1.
Tiefurt House
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Tiefurt House is a small stately home on the Ilm river in the Tiefurt quarter of Weimar, about 4km east of the city centre. It was the residence of duchess Anna Amalia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. The house originated at the end of the 16th century as the house of a ducal estate. It consists of a building, with an upper floor of 7 rooms. Charles Augustus granted it to his brother Constantine for his own court, four years later their mother selected it as her summer seat during a long absence of the prince. She and her two servants occupied the floor, with her courtier, Luise von Göchhausen, in the auxiliary building. For around 25 years the castle was Anna Amalias favourite residence, on the duchesss death in 1807 the building became neglected, though Charles Augustuss son Charles Frederick began renovation work within Goethes lifetime. In 1907 it opened to the public as a museum, and from 1978 to 1981 it was restored to its 1800 decor, on the nearby meadow was a landscape garden in the English style, also open to the public. Schiller is buried in the burial chamber in the grounds. The well-known landscape gardener Eduard Petzold was put in charge of the gardens during the 19th-century renovations
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Weimar
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Weimar is a city in the federal state of Thuringia, Germany. It is located between Erfurt in the west and Jena in the east, approximately 80 kilometres southwest of Leipzig,170 kilometres north of Nuremberg and 170 kilometres west of Dresden. Together with the neighbour-cities Erfurt and Jena it forms the metropolitan area of Thuringia with approximately 500,000 inhabitants. Weimar is well known because of its cultural heritage and its importance in German history. The city was a point of the German Enlightenment and home of the leading characters of the literary genre of Weimar Classicism. Until 1948, Weimar was the capital of Thuringia, today, many places in the city centre have been designated as UNESCO World Heritage sites and tourism is one of the leading economic sectors of Weimar. Relevant institutions in Weimar are the Bauhaus University, the Liszt School of Music, in 1999, Weimar was the European Capital of Culture. Archaeological finds dating back to the Thuringii epoch show that the Weimar part of the Ilm valley was settled early, the oldest records regarding Weimar date to 899. Its name changed over the centuries from Wimares through Wimari to Wimar and finally Weimar, it is derived from Old High German wīh-, another theory derives the first element from OHG win. The place was the seat of the County of Weimar, first mentioned in 949, in 1062 it was united with the County of Orlamünde to the new County of Weimar-Orlamünde, which existed until the Thuringian Counts War in 1346 and fell to the Wettins afterwards. The Weimar settlement emerged around the wooden castle and two small churches dedicated to St Peter, and to St James. In 1240, the count founded the monastery in Oberweimar. Soon after, the counts of Weimar founded the town, which was an independent parish since 1249, from 1262 the citizens used their own seal. Nevertheless, the influence of the Weimar counts was declining as the influence of the Wettins in Thuringia increased. Hence, the new town was relatively marginal in a regional context. The settlement around St James Church developed into a suburb during the 13th century, after becoming part of the Wettins territory in 1346, urban development improved. The Wettins fostered Weimar by abolishing socage and granting privileges to the citizens, now Weimar became equal to other Wettinian cities like Weißensee and grew during the 15th century, with the establishment of a town hall and the current main church. Weimar acquired woad trade privileges in 1438, the castle and the walls were finished in the 16th century, making Weimar into a full city
3.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
4.
Humanism
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The term was coined in 1808 by the early nineteenth century German educational reformer and theologian Friedrich Niethammer and gradually adopted into English. Niethammer had wished to introduce into German education the humane values of ancient Greece, the word Humanism is ultimately derived from the Latin concept humanitas, and, like most other words ending in -ism, entered English in the nineteenth century. Those who earnestly desire and seek after these are most highly humanized. For the desire to pursue of that kind of knowledge, and the training given by it, has granted to humanity alone of all the animals. Gellius says that in his day humanitas is commonly used as a synonym for philanthropy – or kindness and he himself was involved in public affairs. By assigning pride of place to Paideia in his comment on the etymology of humanitas, gelliuss writings fell into obscurity during the middle ages, but during the Italian Renaissance, Gellius became a favorite author. Teachers and scholars of Greek and Latin grammar, rhetoric, philosophy, during the French Revolution, and soon after, in Germany, humanism began to refer to an ethical philosophy centered on humankind, without attention to the transcendent or supernatural. The designation Religious Humanism refers to organized groups that sprang up during the late-nineteenth and it is similar to Protestantism, although centered on human needs, interests, and abilities rather than the supernatural. The first Humanist Manifesto was issued by a conference held at the University of Chicago in 1933, signatories included the philosopher John Dewey, but the majority were ministers and theologians. But in the century, during the French Enlightenment, a more ideological use of the term had come into use. In 1765, the author of an article in a French Enlightenment periodical spoke of The general love of humanity. A virtue hitherto quite nameless among us, and which we will venture to call humanism, for the time has come to create a word for such a beautiful and necessary thing. The latter part of the 18th and the early 19th centuries saw the creation of numerous philanthropic and benevolent societies dedicated to human betterment. Humanism began to acquire a negative sense, the Oxford English Dictionary records the use of the word humanism by an English clergyman in 1812 to indicate those who believe in the mere humanity of Christ, i. e. Unitarians and Deists. Human-centered philosophy that rejected the supernatural may also be found circa 1500 BCE in the Lokayata system of Indian philosophy, nasadiya Sukta, a passage in the Rig Veda, contains one of the first recorded assertions of agnosticism. Another instance of ancient humanism as a system of thought is found in the Gathas of Zarathustra. Zarathustras philosophy in the Gathas lays out a conception of humankind as thinking beings, dignified with choice, in China, Yellow Emperor is regarded as the humanistic primogenitor. Sage kings such as Yao and Shun are humanistic figures as recorded, king Wu of Zhou has the famous saying, Humanity is the Ling of the world
5.
Romanticism
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Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education. It elevated folk art and ancient custom to something noble, Romanticism assigned a high value to the achievements of heroic individualists and artists, whose examples, it maintained, would raise the quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of freedom from classical notions of form in art, there was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas. In the second half of the 19th century, Realism was offered as a polar opposite to Romanticism, the decline of Romanticism during this time was associated with multiple processes, including social and political changes and the spread of nationalism. Defining the nature of Romanticism may be approached from the point of the primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the remark of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich that the feeling is his law. Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were laws that the imagination—at least of a good creative artist—would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone. As well as rules, the influence of models from other works was considered to impede the creators own imagination, so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his own work through this process of creation from nothingness, is key to Romanticism. This idea is called romantic originality. Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief, however, this is particularly in the effect of nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by it, preferably alone. Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be felt as the voice of the artist. So, in literature, much of romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves. In both French and German the closeness of the adjective to roman, meaning the new literary form of the novel, had some effect on the sense of the word in those languages. It is only from the 1820s that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, the period typically called Romantic varies greatly between different countries and different artistic media or areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place roughly between 1770 and 1848, and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In English literature, M. H. Abrams placed it between 1789, or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830, however, in most fields the Romantic Period is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier
6.
Classicism
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Classicism, in the arts, refers generally to a high regard for a classical period, classical antiquity in the Western tradition, as setting standards for taste which the classicists seek to emulate. Classicism is a genre of philosophy, expressing itself in literature, architecture, art, and music, which has Ancient Greek and Roman sources. It was particularly expressed in the Neoclassicism of the Age of Enlightenment, Classicism is a recurrent tendency in the Late Antique period, and had a major revival in Carolingian and Ottonian art. Until that time the identification with antiquity had been seen as a history of Christendom from the conversion of Roman Emperor Constantine I. Renaissance classicism introduced a host of elements into European culture, including the application of mathematics and empiricism into art, humanism, literary and depictive realism, importantly it also introduced Polytheism, or paganism, and the juxtaposition of ancient and modern. The classicism of the Renaissance led to, and gave way to and this period sought the revival of classical art forms, including Greek drama and music. Opera, in its modern European form, had its roots in attempts to recreate the combination of singing and dancing with theatre thought to be the Greek norm, examples of this appeal to classicism included Dante, Petrarch, and Shakespeare in poetry and theatre. Tudor drama, in particular, modeled itself after classical ideals, studying Ancient Greek became regarded as essential for a well-rounded education in the liberal arts. They also began reviving plastic arts such as bronze casting for sculpture, for example, the painting of Jacques-Louis David which was seen as an attempt to return to formal balance, clarity, manliness, and vigor in art. Various movements of the period saw themselves as classical revolts against a prevailing trend of emotionalism and irregularity. The 20th century saw a number of changes in the arts, thus, both pre-20th century disciplines were labelled classical and modern movements in art which saw themselves as aligned with light, space, sparseness of texture, and formal coherence. Examples of classicist playwrights are Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine and Moliere, the influence of these French rules on playwrights in other nations is debatable. In the English theatre, Restoration playwrights such as William Wycherly and those of Shakespeares plays that seem to display the unities, such as The Tempest, probably indicate a familiarity with actual models from classical antiquity. Classicism in architecture developed during the Italian Renaissance, notably in the writings and designs of Leon Battista Alberti and this style quickly spread to other Italian cities and then to France, Germany, England, Russia and elsewhere. In the 16th century, Sebastiano Serlio helped codify the classical orders, building off of these influences, the 17th-century architects Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren firmly established classicism in England. For the development of classicism from the mid-18th-century onwards, see Neoclassical architecture, for Greek art of the 5th century B. C. E. See Classical art in ancient Greece and the Severe style Italian Renaissance painting and sculpture are marked by their renewal of classical forms, motifs and subjects. In the 15th century Leon Battista Alberti was important in theorizing many of the ideas for painting that came to a fully realised product with Raphaels School of Athens during the High Renaissance
7.
Age of Enlightenment
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The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, The Century of Philosophy. In France, the doctrines of les Lumières were individual liberty and religious tolerance in opposition to an absolute monarchy. French historians traditionally place the Enlightenment between 1715, the year that Louis XIV died, and 1789, the beginning of the French Revolution, some recent historians begin the period in the 1620s, with the start of the scientific revolution. Les philosophes of the widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons, coffee houses. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Church, a variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism and neo-classicism, trace their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the scientific revolution, earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, René Descartes, John Locke, and Baruch Spinoza. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Adam Smith, Benjamin Franklin visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the Declaration of Independence, others like James Madison incorporated them into the Constitution in 1787. The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, the ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by an intellectual movement known as Romanticism. René Descartes rationalist philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking and his attempt to construct the sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation was not as successful as his method of doubt applied in philosophic areas leading to a dualistic doctrine of mind and matter. His skepticism was refined by John Lockes 1690 Essay Concerning Human Understanding and his dualism was challenged by Spinozas uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his Tractatus and Ethics. Both lines of thought were opposed by a conservative Counter-Enlightenment. In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines, the political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. Francis Hutcheson, a philosopher, described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words. Much of what is incorporated in the method and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy. Immanuel Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the sphere through private
8.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
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Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a German writer and statesman. In addition, numerous literary and scientific fragments, more than 10,000 letters and he was an early participant in the Sturm und Drang literary movement. He also contributed to the planning of Weimars botanical park and the rebuilding of its Ducal Palace and his first major scientific work, the Metamorphosis of Plants, was published after he returned from a 1788 tour of Italy. During this period, Goethe published his novel, Wilhelm Meisters Apprenticeship, the verse epic Hermann and Dorothea, and, in 1808. Goethes comments and observations form the basis of several biographical works, Goethes father, Johann Caspar Goethe, lived with his family in a large house in Frankfurt, then an Imperial Free City of the Holy Roman Empire. Though he had studied law in Leipzig and had been appointed Imperial Councillor, Johann Caspar married Goethes mother, Catharina Elizabeth Textor at Frankfurt on 20 August 1748, when he was 38 and she was 17. All their children, with the exception of Johann Wolfgang and his sister, Cornelia Friederica Christiana and his father and private tutors gave Goethe lessons in all the common subjects of their time, especially languages. Goethe also received lessons in dancing, riding and fencing, Johann Caspar, feeling frustrated in his own ambitions, was determined that his children should have all those advantages that he had not. Although Goethes great passion was drawing, he became interested in literature, Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. He also took pleasure in reading works on history and religion. He writes about this period, Goethe became also acquainted with Frankfurt actors, among early literary attempts, he was infatuated with Gretchen, who would later reappear in his Faust and the adventures with whom he would concisely describe in Dichtung und Wahrheit. He adored Caritas Meixner, a wealthy Worms traders daughter and friend of his sister, Goethe studied law at Leipzig University from 1765 to 1768. He detested learning age-old judicial rules by heart, preferring instead to attend the lessons of Christian Fürchtegott Gellert. In Leipzig, Goethe fell in love with Anna Katharina Schönkopf, in 1770, he anonymously released Annette, his first collection of poems. His uncritical admiration for many contemporary poets vanished as he became interested in Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, already at this time, Goethe wrote a good deal, but he threw away nearly all of these works, except for the comedy Die Mitschuldigen. The restaurant Auerbachs Keller and its legend of Fausts 1525 barrel ride impressed him so much that Auerbachs Keller became the real place in his closet drama Faust Part One. As his studies did not progress, Goethe was forced to return to Frankfurt at the close of August 1768, Goethe became severely ill in Frankfurt. During the year and a half that followed, because of several relapses, during convalescence, Goethe was nursed by his mother and sister
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Johann Gottfried Herder
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Johann Gottfried Herder was a German philosopher, theologian, poet, and literary critic. He is associated with the periods of Enlightenment, Sturm und Drang, born in Mohrungen in the Kingdom of Prussia, Herder grew up in a poor household, educating himself from his fathers Bible and songbook. In 1762, a youth of seventeen, he enrolled at the local University of Königsberg. At the same time, Herder became an intellectual protégé of Johann Georg Hamann, although himself an unsociable person, Herder influenced his contemporaries greatly. One friend wrote to him in 1785, hailing his works as inspired by God, a varied field of theorists were later to find inspiration in Herders tantalisingly incomplete ideas. In 1764, now a clergyman, Herder went to Riga to teach and it was during this period that he produced his first major works, which were literary criticism. In 1769 Herder traveled by ship to the French port of Nantes and this resulted in both an account of his travels as well as a shift of his own self-conception as an author. By 1770 Herder went to Strasbourg, where he met the young Goethe and this event proved to be a key juncture in the history of German literature, as Goethe was inspired by Herders literary criticism to develop his own style. This can be seen as the beginning of the Sturm und Drang movement, in 1771 Herder took a position as head pastor and court preacher at Bückeburg under Count Wilhelm von Schaumburg-Lippe. By the mid-1770s, Goethe was an author, and used his influence at the court of Weimar to secure Herder a position as General Superintendent. Herder moved there in 1776, where his outlook shifted again towards classicism, towards the end of his career, Herder endorsed the French Revolution, which earned him the enmity of many of his colleagues. At the same time, he and Goethe experienced a personal split, another reason for his isolation in later years was due to his unpopular attacks on Kantian philosophy. In 1802 Herder was ennobled by the Elector-Prince of Bavaria, which added the von to his last name. He died in Weimar in 1803 at age 59, in 1772 Herder published Treatise on the Origin of Language and went further in this promotion of language than his earlier injunction to spew out the ugly slime of the Seine. Herder now had established the foundations of comparative philology within the new currents of political outlook, Herder wrote that A poet is the creator of the nation around him, he gives them a world to see and has their souls in his hand to lead them to that world. After becoming General Superintendent in 1776, Herders philosophy shifted again towards classicism, Herder was at his best during this period, and produced works such as his unfinished Outline of a Philosophical History of Humanity which largely originated the school of historical thought. The historian should be the contemporary of the past. Herder gave Germans new pride in their origins, modifying that dominance of regard allotted to Greek art extolled among others by Johann Joachim Winckelmann, Herder equated the German with the Gothic and favoured Dürer and everything Gothic
10.
Friedrich Schiller
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Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller was a German poet, philosopher, physician, historian, and playwright. During the last seventeen years of his life, Schiller struck up a productive, if complicated, friendship with the already famous and they frequently discussed issues concerning aesthetics, and Schiller encouraged Goethe to finish works he left as sketches. This relationship and these led to a period now referred to as Weimar Classicism. They also worked together on Xenien, a collection of satirical poems in which both Schiller and Goethe challenge opponents to their philosophical vision. Friedrich Schiller was born on 10 November 1759, in Marbach, Württemberg as the son of military doctor Johann Kaspar Schiller. Schiller grew up in a religious family and spent much of his youth studying the Bible. His father was away in the Seven Years War when Friedrich was born and he was named after king Frederick the Great, but he was called Fritz by nearly everyone. Kaspar Schiller was rarely home during the war, but he did manage to visit the family once in a while and his wife and children also visited him occasionally wherever he happened to be stationed. When the war ended in 1763, Schillers father became an officer and was stationed in Schwäbisch Gmünd. Due to the high cost of living—especially the rent—the family moved to nearby Lorch, although the family was happy in Lorch, Schillers father found his work unsatisfying. He sometimes took his son with him, in Lorch, Schiller received his primary education. The quality of the lessons was fairly bad, and Friedrich regularly cut class with his older sister, because his parents wanted Schiller to become a pastor, they had the pastor of the village instruct the boy in Latin and Greek. Pastor Moser was a teacher, and later Schiller named the cleric in his first play Die Räuber after him. As a boy, Schiller was excited by the idea of becoming a cleric and often put on black robes, in 1766, the family left Lorch for the Duke of Württembergs principal residence, Ludwigsburg. Schillers father had not been paid for three years, and the family had been living on their savings but could no longer afford to do so, so Kaspar Schiller took an assignment to the garrison in Ludwigsburg. There the Schiller boy came to the attention of Karl Eugen and he entered the Karlsschule Stuttgart, in 1773, where he eventually studied medicine. During most of his life, he suffered from illnesses that he tried to cure himself. While at the Karlsschule, Schiller read Rousseau and Goethe and discussed Classical ideals with his classmates, the plays critique of social corruption and its affirmation of proto-revolutionary republican ideals astounded its original audience
11.
Christoph Martin Wieland
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Christoph Martin Wieland was a German poet and writer. He is best-remembered for having written the first Bildungsroman, as well as the epic Oberon and he was born in Oberholzheim, which then belonged to the Free Imperial City of Biberach an der Riss in the south-east of the modern-day state of Baden-Württemberg. His father, who was pastor in Oberholzheim and subsequently in Biberach, from the town school of Biberach he passed on at the age of twelve to the Kloster Berge gymnasium, near Magdeburg. During the summer of 1750, he fell in love with a cousin, Sophie Gutermann, and this affair inspired him to plan his first ambitious work, Die Natur der Dinge. In 1750 he went to the University of Tübingen as a student of law, the poems he wrote at the university — Hermann, an epic, Zwölf moralische Briefe in Versen, Anti-Ovid — are pietistic in tone and dominated by the influence of Klopstock. They attracted the attention of the Swiss literary reformer, J. J. Bodmer, here he became intimate with Jean-Jacques Rousseaus friend Julie de Bondeli. In Cyrus, he had been inspired by the deeds of Frederick the Great to write a poem exhibiting the ideal of a hero, araspes und Panthea is based on an episode from the Cyropaedia of Xenophon. Wielands conversion was completed at Biberach, having returned in 1760 as director of the chancery. The monotony of his life here was relieved by the friendship of a Count Stadion, whose library in the castle of Warthausen, not far from Biberach, was stocked with French. Wieland met again his early love Sophie Gutermann, who had become the wife of Hofrat La Roche, then manager of Count Stadions estates. In Don Sylvia von Rosalva, a romance in imitation of Don Quixote, he held up to ridicule his earlier faith, more important is the novel Geschichte des Agathon, in which, under the guise of a Greek fiction, Wieland described his own spiritual and intellectual growth. This work, which Lessing recommended as a novel of classic taste, musarion advocates a rational unity of the sensual and spiritual, Amadis celebrates the triumph of intellectual over physical beauty. Wieland married Anna Dorothea von Hillenbrand on October 21,1765, Wielands daughter Sophia Catharina Susanna Wieland married philosopher Karl Leonhard Reinhold on May 18,1785. Between 1769 and 1772, Wieland was a professor of philosophy at the University of Erfurt, in his Verklagter Amor he defended amatory poetry, and in the Dialogen des Diogenes von Sinope he gave a general vindication of his philosophical views. With the exception of years spent at Ossmannstedt, where in later life he bought an estate. Turning his attention to poetry, he wrote the Wahl des Hercules. In 1773, he founded Der teutsche Merkur, which under his editorship became the most influential literary review in Germany. His views, as exhibited therein, however, showed so much of the narrow conventional spirit of French criticism and this Wieland answered with great good nature, recommending it to all who were fond of wit and sarcasm
12.
Neoclassicism
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The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century, laterally competing with Romanticism. In architecture, the style continued throughout the 19th, 20th, European Neoclassicism in the visual arts began c.1760 in opposition to the then-dominant Baroque and Rococo styles. Each neo-classicism selects some models among the range of classics that are available to it. They ignored both Archaic Greek art and the works of Late Antiquity, the Rococo art of ancient Palmyra came as a revelation, through engravings in Woods The Ruins of Palmyra. While the movement is described as the opposed counterpart of Romanticism. The case of the main champion of late Neoclassicism, Ingres, demonstrates this especially well. The revival can be traced to the establishment of formal archaeology, the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann were important in shaping this movement in both architecture and the visual arts. With the advent of the Grand Tour, a fad of collecting antiquities began that laid the foundations of many great collections spreading a Neoclassical revival throughout Europe, Neoclassicism in each art implies a particular canon of a classical model. In English, the term Neoclassicism is used primarily of the arts, the similar movement in English literature. This, which had been dominant for decades, was beginning to decline by the time Neoclassicism in the visual arts became fashionable. Though terms differ, the situation in French literature was similar, in music, the period saw the rise of classical music, and Neoclassicism is used of 20th-century developments. Ingress coronation portrait of Napoleon even borrowed from Late Antique consular diptychs and their Carolingian revival, much Neoclassical painting is more classicizing in subject matter than in anything else. A fierce, but often very badly informed, dispute raged for decades over the merits of Greek and Roman art, with Winckelmann. The work of artists, who could not easily be described as insipid, combined aspects of Romanticism with a generally Neoclassical style. Unlike Carstens unrealized schemes, the etchings of Giovanni Battista Piranesi were numerous and profitable and his main subject matter was the buildings and ruins of Rome, and he was more stimulated by the ancient than the modern. Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the success of Jacques-Louis Davids Oath of the Horatii at the Paris Salon of 1785. Despite its evocation of republican virtues, this was a commission by the royal government, David managed to combine an idealist style with drama and forcefulness. David rapidly became the leader of French art, and after the French Revolution became a politician with control of government patronage in art
13.
Empiricism
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Empiricism is a theory that states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience. It is one of several views of epistemology, the study of human knowledge, Empiricism in the philosophy of science emphasizes evidence, especially as discovered in experiments. Empiricism, often used by scientists, says that knowledge is based on experience. One of the epistemological tenets is that sensory experience creates knowledge, empirical research, including experiments and validated measurement tools, guides the scientific method. The term was used by the Empiric school of ancient Greek medical practitioners, a central concept in science and the scientific method is that it must be empirically based on the evidence of the senses. Both natural and social sciences use working hypotheses that are testable by observation, philosophical empiricists hold no knowledge to be properly inferred or deduced unless it is derived from ones sense-based experience. This view is contrasted with rationalism, which states that knowledge may be derived from reason independently of the senses. For example, John Locke held that knowledge could be arrived at through intuition. Similarly Robert Boyle, a prominent advocate of the experimental method, the main continental rationalists were also advocates of the empirical scientific method. Vaisheshika darshana, founded by the ancient Indian philosopher Kanada, accepted perception and this is enumerated in his work Vaiśeṣika Sūtra. The notion of tabula rasa connotes a view of mind as a blank or empty recorder on which experience leaves marks. This denies that humans have innate ideas, the image dates back to Aristotle, What the mind thinks must be in it in the same sense as letters are on a tablet which bears no actual writing, this is just what happens in the case of the mind. These notions contrasted with Platonic notions of the mind as an entity that pre-existed somewhere in the heavens. This idea was developed in ancient philosophy by the Stoic school. Stoic epistemology generally emphasized that the mind starts blank, but acquires knowledge as the world is impressed upon it. The doxographer Aetius summarizes this view as When a man is born, later stoics, such as Sextus of Chaeronea, would continue this idea of empiricism in later Stoic writings as well. As Sextus contends For every thought comes from sense-perception or not without sense-perception, so the immaterial active intellect, separate from any individual person, is still essential for understanding to occur. A similar Islamic theological novel, Theologus Autodidactus, was written by the Arab theologian and physician Ibn al-Nafis in the 13th century, during the 13th century Thomas Aquinas adopted the Aristotelian position that the senses are essential to mind into scholasticism
14.
Christian Thomasius
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Christian Thomasius was a German jurist and philosopher. He was born in Leipzig and was educated by his father, Jakob Thomasius, in 1680, he married Anna Christine Heyland and started a legal practice in Leipzig, the following year he began teaching at the university’s law school as well. In 1684 he became professor of law, soon attracting attention by his abilities. In 1685 he published a dissertation, De crimine bigamiae. In consequence of these and other views, on 10 May 1690 he was denounced from the pulpits, forbidden to lecture or to write, and his arrest was ordered. He escaped by going to Berlin, and the elector Frederick III offered him a refuge in Halle, with a salary of 500 thaler and he helped found the University of Halle, where he became second and then first professor of law and rector of the university. He was one of the most esteemed university teachers and influential writers of his day, though not a profound philosophical thinker, Thomasius prepared the way for great reforms in philosophy, as well as in law, literature, social life and theology. It was his mission to introduce a rational, common-sense point of view and he thus created an epoch in German literature, philosophy and law, and, along with Spittler, began the modern period of ecclesiastical history. One of the aims of his life was to free politics and he fought bravely and consistently for freedom of thought and speech on religious matters and mediated between the academic and the public sphere. In this regard, he shared much in common with his disciple Gabriel Wagner, in this way he contributed to the creation of scholarship of private law separate from that of Roman law. He would not have even atheists punished, though they should be expelled from the country, in theology he was not a naturalist or a deist, but a believer in the necessity of revealed religion for salvation. He died in Halle in 1728 and he expressed his pedagogical principles in two main Latin works, Institutiones iurisprudentiae divinae, based on a lecture on Pufendorf’s natural law, and Fundamenta juris naturae et gentium. Essays on Church, State, and Politics, edited, translated, and with and introduction by Ian Hunter, Thomas Ahnert, and Frank Grunert, Indianapolis, Liberty Fund,2007. Institutes of Divine Jurisprudence, With Selections from Foundations of the law of Nature and Nations, edited, translated, Gabriel Wagner Thomas Ahnert, Religion and the Origins of the German Enlightenment, Faith and the Reform of Learning in the Thought of Christian Thomasius. Enlightenment Contested, Philosophy, Modernity, and the Emancipation of Man 1670-1752
15.
Christian Wolff (philosopher)
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Christian Wolff was a German philosopher. The mountain Mons Wolff on the Moon is named in his honor, Wolff was the most eminent German philosopher between Leibniz and Kant. Wolff was also the creator of German as the language of instruction and research, although he also wrote in Latin, so that an international audience could. Wolff was born in Breslau, Silesia, into a modest family and he studied mathematics and physics at the University of Jena, soon adding philosophy. In 1703, he qualified as Privatdozent at Leipzig University, where he lectured until 1706, by this time he had made the acquaintance of Leibniz, of whose philosophy his own system is a modified version. At Halle, Wolff at first restricted himself to mathematics, but on the departure of a colleague, he added physics, however, the claims Wolff advanced on behalf of philosophical reason appeared impious to his theological colleagues. Halle was the headquarters of Pietism, which, after a struggle against Lutheran dogmatism, had assumed the characteristics of a new orthodoxy. Wolffs professed ideal was to base theological truths on mathematically certain evidence, on 12 July 1723 Wolff held a lecture for students and the magistrates at the end of his term as a rector. Wolff compared, based on books by the Belgian missionaries François Noël and Philippe Couplet, Moses, Christ, according to Voltaire professor August Hermann Francke had been teaching in an empty classroom but Wolff attracted with his lectures around 1,000 students from all over. In the following up Wolff was accused by Francke of fatalism and atheism, as a consequence, Wolff was ousted in 1723 from his first chair at Halle in one of the most celebrated academic dramas of the 18th century. His successors were Joachim Lange, a pietist, and his son and this so enraged the king that he immediately deprived Wolff of his office, and commanded him to leave Prussian territory within 48 hours or be hanged. The same day Wolff passed into Saxony, and presently proceeded to Marburg, Hesse-Kassel, to university he had received a call even before this crisis. The Landgrave of Hesse received him with every mark of distinction, and it was everywhere discussed, and over two hundred books and pamphlets appeared for or against it before 1737, not reckoning the systematic treatises of Wolff and his followers. In 1726 Wolff published his Discours, in which he mentioned the importance of listening to music put on pregnant Chinese women. At the University of Marburg, as one of the most popular and fashionable university teachers in Europe, Frederick proposed to send a copy of Logique ou réflexions sur les forces de lentendement humain to Voltaire in his first letter to the philosopher from 8 August 1736. In 1737 Wolffs Metafysica was translated into French by Ulrich Friedrich von Suhm, Voltaire got the impression Frederick had translated the book himself. In 1738 Frederick William begun the hard labour of trying to read Wolff, in 1740 Frederick William died, and one of the first acts of his son and successor, Frederick the Great, was to acquire him for the Prussian Academy. Wolff refused, but accepted on 10 September 1740 an appointment in Halle and his entry into the town on 6 December 1740 took on the character of a triumphal procession
16.
Culture of Europe
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The culture of Europe is rooted in the art, architecture, music, literature, and philosophy that originated from the European cultural region. European culture is rooted in what is often referred to as its common cultural heritage. Because of the number of perspectives which can be taken on the subject, it is impossible to form a single. Nonetheless, there are elements which are generally agreed upon as forming the cultural foundation of modern Europe. One list of elements given by K. Berting says that these points fit with Europes most positive realisations. The concept of European culture is linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic, much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. If Asia were converted to Christianity tomorrow, it would not thereby become a part of Europe and it is in Christianity that our arts have developed, it is in Christianity that the laws of Europe have--until recently--been rooted. It is against a background of Christianity that all our thought has significance, only a Christian culture could have produced a Voltaire or a Nietzsche. I do not believe that the culture of Europe could survive the complete disappearance of the Christian Faith, the oldest known cave paintings are at the El Castillo cave, older than 40,800 years. The history of Western painting represents a continuous, though disrupted, until the mid 19th century it was primarily concerned with representational and Classical modes of production, after which time more modern, abstract and conceptual forms gained favor. Developments in Western painting historically parallel those in Eastern painting, in general a few centuries later, the earliest European sculpture to date portrays a female form, and has been estimated at dating from 35,000 years ago. See Classical sculpture, Ancient Greek sculpture, Gothic art, Renaissance, Mannerist, Baroque, Neoclassicism, Modernism, Postminimalism, found art, Postmodern art, Classical music, Important classical composers from Europe include Hildegard von Bingen, J. S. Luciano Pavarotti was a popular opera singer. Folk music, Europe has a wide and diverse range of music, sharing common features in rural. Folk music is embedded in an unwritten, aural tradition, but was transcribed from the nineteenth century onwards. Many classical composers used folk melodies, and folk has influenced popular music in Europe. See the list of European folk musics, popular music, Europe has also imported many different genres of music, mainly from the United States, ranging from Blues, Jazz, Soul, Pop, Rap, Hip-Hop, RnB and Dance
17.
Culture
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Culture can be defined in numerous ways. In the words of anthropologist E. B, Tylor, it is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. The Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is the way of life, especially the customs and beliefs. As a defining aspect of what it means to be human, culture is a concept in anthropology. The word is used in a sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes seen to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of culture that emerged in the 20th century. When used as a count noun, a culture is the set of customs, traditions, in this sense, multiculturalism is a concept that values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes culture is used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society. Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a context, meaning something similar. His use, and that of many writers after him, refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and through artifice, become fully human. To be cultural, to have a culture, is to inhabit a place sufficiently intensive to cultivate it—to be responsible for it, to respond to it, thus a contrast between culture and civilization is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such. Cultural invention has come to any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior. Humanity is in a global accelerating culture change period, driven by the expansion of commerce, the mass media, and above all. Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the concept of a society. Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change, Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action. These social shifts may accompany ideological shifts and other types of cultural change, for example, the U. S. feminist movement involved new practices that produced a shift in gender relations, altering both gender and economic structures. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors, Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices
18.
Immanuel Kant
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Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher who is considered a central figure in modern philosophy. Kant took himself to have effected a Copernican revolution in philosophy and his beliefs continue to have a major influence on contemporary philosophy, especially the fields of metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political theory, and aesthetics. Politically, Kant was one of the earliest exponents of the idea that peace could be secured through universal democracy. He believed that this will be the outcome of universal history. Kant wanted to put an end to an era of futile and speculative theories of human experience, Kant argued that our experiences are structured by necessary features of our minds. In his view, the shapes and structures experience so that, on an abstract level. Among other things, Kant believed that the concepts of space and time are integral to all human experience, as are our concepts of cause, Kant published other important works on ethics, religion, law, aesthetics, astronomy, and history. These included the Critique of Practical Reason, the Metaphysics of Morals, which dealt with ethics, and the Critique of Judgment, Immanuel Kant was born in 1724 in Königsberg, Prussia. His mother, Anna Regina Reuter, was born in Königsberg to a father from Nuremberg. His father, Johann Georg Kant, was a German harness maker from Memel, Immanuel Kant believed that his paternal grandfather Hans Kant was of Scottish origin. Kant was the fourth of nine children, baptized Emanuel, he changed his name to Immanuel after learning Hebrew. Young Kant was a solid, albeit unspectacular, student and he was brought up in a Pietist household that stressed religious devotion, humility, and a literal interpretation of the Bible. His education was strict, punitive and disciplinary, and focused on Latin and religious instruction over mathematics, despite his religious upbringing and maintaining a belief in God, Kant was skeptical of religion in later life, various commentators have labelled him agnostic. Common myths about Kants personal mannerisms are listed, explained, and refuted in Goldthwaits introduction to his translation of Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime. It is often held that Kant lived a strict and disciplined life. He never married, but seemed to have a social life — he was a popular teacher. He had a circle of friends whom he met, among them Joseph Green. A common myth is that Kant never traveled more than 16 kilometres from Königsberg his whole life, in fact, between 1750 and 1754 he worked as a tutor in Judtschen and in Groß-Arnsdorf
19.
Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten
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Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten was a German philosopher. He was a brother to theologian Siegmund Jakob Baumgarten, Baumgarten was born in Berlin as the fifth of seven sons of the pietist pastor of the garrison, Jacob Baumgarten, and of his wife Rosina Elisabeth. Both his parents died early, and he was taught by Martin Georg Christgau where he learned Hebrew, while the meanings of words often change as a result of cultural developments, Baumgartens reappraisal of aesthetics is often seen as a key moment in the development of aesthetic philosophy. Previously the word aesthetics had merely meant sensibility or responsiveness to stimulation of the senses in its use by ancient writers. With the development of art as a commercial enterprise linked to the rise of a nouveau riche class across Europe, Baumgarten developed aesthetics to mean the study of good and bad taste, thus good and bad art, linking good taste with beauty. By trying to develop an idea of good and bad taste, without it, there would be no basis for aesthetic debate as there would be no objective criterion, basis for comparison, or reason from which one could develop an objective argument. Baumgarten appropriated the word aesthetics, which had always meant sensation, in so doing, he gave the word a different significance, thereby inventing its modern usage. The word had been used differently since the time of the ancient Greeks to mean the ability to receive stimulation from one or more of the five bodily senses. In his Metaphysic, §451, Baumgarten defined taste, in its meaning, as the ability to judge according to the senses. Such a judgment of taste he saw as based on feelings of pleasure or displeasure, a science of aesthetics would be, for Baumgarten, a deduction of the rules or principles of artistic or natural beauty from individual taste. Baumgarten may have been motivated to respond to Pierre Bonhours opinion, published in a pamphlet in the late 17th century, in 1781, Kant declared that Baumgartens aesthetics could never contain objective rules, laws, or principles of natural or artistic beauty. The Germans are the people who presently have come to use the word aesthetic to designate what others call the critique of taste. They are doing so on the basis of a false hope conceived by that superb analyst Baumgarten and he hoped to bring our critical judging of the beautiful under rational principles, and to raise the rules for such judging to the level of a lawful science. For, as far as their sources are concerned, those supposed rules or criteria are merely empirical. Hence they can never serve as determinate a priori laws to which our judgment of taste must conform and it is, rather, our judgment of taste which constitutes the proper test for the correctness of those rules or criteria. Because of this it is advisable to follow either of two alternatives, one of these is to stop using this new name aesthetic in this sense of critique of taste, and to reserve the name aesthetic for the doctrine of sensibility that is true science. The other alternative would be for the new aesthetic to share the name with speculative philosophy and we would then take the name partly in its transcendental meaning, and partly in the psychological meaning. Nine years later, in his Critique of Judgment, Kant conformed to Baumgartens new usage, for Kant, an aesthetic judgment is subjective in that it relates to the internal feeling of pleasure or displeasure and not to any qualities in an external object
20.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
21.
Sturm und Drang
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The period is named for Friedrich Maximilian Klingers play Sturm und Drang, which was first performed by Abel Seylers famed theatrical company in 1777. The philosopher Johann Georg Hamann is considered to be the ideologue of Sturm und Drang, with Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz, H. L. Wagner and Friedrich Maximilian Klinger also significant figures. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was also a proponent of the movement, though he. French neoclassicism, a movement beginning in the early Baroque, with its emphasis on the rational, was the target of rebellion for adherents of the Sturm und Drang movement. The term Sturm und Drang first appeared as the title of a play by Friedrich Maximilian Klinger, written for Abel Seylers Seylersche Schauspiel-Gesellschaft and this seemingly spontaneous movement became associated with a wide array of German authors and composers of the mid-to-late Classical period. Sturm und Drang came to be associated with literature or music aimed at shocking the audience or imbuing them with extremes of emotion, there is much debate regarding whose work should or should not be included in the canon of Sturm und Drang. Nevertheless, the originators of the movement came to view it as a time of premature exuberance that was abandoned in favor of often conflicting artistic pursuits. The literary topos of the Kraftmensch existed as a precursor to Sturm und Drang among dramatists beginning with F. M, Klinger, the expression of which is seen in the radical degree to which individuality need appeal to no outside authority save the self nor be tempered by rationalism. The most important contemporary document was the 1773 volume Von deutscher Art und Kunst, einige fliegende Blätter, a collection of essays that included commentaries by Herder on Ossian and Shakespeare, along with contributions by Goethe, Paolo Frisi, and Justus Möser. The protagonist in a typical Sturm und Drang stage work, poem, or novel is driven to action—often violent action—not by pursuit of noble means nor by true motives, goethes unfinished Prometheus exemplifies this along with the common ambiguity provided by juxtaposing humanistic platitudes with outbursts of irrationality. The literature of Sturm und Drang features an anti-aristocratic slant while seeking to elevate all things humble, natural, Friedrich Schillers drama, Die Räuber, provided the groundwork for melodrama to become a recognized dramatic form. The plot portrays a conflict between two brothers, Franz and Karl Moor. Franz is cast as a villain attempting to cheat Karl out of his inheritance, though the motives for his action are complex and initiate an investigation of good. Both of these works are examples of Sturm und Drang in German literature. The principal themes tend to be angular, with large leaps, tempos and dynamics change rapidly and unpredictably in order to reflect strong changes of emotion. Pulsing rhythms and syncopation are common, as are racing lines in the soprano or alto registers, writing for string instruments features tremolo and sudden, dramatic dynamic changes and accents. Musical theater became the place of the literary and musical strands of Sturm und Drang. The obligato recitative is a prime example, here, orchestral accompaniment provides an intense underlay of vivid tone-painting to the solo recitative
22.
German Romanticism
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German Romanticism was the dominant intellectual movement in the philosophy, the arts, and the culture of German-speaking countries in the late-18th and early 19th centuries. Late-stage German Romanticism emphasized the tension between the world and the irrational and supernatural projections of creative genius. In particular, the critic Heinrich Heine criticized the tendency of the early German romantics for looking to the medieval past for a model of unity in art, key figures of German romanticism include, Ludwig van Beethoven. In his earlier works, Beethoven was a Classicist in the traditions of Mozart and Haydn, because Beethoven wrote some of his greatest music after he became totally deaf, he embodies the Romantic ideal of the tragic artist who defies all odds to conquer his own fate. His later works portray the triumph of the spirit, most notably his Choral Symphony No. 9, the stirring Ode to Joy from this symphony has been adopted as the anthem of the European Union and his works are cast in the formal moulds of Classicism, he had a profound reverence for Beethoven. Liszt was by nationality a Hungarian, but nevertheless he spent many years in Germany, credited as the inventor of the tone poem. In his old age, Liszt adopted a more dissonant, ominous flavour, characteristic works being la Lugubre Gondola and Die Zelle in Nonnenwerth—predating Impressionism, a composer of the Early Romantic period, together with such figures as Schumann, Chopin and Liszt. One of the responsible for reviving interest in the almost-forgotten music of Johann Sebastian Bach. His body of work consists mainly of song cycles and German Lieder set to poems by his contemporaries and his works recall the nostalgia of lost childhood innocence, first love, and the magnificence of the German countryside. As an influential critic, he played a role in discovering new talents, among them Chopin. The greatest composer of German opera, was an exponent of Leitmotif, one of the main figures in the so-called War of the Romantics. The emotional intensity and supernatural, folklore-based themes in his operas presented a break from the Neoclassical traditions of that time. The Mystical Sources of German Romantic Philosophy, translated by Blair R. Reynolds, caspar David Friedrich, translated by Sarah Twohig. Introduction, A Revolution in Culture, in European Romanticism, A Brief History with Documents, “Making of a Romantic Icon, The Religious Context of Friedrich Overbeck’s ‘Italia und Germania. ’” American Philosophical Society,2007. “Orpheus Philologus, Bachofen versus Mommsen on the Study of Antiquity. ”Painting the Sacred in the Age of German Romanticism, baltic Light, Early Open-Air Painting in Denmark and North Germany. New Haven and London, Yale University Press,1999, caspar David Friedrich and the Age of German Romanticism. New Haven and London, Yale University Press,1980, ISBN 3-8228-2293-0 ONeill, J, ed. German masters of the nineteenth century, paintings and drawings from the Federal Republic of Germany
23.
Platonism
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Platonism, rendered as a proper noun, is the philosophy of Plato or the name of other philosophical systems considered closely derived from it. Lower case platonists need not accept any of the doctrines of Plato, in a narrower sense, the term might indicate the doctrine of Platonic realism. The forms are described in dialogues such as the Phaedo, Symposium. In the Republic the highest form is identified as the Form of the Good, the source of all other forms, in the Sophist, a later work, the forms being, sameness and difference are listed among the primordial Great Kinds. The primary concept is the Theory of Forms, the only true being is founded upon the forms, the eternal, unchangeable, perfect types, of which particular objects of moral and responsible sense are imperfect copies. The multitude of objects of sense, being involved in perpetual change, are deprived of all genuine existence. The number of the forms is defined by the number of concepts which can be derived from the particular objects of sense. The following excerpt may be representative of Platos middle period metaphysics and epistemology, Since the beautiful is opposite of the ugly, and since they are two, each is one. And the same account is true of the just and unjust, the good and the bad, each of them is itself one, but because they manifest themselves everywhere in association with actions, bodies, and one another, each of them appears to be many. The lovers of sights and sounds like beautiful sounds, colors, shapes, and everything fashioned out of them, in fact, there are very few people who would be able to reach the beautiful itself and see it by itself. What about someone who believes in things, but doesnt believe in the beautiful itself. Dont you think he is living in a rather than a wakened state. Isnt this dreaming, whether asleep or awake, to think that a likeness is not a likeness, I certainly think that someone who does that is dreaming. Book VI of the Republic identifies the highest form as the Form of the Good, the cause of all other Ideas, conceptions derived from the impressions of sense can never give us the knowledge of true being, i. e. of the forms. It can only be obtained by the activity within itself, apart from the troubles and disturbances of sense. Dialectic, as the instrument in this process, leading us to knowledge of the forms, later Neoplatonism, beginning with Plotinus, identified the Good of the Republic with the so-called transcendent, absolute One of the first hypothesis of the Parmenides. Platonist ethics is based on the Form of the Good, virtue is knowledge, the recognition of the supreme form of the good. And, since in this cognition, the three parts of the soul, which are reason, spirit, and appetite, all have their share, we get the three virtues, Wisdom, Courage, and Moderation
24.
Caroline von Wolzogen
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Caroline von Wolzogen, born Caroline von Lengefeld, was a German writer in the Weimar Classicism circle. Her best-known works are a novel, Agnes von Lilien, Caroline von Lengefeld was the oldest child of an aristocratic family in Rudolstadt, she was raised and educated with a younger sister, Charlotte. Though her family belonged to the nobility, after her father died the financial situation was somewhat troubled. At 16, Caroline became engaged to Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig von Beulwitz, much of her long engagement was spent with her family in Switzerland, a trip paid for by von Beulwitz, they married shortly after Carolines return in 1784. Lacking shared interests, the marriage was unhappy from the start, in 1788, Schiller moved to a nearby town to be closer to the Lengefelds, and both Caroline and her sister became closer to him. Caroline felt an attraction toward him, though how far she considered taking it has been disputed by scholars. Schiller became engaged to Charlotte in August,1789, and credited Caroline for bringing them together, Caroline von Beulwitz began writing her first novel, Agnes von Lilien, in 1793. The novel describes a woman raised by a stepfather and growing up in isolation in the countryside, poor. A meeting with an older and wealthier man, with whom she falls in love, begins a process of discovery of the world at large, including the politics. Agnes eventually discovers that her own background, previously unknown to her, ties her closely to that world, which she eventually embraces. As one critic has said, despite its interest in female subjectivity, in 1795, Schiller began a new periodical called Die Horen, which would contain articles on philosophy and history as well as fiction, organized around the central tenets of Weimar classicism. Knowing his sister-in-law was writing, Schiller asked for a submission and this publication, and its eventual publication as a two-volume novel in 1798, led to considerable attention for the novel, and speculation as to its authors identity. Some believed it was a work of Schillers, and others a work of Goethes, the fuss eventually led to the revelation of its true author, who was treated to much celebration, albeit short-lived. After this brief burst of activity and fame, Carolines literary output greatly slowed, the novel was republished in 1988, and has gotten much more widespread and sympathetic treatment since. Between the writing and publication of Agnes von Lilien, Carolines life had changed markedly, in 1794, after years of unhappiness, she left von Beulwitz and married Wilhelm von Wolzogen, the cousin who had introduced her to Schiller. Her family, including Schiller, responded negatively to this decision, the von Wolzogens returned to Weimar in 1796, where the success of Agnes von Lilien created new connections for Caroline in the literary world. In 1802 she was contacted by Anne Louise Germaine de Staël, who had read and admired the novel, after Schillers death in 1805 and the subsequent growth of his literary reputation, Caroline von Wolzogen began collecting correspondence and reminiscences of her and her sisters life with the poet. These were published under the title Schillers Leben in 1830, the first biography of Schiller to be published
25.
Sophie Mereau
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Sophie Friederike Mereau was a writer of the German romantic school. Her maiden name was Schubart, but she did most of her work under the name of Mereau. She also later married a second time, to writer Clemens Brentano, Mereau first gained notoriety in 1791, and she was the only female student in Johann Gottlieb Fichtes private seminars. She was critical of some of his ideas on women, and she was also a contemporary of Immanuel Kant. Her life-story, in part, has led her to be referred to as one of the most fascinating figures of German Classism and Romanticism and she died in childbirth at age 36
26.
Friederike Brun
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Friederike Brun, née Münther, was a Danish author and salonist. She is known for writing the poem Chamouny at Sunrise which was the original of Samuel Taylor Coleridges Hymn in the Vale of Chamouni, Friederike Brun was born on 3 June 1765 in Gräfentonna, in present-day Thuringia, Germany. She was a child and acquired a thorough knowledge of literature. In 1783, at the age of 17, she married the wealthy merchant Constantin Brun, Friederike Bruns father had her first poetic experiments, as well as a travel account from Germany, published as early as 1782. These two genre also dominated the rest of her literary career, on her travels, she met and befriended many leading European cultural figures of the day, and they feature prominently in her travel writings. With many of them she kept up a prolific correspondence, bonstetten corresponded with her, and some of his letters were later published. After a long residence in Italy, she spent the rest of her life in Copenhagen, in addition to her work as an author, Friederike Brun is from 1788 known for her salons, held in the summer at Frederiksdal and in winters in Copenhagen. They were inspired by Madame de Staëls salons at Château de Coppet and her daughter, Ida Brun, who presented mimed attitudes inspired by Lady Hamilton, was one of the main attractions at the salons she held in Copenhagen, Geneva and Rome from 1806 to 1816. Her early poems, edited by Matthisson in 1795, were followed by Neue Gedichte and she described her travels in, Prosaische Schriften,4 vols. Zürich, 1799-1801 Tagebuch einer Reise durch die östliche, südliche und italienische Schweiz,1800 Episoden aus Reisen durch das südliche Deutschland etc.4 vols. 1820 Wahrheit aus Morgenträumen und Idas ästhetische Entwickelung, her last work, containing a partial autobiography, leipzig,1833 Sophia Magdalena Krag Juel Vind Works by or about Friederike Brun at Internet Archive Works by Friederike Brun at LibriVox
27.
Elisa von der Recke
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Elisa von der Recke was a Baltic German writer and poet. Elisa von der Recke was born in Schönberg, Skaistkalne parish, Courland and her younger half-sister was Dorothea von Medem, for whom she carried out diplomatic work. In 1771 she married Kammerherr Georg Peter Magnus von der Recke and she separated from him in 1776 and divorced in 1781. Their daughter, Frederika von der Recke, died in 1777 and she got to know Goethe, Schiller, Wieland, Herder and other European literary figures, and intensified their relationships through prolific correspondence. From 1798 she lived almost exclusively in Dresden, and from 1804 cohabited there with her friend Christoph August Tiedge and their meetings were religio-sentimentalist in tone, with the singing of chorales by Johann Gottlieb Naumann. Her works consisted mainly of pietist-sentimentalist poems, journals and memoirs, Elisa von der Recke looked after thirteen foster daughters. She died in Dresden and is buried at the Inneren Neustädter Friedhof in Dresden, aufzeichnungen und Briefe aus ihren Jugendtagen, hrsg. von Paul Rachel,2. Auflage 1902 Elisa von der Recke, Tagebücher und Briefe aus ihren Wanderjahren, hrsg. von Paul Rachel,1902 Herzensgeschichten einer baltischen Edelfrau. Erinnerungen und Briefe, Lutz, Stuttgart 1921 Tagebücher und Selbstzeugnisse, hrsg
28.
Unification of Germany
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The unification of Germany into a politically and administratively integrated nation state officially occurred on 18 January 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles in France. Princes of the German states gathered there to proclaim Wilhelm I of Prussia as German Emperor after the French capitulation in the Franco-Prussian War. The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, which had included more than 500 independent states, was dissolved when Emperor Francis II abdicated during the War of the Third Coalition. Economically, the creation of the Prussian Zollverein in 1818, and its subsequent expansion to other states of the German Confederation. Emerging modes of transportation facilitated business and recreational travel, leading to contact, the model of diplomatic spheres of influence resulting from the Congress of Vienna in 1814–15 after the Napoleonic Wars endorsed Austrian dominance in Central Europe. The negotiators at Vienna took no account of Prussias growing strength within and among the German states and this German dualism presented two solutions to the problem of unification, Kleindeutsche Lösung, the small Germany solution, or Großdeutsche Lösung, the greater Germany solution. Reaction to Danish and French nationalism provided foci for expressions of German unity, military successes—especially those of Prussia—in three regional wars generated enthusiasm and pride that politicians could harness to promote unification. This experience echoed the memory of mutual accomplishment in the Napoleonic Wars, by establishing a Germany without Austria, the political and administrative unification in 1871 at least temporarily solved the problem of dualism. 1797, The French First Republic annexed the Left Bank of the Rhine as a result of the War of the First Coalition,1802, Previous annexations by France confirmed following its victory in the War of the Second Coalition. 1804, Francis I of Austria declared the new Austrian Empire as a reaction to Napoleon Bonapartes proclamation of the First French Empire in 1804. 1806, As a result of the War of the Third Coalition, Napoleon I annexed some territories East of the Rhine,1807, Prussia lost one half of its territory following the War of the Fourth Coalition. 1815, After the defeat of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna reinstated the Germanic states into the German Confederation under the leadership of the Austrian Empire,1834, The Prussian-led custom union evolved into the Zollverein that included almost all Confederation states except the Austrian Empire. 1848, Revolts across the German Confederation, such as in Berlin, Dresden and Frankfurt, in the meantime, the Frankfurt Parliament was set up in 1848 and attempted to proclaim a united Germany, but this was refused by William IV. The question of a united Germany under the Kleindeutsch solution or the so-called Großdeutsch began to surface,1864, The Danish-Prussian War started as Prussia protested against Danish incorporation of Schleswig into the Kingdom of Denmark. The Austrian Empire was deliberately drawn into war by Otto von Bismarck. The Austro-Prussian victory led to Schleswig, the part, being governed by Prussia and Holstein. 1866, Bismarck accused the Austrian Empire of stirring up troubles in Prussian-held Schleswig, Prussian troops drove into Austrian-held Holstein and took control of the entire state of Schleswig-Holstein. Austria declared war on Prussia and, after fighting the Austro-Prussian War, was swiftly defeated, Napoleon III declared war against Prussia
29.
Abdera, Thrace
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Abdera was a major Greek polis on the coast of Thrace. It lay 17 km east-northeast of the mouth of the Nestos River, the site now lies in the Xanthi regional unit of Thrace, Greece. The municipality of Abdera has 19,005 inhabitants, the seat of the municipality is the town Genisea. Its mythical foundation was attributed to Heracles who founded the city on behalf of his fallen friend Abderus, the historical founding is traced back to a colony from Klazomenai. This historical founding was traditionally dated to 654 BC, which is unverified, but its prosperity dates from 544 BC, when the majority of the people of Teos migrated to Abdera to escape the Persian yoke. The chief coin type, a griffon, is identical with that of Teos, in 513 BC and 512 BC, the Persians conquered Abdera. In 496 BC, the Persians again conquered Abdera, this time under Darius I and it later became part of the Delian League and fought on the side of Athens in the Peloponnesian war. Abdera was a city, the third richest in the League, due to its status as a prime port for trade with the interior of Thrace. A valuable prize, the city was sacked, by the Triballi in 376 BC, Philip II of Macedon in 350 BC, later by Lysimachos of Thrace, the Seleucids, the Ptolemies. In 170 BC the Roman armies and those of Eumenes II of Pergamon besieged and sacked it, the town seems to have declined in importance after the middle of the 4th century BC. Abdera had flourished especially in ancient times mainly for two reasons, because of the area of their territory and their highly strategic position. The city controlled two great road passages, furthermore, from their ports passed the sea road, which from Troas led to the Thracian and then the Macedonian coast.047 km2, the municipal unit 161.958 km2. The municipal unit Abdera is subdivided into the communities Abdera, Mandra, Myrodato, the community Abdera consists of the settlements Abdera, Giona, Lefkippos, Pezoula and Skala. Archaeological Museum of Abdera Agios Ioannis beach, near the village Lefkippos Grant, a Guide to the Ancient World. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles. Richard Stillwell, ed. Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites,1976, Abdera, Thrace, Greece Hellenic Ministry of Culture on Abdera Avdera. gr
30.
Oberon (poem)
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Oberon is an epic poem by the German writer Christoph Martin Wieland. It was based on the epic romance Huon de Bordeaux, a French medieval tale and it first appeared in 1780 and went through seven rewrites before its final form was published in 1796. About the invented quarrel of Oberon and his queen, Titania, is centred the whole conception of Wielands poem, thrown by the instrumentality of Titania into captivity in Tunis, Huon and Rezia withstand the first test of temptation and, reunited, return to Paris and reconcile Karl. An adaptation of the poem by Sophie Seyler, titled Hüon und Amande, was re-adapted by Karl Ludwig Giesecke to provide a libretto for Paul Wranitzky and its English translators include Matthew Lewis, William Sotheby and John Quincy Adams. The libretto of The Magic Flute by Emanuel Schikaneder was evidently inspired by Gieseckes. Carl Maria von Weber used the poem as the basis for his last opera, Oberon, the artist Gustav Paul Closs provided illustrations for it
31.
Aristippus
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Aristippus of Cyrene was the founder of the Cyrenaic school of Philosophy. Among his pupils was his daughter Arete, there are indications that he was conflated with his grandson, Aristippus the Younger. Aristippus, the son of Aritades, was born at Cyrene, Ancient Libya, c.435 BCE. Diodorus dates him to 366 BCE. which agrees well with the facts known about him, and with the statement, that Lais. Though a disciple of Socrates, he wandered very far both in principle and practice from the teaching and example of his great master and he lived luxuriously, was happy to seek sensual gratification and the company of the notorious Lais. He appears, however, at last to have returned to Cyrene, with that he made for the city of Rhodes, and went straight to the gymnasium. Thus when reproached for his love of bodily indulgences, he answered, that it is not abstinence from pleasures that is best, but mastery over them without ever being worsted. When Dionysius, provoked at some of his remarks, ordered him to take the lowest place at table, he said, wise people, even though all laws were abolished, would still lead the same life is the single most popular quotation of his on the Internet. Aristotle, too, calls him a sophist, and notices a story of Plato speaking to him, with rather undue vehemence, and of his replying with calmness. He imparted his doctrine to his daughter Arete who, in turn, imparted it to her son, Aristippus the Younger, some letters attributed to him are forgeries. One work attributed to Aristippus in ancient times was a work entitled On Ancient Luxury. This work, judging by the quotations preserved by Diogenes Laërtius, was filled with anecdotes about philosophers and their supposed taste for boy-lovers. That this work cannot have been written by Aristippus of Cyrene has long been realised, but the name may have been adopted by the writer to suggest a connection with the hedonistic philosopher. Socrates, with predecessors and followers, Aristippus, attribution, This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Smith, William, ed. Aristippus. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, voula Tsouna, The Epistemology of the Cyrenaic School, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Ugo Zilioli, The Cyrenaics, New York, Acumen / Routledge,2012, Cyrenaics Resource Handbook of Cyrenaic resources, primary and secondary, includes Aristippus Aristippus of Cyrene on Ancient History Encyclopedia
32.
Iphigenia in Tauris (Goethe)
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Iphigenia in Tauris is a reworking by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe of the ancient Greek tragedy Ἰφιγένεια ἐν Ταύροις by Euripides. Euripides title means Iphigenia among the Taurians, whereas Goethes title means Iphigenia in Taurica, Goethe wrote the first version of his play in six weeks, and it was first performed on April 6,1779, in prose form. He rewrote it in 1781, again in prose, and finally in 1786 in verse form and he took the manuscript of Iphigenia in Tauris with him on his famous Italian Journey. Beloved by the gods for his wisdom, the demigod Tantalus was once invited to their fellowship, becoming boisterous whilst celebrating with them, he began to boast, and he stole the gods nectar and ambrosia, their food of immortality. When the gods came to see Tantalus in turn, he tested their omniscience by offering his own son Pelops to them as their meal, offended by the deception, the gods banished Tantalus from their community to Tartarus and cursed him and his family, the House of Atreus. This became known as the curse on the Tantalids, in which descendants from Tantalus in every subsequent generation were driven by revenge, in the mistaken belief that her husband Agamemnon had murdered their daughter Iphigenia, Clytemnestra then killed Agamemnon. Being now guilty of a murder, he too fell under the family curse, in an attempt to flee his impending fate of falling victim to revenge and of being killed for his crime, he fled. Consulting the Delphic oracle of Apollo, he was told to bring the sister to Athens, since he supposed his sister Iphigenia was already dead, Orestes assumed that the oracle must have meant Apollos twin sister, the goddess Diana. He therefore planned to rob the statue of Diana from the temple in Tauris, scene 1, Since Diana saved her from death, Iphigenia has been serving as her priestess on Tauris. Although she is grateful to the goddess, and although she is held in regard by King Thoas and his people. And days together stand I on the shore, / seeking, in my soul and she laments her life as a woman in a foreign land, recognising that her normal fate would have been to be tied to a husband. / how narrow the limits to her happiness and she begs Diana to reunite her with her family, And rescue me, you who rescued me from death, / from this, the second death that I am living here. Scene 2, Arkas, the confidant of Thoas, King of Tauris, Iphigenia admits her homesickness to him. Arkas reminds her of all the good she has done in Tauris, for example and he explains that the King is coming to ask for her hand, and he advises her to accept. Iphigenia declines, marriage would tie her to Tauris for ever, scene 3, Thoas makes his suit. Thoas is not dissuaded, but Iphigenia now calls on Diana, Has not the goddess, who rescued me, / and she alone, the right to my dedicated life. Thoas threatens to reintroduce the old custom of human sacrifice, which she would be obliged to carry out, rather than allow her to leave. Scene 4, Iphigenia prays to Diana, she places her faith in the goodness and justice of the Gods, scene 1, Iphigenias brother Orestes and his friend and cousin Pylades arrive, and we learn that they are following up an oracle of Apollo
33.
Theory of Colours
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Theory of Colours is a book by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe about the poets views on the nature of colours and how these are perceived by humans. Published in 1810, it contains detailed descriptions of such as coloured shadows, refraction. The work originated in Goethes occupation with painting and mainly exerted an influence onto the arts, Goethes book provides a catalogue of how colour is perceived in a wide variety of circumstances, and considers Isaac Newtons observations to be special cases. Unlike Newton, Goethes concern was not so much with the treatment of colour. At Goethes time, it was acknowledged that, as Isaac Newton had shown in his Opticks in 1704. But how I was astonished, as I looked at a wall through the prism. That only where it came upon some darkened area, it showed some colour, then at last, around the window sill all the colours shone. It didnt take long before I knew here was something significant about colour to be brought forth, and I spoke as through an out loud. Yet, by 1794, Goethe had begun to increasingly note the importance of the aspect of colours. As the card was moved away, the projected image elongated, gradually assuming a shape. Moving the card led to the increase in the size of the image. The image cast by the beam was not fixed. Consequently, Goethe saw the particular distance chosen by Newton to prove the proposition of the Opticks as capriciously imposed. The theory we set up against this begins with light, and avails itself of outward conditions, to produce coloured phenomena. It does not arrogate to itself developing colours from the light, Goethes theory of the constitution of colours of the spectrum has not proved to be an unsatisfactory theory, rather it really isnt a theory at all. Nothing can be predicted with it and it is, rather a vague schematic outline of the sort we find in Jamess psychology. Nor is there any experimentum crucis which could decide for or against the theory and it is hard to present Goethes theory, since he refrains from setting up any actual theory, he says, its intention is to portray rather than explain. Instead of setting up models and explanations, Goethe collected specimens—he was responsible for the collections of Jena University
34.
Reynard
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Reynard is the main character in a literary cycle of allegorical Dutch, English, French and German fables. Those stories are concerned with Reynard, an anthropomorphic red fox. His adventures usually involve him deceiving other anthropomorphic animals for his own advantage or trying to avoid retaliations from them and his main enemy and victim across the cycle is his uncle, the wolf Isengrim. From the Germanic mans name Reginhard, which comes from regin = counsel and harti = strong, denoting someone who is wise, clever, or resourceful. Because of the popularity of the Reynard stories, renard became the standard French word for fox, replacing the old French word for fox, goupil is now dialectal or archaic. The figure of Reynard is thought to have originated in Lorraine folklore from where it spread to France, the Low Countries, an extensive treatment of the character is the Old French Le Roman de Renart written by Pierre de Saint-Cloud around 1170, which sets the typical setting. Reynard has been summoned to the court of king Noble, or Leo, other anthropomorphic animals, including Bruin the bear, Baldwin the ass, and Tibert the cat, all attempt one stratagem or another. The stories typically involve satire whose usual butts are the aristocracy, the story of the preaching fox found in the Reynard literature was used in church art by the Catholic Church as propaganda against the Lollards. Reynards principal castle, Maupertuis, is available to him whenever he needs to hide away from his enemies, some of the tales feature Reynards funeral, where his enemies gather to deliver maudlin elegies full of insincere piety, and which feature Reynards posthumous revenge. Isengrim is Reynards most frequent antagonist and foil, and generally ends up outwitted, Reynard appears first in the medieval Latin poem Ysengrimus, a long Latin mock-epic written c. 1148-1153 by the poet Nivardus in Ghent, that collects a great store of Reynards adventures and he also puts in an early appearance in a number of Latin sequences by the preacher Odo of Cheriton. Both of these early sources seem to draw on a store of popular culture featuring the character. The first branch of the Roman de Renart appears in 1174, written by Pierre de St. Cloud, the same author wrote a sequel in 1179—called Branch I—but from that date onwards, many other French authors composed their own adventures for Renart li goupil. There is also the text Reinhard Fuchs by Heinrich der Glïchezäre, the Arnout mentioned was an earlier Reynard poet whose work Willem alleges to have finished. However, there are objections to this notion of joint authorship. Geoffrey Chaucer used Reynard material in the Canterbury Tales, in The Nuns Priests Tale, Reynard appears as Rossel, in 1481 William Caxton printed The Historie of Reynart the Foxe, which was translated from a Middle Dutch version of the fables. Also in the 1480s, the Scottish poet Robert Henryson devised a highly sophisticated development of Reynardian material as part of his Morall Fabillis in the known as The Talking of the Tod. Hans van Ghetelen, a printer of Incunabula in Lübeck printed an early German version called Reinke de Vos in 1498 and it was translated to Latin and other languages, which made the tale popular across Europe
35.
The Green Snake and the Beautiful Lily
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The Green Snake and the Beautiful Lily is a fairy tale by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe published in 1795 in Friedrich Schillers German magazine Die Horen. It concludes Goethes novella rondo Conversations of German Emigrants, Das Märchen is regarded as the founding example of the genre of Kunstmärchen, or artistic fairy tale. The story revolves around the crossing and bridging of a river, the tale begins with two will-o-the-wisps who wake a ferryman and ask to be taken across a river. The ferryman does so, and for payment, they shake gold from themselves into the boat and this alarms the ferryman, for if the gold had gone into the river, it would overflow. He demands as payment, three artichokes, three cabbages, and three onions, and the will-o-the-wisps may depart only after promising to bring him such. The ferryman takes the gold up to a place, and deposits it into a rocky cleft, where it is discovered by a green snake who eats the gold. This gives the opportunity to study an underground temple where we meet an old man with a lamp which can only give light when another light is present. The snake now investigates the temple, and finds four kings, one gold, one silver, one bronze, the story then switches over to the wife of the old man, who meets a melancholy prince. He has met a beautiful Lily, but is distressed by the fact anyone who touches her will die. The snake is able to form a bridge across the river at midday, and in this way, the wife and prince come to the beautiful Lilys garden. As twilight falls, the prince succumbs to his desire for the Beautiful Lily, rushes towards her, the green snake encircles the prince, and the old man, his wife, and the will-o-the-wisps form a procession and cross the river on the back of the snake. Back in the land of the senses, and guided by the old man, the snake then sacrifices itself, and changes into a pile of precious stones which are thrown into the river. The old man then directs them towards the doors of the temple which are locked, the will-o-the-wisps help them enter by eating the gold out of the doors. At this point, the temple is magically transported beneath the river, the three kings bestow gifts upon the sleeping prince and restore him. The fourth, mixed king collapses as the will-o-the-wisps lick the veins of gold out of him and we also find that Lilys touch no longer brings death. Thus, the prince is united with the beautiful Lily, and it has been claimed that Das Märchen was born out of Goethes reading of The Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz and that it is full of esoteric symbolism. In 1786, Goethe observed that The Chymical Wedding contains “a pretty fairy story” for which he had no time at the moment. Rudolf Steiner, in his 1918 book Goethes Standard of the Soul, speaks of it as follows and he saw that there was an ideal human being within everyone and the challenge was to bring the outer life experiences into harmony with this ideal
36.
Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship
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Wilhelm Meisters Apprenticeship is the second novel by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, published in 1795–96. The eponymous hero undergoes a journey of self-realization, the story centers upon Wilhelms attempt to escape what he views as the empty life of a bourgeois businessman. After a failed romance with the theater, Wilhelm commits himself to the mysterious Tower Society,1 When the young actress Mariane arrives home after the show, she finds a white negligee, a gift of her absent lover, the wealthy businessman Norberg. In her heart, however, Mariane loves Wilhelm and he appears and welcomes his mistress in a stormy mood. Barbara wants her beautiful mistress to stick with the rich Norberg,2 Williams father complains that frequent visits to the theater by his son are a waste of time. Mariane, whose father is a minister, panics at the news that her mother is coming, Barbara is chosen to take Wilhelm to the local pub and keep him there until Mrs. Gruber departs. As the evening drags on, Marianes mom decides to spend the night, Melina accuses Mr. Melina of boring his visiting niece Schanzi, Roper decides to introduce Karen to Wilhelm. Meanwhile, Wilhelm is involved in organizing a celebration for Barbara, so when Roper suggests to Wilhelm that he would like him to take his niece out. 4 Wilhelm narrates that he had seen a show as a child. When Wilhelm brings home a puppy, Barbara and Mariane remind him that landlord Melina doesnt allow pets on the premises, while the three try to hide the puppy from Mr. Melina, Wilhelm fails in several attempts to give the little pooch away. 5 Jaffe, a large chap, approaches their table to make a play for Mariane. The situation becomes more embarrassing for Wilhelm when the Melinas drop in and Melina, in ill-tempered mood from a toothache, but Wilhelm feels he may have acted cowardly by avoiding a fight. 6 William talks to Mariane and Barbara about his childhood, the dolls, Barbara and Mariane, believing a burglar has stolen their rent money frantically try to avoid landlord Melina until they can replace it. After Wilhelm and Barbara find their apartment door unlocked and the missing, Mariane arrives. 9 Wilhelm and Mariane convince Barbara that she should try to get the job, but the owner of the shop has other ideas, and hires a girl whose only qualification is her figure. Barbara decides to fire with fire, and announces that shes going to have her figure enhanced. 10 Mariane and Barbara go away for the weekend, leaving Wilhelm all alone, Wilhelm throws a big, noisy party, and, when Mr. Melina comes upstairs to complain Wilhelm entices him to join in the revelry. The next morning the girls back to find the apartment in shambles
37.
Goethe's Faust
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Johann Wolfgang von Goethes Faust is a tragic play in two parts usually known in English as Faust, Part One and Faust, Part Two. Although rarely staged in its entirety, it is the play with the largest audience numbers on German-language stages, Faust is considered by many to be Goethes magnum opus and the greatest work of German literature. The earliest forms of the work, known as the Urfaust, were developed between 1772 and 1775, however, the details of development are not entirely clear. Urfaust has twenty-two scenes, one in prose, two largely prose and the remaining 1,441 lines in rhymed verse, the manuscript is lost, but a copy was discovered in 1886. The first appearance of the work in print was Faust, a Fragment, Goethe completed a preliminary version of what is now known as Part One in 1806. Its publication in 1808 was followed by the revised 1828–29 edition, Goethe finished writing Faust Part Two in 1831. The second part formed the occupation of Goethes last years. It appeared only posthumously in 1832, the original 1808 German title page of Goethes play read simply, Faust. The addition of erster Teil was only retrospectively applied by publishers when the sequel was published in 1832 with a page which read. The two plays have been published in English under a number of titles, and are most usually referred to as Faust Parts One and Two. Mephistopheles makes a bet with God, he says that he can lure Gods favourite human being, the next scene takes place in Fausts study where Faust, despairing at the vanity of scientific, humanitarian and religious learning, turns to magic for the showering of infinite knowledge. He suspects, however, that his attempts are failing, frustrated, he ponders suicide, but rejects it as he hears the echo of nearby Easter celebrations begin. He goes for a walk with his assistant Wagner and is followed home by a stray poodle, in Fausts study, the poodle transforms into the devil. Faust makes an arrangement with the devil, the devil will do everything that Faust wants while he is here on Earth, and in exchange Faust will serve the devil in Hell. Fausts arrangement is that if he is pleased enough with anything the devil gives him that he wants to stay in that moment forever, when the devil tells Faust to sign the pact with blood, Faust complains that the devil does not trust Fausts word of honor. In the end, Mephistopheles wins the argument and Faust signs the contract with a drop of his own blood, Faust has a few excursions and then meets Margaret. He is attracted to her and with jewellery and with help from a neighbor, Martha, with influence from the devil, Faust seduces Gretchen. Gretchens mother dies from a potion, administered by Gretchen to obtain privacy so that Faust could visit her
38.
Elective Affinities
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Elective Affinities, also translated under the title Kindred by Choice, is the third novel by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, published in 1809. The title is taken from a term once used to describe the tendency of chemical species to combine with certain substances or species in preference to others. The book is situated around the city of Weimar, Goethes main characters are Eduard and Charlotte, an aristocratic couple both in their second marriage, enjoying an idyllic but semi-dull life on the grounds of their rural estate. They invite the Captain, Eduards childhood friend, and Ottilie, the decision to invite Ottilie and the Captain is described as an experiment and this is exactly what it is. The house and its gardens are described as a chemical retort in which the human elements are brought together for the reader to observe the resulting reaction. The term elective affinities is based on the notion of chemical affinities. In the late 19th century, German sociologist Max Weber, who had read the works of Goethe at the age of 14, in early nineteenth century chemistry, the phrase elective affinities or chemical affinities was used to describe compounds that only interacted with each other under select circumstances. Goethe used this as a metaphor for marriage, and for the conflict between responsibility and passion. In the book, people are described as species whose amorous affairs. Opinions over the years have been split as to whether Goethes theory was used in metaphor, the first marriages, for both Eduard and Charlotte, are described as having been marriages of financial convenience, essentially arranged marriages. In the fourth chapter, the characters detail the worlds first ever verbally-depicted human double displacement chemical reaction, the chapter begins with description of the affinity map or topographical chart as Goethe calls it. Next, to explain the reaction, we are told, provided it does not seem pedantic and this is shown below, AB + CD → AD + BC Now then. Eduard interposed, until we see all this with our own eyes and you, Charlotte, represent the A, and I represent your B, for in fact I do depend altogether on you and follow you as A follows B. The C is quite obviously the Captain, who for the moment is to some extent drawing me away from you and it is renowned as an exemplary instance of Benjamin subjecting his literary subject matter to a process of intensive dialectical mediation. Typically, Benjamin locates this experience in art, which is, according to him, alone able, through mediation, a 1974 East German film with the same title was directed by Siegfried Kühn for DEFA-Studio für Spielfilme. John Banvilles 1982 novel The Newton Letter adapts the story to Ireland, (A description by Gordon Burgess can be found in German life and letters, April 1992. The 1993 play Arcadia, by British playwright Tom Stoppard, is a remake of Elective Affinities. In 1996, a version was made, entitled The Elective Affinities
39.
Don Carlos (play)
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Don Carlos is a tragedy in five acts by Friedrich Schiller, it was written between 1783 and 1787 and first produced in Hamburg in 1787. The title character is Carlos, Prince of Asturias and the play as a whole is loosely modeled on events in the 16th century under the reign of King Philip II of Spain. Poultons adaptation was directed by Michael Grandage in a well-reviewed staging, Schiller, Volume Two, Don Carlos, Mary Stuart. MacDonalds adaptation was first staged in Edinburgh in 1995, cultural depictions of Philip II of Spain Carlos, Prince of Asturias Stevens, Robert. Schillers Don Carlos, the light and warmth of a timeless play, review of a 2004 production in Sheffield, England of Mike Poultons adaptation from the German, along with an extended discussion of plays history. University of Oxford production of Don Carlos at the Oxford Playhouse, 18-21 Feb.2009
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