that she conceived Jesus miraculously through the Holy Spirit without her husbands involvement. The three main titles for Mary used by the Orthodox are Theotokos, Aeiparthenos as confirmed in the Second Council of Constantinople in 553, Catholics use a wide variety of titles for Mary, and these titles have in turn given rise to many artistic depictions. For example, the title Our Lady of Sorrows has inspired such masterpieces as Michelangelos Pietà, the title Theotokos was recognized at the Council of Ephesus in 431. However, this phrase in Greek, in the abbreviated form ΜΡ ΘΥ, is an indication commonly attached to her image in Byzantine icons. The Council stated that the Church Fathers did not hesitate to speak of the holy Virgin as the Mother of God, some Marian titles have a direct scriptural basis. For instance, the title Queen Mother has been given to Mary since she was the mother of Jesus, the scriptural basis for the term Queen can be seen in Luke 1,32 and the Isaiah 9,6. Queen Mother can be found in 1 Kings 2, 19-20 and Jeremiah 13, other titles have arisen from reported miracles, special appeals or occasions for calling on Mary
Virgin Mary
–
Our Lady of Vladimir, one of the medieval representations of the
Theotokos
Virgin Mary
–
Virgin and Child with angels and Sts. George and Theodore. Icon from around 600, from
Saint Catherine's Monastery.
Virgin Mary
–
The
Annunciation by
Eustache Le Sueur, an example of 17th-century
Marian art. The
Angel Gabriel announces to Mary her pregnancy with Jesus and offers her
White Lilies.
Virgin Mary
–
The Virgin's first seven steps, mosaic from
Chora Church, c. 12th century
26.
Strapless dress
–
A strapless dress or top is a garment that stays put around the upper body without shoulder straps or other visible means of support. It is usually supported by an internal corset and/or brassiere, with the tightness of the bodice preventing the dress slipping out of position. The July 18,1938, issue of Life claimed that the absolutely strapless, sleeveless evening dress was a 1937–38 invention, however, that was predated in 1930 by the actress Libby Holman, who had been photographed in an apparently strapless dress that year. Holman became associated with the dress and is regularly credited with inventing it. In 1934, Mainbocher produced his first strapless gown, a black satin design which has described as the first strapless evening dress. Strapless dresses remained popular after the Second World War, with the style sometimes being described as the naked look, one of the most famous strapless dresses of this period was the black satin gown worn by Rita Hayworth for a song and dance routine in Gilda. Hayworths performance demonstrated to viewers that strapless dresses could be enough to move around. Despite this, more conservative customers might add shoulder straps to their new strapless dresses, the style was also problematic for those who objected to its perceived immodesty. During the 1940s and 1950s, Catholic campaigners in the United States protested against immodest clothing, including two-piece and strapless swimsuits and dresses. In 1954, the United States Army tried to ban Army wives and daughters in Germany from wearing shorts, jeans, during the 1950s, notable strapless dress designers included Madame Grès, whose flowing Grecian dresses were mounted upon custom-designed interior corsets by Alice Cadolle. In the 1970s Halston designed an unstructured strapless dress, the knitted tube top was worn as a casual strapless option, and by the 1980s, strapless dresses were made in stretchy, elastic fabrics which did not require boning or interior structure. In 2012 the strapless dress was described as the most widely requested style for Western wedding dresses, the strapless dress is also a very popular style for red carpet fashion. Since their introduction, strapless garments have proved problematic in many contexts, in the early 21st century, many schools and workplaces specifically forbid strapless garments as part of their dress code. An Adecco survey published in The Wall Street Journal in 2012 indicated that 72% of Americans thought strapless tops were inappropriate office wear, strapless garments may be singled out for particular censure by preachers and clerics. In 2005, a Muslim cleric declared strapless garments satanic, along with other revealing garments such as miniskirts and see-through clothing
Strapless dress
–
Strapless dress by
Yiannis Evangelides, New York, 1956.
PFF Collection.
Strapless dress
–
Rita Hayworth in Gilda (1946)
Strapless dress
–
Actress
Libby Holman in an early strapless dress, July 1932
Strapless dress
–
Japanese bride wearing a strapless dress, 2010
27.
Sleeveless
–
A sleeveless shirt is a shirt manufactured without sleeves, or one whose sleeves have been cut off. Sleeveless shirts are worn by either sex, depending on the style and they are often used as undershirts, are often worn by athletes in sports such as track and field and triathlon, and are regarded as acceptable public casual dress in most warm weather locales. The term A-shirt is short for athletic shirt because it is worn in sports, such as basketball. In the United States and Canada, it is known as a tank top or by its pejorative nicknames, wife-beater. In the UK an A-shirt, especially used as an undershirt, is known as a vest. Another term is singlet, used in England, Scotland, Ireland, Australia, Ghana, Nigeria, Hong Kong, Singapore, in the Philippines, when used as an undershirt it is called a sando. In Bangladesh and the State of West Bengal in India it is called as sando-genji, in India it is known as a Banian and is used extensively as an undershirt to absorb sweat and prevent its penetration to outer layers of clothing. In addition to athletic usage, A-shirts have traditionally used as undershirts, especially with suits. They are sometimes worn alone without a shirt or top shirt during very warm and/or humid weather, mainly in North America where the climate is warmer. A-shirts are often worn alone under very casual settings, as lounge wear, the build of an A-shirt is simple, the neck and armholes are often reinforced for durability. One usually has large armholes and neck holes and a neckline that can reach down as far as the bottom of the chest and they are also sometimes made long to make tucking into a pair of jeans/shorts easier. In almost all cases, they are buttonless, collarless, an A-shirt worn as an undershirt is designed for a tight fit and is often made of ribbed cotton. A tank top consists of a shirt with low neck. It is named after tank suits, one-piece bathing suits of the 1920s worn in tanks or swimming pools, the upper garment is worn commonly by both men and women. A camisole, also called just cami, is an undergarment for women. Originally worn as an undershirt, like the A-shirt they have increasingly used as warm-weather outerwear. The camisole is usually made of satin, nylon, or cotton, beginning around the year 2000, Western and Chinese fashion has also begun incorporating them as a sleeveless and backless shirt for women. A halter top is a shirt in which a strap goes around the back of the neck
Sleeveless
–
Tye dyed sleeveless shirt
Sleeveless
–
A man wearing an A-shirt
Sleeveless
–
A woman wearing a camisole as an outergarment
Sleeveless
–
Andrea Petkovic wearing a sleeveless shirt
28.
Tailor
–
A tailor is a person who makes, repairs, or alters clothing professionally, especially suits and mens clothing. The term refers to a set of hand and machine sewing and pressing techniques that are unique to the construction of traditional jackets. Retailers of tailored suits often take their services internationally, traveling to various cities, traditional tailoring is called bespoke tailoring in the United Kingdom, where the heart of the trade is Londons Savile Row tailoring, and custom tailoring in the United States and Hong Kong. This is unlike made to measure which uses pre-existing patterns, a bespoke garment or suit is completely original and unique to each customer. Famous fictional tailors include the tailor in The Tailor of Gloucester, The Emperors New Clothes, a more recent example is John le Carrés The Tailor of Panama. As the tailoring profession has evolved, so too have the methods of tailoring, there are a number of distinctive business models of which modern tailors may practice. While some may practice many, there are others who will only one or two. Local tailoring is as the name implies, typically the tailor is met locally and the garment produced locally. This method enables the tailor to take measurements, assess posture. Local tailors will typically have a showroom or shopfront allowing clients to choose fabrics from samples or return the garment easily should it require further modification and this is the most traditional form of tailoring. Hong Kong and London are the most famous for high quality bespoke tailoring, distance tailoring involves ordering a garment from an out-of-town tailor enabling cheaper labour to be used. In practice this can now be done on a global scale via e-commerce websites, unlike local tailoring, customers must take their own measurements, fabric selection must be made from a photo, and if further alterations are required the garment must be shipped. Today, the most common platform for distance tailoring is via online tailors, online tailors sometimes offer to pay for needed alterations at a local tailor. Another new option is the concept where a free test suit is made to the provided measurements, the test suit can be tried on and worn to see where any adjustments are wanted. The final suit is tailored to the new specifications provided by the test suit fitting. Traveling tailors travel between cities and station in a luxury hotel for a short period of time to meet. In the hotel, the customer will be able to select the fabric from samples, the order then will be shipped to the customer within three to four weeks time. Unlike local tailoring, if further alterations are required the garment must be shipped, today, most traveling tailors are from Hong Kong, traveling to the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Australia and Japan
Tailor
–
Tailoring first fitting in
Italy
Tailor
–
Clothier and tailor in the
Financial District of
Boston, Massachusetts
Tailor
–
Vintage tailor's button from
Hobart, Tasmania
Tailor
–
A roadside tailor in
Haikou City,
Hainan Province,
China
29.
China
–
China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
China
–
Yinxu, ruins of an ancient
palace dating from the
Shang Dynasty (14th century BCE)
China
–
Flag
China
–
Some of the thousands of life-size
Terracotta Warriors of the
Qin Dynasty, c. 210 BCE
China
–
The
Great Wall of China was built by several dynasties over two thousand years to protect the sedentary agricultural regions of the
Chinese interior from incursions by
nomadic pastoralists of the northern
steppes.
30.
India
–
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
India
–
Flag
India
–
The granite
tower of
Brihadeeswarar Temple in
Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by
Raja Raja Chola I.
India
–
Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590–1595
31.
Wedding sari
–
A wedding sari is the traditional wedding dress of Indian women. The sari is traditionally red, with golden embroidery, saint Thomas Christians from Kerala usually wear golden, white or cream saris with gold embroidery. Red saris are the traditional garment choice for brides in Indian culture, Sari fabric is also traditionally silk. Over time, color options and fabric choices for Indian brides have expanded, today fabrics like crêpe, Georgette, tissue and satin are used, and colors have been expanded to include gold, pink, orange, maroon, brown, and yellow as well. Indian brides in Western countries often wear the sari at the wedding ceremony, Indian clothing Wedding Sari Indian Wedding Sari types A Guide to Wedding Saris Indian wedding sarees Boroian, Michael, Poix, Alix de. India by Design, The Pursuit of Luxury and Fashion
Wedding sari
–
Sari display at a store
32.
Shalwar kameez
–
Shalwar kameez, also spelled salwar kameez or shalwar qameez, is a traditional outfit originating in the Indian subcontinent. It is a term used to describe different styles of dress. The shalwar kameez can be worn by men and women, but styles differ by gender. The shalwar and the kameez are two garments which are combined to form the shalwar kameez, the shalwar, šalvār, sirwāl, salwar, selwar, shalvaar are a form of baggy trousers. Transliterations starting from Urdu, Lahnda, Persian, Pashto, Turkish languages use sh, Salwar is the spelling most commonly used in India. Transliterations starting from Punjabi often render the sibilant sound at the start of salwar/shalwar as an s, both spellings are found in common English usage. The shalwar spelling seems to be most common in Canada and the United Kingdom, the kameez or qamis is a shirt of varying length. Garments cut like the kameez are known in many cultures, 10th-century cotton shirts recovered from the Egyptian desert are cut much like the kameez or the contemporary Egyptian djellaba or jellabiya. The word kameez is originally an Arabic word and is also spelled with a Q. The shalwar are loose pajama-like trousers, the legs are wide at the top, and narrow at the ankle. The kameez is a shirt or tunic, often seen with a Western-style collar, however, for female apparel. The kameez might be worn with pajamas as well, either for fashion or comfort, some kameez styles have side seams, left open below the waist-line, giving the wearer greater freedom of movement. The kameez can be straight and flat, in an A shape design or flowing like a dress. Modern kameez styles are more likely to have European-inspired set-in sleeves, if the tailors taste or skill is displayed, this will be seen in the shape of the neckline and the decoration of the kameez. The kameez may be cut with a deep neckline, sewn in diaphanous fabrics, there are many styles of shalwar, the Peshawari shalwar, Balochi shalwar, Sindhi choreno and Punjabi shalwar. The following are some of the styles of shalwar kameez, the shalwar kameez known as the Anarkali suit is named after the court dancer from Lahore. This suit has a style which has become very popular. It is made up of a long, frock-style top and features a fitted bottom
Shalwar kameez
–
Shalwar (with
Kabuli sandals).
Shalwar kameez
–
Shalwar
Shalwar kameez
–
Shalwar kameez, from Max Tilke's Oriental Costume, 1922
Shalwar kameez
–
Children in Shalwar kameez
33.
Lehenga
–
It is worn as the bottom portion of a Gagra choli or Langa Voni. It is secured at the waist and leaves the lower back, in India and Pakistan various types of traditional embroidery work are done on lehenga, with Gota patti embroidery being one of popular types for the festivals and weddings. This was one of the earliest forms of a stitched skirt and it was worn using drawstring or nada. The ghagri was a narrow skirt six feet long the length as original antariya. This style can still be worn by Jain nuns in India. In Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka it is known as Langa and part of the dress Langa Voni, lehnga choli, ghaghara are famous from Rajasthan and Gujarat in India, where women wear them in various folk dances and traditional parties, marriages. You can find the best collection of Lehengas at Delhi, Mumbai, Jaipur, best designers in India for Lehengas are Anita Dongre, Sabyasachi, Manish Malhotra, Neeta Lulla, Masaba
Lehenga
–
Lehenga with
Gota Embroidery
34.
Vietnam
–
Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 92.7 million inhabitants as of 2016, it is the worlds 14th-most-populous country, and its capital city has been Hanoi since the reunification of North and South Vietnam in 1976, with Ho Chi Minh City as a historical city as well. The northern part of Vietnam was part of Imperial China for over a millennium, an independent Vietnamese state was formed in 939, following a Vietnamese victory in the Battle of Bạch Đằng River. Following a Japanese occupation in the 1940s, the Vietnamese fought French rule in the First Indochina War, thereafter, Vietnam was divided politically into two rival states, North Vietnam, and South Vietnam. Conflict between the two sides intensified in what is known as the Vietnam War, the war ended with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975. Vietnam was then unified under a communist government but remained impoverished, in 1986, the government initiated a series of economic and political reforms which began Vietnams path towards integration into the world economy. By 2000, it had established relations with all nations. Since 2000, Vietnams economic growth rate has been among the highest in the world and its successful economic reforms resulted in its joining the World Trade Organization in 2007. It is also a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie, Vietnam remains one of the worlds four remaining one-party socialist states officially espousing communism. The name Việt Nam is a variation of Nam Việt, a name that can be traced back to the Triệu Dynasty of the 2nd century BC. The word Việt originated as a form of Bách Việt. The form Vietnam is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình, the name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Haiphong that dates to 1558. Then, as recorded, rewarded Yuenan/Vietnam as their nations name, to also show that they are below the region of Baiyue/Bach Viet. Between 1804 and 1813, the name was used officially by Emperor Gia Long and it was revived in the early 20th century by Phan Bội Châus History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party. The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when both the government in Huế and the Viet Minh government in Hanoi adopted Việt Nam. Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age, Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam. The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistocene provenance, teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have also been found at Dong Can, and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu, Lang Gao and Lang Cuom. The Hồng Bàng dynasty of the Hùng kings is considered the first Vietnamese state, in 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán, who consolidated the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes to form the Âu Lạc, proclaiming himself An Dương Vương
Vietnam
–
A
Đông Sơn bronze drum, c.800 BC.
Vietnam
–
Flag
Vietnam
–
The
Imperial City in
Huế.
Vietnam
–
French Indochina in 1913.
35.
Chinese tea culture
–
Chinese tea culture refers to how tea is prepared as well as the occasions when people consume tea in China. Tea culture in China differs from that in European countries like Britain and other Asian countries like Japan in preparation, taste, tea is still consumed regularly, both on casual and formal occasions. In addition to being a beverage, it is used in traditional Chinese medicine as well as in Chinese cuisine. The concept of tea culture is referred to in Chinese as chayi, the word cha denotes the beverage that is derived from Camellia sinensis, the tea plant. Prior to the 8th century BCE, tea was known collectively under the term 荼 along with a number of other bitter plants. These two Chinese characters are identical, with the exception of a horizontal stroke in the Chinese lettering 荼. The older character is made up of the radical 艸 in its form of 艹 and the character 余. There are several circumstances in which tea is prepared and consumed in Chinese culture. A sign of respect In traditional Chinese society, members of the younger generation show their respect to members of the generation by offering a cup of tea. Inviting their elders to restaurants for tea is a holiday activity. In the past, people of a social class served tea to the upper class in society. Today, with the liberalization of Chinese society, this rule. Every Sunday, Chinese restaurants are crowded with families, especially during the holiday season and this phenomenon reflects the function of tea in Chinese family values. To apologize In Chinese culture, tea may be offered as part of a formal apology, for example, children who have misbehaved may serve tea to their parents as a sign of regret and submission. On some occasions, the serves the grooms family. This process symbolizes the joining together of the two families, light finger tapping is a customary way to thanking the tea master or tea server for tea. After ones cup is filled, the bent index and middle fingers are knocked on the table to express gratitude to the person who served the tea and this custom is common in southern Chinese cultures, like the Cantonese. In other parts of China, it is acceptable if the person wishing to express gratitude is preoccupied with conversation or cannot actually say thank you when the cup is filled
Chinese tea culture
–
Chinese tea culture
Chinese tea culture
–
A tea house in Shanghai, China
Chinese tea culture
–
A tea house in Presidential Palace Garden in Nanjing, China
Chinese tea culture
–
A set of equipment for drinking tea
36.
Phoenix crown
–
Fengguan is a traditional type of Chinese headgear for women. It was worn mainly by noblewomen during the Ming Dynasty for ceremonies or official occasions and it is also traditional headgear for brides. Fengguan means phoenix crown, a name that originates from its adornments, phoenixes made of inlaid kingfisher feathers, as well as gold dragons, beaded pheasants, pearls, one of the earliest phoenix crowns that has been excavated belonged to Empress Xiao of the Sui dynasty. It became most popular during the Ming Dynasty, with changes made with time. Kingfisher feathers were extremely rare during the Ming Dynasty and were sourced from Cambodia. The numbers of phoenixes, dragons and precious gems on each crown is different, for example, the phoenix crown of Ming Empress Xiaoduanxian has 6 dragons,3 phoenixes,5,449 pearls,71 rubies, and 57 sapphires. Other phoenix crowns of empresses excavated from the Ming tombs have 9 phoenixes, the pearls, gemstones and kingfisher feathers were made into ornamental flowers, leaves, clouds, and temple ornaments. The weight of the crown can range from 2–3 kilograms. There are different varieties of phoenix crown, the number of dragons, phoenixes and pheasants, in addition to the presence of certain ornaments was dictated by rank. Phoenix crowns worn with diyi have no strings of pearls by the sides of the head, noblewomen cannot have temple ornaments on their headdresses. Ancient phoenix crown of Sui Dynasty unveiled in E China, womens head-wear of Ming Dynasty 明代妇女的头饰, Jlsdaj. gov. cn, Retrieved 2009-12-08 Liu, Jensen. Special Administrative Agency for the Thirteen Mausoleums, Beijing, the Power of the Phoenix Crown, Imperial Women and Material Culture in Late Ming China. Education & Research Archive, University of Alberta Libraries
Phoenix crown
–
Extant
Ming Dynasty empress's 3-dragons-2-phoenixes crown, with the bobin detached and laid at the sides
Phoenix crown
–
Fengguan of
Tang Dynasty worn by empresses
Phoenix crown
–
Ming Dynasty empress's Fengguan worn with
diyi, with no dangling string of pearls by the sides.
Phoenix crown
–
Ming Dynasty noblewoman wearing 9-pheasants crown (with no bobin) and
yuanlingshan
37.
Taiwan
–
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China, is a state in East Asia. Neighbours include China to the west, Japan to the northeast, Taiwan is the most populous state that is not a member of the United Nations, and the one with the largest economy. The island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa, was inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before the 17th century. After a brief rule by the Kingdom of Tungning, the island was annexed by the Qing dynasty, the Qing ceded Taiwan to Japan in 1895 after the Sino-Japanese War. While Taiwan was under Japanese rule, the Republic of China was established on the mainland in 1912 after the fall of the Qing dynasty, following the Japanese surrender to the Allies in 1945, the ROC took control of Taiwan. However, the resumption of the Chinese Civil War led to the ROCs loss of the mainland to the Communists, and the flight of the ROC government to Taiwan in 1949. As a founding member of the United Nations, the ROC continued to represent China at the United Nations until 1971, in the early 1960s, Taiwan entered a period of rapid economic growth and industrialization, creating a stable industrial economy. In the 1980s and early 1990s, it changed from a one-party military dictatorship dominated by the Kuomintang to a multi-party democracy with universal suffrage, Taiwan is the 22nd-largest economy in the world, and its high-tech industry plays a key role in the global economy. It is ranked highly in terms of freedom of the press, health care, public education, economic freedom, the PRC has consistently claimed sovereignty over Taiwan and asserted the ROC is no longer in legitimate existence. Under its One-China Policy the PRC refused diplomatic relations with any country that recognizes the ROC, the PRC has threatened the use of military force in response to any formal declaration of independence by Taiwan or if PRC leaders decide that peaceful unification is no longer possible. There are various names for the island of Taiwan in use today, the former name Formosa dates from 1542, when Portuguese sailors sighted the main island of Taiwan and named it Ilha Formosa, which means beautiful island. The name Formosa eventually replaced all others in European literature and was in use in English in the early 20th century. This name was adopted into the Chinese vernacular as the name of the sandbar. The modern word Taiwan is derived from this usage, which is seen in forms in Chinese historical records. Use of the current Chinese name was formalized as early as 1684 with the establishment of Taiwan Prefecture, through its rapid development, the entire Formosan mainland eventually became known as Taiwan. The official name of the state is the Republic of China and it was a member of the United Nations representing China until 1971, when it lost its seat to the Peoples Republic of China. Over subsequent decades, the Republic of China has become known as Taiwan. In some contexts, especially ones from the ROC government
Taiwan
–
A young
Tsou man
Taiwan
–
Flag
Taiwan
–
Overview of
Fort Zeelandia, painted around 1635
Taiwan
–
Japanese colonial soldiers march Taiwanese captured after the
Tapani Incident from the
Tainan jail to court, 1915.
38.
Chinese marriage
–
Within Chinese culture, romantic love and monogamy was the norm for most citizens. In more ancient writings for the word 婚姻, the former has the radical 昏 beside the radical 女 and this implies that the wedding ceremony is performed in the evening, which is deemed as a time of fortune. Similarly, 姻 has the pronunciation as 因. According to Zhang Yis Guangya Shigu, a dictionary of ancient Chinese characters, 因 means friendliness, love and harmony, in Confucian thought, marriage is of grave significance both to families and to society as well as being important for the cultivation of virtue. Traditionally incest has been defined as marriage between people with the same surname, from the perspective of a Confucian family, marriage brings together families of different surnames and so continues the family line of the paternal clan. This is generally why having a boy is preferred over a girl when giving birth, therefore, the benefits and demerits of any marriage are important to the entire family, not just the individual couples. Socially, the couple is thought to be the basic unit of society. In Chinese history there have many times when marriages have affected the country’s political stability. During the Han Dynasty, the rulers of the powerful Xiongnu tribe demanded women from the imperial family, many periods of Chinese history were dominated by the families of the wife or mother of the ruling emperor. In traditional Chinese thinking, people in primitive societies did not marry, the story about the marriage of Nüwa and Fu Xi, who were once sister and brother respectively, told about how they invented proper marriage procedures after becoming married. At that time the world was unpopulated, so the siblings wanted to get married but, at the same time, so they went up to Kunlun Shan and prayed to the heavens. They asked for permission for their marriage and said, if you allow us to marry, the heavens gave permission to the couple, and promptly the peak was covered in mist. It is said that in order to hide her shyness, Nüwa covered her face with a fan. Nowadays in some villages in China, the brides still follow the custom and this practice was enforced under the law. In a maternal marriage, a male would become a son-in-law who lived in the wife’s home and this happened in the transformation of antithetic marriage into monogamy, which signified the decline of matriarchy and the growing dominance of patriarchy in ancient China. Turki women considered Turki men to be inferior husbands to Chinese, besides Chinese men, other men such as Hindus, Armenians, Jews, Russians, and Badakhshanis intermarried with local Turki women. The local society accepted the Turki women and Chinese mens mixed offspring as their own people despite the marriages being in violation of Islamic law, Chinese marriage became a custom between 402 and 221 BC. Despite Chinas long history and many different geographical areas, there are essentially six rituals, unfortunately for some traditional families, the wifes mother cannot go to her son-in-laws family until one year after the wedding has elapsed
Chinese marriage
–
A
Qing Dynasty wedding. The groom's parents are seated. The bride is the one in the centre wearing a red dress and blue headpiece, presenting
tea to her mother-in-law. The
groom usually wears a sash forming an "X" in front of him. Sometimes the "X" includes a giant bow or flower, though not in this picture.
Chinese marriage
–
A modern wedding held in a
Ming Dynasty format
Chinese marriage
–
A couple, with the bride in a traditionally red dress, being photographed at the
Temple of Heaven in Beijing
Chinese marriage
–
A European painting of an
emperor of China inspecting his fantasy fishing fleet with his concubines
39.
Sari
–
There are various styles of sari draping, the most common being the Nivi style, which originated in Andhra Pradesh. The sari is worn over a petticoat, with a fitted upper garment commonly called a blouse. The blouse has short sleeves and is cropped at the midriff. The sari is associated with grace and is regarded as a symbol of grace in cultures of the Indian subcontinent. The word sari described in Sanskrit शाटी śāṭī which means strip of cloth and शाडी śāḍī or साडी sāḍī in Pali, the word Sattika is mentioned as describing womens attire in ancient India in Sanskrit literature and Buddhist literature called Jatakas. This could be equivalent to modern day Sari, the term for female bodice, the choli evolved from ancient Stanapatta. Rajatarangini, a literary work by Kalhana, states that the choli from the Deccan was introduced under the royal order in Kashmir. In the history of Indian clothing the sari is traced back to the Indus Valley Civilisation, cotton was first cultivated and woven in Indian subcontinent around 5th millennium BC. Dyes used during this period are still in use, particularly indigo, lac, red madder, silk was woven around 2450 BC and 2000 BC. The earliest known depiction of the sari in the Indian subcontinent is the statue of an Indus Valley priest wearing a drape. The sari evolved from an ensemble comprising the Antariya, the lower garment, the Uttariya, a veil worn over the shoulder or the head, and the Stanapatta. This ensemble is mentioned in Sanskrit literature and Buddhist Pali literature during the 6th century B. C and this complete three-piece dress was known as Poshak, generic term for costume. Ancient Antariya closely resembled dothi wrap in the version which was passed through legs, covered the legs loosely and then flowed into a long. It further evolved into Bhairnivasani skirt, today known as ghagri, Uttariya was a shawl-like veil worn over the shoulder or head, it evolved into what is known today known as dupatta and ghoongat. Likewise, Stanapatta evolved into choli by 1st century A. D. Between 2nd century B. C to 1st century A. D, Antariya and Uttariya was merged to form a single garment known as sari mentioned in Pali literature, which served the purpose of two garments in one-piece. The ancient Sanskrit work, Kadambari by Banabhatta and ancient Tamil poetry, such as the Silappadhikaram, in ancient India, although women wore saris that bared the midriff, the Dharmasastra writers stated that women should be dressed such that the navel would never become visible. By which for some time the navel became a taboo
Sari
–
Woman and girl dressed in traditional Maharashtra sari
Sari
–
Galaxy of Musicians by
Raja Ravi Varma depicting women in various styles of sari
Sari
–
Illustration of different styles of sari & clothing worn by women in South Asia
Sari
–
Women in
choli (blouse) and antariya CE 320
Gupta Empire
40.
Lehnga
–
It is worn as the bottom portion of a Gagra choli or Langa Voni. It is secured at the waist and leaves the lower back, in India and Pakistan various types of traditional embroidery work are done on lehenga, with Gota patti embroidery being one of popular types for the festivals and weddings. This was one of the earliest forms of a stitched skirt and it was worn using drawstring or nada. The ghagri was a narrow skirt six feet long the length as original antariya. This style can still be worn by Jain nuns in India. In Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka it is known as Langa and part of the dress Langa Voni, lehnga choli, ghaghara are famous from Rajasthan and Gujarat in India, where women wear them in various folk dances and traditional parties, marriages. You can find the best collection of Lehengas at Delhi, Mumbai, Jaipur, best designers in India for Lehengas are Anita Dongre, Sabyasachi, Manish Malhotra, Neeta Lulla, Masaba
Lehnga
–
Lehenga with
Gota Embroidery
41.
Choli
–
A choli is a midriff-baring blouse or upper garment in the Indian sari costume worn in India, southern Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and other countries where the sari is worn. It is also part of the ghagra choli costume of India, the choli evolved from ancient Stanapatta, it was part of three-piece attire worn during ancient period. The Antriya lower garment, Uttariya veil worn over shoulder or head and Stanapatta a chestband, rajatarangini, a tenth-century literary work by Kalhana, states that the Choli from the Deccan was introduced under the royal order in Kashmir. Early cholis were front covering, tied at the back, Choli of this type are still common in state of Rajasthan. Pre-Christian era paintings of Maharashtra and Gujarat are considered the first recorded examples of choli, in parts of Hindi-belt, mostly in Rajasthan, Haryana and Uttar pradesh women wore vest-like garment known as Kanchli over choli, this complete attire is known as Poshak. A lady of honour ideally covered her back and upper arms with a made of a thicker fabric. Of course, not every woman followed the norm, in the 1970s and 1980s, the blouses went knotty, criss-crossed with a deep cut, and even shone through the sheer saree. Anupama Raj, a boutique owner commented, There is a real need to re-invent the choli so that it can be worn with a variety of outfits. Just as we see the choli to be a form of the blouse. Only then, will it be acceptable internationally, bobby Malik, an exporter-turned-designer commented, The choli is the most sensuous of all garments created for women. It not only flatters the feminine form, but also brings out the romanticism in a woman, but where Indian designers have failed is at giving it an international look and making it still more beautiful. The late Khushwant Singh in his book Sex Scotch and Scholarship stated, A well-cut blouse worn with the saree elevates the bosom, today the entire approach towards the choli is adventurous. Their metamorphosis has taken cholis from being demure and sedate to daring, with tailoring and innovative necklines, such as halter, tubes. Designer Manish Malhotra said, Since most young people follow a healthy gym routine and are at ease with their bodies, they want to look different and they like to travel and carry a sense of Indianness around them. Designer Vikram Phadnis said, Its also to do with the fact that the new age woman is well-traveled, well-read, sonora Kabir, another Delhi-based designer commented, Normally, the choli is supposed to hover around the navel area. But if you crop the lower edges and combine it with a funky design — beads, cholis can be made from many fabrics. For everyday wear, cotton-based materials such as terry-cot and silk cotton are widely considered the most comfortable, chiffon, silk, crepe and satin are best suited for formal occasions. The ideal fabric for cholis in the summer is chiffon and georgette, sheer and other transparent fabrics are considered to add glamour, provided they come with an opaque lining in the right places
Choli
–
Woman in choli ca. 1872
Choli
–
Choli from
Gujarat at the
Peabody Essex Museum
Choli
–
Women in ancient form of long front covering choli tied at the back
42.
Japanese wedding
–
Marriage in Japan is a legal and social institution at the center of the household. Couples are legally married once they have made the change in status on their family registration sheets, the institution of marriage in Japan has changed radically over the last millennium. Customs once exclusive to a small aristocracy gained mass popularity as the population became increasingly urbanized, the Heian period of Japanese history marked the culmination of its classical era, when the vast imperial court established itself and its culture in Heian-kyō. Heian society was organized by a system of rank. It was neither ceremonial nor necessarily permanent, aristocrats exchanged letters and poetry for a period of months or years before arranging to meet after dark. If a man saw the woman for a period of three nights, they were considered married, and the wifes parents held a banquet for the couple. High-ranked noblemen sometimes kept multiple wives or concubines, aristocratic wives could remain in their fathers house, and the husband would recognize paternity with the formal presentation of a gift. In pre-modern Japan, marriage was inextricable from the ie, the unit of society with a collective continuity independent of any individual life. Members of the household were expected to all their own interests to that of the ie, with respect for an ideal of filial piety. The choice to remain single was the greatest crime a man could commit, property was regarded to belong to the ie rather than to individuals, and inheritance was strictly agnatic primogeniture. A woman married the household of her husband, hence the logograms for yome, in the absence of sons, some households would adopt a male heir to maintain the dynasty, a practice which continues in corporate Japan. Nearly all adoptions are of adult men, marriage was restricted to households of equal social standing, which made selection a crucial, painstaking process. Although Confucian ethics encouraged people to marry outside their own group, approximately one-in-five marriages in pre-modern Japan occurred between households that were already related. Marriage between a Japanese and non-Japanese person was not officially permitted until 14 March 1873, a date now commemorated as White Day, marriage with a foreigner required the Japanese national to surrender his or her social standing. The seventeenth-century treatise Onna Daigaku instructed wives honor their parents-in-law before their own parents, and to be courteous, humble, husbands were also encouraged to place the needs of their parents and children before those of their wives. One British observer remarked, If you love your wife you spoil your mothers servant, the tension between a housewife and her mother-in-law has been a keynote of Japanese drama ever since. Romantic love played little part in medieval marriages, as emotional attachment was considered inconsistent with filial piety, a proverb said, Those who come together in passion stay together in tears. For men, sexual gratification was seen as separate from conjugal relations with ones wife, the genre called Ukiyo-e celebrated the luxury and hedonism of the era, typically with depictions of beautiful courtesans and geisha of the pleasure districts
Japanese wedding
–
A Western-style wedding in Japan.
Japanese wedding
–
A traditional Japanese wedding ceremony
43.
Javanese people
–
The Javanese are an ethnic group native to the Indonesian island of Java. With approximately 100 million people, they form the largest ethnic group in Indonesia and they are predominantly located in the central to eastern parts of the island. There are also significant numbers of people of Javanese descent in most Provinces of Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Suriname, Saudi Arabia, the Javanese ethnic group has many sub-groups, such as the Mataram, Cirebonese, Osing, Tenggerese, Samin, Naganese, Banyumasan, etc. A majority of the Javanese people identify themselves as Muslims, with a minority identifying as Christians, Hindu and Buddhist influences arrived through trade contacts with the Indian subcontinent. Hindu and Buddhist - traders and visitors, arrived in the 5th century, the Hindu, Buddhist and Javanese faiths blended into a unique local philosophy. The cradle of Javanese culture is described as being in Kedu. The earliest Sanjaya and Sailendra dynasties had their base there. The move was most likely caused by the eruption of Merapi and/or invasion from Srivijaya. The major spread of Javanese influence occurred under King Kertanegara of Singhasari in the late 13th century, the expansionist king launched several major expeditions to Madura, Bali in 1284, Borneo and most importantly to Sumatra in 1275. Following the defeat of the Melayu Kingdom, Singhasari controlled trade in the Strait of Malacca, Singhasari dominance was cut short in 1292 by Kediris rebellion under Jayakatwang, killing Kertanegara. However, Jayakatwangs reign as king of Java soon ended as he was defeated by Kertanegaras son-in-law, Raden Wijaya would later establish Majapahit near the delta of the Brantas River in modern-day Mojokerto, East Java. Kertanegara policies were continued by the Majapahits under King Hayam Wuruk. Various kingdoms of Java were actively involved in the trade in the sea route of the Silk Road. Although not major producers, these kingdoms were able to stockpile spice by trading for it with rice. Majapahit is usually regarded as the greatest of these kingdoms and it was both an agrarian and a maritime power, combining wet-rice cultivation and foreign trade. The ruin of their capital can be found in Trowulan, Islam gained its foothold in port towns on Javas northern coast such as Gresik, Ampel Denta, Tuban, Demak and Kudus. The spread and proselytising of Islam among the Javanese was traditionally credited to Wali Songo, Java underwent major changes as Islam spread. Following succession disputes and civil wars, Majapahit power collapsed, after this collapse, its various dependencies and vassals broke free
Javanese people
–
Javanese adapted many aspects of Indian culture, such as
Ramayana epic.
Javanese people
–
The
Prambanan temple complex, built during
Mataram kingdom.
Javanese people
–
Sultan
Amangkurat II of Mataram (upper right) watching warlord Untung Surapati fighting Captain Tack of the
Dutch East India Company (VOC). ca 1684 AD.
Javanese people
–
A Javanese courtly ceremony at Keraton Surakarta in 1932.
44.
Indonesia
–
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
Indonesia
–
A
Borobudur ship carved on
Borobudur, c. 800 CE. Indonesian outrigger boats may have made trade voyages to the east coast of Africa as early as the 1st century CE.
Indonesia
–
Flag
Indonesia
–
The
nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia's
Banda Islands.
Indonesia
–
Tan Malaka, Indonesian philosopher, guerilla, and national hero.
45.
Kebaya
–
It is sometimes made from sheer material such as silk, thin cotton or semi-transparent nylon or polyester, adorned with brocade or floral pattern embroidery. A kebaya is usually worn with a sarong, or a batik kain panjang, or other traditional woven garment such as ikat, the kebaya is the national costume of Indonesia, although it is more accurately endemic to the Javanese, Malay, Sundanese and Balinese peoples. Kebaya is inspired from Arab region clothing, the Arabic word abaya means clothing, aceh, Riau and Johor Kingdoms and Northern Sumatra adopted the Javanese style kebaya as a means of social expression of status with the more alus or refined Javanese overlords. The name of Kebaya as a particular clothing type was noted by the Portuguese when they landed in Indonesia, Kebaya is associated with a type of blouse worn by Indonesian women in 15th or 16th century. The earliest photographics evidence of the kebaya as known today date from 1857 of Javanese, Peranakan, the quintessential kebaya is the Javanese kebaya as known today is essentially unchanged as noted by Raffles in 1817. It consists of the blouse of cotton, silk, lace, brocade or velvet, traditional kebaya had no buttons down the front. A typical three-piece kerongsang is composed of a kerongsang ibu that is larger and heavier than the other two kerongsang anak, the blouse is commonly semi-transparent and worn over the torso wrap or kemben. The skirt or kain is an unstitched fabric wrap around three metres long, the blouse, known as baju kebaya may be of two main forms, the semi-transparent straighter cut blouse of Java, Bali, and the more tightly tailored Sunda kebaya. In Java, Bali and Sunda, the kain is commonly batik which may be from plain stamped cotton to elaborately hand-painted batik tulis embroidered silk with gold thread, in Lampung, the kain is the traditional tapis, an elaborate gold-thread embroidered ikat with small mica discs. Sumatra, Flores, Lemata Timor, and other islands commonly use kain of ikat or songket, sumba is famous for kain decorated with lau hada, shells and beads. In Malacca, Malaysia, a different variety of kebaya is called nyonya kebaya and worn by those of Chinese ancestry, the Nyonya kebaya is different in its famously intricately hand-beaded shoes and use of kain with Chinese motive batik or imported printed or hand-painted Chinese silks. Other than Malacca, the nyonya kebaya is also popular in other settlements, Penang. In Java, the worn by ladies of Chinese ancestry is called kebaya encim. It was commonly worn by Chinese ladies in Javan coastal cities with significant Chinese settlements, such as Semarang, Lasem, Tuban, Surabaya, Pekalongan and Cirebon. It marked differently from Javanese kebaya with its smaller and finer embroidery, lighter fabrics and more vibrant colors, made from imported materials such as silk, the encim kebaya fit well with vibrant-colored kain batik pesisiran. During the Dutch East Indies era of Indonesia, European women of high status adopted the kebaya, European women wore shorter sleeves and total length cotton in prints. The only woman present during Indonesias Proclamation of Independence, Dutch-educated activist SK Trimurti, wore kebaya, in Java, Bali and Sunda it is the kebaya. Kebayas as the costume of Indonesian women were often featured by Indonesian first ladies
Kebaya
–
A group of women posing in traditional
Peranakan nonya kebaya
Kebaya
–
R.A. Kartini and her husband in 19th century
Kebaya
–
An elderly
Sundanese woman wearing simple kebaya, kain batik and batik headcloth,
West Java.
Kebaya
–
Indonesian woman in kebaya and kain
batik. The trace of kemban (torso wrap) can be seen underneath the semi-transparent
brocade kebaya.
46.
Batik
–
Batik is a technique of wax-resist dyeing applied to whole cloth, or cloth made using this technique. Batik is made either by drawing dots and lines of the resist with a tool called a canting. In October 2009, UNESCO designated Indonesian batik as a Masterpiece of Oral, the word batik is Javanese in origin. It may either come from the Javanese word amba and titik, the word is first recorded in English in the Encyclopædia Britannica of 1880, in which it is spelled battik. It is attested in the Indonesian Archipelago during the Dutch colonial period in various forms, mbatek, mbatik, batek, wax resist dyeing of fabric is an ancient art form. It already existed in Egypt in the 4th century BC, where it was used to wrap mummies, linen was soaked in wax, in Asia, the technique was practised in China during the Tang Dynasty, and in India and Japan during the Nara Period. In Africa it was practised by the Yoruba tribe in Nigeria, Soninke. These African version however, uses cassava starch or rice paste, the art of batik is most highly developed in the island of Java in Indonesia. In Java, all the materials for the process are readily available — cotton and beeswax, Indonesian batik predates written records, G. P. Rouffaer argues that the technique might have been introduced during the 6th or 7th century from India or Sri Lanka. On the other hand, the Dutch archaeologist J. L. A, brandes and the Indonesian archaeologist F. A. Rouffaer reported that the gringsing pattern was already known by the 12th century in Kediri, East Java. The motif is thought to represent the lotus, a flower in Hindu-Buddhist beliefs. This evidence suggests that intricate batik fabric patterns applied with the canting existed in 13th-century Java or even earlier. In Europe, the technique was described for the first time in the History of Java, published in London in 1817 by Stamford Raffles, in 1873 the Dutch merchant Van Rijckevorsel gave the pieces he collected during a trip to Indonesia to the ethnographic museum in Rotterdam. Today the Tropenmuseum houses the biggest collection of Indonesian batik in the Netherlands, the Dutch and Chinese colonists were active in developing batik, particularly coastal batik, in the late colonial era. They introduced new patterns as well as the use of the cap to mass-produce batiks, displayed at the Exposition Universelle at Paris in 1900, the Indonesian batik impressed the public and artists. In the 1920s, Javanese batik makers migrating to Malaya introduced the use of wax, in Subsaharan Africa, Javanese batik was introduced in the 19th century by Dutch and English traders. The local people there adapted the Javanese batik, making larger motifs with thicker lines, in the 1970s, batik was introduced to Australia, where aboriginal artists at Erna Bella have developed it as their own craft. Firstly, a cloth is washed, soaked and beaten with a large mallet, patterns are drawn with pencil and later redrawn using hot wax, usually made from a mixture of paraffin or bees wax, sometimes mixed with plant resins, which functions as a dye-resist
Batik
–
An Indonesian batik
Batik
Batik
–
Wax-resist dyed textile from
Niya (Tarim Basin), China.
Batik
–
Pattern of clothes of 13th century East Javanese
Prajnaparamita statue resembles batik.
47.
Philippines
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The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos
Philippines
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King Philip II of Spain.
Philippines
Philippines
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Tabon Cave and its carvings.
Philippines
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The
Banaue Rice Terraces where
Ifugao/Igorot utilized terrace farming in the steep mountainous regions of northern Philippines over 2000 years ago.
48.
Barong Tagalog
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The Barong Tagalog, more commonly known as simply Barong, is an embroidered formal shirt which is considered the national dress of the Philippines. It is lightweight and worn untucked over an undershirt, today, in lowland Christian Filipino culture it is common formal attire, especially at weddings. Less formal variants are used also as uniform in schools, universities and offices, through the years, it has occasionally been feminized and worn by women. The Barong Tagalog was popularised as formal wear by President Ramón Magsaysay, the term Barong Tagalog is usually shortened in modern Filipino as Barong, though grammatically, barong is not a word that can stand alone. It contains the suffix -ng, which indicates that it is an adjective or an adjective must directly follow, the root word of barong is the Tagalog word baro meaning outfit or clothing. Barong Tagalog literally means Tagalog outfit, the term was originally used to describe what people, both men and women, typically wore in the Tagalog region during the Spanish era. In time, the term caught on for the shirt alone, prior to the Spanish Era, the Tagalogs of Luzon already wore a garment that was a forerunner of the Barong Tagalog - the Baro. Earliest reference to the Baro was in the Historical account of Ma-i that the Filipinos wore a sleeve-doublet of rough cotton cloth called kanga and it was collarless and had an opening in front. The doublets indicated the status and badge of courage of a man, red was for the Chiefs. This is only a legend, as pre-Hispanic Filipinos already wore untucked shirts, something common in climates where temperatures. Historians have likewise noted the absence of citations to any law in which that bans the tucking in their shirts. They also note that natives during the era wore their shirts tucked at times. A common example cited in support of this argument is José Rizal and his contemporaries, like other cultural clothes, the style of the Barong Tagalog and the accessories worn with it spoke of the status of the person wearing it. The Mestizos would wear it with their shoes and bowler hat. The Ilustrados wore abaca-made Baro with plain collar, half open chest, the Ilustrados wore it with ordinary shoes, trousers and a hat - similar to that of Mestizos. The Baro was worn over a Camisa de Chino, the lower class wore coloured Camisa de Chino with loose pants and slippers which is still a practice in the countryside. The finest shirts are made from a variety of indigenous fabrics and they have a sheer appearance and the best are custom embroidered in delicate folk patterns, Piña fabric is hand-loomed from pineapple leaf fibers. Traditional piña weavers in the country, however, are dwindling, making the delicate piña cloth expensive and they are used only for very formal events
Barong Tagalog
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Philippine "Indio" dressed in "Baro ng Tagalog", in a black and white photo from about 1870
Barong Tagalog
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President Magsaysay and his (eventual) successor,
Vice-President Carlos P. García, at their Inauguration on 30 December 1953.
Barong Tagalog
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A barong Tagalog placed against the light, showing the translucency of the fabric.
Barong Tagalog
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Costume typical of a family belonging to the
Principalia wearing barong tagalog and
baro't saya.
49.
Muslim Filipino
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Islam is the oldest recorded monotheistic religion in the Philippines. The Muslim population of the Philippines has been reported as about 5% of the population as of a census in 2000. According to a 2015 report of Philippine Statistics Authority,5. 6% of Filipinos are Muslims, while the majority of the population are Roman Catholic, some ethnic groups are Protestant, Hindu, Buddhist, Animist, Sikh, or non-religious. Islam was first brought over by Arab traders in the late 13th and early 14th centuries and these Muslim merchants originally came from present-day Malaysia and Indonesia to the southernmost points in the Philippines, namely the Sulu islands and Mindanao. At the time, the inhabitants there were Hindus and Buddhist, the Arab newcomers preached Islam to the indigenous population and build the first mosque in the Philippines at town of Simunul in the mid-14th century. The Muslim conquest reached as far as the Kingdom of Tondo which was supplanted by Bruneis vassal-state the Kingdom of Maynila, in 1380 Karim ul Makhdum the first Arabian trader reached the Sulu Archipelago and Jolo in the Philippines and through trade throughout the island established Islam in the country. In 1390 the Minangkabaus Prince Rajah Baguinda and his followers preached Islam on the islands, the Sheik Karimal Makdum Mosque was the first mosque established in the Philippines on Simunul in Mindanao in the 14th century. Subsequent settlements by Arab missionaries traveling to Malaysia and Indonesia helped strengthen Islam in the Philippines and each settlement was governed by a Datu, Rajah, Islam was introduced by Chinese Muslims, Indian Muslims, and Persians. Islamic provinces founded in the Philippines included the Sultanate of Maguindanao, Sultanate of Sulu, Sultanate of Lanao, when the Spanish fleet led by Miguel López de Legazpi arrived in the Philippines in 1565, they were met by local datus as they traveled in the islands. Arriving in the Kingdom of Maynila, a vassal-state of the Sultanate of Brunei, however, the Visayas was largely dominated by Hindu-Buddhist societies led by rajahs and datus who strongly resisted Islam. One reason could be due to the economic and political disasters prehispanic Muslim pirates from the Mindanao region bring during raids. These frequent attacks gave way to naming present-day Cebu as then-Sugbo or scorched earth which was a technique implemented by the Visayans so the pirates have nothing much to loot. The Muslim conquest reached as far as the Kingdom of Tondo which was supplanted by Bruneis vassal-state the Kingdom of Maynila, the Muslim Bruneian Empire under the rule of Sultan Bolkiah, who is an ancestor of the current Sultan of Brunei. He subjugated the Kingdom of Tondo which is ruled by Rajah Sukwu during 1500, a new dynasty under the a local Lumad leader who accepted Islam and became Rajah Salalila or Rajah Sulayman I. He also started to established a trading challenge the already rich House of Rajah Lakandula in Tondo, Islam was further strengthened by the arrival of Muslim traders and from Jolo, Mindanao, Malaysia and Indonesia. Note, Rajah is a Hindu title and Sultan is an Islamic title for that era, Chinese mariner Zheng He is credited to have settled Chinese Muslim communities in Palembang and along the shores of Java, the Malay Peninsula, and the Philippines during Chinas early Ming dynasty. These Muslims allegedly followed the Hanafi school in the Chinese language and this Chinese Muslim community was led by Hajji Yan Ying Yu, who urged his followers to assimilate and take local names. Rajah Sulayman was the Muslim Rajah of Maynila, a kingdom at the mouth of the Pasig River where it meets Manila Bay, Moro is the appellation inherited from the Spaniards, for Filipino Muslims of Mindanao
Muslim Filipino
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Mosque in Marawi City in the Philippines.
Muslim Filipino
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Islam by country
Muslim Filipino
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Mosque in
Isabela City.
Muslim Filipino
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A Chest made of wood and bone inlay.
50.
Apache
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APACHE II is a severity-of-disease classification system, one of several ICU scoring systems. The first APACHE model was presented by Knaus et al. in 1981, APACHE II was designed to measure the severity of disease for adult patients admitted to intensive care units. It has not been validated for use in children or young people aged under 16, predicted mortalities are averaged for groups of patients in order to specify the groups morbidity. Even though newer scoring systems, such as SAPS II, have replaced APACHE II in many places, the calculation method is optimized for paper schemas, by using integer values and reducing the number of options so that data fits on a single-sheet paper form. The score is not recalculated during the stay, it is by definition an admission score, if a patient is discharged from the ICU and readmitted, a new APACHE II score is calculated. In the original paper that described the APACHE II score. A method to compute a refined score known as APACHE III was published in 1991, the score was validated on the dataset from 17,440 adult medical/surgical intensive care unit admissions at 40 US hospitals. The prognostic system of APACHE III has two options,1, APACHE III Score This provides an initial risk classification of severely ill hospitalized patients in defined groups. When possible, data about the time between the patient´s arrival to hospital and the ICU admission time are collected. To measure severity of disease 20 physiologic variable were selected, APACHE III scores range from 0 to 299. Reformulated Glasgow Coma parameters to eliminate almost identical scores for different neurological signs would give better and more reliable results
Apache
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