1.
Western Armenian
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Western Armenian is one of the two standardized forms of Modern Armenian, the other being Eastern Armenian. Until the early 20th century, various Western Armenian dialects were spoken in the Ottoman Empire, following the extermination of the Armenian population during the Armenian Genocide of 1915 Western Armenian is now spoken, almost exclusively, in the Armenian diaspora communities around the world. Estimates place the number of fluent speakers of Western Armenian at less than one million, Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian are somewhat mutually intelligible. Western Armenian has more colloquial Turkish vocabulary which Eastern does not, an example of differences in phonology, the bs in Eastern Armenian are ps in Western Armenian, similarly with gs in Eastern Armenian that are pronounced ks in Western Armenian. Western Armenian is an Indo-European language spoken by the Armenian diaspora, mainly in North America and South America, Europe, Australia, and most of the Middle East except for Iran. It is spoken by only a percentage of Armenians in Turkey as a first language. Western Armenian was at one point the dominant Armenian dialect, after the genocide, Western Armenia was wiped clean of Western Armenians. Those who fled to Eastern Armenia today speak Eastern Armenian, the only Western Armenian dialect still spoken in Western Armenia is the Homshetsi dialect, as the people who speak it did not fall victim to the Armenian Genocide due to being Muslim. Western Armenian has eight vowel sounds. The Western Armenian language has nine diphthong sounds and this is the Western Armenian Consonantal System using letters from the International Phonetic Alphabet, followed by the corresponding Armenian letter in brackets. The differences in phonology between Western Armenian and Classical Armenian phonology include the distinction of stops and affricates, for example, Classical has three bilabial stops, /b/ ⟨բ⟩, /p/ ⟨պ⟩, and /pʰ/ ⟨փ⟩, Western Armenian, two bilabial stops, /b/ ⟨պ⟩ and /pʰ/ ⟨բ⟩/⟨փ⟩. However, grandson and stone are pronounced similarly in Classical and Western Armenian, Western Armenian uses Classical Armenian orthography, also known as the Mashtotsian orthography. Western Armenian nouns have six cases, nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative. Of the six cases, the nominative and accusative are the same, except for personal pronouns, nouns in Armenian also decline for number, but do not decline for gender. Declension in Armenian is based on how the genitive is formed, from this, all other tenses and moods are formed with various particles and constructions. There is a form, the preterite, which in Armenian is tense in its own right. For the exceptions, bidi əllam, unenam, kidnam, garenam, in vernacular language, the particle gor is added after the verb to indicate present progressive tense, apparently borrowed from Turkish -yor-, cf. seviyorum, gə sirem gor. The distinction is not made in literary Armenian, Գործնական Քերականութիւն - Արդի Հայերէն Լեզուի
2.
History of Armenia
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Armenia lies in the highlands surrounding the Biblical mountains of Ararat. The original Armenian name for the country was Hayk, later Hayastan, translated as the land of Haik, and consisting of the name of the ancient Mesopotamian god Haya, the historical enemy of Hayk, Hayastan, was Bel, or in other words Baal. The word Bel is named in the Bible at Isaiah 46,1, the name Armenia was given to the country by the surrounding states, and it is traditionally derived from Armenak or Aram. In the Bronze Age, several states flourished in the area of Greater Armenia, including the Hittite Empire, Mitanni, soon after the Hayasa-Azzi were the Nairi and the Kingdom of Urartu, who successively established their sovereignty over the Armenian Highland. Each of the nations and tribes participated in the ethnogenesis of the Armenian people. Yerevan, the capital of Armenia, dates back to the 8th century BC. Erebuni has been described as designed as an administrative and religious centre. The Iron Age kingdom of Urartu was replaced by the Orontid dynasty, in 301, Arsacid Armenia was the first sovereign nation to accept Christianity as a state religion. The Armenians later fell under Byzantine, Sassanid Persian, and Islamic hegemony, after the fall of the kingdom in 1045, and the subsequent Seljuk conquest of Armenia in 1064, the Armenians established a kingdom in Cilicia, where they prolonged their sovereignty to 1375. By the 19th century, Eastern Armenia was conquered by Russia, Armenia, from then on corresponding to much of Eastern Armenia, regained independence in 1918, with the establishment of the First Republic of Armenia, and in 1991, the Republic of Armenia. Stone tools from 325,000 years ago have been found in Armenia which indicate the presence of humans at this time. The Armenian Highland shows traces of settlement from the Neolithic era, archaeological surveys in 2010 and 2011 have resulted in the discovery of the worlds earliest known leather shoe, straw skirt, and wine-making facility at the Areni-1 cave complex. The Shulaveri-Shomu culture of the central Transcaucasus region is one of the earliest known cultures in the area. An early Bronze-Age culture in the area is the Kura-Araxes culture, the earliest evidence for this culture is found on the Ararat plain, thence it spread to Georgia by 3000 BC, proceeding westward and to the south-east into an area below the Urmia basin and Lake Van. Today, the Modern Assyrians refer to the Armenians by the name Armani, the word is also speculated to be related to the Mannaeans, which may be identical to the biblical Minni. The earliest forms of the word Hayastan, an ethonym the Armenians use to designate their country, might come from Hittite sources of the Late Bronze Age. Another record mentioned by pharaoh Thutmose III of Egypt in the 33rd year of his reign as the people of Ermenen, however, what all these attestations refer to cannot be determined with certainty, and the earliest certain attestation of the name Armenia comes from the Behistun Inscription. Between 1500 and 1200 BC, the Hayasa-Azzi existed in the half of the Armenian Highland
3.
Name of Armenia
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The name Armenia enters English via Latin, from Ancient Greek Ἀρμενία. The Armenian endonym for the Armenian people and country is hayer and hayk’, the exact etymology of the name is unknown, and there are various speculative attempts to connect it to older toponyms or ethnonyms. The earliest attestations of the exonym Armenia date around the 6th century BC, in his trilingual Behistun Inscription, Darius I the Great of Persia refers to Urashtu as Armina and Harminuya. In Greek, Αρμένιοι Armenians is attested from about the same time, herodotus, in c.440 BC, said the Armenians were equipped like Phrygians, being Phrygian colonists. Xenophon describes many aspects of Armenian village life and hospitality and he relates that the people spoke a language that to his ear sounded like the language of the Persians. Although disputed and unproven, some speculations on the origin of the Armenia exonym have been proposed. It has been suggested by early 20th century Armenologists that Old Persian Armina, there are certain Bronze Age records identified with the toponym in both Mesopotamian and Egyptian sources. The earliest is from an inscription which mentions Armânum together with Ibla as territories conquered by Naram-Sin of Akkad in c.2250 BC identified with an Akkadian colony in the Diarbekr region. However, many historians, such as Wayne Horowitz, identify Armanî which was conquered by Naram-Sin of Akkad, with the Syrian city of Aleppo, the name has also been claimed as a variant of Urmani, attested epigraphically in an inscription of Menuas of Urartu. Minni is also a Biblical name of the region, appearing in Jeremiah alongside Ararat and Ashchenaz, probably the same as the Minnai of Assyrian inscriptions, Armenia is interpreted by some as ḪARMinni, that is, the mountainous region of the Minni. Some authors have connected the Indo-European root *ar- meaning to assemble, there have been further speculations as to the existence of a Bronze Age tribe of the Armens, either identical to or forming a subset of the Hayasa-Azzi. In this case, Armenia would be a rather than a toponym. Armenologist Nicholas Adontz has rejected some of these speculations in his 1946 book, Armenian tradition has an eponymous ancestor, Aram, a lineal descendent of Hayk, son of Harma and father of Ara the Beautiful. Aram is sometimes equated with Arame of Urartu, the earliest known king of Urartu, the endonym Hayk’ in the same tradition is traced to Hayk himself. The names Armen and Arman, feminine Arminé, are given names by Armenians. Armin is also a Persian given name, modern terms for Armenians and Armenia in Armenian and neighboring languages, Horace Abram Rigg, Jr. A Note on the Names Armânum and Urartu Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol.57, Armenian History, Tacentral. com Alternate Names or Name Variants for Republic of Armenia History of Armenia
4.
History of Armenia (book)
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It contains unique material on ancient Armenian legends, and such information on pagan Armenian as has survived. It also contains plentiful data on the history and culture of contiguous countries, the book had an enormous impact on Armenian historiography. In the text, the author self-identifies as a disciple of Saint Mesrop, and states that he composed his work at the request of Isaac, until the 19th century most scholars accepted Movsess History as an authentic script. For example, in the book Adgbars queen, Helena, is a pious Christian who cannot live among the pagans, according to Tovma Artsruni, writing in the 10th century, there was also a fourth part which brings the history down to the time of the Zeno. This first book contains 32 chapters, from Adam to Alexander the Great and these gradually enter historicity with Tigran I, who is also mentioned in the Cyropaedia of Xenophon, but Aravan to Vahé are again otherwise unknown. 68 chapters, from the death of Tiridates III to Gregory the Illuminator, under Soviet rule the book was published many times. R. W. Thomson, English translation,1978, R. W. Thomson, English translation, rev. ed.2006. Commentary on the Literary Sources by R. Thomson A MEDIEVAL ARMENIAN SOURCE ON THE HISTORY OF THE CAUCASUS AS ANALYZED BY JEAN SAINT-MARTIN
5.
Armenian hypothesis
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The two presented the hypothesis in two articles in Vestnik drevnej istorii and then in a much larger work. They claim that the Indo-European languages came from a language in Armenia to the Pontic steppe from which it expanded, according to the Kurgan hypothesis, the Hittite, Indo-Iranian, Greek and Armenian branches split from the Armenian homeland. The Indo-Hittite model and does not include the Anatolian languages in its scenario, the phonological peculiarities proposed in the glottalic theory would be best preserved in Armenian and the Germanic languages. Armenian remained in situ and would be particularly archaic despite of its late attestation, proto-Greek would be practically equivalent to Mycenaean Greek from the 17th century BC and closely associate Greek migration to Greece with the Indo-Aryan migration to India at about the same time. The hypothesis argues for the latest possible date of Proto-Indo-European, roughly a millennium later than the mainstream Kurgan hypothesis and it opposes the Anatolian hypothesis in spite of the geographical proximity of the respective suggested Urheimaten by diverging from the timeframe suggested there by as much as three millennia. Robert Drews says that most of the chronological and historical arguments seem fragile at best, however, he argues that it is far more powerful as a linguistic model, providing insights into the relationship between the Indo-European and the Semitic and Kartvelian languages. And we have known that from the second millennium onward. It is thus not surprising to find that what clues we have suggest that chariot warfare was pioneered in eastern Anatolia. Finally, our picture of what the PIE speakers did, J. Grepin wrote in a review that the model of linguistic relationships is the most complex, far reaching and fully supported of this century. Robert Drews, The Coming of the Greeks, argues for late Greek arrival in the framework of the Armenian hypothesis, martiros Kavoukjian, Armenia, Subartu, and Sumer, the Indo-European homeland and ancient Mesopotamia, trans. Indo-European family tree, showing Indo-European languages and sub branches Giacomo Benedett, peopleOfFar, The Armenian Plateau Hypothesis Gains In Plausibility Dienekes Anthropology Blog, Origin of Early Transcaucasian Culture
6.
Prehistoric Armenia
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The modern territory of Armenia has been settled by human groups from the Lower Paleolithic to modern days. The first human traces are supported by the presence of Acheulean tools, middle and Upper Paleolithic settlements have also been identified such as at the Hovk 1 cave. The Armenian Highland finally shows traces of settlement from the Neolithic era, the Shulaveri-Shomu culture of the central Transcaucasus region is one of the earliest known prehistoric culture in the area, carbon-dated to roughly 6000 -4000 BC. Another early culture in the area is the Kura-Araxes culture, assigned to the period of ca.3300 -2000 BC, the most recent and important excavation is at the Nor Geghi 1 Stone Age site in the Hrazdan river valley. In the Ararat plain, the sites of Aknashen and Aratashen are known to belong to the Neolithic period, the main object of early Assyrian incursions into Armenia was to obtain metals. The iron-working age followed that of bronze everywhere, opening a new epoch of human progress and its influence is noticeable in Armenia, and the transition period is well marked. Tombs whose metal contents are all of bronze are of an older epoch, in most of the cemeteries explored, both bronze and iron furniture were found, indicating the gradual advance into the Iron Age
7.
Stone Age
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The Stone Age was a broad prehistoric period during which stone was widely used to make implements with an edge, a point, or a percussion surface. The period lasted roughly 3.4 million years, and ended between 8700 BCE and 2000 BCE with the advent of metalworking, bone tools were used during this period as well but are rarely preserved in the archaeological record. The Stone Age is further subdivided by the types of tools in use. According to the age and location of the current evidence, the cradle of the genus is the East African Rift System, especially toward the north in Ethiopia, where it is bordered by grasslands. The closest relative among the living primates, the genus Pan, represents a branch that continued on in the deep forest. The rift served as a conduit for movement into southern Africa and also north down the Nile into North Africa and through the continuation of the rift in the Levant to the vast grasslands of Asia. The oldest indirect evidence found of stone tool use is fossilised animal bones with tool marks, the oldest stone tools were excavated from the site of Lomekwi 3 in West Turkana, northwestern Kenya, and date to 3.3 million years old. Prior to the discovery of these Lomekwian tools, the oldest known stone tools had been found at sites at Gona, Ethiopia, on the sediments of the paleo-Awash River. All the tools come from the Busidama Formation, which lies above a disconformity, or missing layer, the oldest sites containing tools are dated to 2. 6–2.55 mya. One of the most striking circumstances about these sites is that they are from the Late Pliocene, excavators at the locality point out that. the earliest stone tool makers were skilled flintknappers. The possible reasons behind this seeming abrupt transition from the absence of tools to the presence thereof include. The species who made the Pliocene tools remains unknown, fragments of Australopithecus garhi, Australopithecus aethiopicus and Homo, possibly Homo habilis, have been found in sites near the age of the Gona tools. Innovation of the technique of smelting ore ended the Stone Age, the first most significant metal manufactured was bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, each of which was smelted separately. The Chalcolithic by convention is the period of the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age, the transition out of the Stone Age occurred between 6000 BCE and 2500 BCE for much of humanity living in North Africa and Eurasia. Note the Rudna Glava mine in Serbia, Ötzi the Iceman, a mummy from about 3300 BCE carried with him a copper axe and a flint knife. In regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa, the Stone Age was followed directly by the Iron Age, the Middle East and southeastern Asian regions progressed past Stone Age technology around 6000 BCE. Europe, and the rest of Asia became post–Stone Age societies by about 4000 BCE, the proto-Inca cultures of South America continued at a Stone Age level until around 2000 BCE, when gold, copper and silver made their entrance
8.
Chalcolithic
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The Copper Age was originally defined as a transition between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. The archaeological site of Belovode on the Rudnik mountain in Serbia contains the worlds oldest securely dated evidence of copper smelting from 5000 BCE, the multiple names result from multiple recognitions of the period. Originally, the term Bronze Age meant that either copper or bronze was being used as the hard substance for the manufacture of tools. In 1881, John Evans, recognizing that the use of copper often preceded the use of bronze and he did not include the transitional period in the tripartite system of Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age but placed it at the beginning outside of it. He did not, however, present it as a fourth age, in 1884, Gaetano Chierici, perhaps following the lead of Evans, renamed it in Italian as the Eneo-litica, or Bronze-stone transition. The phrase was never intended to mean that the period was the one in which both bronze and stone were used. The Copper Age features the use of copper, excluding bronze, moreover, litica simply names the Stone Age as the point from which the transition began and is not another -lithic age. Subsequently, British scholars used either Evanss Copper Age or the term Eneolithic, around 1900, many writers began to substitute Chalcolithic for Eneolithic, to avoid the false segmentation. It was then that the misunderstanding began among those who did not know Italian, the -lithic was seen as a new -lithic age, a part of the Stone Age in which copper was used, which may appear paradoxical. Today Copper Age, Eneolithic and Chalcolithic are used synonymously to mean Evanss original definition of Copper Age, there was an independent invention of copper and bronze smelting first by Andean civilizations in South America extended later by sea commerce to the Mesoamerican civilization in West Mexico. The literature of European archaeology, in general, avoids the use of Chalcolithic, the Copper Age in the Middle East and the Caucasus began in the late 5th millennium BCE and lasted for about a millennium before it gave rise to the Early Bronze Age. The transition from the European Copper Age to Bronze Age Europe occurs about the same time, an archaeological site in Serbia contains the oldest securely dated evidence of coppermaking from 7,500 years ago. In Serbia, an axe was found at Prokuplje, which indicates that humans were using metals in Europe by 7,500 years ago. Knowledge of the use of copper was far more widespread than the metal itself, the European Battle Axe culture used stone axes modeled on copper axes, even with imitation mold marks carved in the stone. Ötzi the Iceman, who was found in the Ötztal Alps in 1991, examples of Chalcolithic cultures in Europe include Vila Nova de São Pedro and Los Millares on the Iberian Peninsula. Pottery of the Beaker people has found at both sites, dating to several centuries after copper-working began there. The Beaker culture appears to have copper and bronze technologies in Europe. The term Chalcolithic is not generally used by British prehistorians, who disagree whether it applies in the British context, in Bhirrana, the earliest Indus civilization site, copper bangles and arrowheads were found
9.
Areni-1 cave
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The Areni-1 cave complex is located near the Areni village in southern Armenia along the Arpa River. In 2010, it was announced that the earliest known shoe was found at the site, in January 2011, the earliest known winery in the world was announced to have been found. Also in 2011, the discovery of a straw skirt dating to 3900 BC was reported, in 2009, the oldest brain was discovered
10.
Hayk
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Hayk or Hayg, also known as Haik Nahapet is the legendary patriarch and founder of the Armenian nation. His story is told in the History of Armenia attributed to the Armenian historian Moses of Chorene, the name of the patriarch, Հայկ Hayk is not exactly homophonous with the name for Armenia, Հայք Hayk’. Հայք Hayk’ is the plural in Classical Armenian of հայ. Some claim that the etymology of Hayk from Hayk is impossible, nevertheless, Hayk and Haig are usually connected to hay and hayer, the self-designation of the Armenians. Armen Petroyan believes that the name Hayk can very plausibly be derived from the Indo-European *poti- ‘master, lord, master of the house, Hayk would then be an etiological founding figure, like e. g. Asshur for the Assyrians, etc. One of Hayks most famous scions, Aram, settled in Eastern Armenia from the Mitanni kingdom, Armenian historiography of the Soviet era connected Hayk with Hayasa, mentioned in Hittite inscriptions. The Armenian word haykakan or haigagan finds its stem in this progenitor, Moses of Chorene gave Hayks genealogy as Japhet, Gomer and Tiras, Torgom. Hayks descendants are given as Amasya, Ara, Aram, Aramais, Armanak, Gegham, Hayk was also said to be the founder of the Haykazuni Dynasty. Some of the prominent Armenian royal houses such as the Arran, Bagratuni, Bznuni, Khorkhoruni, Manavazian, Syuni, according to Juansher Hayk. was prince of the seven brothers and stood in service to the giant Nimrod who first ruled the entire world as king. In Moses of Chorenes account, Hayk son of Torgom had a child named Armanak while he was living in Babylon, after the arrogant Titanid Bel made himself king over all, Hayk emigrated to the region near Mount Ararad. Hayk relocated near Mount Ararat with a household of at least 300 and settled there. On the way he had left a detachment in another settlement with his grandson Kadmos, Bel sent one of his sons to entreat him to return, but was refused. Bel decided to march against him with a force. He assembled his own army along the shore of Lake Van and told them that they must defeat and kill Bel, or die trying to do so, rather than become his slaves. In his writings Moses states that, Hayk and his men soon discovered Bels army positioned in a mountain pass, with the king in the vanguard. At Dyutsaznamart, near Julamerk southeast of Lake Van, on August 11,2492 BC or 2107 BC, Hayk slew Bel with an impossible shot using a long bow. The hill where Bel with his warriors fell, Hayk named Gerezmank meaning tombs and he embalmed the corpse of Bel and ordered it to be taken to Hark where it was to be buried in a high place in the view of the wives and sons of the king. Soon after, Hayk established the fortress of Haykaberd at the battle site and he named the region of the battle Hayk, and the site of the battle Hayots Dzor
11.
Bronze Age
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The Bronze Age is a historical period characterized by the use of bronze, proto-writing, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the principal period of the three-age Stone-Bronze-Iron system, as proposed in modern times by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen. An ancient civilization is defined to be in the Bronze Age either by smelting its own copper and alloying with tin, arsenic, or other metals, or by trading for bronze from production areas elsewhere. Copper-tin ores are rare, as reflected in the fact there were no tin bronzes in Western Asia before trading in bronze began in the third millennium BC. Worldwide, the Bronze Age generally followed the Neolithic period, with the Chalcolithic serving as a transition, although the Iron Age generally followed the Bronze Age, in some areas, the Iron Age intruded directly on the Neolithic. Bronze Age cultures differed in their development of the first writing, according to archaeological evidence, cultures in Mesopotamia and Egypt developed the earliest viable writing systems. The overall period is characterized by use of bronze, though the place and time of the introduction. Human-made tin bronze technology requires set production techniques, tin must be mined and smelted separately, then added to molten copper to make bronze alloy. The Bronze Age was a time of use of metals. The dating of the foil has been disputed, the Bronze Age in the ancient Near East began with the rise of Sumer in the 4th millennium BC. Societies in the region laid the foundations for astronomy and mathematics, the usual tripartite division into an Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age is not used. Instead, a division based on art-historical and historical characteristics is more common. The cities of the Ancient Near East housed several tens of thousands of people, ur in the Middle Bronze Age and Babylon in the Late Bronze Age similarly had large populations. The earliest mention of Babylonia appears on a tablet from the reign of Sargon of Akkad in the 23rd century BC, the Amorite dynasty established the city-state of Babylon in the 19th century BC. Over 100 years later, it took over the other city-states. Babylonia adopted the written Semitic Akkadian language for official use, by that time, the Sumerian language was no longer spoken, but was still in religious use. Elam was an ancient civilization located to the east of Mesopotamia, in the Old Elamite period, Elam consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau, centered in Anshan, and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered in Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands. Its culture played a role in the Gutian Empire and especially during the Achaemenid dynasty that succeeded it
12.
Iron Age
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The Iron Age is an archaeological era, referring to a period of time in the prehistory and protohistory of the Old World when the dominant toolmaking material was iron. It is commonly preceded by the Bronze Age in Europe and Asia with exceptions, meteoric iron has been used by humans since at least 3200 BC. Ancient iron production did not become widespread until the ability to smelt ore, remove impurities. The start of the Iron Age proper is considered by many to fall between around 1200 BC and 600 BC, depending on the region, the earliest known iron artifacts are nine small beads dated to 3200 BC, which were found in burials at Gerzeh, Lower Egypt. They have been identified as meteoric iron shaped by careful hammering, meteoric iron, a characteristic iron–nickel alloy, was used by various ancient peoples thousands of years before the Iron Age. Such iron, being in its metallic state, required no smelting of ores. Smelted iron appears sporadically in the record from the middle Bronze Age. While terrestrial iron is abundant, its high melting point of 1,538 °C placed it out of reach of common use until the end of the second millennium BC. Tins low melting point of 231, similarly, recent archaeological remains of iron working in the Ganges Valley in India have been tentatively dated to 1800 BC. By the Middle Bronze Age, increasing numbers of smelted iron objects appeared in the Middle East, Southeast Asia, African sites are turning up dates as early as 1200 BC. Modern archaeological evidence identifies the start of iron production in around 1200 BC. Between 1200 BC and 1000 BC, diffusion in the understanding of iron metallurgy and use of objects was fast. As evidence, many bronze implements were recycled into weapons during this time, more widespread use of iron led to improved steel-making technology at lower cost. Thus, even when tin became available again, iron was cheaper, stronger, and lighter, and forged iron implements superseded cast bronze tools permanently. Increasingly, the Iron Age in Europe is being seen as a part of the Bronze Age collapse in the ancient Near East, in ancient India, ancient Iran, and ancient Greece. In other regions of Europe, the Iron Age began in the 8th century BC in Central Europe, the Near Eastern Iron Age is divided into two subsections, Iron I and Iron II. Iron I illustrates both continuity and discontinuity with the previous Late Bronze Age, during the Iron Age, the best tools and weapons were made from steel, particularly alloys which were produced with a carbon content between approximately 0. 30% and 1. 2% by weight. Steel weapons and tools were nearly the same weight as those of bronze, however, steel was difficult to produce with the methods available, and alloys that were easier to make, such as wrought iron, were more common in lower-priced goods
13.
Hayasa-Azzi
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The Hayasa-Azzi confederation was in conflict with the Hittite Empire in the 14th century BC, leading up to the collapse of Hatti around 1190 BC. Hittite inscriptions deciphered in the 1920s by the Swiss scholar Emil Forrer testify to the existence of a mountain country, several prominent authorities agree in placing Azzi to the north of Ishuwa. Others see Hayasa and Azzi as identical, records of the time between Telipinu and Tudhaliya III are sketchy. The Hittites seem to have abandoned their capital at Hattusa and moved to Sapinuwa under one of the earlier Tudhaliya kings, in the early 14th century BC, Sapinuwa was burned as well. Hattusili III records at this time that the Azzi had made Samuha its frontier and it should be borne in mind that people who view themselves as great civilizations are not always too particular about which group of so-called Barbarians they are fighting. Also at times multiple atrocities are blamed on one group as a cry for a current war. Samuha was, however, temporarily seized by forces from the country of Azzi, at this time, the kingdom of Hatti was so besieged by fierce attacks from its enemies that many neighbouring powers expected it to soon collapse. The Egyptian pharaoh, Amenhotep III, even wrote to Tarhundaradu, king of Arzawa, I have heard that everything is finished and that the country of Hattusa is paralysed. However, Tudhaliya managed to rally his forces, indeed, the speed and determination of the Hittite king may have surprised Hattis enemies including the Kaska and Azzi-Hayasa. Tudhaliya sent his general Suppiluliuma, who would serve as king himself under the title Suppiluliuma I, to Hattis northeastern frontiers. The Hayasans initially retreated from a battle with the Hittite commander. The Hittitologist Trevor R. Bryce notes, however, that Tudhaliya and Suppiluliuma eventually, invaded Azzi-Hayasa, the passage recording the outcome of this battle is missing. The Hayasans were now obliged to repatriate all captured Hittite subjects, despite the restrictions imposed upon Hakkani, he was not a completely meek and submissive brother-in law of the Hittites in political and military affairs. As a condition for the release of the thousands of Hittite prisoners held in his domain, during their reigns, the cuneiform tablets of Boğazköy begin to mention the names of three successive kings who ruled over a state of Hayasa and/or Azzi. They were Karanni, Mariya, and Hakkani, when Suppiluliuma had become king himself, Hakkani proceeded to marry Suppiluliumas sister. Well, there is a law in the land of the Hatti, do not approach sisters, your sisters-in law or your cousins, that is not permitted. In Hatti Land, whosoever commits such an act does not live, in your country, you do not hesitate to marry your own sister, sister-in law or cousin, because you are not civilized. Such an act cannot be permitted in Hatti, the kingdom of Hayasa-Azzi remained a loyal Hittite vassal state for a time, perhaps hit by the same plague which claimed Suppiluliuma and his son Arnuwanda II
14.
Shupria
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Scholars have linked the district in the area called Arme or Armani, to the name Armenia. The name Subartu for the region is attested much earlier, from the time of the earliest Mesopotamian records, Shupria is mentioned in the letter of Esarhaddon to the god Assur. Esarhaddon undertook an expedition against Shupria in 674, subjugating it, bronze Age collapse Proto-Armenian language Indo-European languages
15.
Mushki
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The Mushki were an Iron Age people of Anatolia, known from Assyrian sources. They do not appear in Hittite records, several authors have connected them with the Moschoi of Greek sources and the Georgian tribe of the Meskhi. Josephus Flavius identified the Moschoi with the Biblical Meshech, Assyrian sources identify the Western Mushki with the Phrygians, while Greek sources clearly distinguish between Phrygians and Moschoi. The Eastern Muski appear to have moved into Hatti in the 12th century BC, completing the downfall of the collapsing Hittite state and they established themselves in a post-Hittite kingdom in Cappadocia. Whether they moved into the core Hittite areas from the east or west has been a matter of discussion by historians. In the 8th century BC, Tabal became the most influential of the polities. The alliance was defeated by Sargon of Assyria, who captured Carchemish. Ambaris of Tabal was diplomatically married to an Assyrian princess, and received the province of Hilakku, in 709 BC, the Mushki re-emerged as allies of Assyria, Sargon naming Mita as his friend. According to Assyrian military intelligence reports to Sargon recorded on tablets found in the Royal Archives of Nineveh by Sir Henry Layard. Rusas II of Urartu in the 7th century BC fought the Mushki-ni to his west, hecataeus of Miletus speaks of the Moschi as Colchians, situated next to the Matieni. Strabo locates the Moschoi in two places, the first location is somewhere in modern Abkhazia on the eastern shore of the Black Sea, in agreement with Stephan of Byzantium quoting Hellanicus. The second location Moschice – in which was a temple of Leucothea, once famous for its wealth and these latter Moschoi were obviously the Georgian Meskhi or Mesx’i. Procopius calls them Meschoi and says that they were subject to the Iberians, and had embraced Christianity, according to Professor James R. Russell of Harvard University, the Georgian designation for Armenians Somekhi, preserves the old name of the Mushki. Pliny in the 1st century AD mentions the Moscheni in southern Armenia, in Byzantine historiography, Moschoi was a name equivalent to or considered as the ancestors of Cappadocians with their capital at Mazaca. Meshech is named with Tubal as a principality of the prince of Gog and Magog in Ezekiel 38,2 and 39,1, the ancient city of Mtskheta, near Tbilisi, is believed by Georgian experts to be the former capital of the Mushki state. According to the medieval Georgian Chronicles, the city was built by the legendary patriarch Mtskhetos, one of five sons of Kartlos, excavations in Mtskheta have confirmed the town dates back at least as far as 1000 BC. Moses of Chorene says that Alexander installed a Persian satrap named Mithridates in Mtskheta, Mtskheta remained the capital of the Kartli state, which became known in most languages as Iberia, until the 5th century AD. People in what is now a south-central Georgian region continued to favor a variant of the old Mushki name and they speak a dialect of Georgian called Meskhuri, which among Georgias regional dialects is relatively close to official Georgian
16.
Mountains of Ararat
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The Mountains of Ararat is the place named in the Book of Genesis where Noahs Ark came to rest after the great flood. In Syrian tradition, as well as in Quranic tradition, the mountain is identified with Mount Judi in what is today Şırnak Province, Southeastern Anatolia Region, Turkey. During the Middle Ages, this tradition has eclipsed the earlier association with Mount Judi in Eastern Christianity, the Mountains of Ararat in Genesis clearly refer to a general region, not a specific mountain. Biblical Ararat corresponds to Ancient Assyrian Urartu the name of the kingdom which at the time controlled the Lake Van region, the Latin Vulgate says requievitque arca super montes Armeniae, which means literally and the ark rested on the mountains of Armenia, which was changed to. Mountains of Ararat in the modern Nova Vulgata, the Book of Jubilees specifies that the Ark came to rest on one of the peaks of the Mountains of Ararat called Lubar. Mount Ararat Biblical Mount Sinai Mount Judi Searches for Noahs Ark Friedrich Murat, Ararat und Masis, Studien zur armenischen Altertumskunde und Litteratur, Heidelberg,1900
17.
Nairi
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Nairi was the Assyrian name for a confederation of tribes in the Armenian Highlands, roughly corresponding to the modern Van and Hakkâri provinces of modern Turkey. The word is used to describe the tribes who lived there. Nairi has sometimes been equated with Nihriya, known from Mesopotamian, Hittite, however, its co-occurrence with Nihriya within a single text may argue against this. During the Bronze Age collapse, the Nairi tribes were considered a strong enough to contend with both Assyria and Hatti. The Battle of Nihriya, the point of the hostilities between Hittites and Assyrians for control over the remnants of the former empire of Mitanni, took place there. Nairi was incorporated into Urartu during the 10th century BC, the names of twenty-three Nairi lands were recorded by Tiglath-Pileser I. Their southernmost point was Tumme, known to have been south-west of Lake Urmia and it is believed that Nairi extended from the Tur-Abdin mountains in the south to the mountainous area southwest of Lake Van in the north. Shalmaneser III campaigned in the region, erecting a statue at the source of the Tigris, bryce states that some of his royal inscriptions indicate that the term now also denoted a specific region to the southwest of Lake Urmia, centred on the land of Hubushkia. Albrecht Goetze suggested that what he refers to as the Hurriland dissolved into a number of states that the Assyrians called Nairi. Others take this hypothesis skeptically, e. g. Benedict points out there is no evidence of the presence of Hurrites in the vicinity of Lake Van. An early, documented reference to Nairi is a tablet dated to the time of Adad-nirari I, the Nairi fought against the southern incursions of the Assyrians and would later unite into Urartu. Albrecht Götze, Hethiter, Churriter und Assyrer, Instituttet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning, Serie A, journal of the American Oriental Society 80/2,1960, 100-104. Ralf-Bernhard Wartke, Urartu Das Reich am Ararat, Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz/Rhein 1993 A
18.
Urartu
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Urartu, also known as Kingdom of Van, was an Iron Age kingdom centred on Lake Van in the Armenian Highlands. It corresponds to the biblical Kingdom of Ararat, the language appears in cuneiform inscriptions. It is argued on linguistic evidence that came in contact with Urartian at an early date. That a distinction should be made between the geographical and the entity was already pointed out by König. The landscape corresponds to the plateau between Anatolia, Mesopotamia, the Iranian Plateau, and the Caucasus Mountains, later known as the Armenian Highlands. The kingdom rose to power in the mid-ninth century BC, the heirs of Urartu are the Armenians and their successive kingdoms. The name Urartu comes from Assyrian sources, Shalmaneser I recorded a campaign in which he subdued the entire territory of Uruatri, the Shalmaneser text uses the name Urartu to refer to a geographical region, not a kingdom, and names eight lands contained within Urartu. Urartu is cognate with the Biblical Ararat, Akkadian Urashtu and Armenian Ayrarat, the Urartian toponym Biainili was adopted in the Old Armenian as Van, Վան. Hence the names Kingdom of Van or Vannic Kingdom, scholars such as Carl Ferdinand Friedrich Lehmann-Haupt believed that the people of Urartu called themselves Khaldini after the god Ḫaldi. Boris Piotrovsky wrote that the Urartians first appear in history in the 13th century BC as a league of tribes or countries which did not yet constitute a unitary state. In the Assyrian annals the term Uruatri as a name for this league was superseded during a period of years by the term land of Nairi. Scholars believe that Urartu is an Akkadian variation of Ararat of the Old Testament, indeed, Mount Ararat is located in ancient Urartian territory, approximately 120 kilometres north of its former capital. In addition to referring to the famous Biblical mountain, Ararat also appears as the name of a kingdom in Jeremiah 51,27, mentioned together with Minni, in the early sixth century BC, Urartu was replaced by the Armenian Orontid Dynasty. Shupria was part of the Urartu confederation, later, there is reference to a district in the area called Arme or Urme, which some scholars have linked to the name of Armenia. At its apogee, Urartu stretched from the borders of northern Mesopotamia to the southern Caucasus, including present-day Armenia, archaeological sites within its boundaries include Altintepe, Toprakkale, Patnos and Haykaberd. Urartu fortresses included Erebuni, Van Fortress, Argishtihinili, Anzaf, Haykaberd, schulz discovered and copied numerous cuneiform inscriptions, partly in Assyrian and partly in a hitherto unknown language. Schulz also re-discovered the Kelishin stele, bearing an Assyrian-Urartian bilingual inscription, a summary account of his initial discoveries was published in 1828. Schulz and four of his servants were murdered by Kurds in 1829 near Başkale and his notes were later recovered and published in Paris in 1840
19.
Scythians
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The Scythian languages belonged to the Eastern branch of the Iranian languages. Ancient Greek historians spoke of Scythians who lived north of the Black Sea, Persians used the term Saka, for approximately the same people who lived further east. Although the ancients did not clearly distinguish the two terms, modern scholars usually use Saka to refer to Iranian-speaking tribes who inhabited the central steppe, the Chinese used the term Sai, for Sakas who had moved into the Tarim Basin. Assyrian sources speak of Iskuzai or Askuzai south of the Caucasus who were probably Scythians, the relationships between the peoples living in these widely separated regions remains unclear. Their westernmost territories during the Iron Age were known to classical Greek sources as Scythia, the Scythians were among the earliest peoples to master mounted warfare. In the 8th century BC they possibly raided Zhou China, soon after they expanded westwards and dislodged the Cimmerians from power on the Pontic Steppe. Based in what is modern-day Ukraine, Southern European Russia, and Crimea, the Scythians established and controlled a vast trade network connecting Greece, Persia, India and China, perhaps contributing to the contemporary flourishing of those civilizations. Settled metalworkers made portable decorative objects for the Scythians and these objects survive mainly in metal, forming a distinctive Scythian art. In the 7th century BC the Scythians crossed the Caucasus and frequently raided the Middle East along with the Cimmerians, around 650–630 BC, Scythians briefly dominated the Medes of the western Iranian Plateau, stretching their power all the way to the borders of Egypt. After losing control over Media the Scythians continued intervening in Middle Eastern affairs, the Scythians subsequently engaged in frequent conflicts with the Achaemenid Empire. The western Scythians suffered a defeat against Macedonia in the 4th century BC, and were subsequently gradually conquered by the Sarmatians. In Eastern Europe, by the early Medieval Ages, the Scythians, Scythians kept herds of horses, cattle, and sheep, lived in tent-covered wagons, and fought with bows and arrows on horseback. They developed a culture characterized by opulent tombs, fine metalwork. Sulimirski views the Histories of Herodotus as the most important literary source relating to ancient Scyths, Herodotus provides a depiction that can be related to the results of archaeological research, but apparently knew little of the eastern part of Scythia. He did say that the ancient Persians called all the Scyths Σάκαι and their principal tribe, the Royal Scyths, ruled the vast lands occupied by the nation as a whole, calling themselves Σκώλοτοι. The restored Scythian name is *Skuda, which among the Pontic or Royal Scythians became *Skula, in which the d has been regularly replaced by an l. Saka, on the hand, Szemerényi relates to an Iranian verbal root, sak-, go, roam. The name does appear somewhat further east than the Achaemenid Empire, whether they adopted the Achaemenid name, or Saka came to be an endonym, it is not clear
20.
Medes
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The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in an area known as Media and who spoke the Median language. This allowed new peoples to pass through and settle, in addition Elam, the dominant power in Iran, was suffering a period of severe weakness, as was Babylonia to the west. During the reign of Sinsharishkun the Assyrian empire, which had been in a state of constant civil war since 626 BC, subject peoples, such as the Medes, Babylonians, Chaldeans, Egyptians, Scythians, Cimmerians, Lydians and Arameans quietly ceased to pay tribute to Assyria. The Median kingdom was conquered in 550 BC by Cyrus the Great. However, nowadays there is doubt whether a united Median empire ever existed. There is no evidence and the story of Herodotus is not supported by sources from the Neo-Assyrian Empire nor the Neo-Babylonian Empire. A few archaeological sites and textual sources provide a documentation of the history. Apart from a few names, the language of the Medes is unknown. The Medes had an Ancient Iranian Religion with a priesthood named as Magi, later during the reigns of the last Median kings, the reforms of Zoroaster spread into western Iran. Besides Ecbatana, the other existing in Media were Laodicea. The fourth city of Media was Apamea, near Ecbatana, whose location is now unknown. According to the Histories of Herodotus, there were six Median tribes, Thus Deioces collected the Medes into a nation, now these are the tribes of which they consist, the Busae, the Paretaceni, the Struchates, the Arizanti, the Budii, and the Magi. The six Median tribes resided in Media proper, the triangular shaped area between Ecbatana, Rhagae and Aspadana, in modern Iran, that is the area between Tehran, Isfahan and Hamadan. Of the Median tribes, the Magi resided in Rhaga, modern Tehran and it was a type of sacred caste, which ministered to the spiritual needs of the Medes. The Paretaceni tribe resided in and around Aspadana, modern Isfahan, the Arizanti lived in and around Kashan, the Struchates and the Budii lived in villages in the Median triangle. The original source for different words used to call the Median people, their language, the meaning of this word is not precisely established. The Median people are mentioned by name in many ancient texts. According to the Histories of Herodotus, The Medes were called anciently by all people Aryans, but when Medea, such is the account which they themselves give
21.
Achaemenid Empire
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The Achaemenid Empire, also called the Persian Empire, was an empire based in Western Asia, founded by Cyrus the Great. The empires successes inspired similar systems in later empires and it is noted in Western history as the antagonist of the Greek city-states during the Greco-Persian Wars and for the emancipation of the Jewish exiles in Babylon. The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, was built in a Hellenistic style in the empire as well. By the 7th century BC, the Persians had settled in the portion of the Iranian Plateau in the region of Persis. From this region, Cyrus the Great advanced to defeat the Medes, Lydia, Alexander, an avid admirer of Cyrus the Great, conquered the empire in its entirety by 330 BC. Upon his death, most of the former territory came under the rule of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Seleucid Empire. The Persian population of the central plateau reclaimed power by the second century BC under the Parthian Empire, the historical mark of the Achaemenid Empire went far beyond its territorial and military influences and included cultural, social, technological and religious influences as well. Many Athenians adopted Achaemenid customs in their lives in a reciprocal cultural exchange. The impact of Cyruss edict is mentioned in Judeo-Christian texts, the empire also set the tone for the politics, heritage and history of modern Iran. Astronomical year numbering Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details Due to the duration of their reigns, Smerdis, Xerxes II. The Persian nation contains a number of tribes as listed here, the Pasargadae, Maraphii, and Maspii, upon which all the other tribes are dependent. Of these, the Pasargadae are the most distinguished, they contain the clan of the Achaemenids from which spring the Perseid kings. Other tribes are the Panthialaei, Derusiaei, Germanii, all of which are attached to the soil, the Achaemenid Empire was created by nomadic Persians. The Achaemenid Empire was not the first Iranian empire, as by 6th century BC another group of ancient Iranian peoples had established the short lived Median Empire. The Iranian peoples had arrived in the region of what is today Iran c.1000 BC and had for a number of centuries fallen under the domination of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, based in northern Mesopotamia. However, the Medes and Persians, Cimmerians, Persians and Chaldeans played a role in the overthrow of the Assyrian empire. The term Achaemenid means of the family of the Achaemenis/Achaemenes, despite the derivation of the name, Achaemenes was himself a minor seventh-century ruler of the Anshan in southwestern Iran, and a vassal of Assyria. At some point in 550 BC, Cyrus rose in rebellion against the Medes, eventually conquering the Medes and creating the first Persian empire
22.
Satrapy of Armenia
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The Satrapy of Armenia, a region controlled by the Orontid Dynasty was one of the satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BC, which later became an independent kingdom. Its capitals were Tushpa and later Erebuni, after the collapse of the Kingdom of Urartu, the region was placed under the administration of the Median Empire and the Scythians. Later the territory was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire, which incorporated it as a satrapy, and thus named it the land of Armina ). The Orontid Dynasty, or known by their name, Eruandid or Yervanduni, was a hereditary dynasty of ancient Armenia. Historians state that the dynasty was of Iranian origin, and suggest, albeit not clearly, throughout their existence, the Orontids stressed their lineage from the Achaemenids in order to strengthen their political legitimacy. The Orontids established their supremacy over Armenia around the time of the Scythian and Median invasion in the 6th century BC and its founder was Orontes I Sakavakyats. His son, Tigranes Orontid, united his forces with Cyrus the Great, moses of Chorene called him the wisest, most powerful and bravest of Armenian kings. From 553 BC to 521 BC, Armenia was a kingdom of the Achaemenid Empire. He sent an Armenian named Dâdarši to stop a revolt against Persian rule, later replacing him with the Persian general, Vaumisa, who defeated the Armenians in 521 BC. Around the same time, another Armenian by the name of Arakha, son of Haldita, claimed to be the son of the last king of Babylon, Nabonidus and his rebellion was short lived and was suppressed by Intaphrenes, Darius bow carrier. After the Battle of Gaugamela, Orontes III was able to regain independence for Armenia, but in 201 BC, Armenia was conquered by Artashes, a general from the Seleucid Empire, and also said to be a member of Orontid dynasty. The last Orontid king Orontes IV was killed, but the Orontids continued to rule in Sophene and Commagene until the 1st century BC, Orontid Dynasty Urartu Achaemenid Empire Kingdom of Armenia
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Orontid Dynasty
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The Orontid dynasty, also known by their native name Eruandid or Yervanduni, was a hereditary Armenian dynasty and the rulers of the successor state to the Iron Age kingdom of Urartu. The Orontids established their supremacy over Armenia around the time of the Scythian and Median invasion in the 6th century BC, the Orontids are the first of the three royal dynasties that successively ruled the ancient Kingdom of Armenia. Little is known about the origins of the Orontid dynasty, some historians believe that the Orontid kings were of Armenian or Urartian origin. In addition, historians believe the dynasty may have had Iranian origin through a relation to the Achaemenids. The name Orontes is the Hellenized form of a name of Iranian origin. The name is attested in Greek. Its Avestan connection is Auruuant and Middle Persian Arwand, some have suggested a continuity with the Hittite name Arnuwanda. Various Greek transcriptions of the name in Classical sources are spelled as Orontes, Aruandes or Ardoates, the presence of this dynasty is attested from at least 400 BC, and it can be shown to have ruled originally from Armavir and subsequently Yervandashat. Xenophon mentions an Armenian king named Tigranes in his Cyropaedia and he was an ally of Cyrus the Great with whom he hunted. His elder son was also named Tigranes, upon the outbreak of hostilities between Medes and Babylonians, Tigranes had renounced his treaty obligations to the Medes. As a successor of Astyages, Cyrus demanded to be paid the same tribute, strabo corroborates this in his Geography. In 521 BC, with the disturbances that occurred after the death of Cambyses and the proclamation of Smerdis as King, the Armenians revolted. Darius I of Persia sent an Armenian named Dâdarši to suffocate the revolt, around the same time, another Armenian by the name of Arakha, son of Haldita, claimed to be the son of the last king of Babylon, Nabonidus, and renamed himself Nebuchadnezzar IV. His rebellion was short-lived and was suppressed by Intaphrenes, Darius bow carrier and these events are described in detail within the Behistun inscription. After the administrative reorganization of the Persian Empire, Armenia was converted into several satrapies, Armenian satraps regularly intermarried with the family of the King of Kings. These satraps provided contingents to Xerxes invasion of Greece in 480 BC, herodotus says that the Armenians in the army of Xerxes were armed like the Phrygians. In 401 BC Xenophon marched through Armenia with an army of Greek mercenaries as part of the March of the Ten Thousand. Xenophon mentions two individuals by the name Orontes, apparently both Persian, tiribaz is mentioned as hipparchos of Armenia under Orontes, who later became satrap of Lydia
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Lesser Armenia
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Lesser Armenia, also known as Armenia Minor and Armenia Inferior, comprised the Armenian–populated regions primarily to the west and northwest of the ancient Kingdom of Armenia. The region was reorganized into the Armeniac Theme under the Byzantine Empire. Lesser Armenia was the portion of historic Armenia and the Armenian Highlands lying west and northwest of the river Euphrates and it received its name to distinguish it from the much larger eastern portion of historic Armenia—Greater Armenia. From the 6th century BC, the territory of Lesser Armenia was ruled by Orontid Dynasty, the early Armenian kingdom was named the Satrapy of Armenia. Some time after the death of Alexander the Great, Mithridates, as the kingdom grew in strength, it included Lesser Armenia well. Armenia was disputed kingdom between Rome and Parthia during the Roman-Persian Wars from 66 BC to the 2nd century AD. All of Armenia became a Roman province in AD114 under Roman emperor Trajan, romans lost Armenia again to Vologases IV of Parthia in AD161. But a few later, at the end of the 3rd century, Rome was again in control of Armenia. Lesser Armenia was reunited with the kingdom of Greater Armenia under the Arshakuni king Tiridates III in AD287, then it was formed into a regular province under Diocletian, and in the 4th century, was divided in two provinces, First Armenia and Second Armenia. Its population remained Armenian, but was being gradually Romanized, since the 3rd century many Armenian soldiers were in the Roman army, later–in the 4th century–they made up two Roman legions, the Legio I Armeniaca and the Legio II Armeniaca. After this, the part of Lesser Armenia remaining under Byzantine control became part of the theme of Armeniakon, between the 11th and 14th centuries the term Lesser Armenia was applied to the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, until the formation of Turkey in 1923. The Christian Armenian population of Lesser Armenia continued its existence in the area until the Armenian Genocide of 1915-23, some Armenians still live in the area, albeit converted to Islam under Ottoman influence, mainly in the 17th century. Hemshinli Bert Vaux, Hemshinli, The Forgotten Black Sea Armenians, mack Chahin, The Kingdom of Armenia, A History, Routledge, London,2001. Robert H. Hewsen, Armenia, A Historical Atlas, University Of Chicago Press,2000
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Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)
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The Kingdom of Armenia, also the Kingdom of Greater Armenia, or simply Greater Armenia, was a monarchy in the Ancient Near East which existed from 321 BC to 428 AD. Its history is divided into successive reigns by three dynasties, Orontid, Artaxiad and Arsacid. It is widely believed to be the region with which all Armenians descend from and it was one of the largest empires in the history of the Middle East. Under the Seleucid Empire, the Armenian throne was divided in two – Armenia Maior and Sophene – both of which passed to members of the Artaxiad dynasty in 189 BC. The remaining Artaxiad kings ruled as clients of Rome until they were overthrown in 12 AD due to their allegiance to Romes main rival in the region. During the Roman–Parthian Wars, the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia was founded when Tiridates I, throughout most of its history during this period, Armenia was heavily contested between Rome and Parthia, and the Armenian nobility was divided among pro-Roman, pro-Parthian or neutrals. From 114 to 118, Armenia briefly became a province of the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan, the Kingdom of Armenia often served as a client state or vassal at the frontier of the two large empires and their successors, the Byzantine and Sassanid empires. In 301, Tiridates III proclaimed Christianity as the religion of Armenia. During the Byzantine–Sasanian wars, Armenia was ultimately partitioned into Byzantine Armenia in 387, the Kingdoms symbol and most famous icon was Mount Ararat, arguably the tallest mountain in the kingdom. The geographic Armenian Highlands, then known as the highlands of Ararat, was inhabited by Proto-Armenian tribes which did not yet constitute a unitary state or nation. The highlands were first united by tribes in the vicinity of Lake Van into the Kingdom of Van, the kingdom competed with Assyria over supremacy in the highlands of Ararat and the Fertile Crescent. Both kingdoms fell to Iranian invaders from the neighbouring East in the 6th century BC and its territory was reorganized into a satrapy called Armenia. The Orontid dynasty ruled as satraps of the Achaemenid Empire for three centuries until the defeat against Alexander the Greats Macedonian Empire at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. After Alexanders death in 323 BC, a Macedonian general named Neoptolemus obtained Armenia until he died in 321 BC and the Orontids returned, not as satraps, Orontes III also defeated the Thessalian commander Menon, who wanted to capture Spers gold mines. The Seleucid Empires influence over Armenia had weakened after it was defeated by the Romans in the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC, a Hellenistic Armenian state was thus founded in the same year by Artaxias I alongside the Armenian kingdom of Sophene led by Zariadres. Artaxias seized Yervandashat, united the Armenian Highlands at the expense of neighboring tribes, according to Strabo and Plutarch, Hannibal Barca received hospitality at the Armenian court of Artaxias I. The authors add a story of how Hannibal planned and supervised the building of Artaxata. The new city was laid on a position at the juncture of trade routes that connected the Ancient Greek world with Bactria, India
26.
Artaxiad dynasty
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The Artaxiad dynasty or Ardaxiad dynasty ruled the Kingdom of Armenia from 189 BC until their overthrow by the Romans in AD12. Their realm included Greater Armenia, Sophene and intermittently Lesser Armenia and their main enemies were the Romans, the Seleucids and the Parthians, against whom the Armenians had to conduct multiple wars. According to the geographer Strabo, Artaxias and Zariadres were two satraps of the Seleucid Empire, who ruled over the provinces of Greater Armenia and Sophene respectively. After the Seleucid defeat at the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC, they revolted and declared their independence, scholars believe that Artaxias and Zariadres were not foreign generals but local figures related to the previous Orontid dynasty, as their Irano-Armenian names would indicate. According to the Encyclopaedia Iranica, the Artaxiads were a branch of the earlier Orontid dynasty of Iranian origin attested as ruling in Armenia from at least the 5th century BCE, Artaxias is regarded as one of the most important kings in Armenian history. He presented himself as a descendant of Orontids, although it is unknown if he was in fact related to that dynasty. In the beginning of his rule, parts of the Armenian Highlands with Armenian speaking populations remained under the rule of neighbouring states, Artaxias made the reunification of those lands under his domain a priority. Greek geographer and historian Strabo recounts the conquests of Artaxias towards West, East, according to Strabo and Plutarch, Artaxias also founded the Armenian capital Artaxata with the aid of the Carthaginian general Hannibal who was being sheltered from the Romans within Artaxias court. The population of the previous Orontid capital of Ervandashat was transferred to Artaxata, in these inscriptions Artaxias claims descent from the Orontid Dynasty, King Artaxias, the son of Orontid Zariadres. During this time, the Armenian rulers incorporated many Greek elements and this is shown by the contemporary Armenian coins. They followed Greek models and have inscriptions in the Greek language, some coins describe the Armenian kings as Philhellenes. Knowledge of Greek in Armenia is also evidenced by surviving parchments, Tigranes successor Artavasdes II even composed Greek tragedies himself. Nevertheless, Armenian culture still retained a strong Iranian element, particularly in religious matters, during the reign of Tigranes the Great, the kingdom of Armenia was at the zenith of its power and briefly became the most powerful state to the Roman east. Artaxias and his followers had already constructed the base upon which Tigranes built his empire, despite this fact, the territory of Armenia, being a mountainous one, was governed by nakharars who were largely autonomous from the central authority. Tigranes unified them in order to create internal security in the kingdom, the borders of Armenia stretched from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. At that time, the Armenians had become so expansive, that the Romans and Parthians had to join forces in order to beat them, Tigranes found a more central capital within his domain and named it Tigranocerta. Large territories were taken from Parthians, who were forced to sign a treaty of friendship with Tigranes, iberia, Albania, and Atropatene also lost territories and the remainder of their Kingdoms became vassal states. The Greeks within the Seleucid Empire offered Tigranes the Seleucid crown in 83, after which the Armenian empire reached as far south as modern Acre, Roman involvement in Asia Minor brought Tigranes empire to an end
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Tigranes the Great
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Tigranes II, more commonly known as Tigranes the Great was King of Armenia under whom the country became, for a short time, the strongest state east of the Roman Republic. He was a member of the Artaxiad Royal House, Tigranes had been a hostage until the age of 45 at the court of King Mithridates II of Parthia after the Armenian defeat in 105 BC. Other sources give the date as much earlier, at around 112–111 BC, after the death of King Tigranes I in 95 BC, Tigranes bought his freedom, according to Strabo, by handing over seventy valleys in Atropatene to the Parthians. When he came to power, the foundation upon which Tigranes was to build his Empire was already in place, a legacy of the founder of the Artaxiad Dynasty, Artaxias I and this did not suit Tigranes, who wanted to create a centralist empire. He thus proceeded by consolidating his power within Armenia before embarking on his campaign and he deposed Artanes, the last king of Armenian Sophene and a descendant of Zariadres. During the First Mithridatic War, Tigranes supported Mithridates VI of Pontus and he rapidly built up his power and established an alliance with Mithridates VI, marrying his daughter Cleopatra. Tigranes agreed to extend his influence in the East, while Mithridates set to conquer Roman land in Asia Minor, by creating a stronger Hellenistic state, Mithridates was to contend with the well-established Roman foothold in Europe. The slaughter of 80,000 people in the province of Asia Minor was known as the Asiatic Vespers, the two kings attempts to control Cappadocia and then the massacres resulted in guaranteed Roman intervention. The senate decided that Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who was one of the consuls. Magadates was appointed as his governor in Antioch, the southern border of his domain reached as far as Ptolemais. Many of the inhabitants of conquered cities were sent to his new metropolis of Tigranocerta, at its height, his empire extended from the Pontic Alps to Mesopotamia, and from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean. A series of victories led him to assume the Achaemenid title of King of Kings and he was called Tigranes the Great by many Western historians and writers, such as Plutarch. The King of Kings never appeared in public without having four kings attending him, cicero, referring to his success in the east, said that he made the Republic of Rome tremble before the prowess of his arms. Tigranes coin consist of tetradrachms and copper coins having on the obverse his portrait wearing a decorated Armenian tiara with ear-flaps, the reverse has a completely original design. There are the seated Tyche of Antioch and the river god Orontes at her feet, Mithridates had found refuge in Armenian land after confronting Rome, considering the fact that Tigranes was his ally and relative. The King of Kings eventually came into contact with Rome. The Roman commander, Lucullus, demanded the expulsion of Mithridates from Armenia – to comply with such a demand would be, in effect, to accept the status of vassal to Rome and this Tigranes refused. Charles Rollin, in his Ancient History, says, Lucullus reaction was an attack that was so precipitate that he took Tigranes by surprise, according to Roman historians Mithrobazanes, one of Tigranes generals, told Tigranes of the Roman approach
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Arsacid dynasty of Armenia
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The Arsacid dynasty, known natively as the Arshakuni dynasty, ruled the Kingdom of Armenia from 54 to 428. They are a branch of the Arsacid dynasty of Parthia, Arsacid Kings reigned intermittently throughout the chaotic years following the fall of the Artaxiad Dynasty until 62 when Tiridates I secured Arsacid dynasty of Parthia rule in Armenia. An independent line of Kings was established by Vologases II in 180, the first appearance of an Arsacid on the Armenian throne came about in 12 when the Parthian King Vonones I was exiled from Parthia due to his pro-Roman policies and Occidental manners. Artabanus III did not waste time after deposition of Vonones I, Armenia was given in 18 to Zeno the son of Polemon I of Pontus, who assumed the Armenian name Artaxias. The Parthians under Artabanus III were too distracted by internal strife to oppose the Roman-appointed King, zenos reign was remarkably peaceful in Armenian history. Tiberius, sent an Iberian named Mithridates, who claimed to be of Arsacid blood, Mithridates successfully subjugated Armenia to the Roman rule and deposed Arsaces inflicting huge devastation to the country. Surprisingly, Mithridates was summoned back to Rome where he was kept a prisoner, another civil war erupted in Parthia upon Artabanus IIIs death. In the meantime Mithridates was put back on the Armenian throne, with the help of his brother, Pharasmanes I, civil war continued in Parthia for several years with Gotarzes eventually seizing the throne in 45. In 51 Mithridates’ nephew Rhadamistus invaded Armenia and killed his uncle, the governor of Cappadocia, Julius Pailinus, decided to conquer Armenia but he settled with the crowning of Radamistus who generously rewarded him. The current Parthian King Vologases I, saw an opportunity, invaded Armenia, the harsh winter that followed proved too much for the Parthians who also withdrew, thus leaving open doors for Radamistus to regain his throne. Unhappy with the growing Parthian influence at their doorstep, Roman Emperor Nero sent General Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo with an army to the east in order to install Roman client kings. After Tiridates I escaped, Roman client king Tigranes VI was installed and in 61 he invaded the Kingdom of Adiabene, Vologases I considered this as an act of aggression from Rome and restarted a campaign to restore Tiridates I onto the Armenian throne. Trajan marched towards Armenia in October 113 to restore a Roman client king in Armenia, envoys from Osroes I met Trajan at Athens, informing him that Axidares had been deposed and asking that Axidares elder brother, Parthamasiris, be granted the throne. Trajan declined their proposal and in August 114 captured Arsamosata where Parthamasiris asked to be crowned, Parthamasiris was dismissed and died mysteriously soon afterwards. As a Roman province Armenia was administered along with Cappadocia by Lucius Catilius Severus of the gens Catilia, eventually compromise with the Parthians was reached and Parthian Vologases was placed in charge of Armenia. Vologases IV, son of legitimate Parthian king Mithridates IV, dispatched his troops to seize Armenia in 161, encouraged by the spahbod Osroes, Parthian troops marched further West into Roman Syria. Marcus Aurelius immediately sent Lucius Verus to the Eastern front, in 163, Verus dispatched General Statius Priscus, who was recently transferred from Britain along with several legions, from Syrian Antioch to Armenia. As a result of an epidemic within the Roman forces, Parthians retook most of their lost territory in 166, after a few intervening Roman and Parthian rulers, Vologases II assumed the throne in 186
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Roman Armenia
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Roman Armenia refers to the rule of parts of Greater Armenia by the Roman Empire, from the 1st century AD to the end of Late Antiquity. While Armenia Minor had become a client state and incorporated into the Roman Empire proper during the 1st century AD, only in 114–118 was Emperor Trajan able to conquer and incorporate it as a short-lived province. In the late 4th century, Armenia was divided between Rome and the Sasanians, who control of the larger part of the Armenian Kingdom. Throughout most of its history during this period, under the reign of the Arsacid Dynasty, Armenia often served as a client state or vassal at the frontier of the two large empires and their successors, the Byzantine and Sassanid empires. During the Byzantine–Sasanian wars, Armenia was ultimately partitioned into Byzantine Armenia, with the eastwards expansion of the Roman Republic during the Mithridatic Wars, the Kingdom of Armenia, under the Artaxiad Dynasty, was made a Roman protectorate by Pompey in 66/65 BC. For the next 100 years, Armenia remained under Roman influence, towards the middle of the 1st century AD, the rising Parthian influence disputed Roman supremacy, which was re-established by the campaigns of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo. In 113, Trajan invaded the Parthian Empire because he wanted to reinstate a vassal king in Armenia, in 114, Trajan from Antiochia in Syria marched on Armenia and conquered the capital Artaxata. Trajan then deposed the Armenian king Parthamasiris and ordered the annexation of Armenia to the Roman Empire as a new province, the new province reached the shores of the Caspian sea and bordered to the north with the Caucasian Iberia and Albania, two vassal states of Rome. As a Roman province Armenia was administered along with Cappadocia by Catilius Severus of the gens Claudia, the Roman Senate issued coins on this occasion bearing the following inscription, ARMENIA ET MESOPOTAMIA IN POTESTATEM P. R. REDACTAE, thus solidifying Armenias position as the newest Roman province. After Trajans death, his successor Hadrian decided not to maintain the province of Armenia, in 118, Hadrian gave Armenia up, and installed Parthamaspates as its king. Parthamaspates was soon defeated by the Parthians, and again fled to the Romans, Sohaemus was named king of Armenia by Roman emperor Antoninus Pius in 140. Just a few years later in 161, Armenia was lost again to Vologases IV of Parthia, in 163, a Roman counter-attack under Statius Priscus defeated the Parthians in Armenia and reinstalled Sohaemus as the Romans favored candidate on the Armenian throne. Thereafter Armenia was in frequent dispute between the two empires and their candidates for the Armenian throne, a situation which lasted until the emergence of a new power, the Sassanids. Indeed, Romes power and control increased even more, but Armenia retained its independence, although now on. In 363, a treaty was signed between the East Roman and Sassanid Persian empires, which divided Armenia between the two, the Persians retained the larger part of Armenia while the Romans received a small part of Western Armenia. The area under East Roman control thus increased, but still, under Roman rule, Melitene was the base camp of Legio XII Fulminata. It was a center in Armenia Minor, remaining so until the end of the 4th century. Emperor Theodosius I divided the region into two provinces, First Armenia, with its capital at Sebasteia, and Second Armenia, with its capital at Melitene, in return, they received their royal insignia, including red shoes, from the emperor
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Kingdom of Sophene
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The Kingdom of Sophene was an ancient Armenian kingdom. Founded around the 3rd century BC the kingdom maintained independence until around 90 BC when Tigranes the Great conquered the territories as part of his empire, an offshoot of this kingdom was the Kingdom of Commagene, formed when the Seleucids detached Commagene from Sophene. Sophene was part of the kingdom of Urartu in the 8th-7th centuries BC, after unifying the region with his kingdom in the early 8th century BC, king Argishti I of Urartu resettled many of its inhabitants to his newly built city of Erebuni. Sophene then became a province of the ancient Armenian Kingdom of Orontids around 600 BC, Sophene remained part of the newly independent kingdom of Greater Armenia. Around the 3rd century BC, the Seleucid Empire forced Sophene to split from Greater Armenia, the kingdom was ruled by a branch of the Armenian royal dynasty of Orontids. The kingdoms capital was Carcathiocerta, identified as the now abandoned town-site of Egil on the Tigris river north of Diyarbakir, however, its largest settlement and only true city was Arsamosata, located further to the north. Arsamosata was founded in the 3rd century B. C. and survived in a contracted state until perhaps the early 13th century A. D
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Kingdom of Commagene
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The Kingdom of Commagene was an ancient Armenian kingdom of the Hellenistic period, located in and around the ancient city of Samosata, which served as its capital. The Iron Age name of Samosata, Kummuh, probably gives its name to Commagene, Commagene has been characterized as a buffer state between Armenia, Parthia, Syria, and Rome, culturally, it seems to have been correspondingly mixed. The territory of Commagene corresponds roughly to the modern Turkish provinces of Adıyaman, little is known of the region of Commagene prior to the beginning of the 2nd century BC. However, it seems that, from what little evidence remains and this control lasted until c. 163 BC, when the local satrap, Ptolemaeus of Commagene, established himself as independent ruler following the death of the Seleucid king, Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The Kingdom of Commagene maintained its independence until 17 AD, when it was made a Roman province by Emperor Tiberius, the reemergent state lasted until 72 AD, when the Emperor Vespasian finally and definitively made it part of the Roman Empire. It is now a World Heritage Site, the cultural identity of the Kingdom of Commagene has been variously characterized. Pierre Merlat suggests that the Commagenian city of Doliche, like others in its vicinity, was half Iranianized, david M. Lang describes Commagene as a former Armenian satellite kingdom, while Blömer and Winter call it a Hellenistic kingdom. Frank McLynn denominates it a a small Hellenised Armenian kingdom in southern Anatolia, while the language used on public monuments was typically Greek, Commagenes rulers made no secret of their Persian and Armenian affinities. Over the course of first centuries BC and AD, the names given on a tomb at Sofraz Köy show a mix of typical Hellenistic dynastic names with an introduction of Latin personal names. Lang notes the vitality of Graeco-Roman culture in Commagene, Commagene was originally a small Syro-Hittite kingdom, located in modern south-central Turkey, with its capital at Samosata. It was first mentioned in Assyrian texts as Kummuhu, which was normally an ally of Assyria, the Achaemenid Empire then conquered Commagene in the 6th century BC and Alexander the Great conquered the territory in the 4th century BC. Ptolemys dynasty was related to the Parthian kings, but his descendant Mithridates I Callinicus embraced Hellenistic culture and his dynasty could thus claim ties with both Alexander the Great and the Persian kings. This marriage may also have part of a peace treaty between Commagene and the Seleucid Empire. From this point on, the kingdom of Commagene became more Greek than Persian, with Sophene, it was to serve as an important centre for the transmission of Hellenistic and Roman culture in the region. Details are sketchy, but Mithridates Callinicus is thought have accepted Armenian suzerainty during the reign of Tigranes II the Great, Mithridates and Laodice’s son was King Antiochus I Theos of Commagene. Antiochus was an ally of the Roman general Pompey during the campaigns against Mithridates VI of Pontus in 64 BC. Thanks to his skills, Antiochus was able to keep Commagene independent from the Romans. In 17 when Antiochus III of Commagene died, Emperor Tiberius annexed Commagene to the province of Syria, in 38, Caligula reinstated Antiochus IIIs son Antiochus IV and also gave him the wild areas of Cilicia to govern
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Sasanian Armenia
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Sasanian Armenia, also known as Persian Armenia, refers to the periods that Armenia was under the suzerainty of the Sasanian Empire. The Marzpanate period ended with the Arab conquest of Armenia in the 7th century, an estimated three million Armenians were under the influence of the Sasanian marzpans during this period. The marzban was invested with power, even imposing death sentences. The country as a whole enjoyed considerable autonomy, each nakharar had his own army, according to the extent of his domain. The National Cavalry or Royal force was under the Commander-in-chief, the tax collectors were all Armenians. The courts of justice and the schools were directed by the Armenian clergy, several times, an Armenian nakharar became Marzpan, as did Vahan Mamikonian in 485 after a period of rebellion against the Iranians. Three times during the Marzpanic period, Iranian kings launched persecutions against Christianity in Armenia, Christianity became the state religion of Armenia in 301. In 367 Armenia was divided between Sasanian Iran and the Roman Empire, the former established control in Eastern Armenia after the fall of the Arshakuni Armenian kingdom in 428. In 465, Adhur Gushnasp was appointed by the Sasanian emperor Peroz I as the marzban of Armenia, in 475, the Mamikonian princess Shushanik, was murdered by her husband Prince Varsken, a recent convert to Zoroastrianism, because she refused to convert and wanted to stay Christian. Varsken was then executed by Vakhtang I, king of Iberia, Peroz I, eager to avenge Varsken, sent his general Shapur Mihran to Iberia. Vakhtang then appealed to the Huns and the Armenian nobles, citing solidarity between Christians, after carefully weighing the decision, the Mamikonian prince Vahan Mamikonian agreed to revolt against the Sasanians. He defeated and killed Adhur Gushnasp, and thereafter declared Sahak II Bagratuni as the new marzban and he also kept repelling several Sasanian counter-attacks. In 482, Shapur Mihran began to become a big threat to the security of Iberia, Vahan and Sahak shortly arrived to Iberia at the head of a big army, but were defeated in Akesga, where Sahak was killed. Vahan fled with the remnants of the Armenian army into the mountains, however, Shapur Mihran was shortly ordered to return to the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon. Vahan quickly used the opportunity to control of Armenia. In the spring of 484, however, Shapur Mihran returned as the head of a new army and forced Vahan to flee to refuge near the Byzantine frontier, at Tao and Taron. Zarmihr shortly delivered the Armenian captives to Shapur Mihran, who delivered them to Izad Gushnasp, Vahan was also recognized as sparapet and the property of the Mamikonian family and its allies were returned. Between 515-516, several Hunnic tribes kept making incursions into Armenia—the Armenian nobleman Mjej I Gnuni then decided to organize a counter-attack, as a reward, Kavadh I appointed him as the marzban of Armenia in 518
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Byzantine Armenia
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Byzantine Armenia, sometimes Western Armenia, is the name given to the parts of Kingdom of Armenia that became part of the Byzantine Empire. The size of the territory varied over time, depending on the degree of control the Byzantines had over Armenia, the Byzantine and Sassanid Empires divided Armenia in 387 and in 428. Western Armenia fell under Byzantine rule, and Eastern Armenia fell under Sassanid control, even after the establishment of the Bagratid Armenian Kingdom, parts of historic Armenia and Armenian-inhabited areas were still under Byzantine rule. The Armenians had no representation in the Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon in 451, for that reason, there appeared a theological drift between Armenian and Byzantine Christianity. Regardless, many Armenians became successful in the Byzantine Empire, numerous Byzantine emperors were either ethnically Armenian, half-Armenian, part-Armenian or possibly Armenian, although culturally Greek. The best example of this is Emperor Heraclius, whose father was Armenian, Emperor Heraclius began the Heraclean Dynasty. Basil I is another example of an Armenian beginning a dynasty, other great emperors were Romanos I, John I Tzimiskes, and Nikephoros II. Armenia made great contributions to Byzantium through its troops of soldiers, the empire was in need of a good army as it was constantly being threatened. The army was small, never exceeding 150,000 men. The military was sent to different parts of the empire, and took part in the most fierce battles, from the 5th century forwards the Armenians were regarded as the main constituent of the Byzantine army. Procopius recounts that the scholarii, the guards of the emperor, were selected from amongst the bravest Armenians. Byzantine and Arab historians are unanimous in recognizing significance of the Armenians soldiers. Charles Diehl, for instance, writes, “The Armenian units, particularly during this period, were numerous and well trained. ”Another Byzantine historian praises the role which the Armenian infantry played in the victories of the Byzantine emperors Nicephorus Phocas. At that time the Armenians served side by side with the Norsemen who were in the Byzantine army. ”Moreover, Bussel underlines the similarities in the way of thinking and the spirit of the Armenian feudal lords and the northern warriors. The important role played in the history of Byzantium by the Armenians has been generally unrecognized, Byzantium and the early Islamic conquests By Walter E. Kaegi Armenian-Greek relations Armenian-Byzantine Battle Arab conquest of Armenia
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Mamikonian
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Mamikonian or Mamikonean was an aristocratic dynasty which dominated Armenian politics between the 4th and 8th century. They ruled the Armenian regions of Taron, Sasun, Bagrevand and their patron saint was Saint Hovhannes Karapet whose monastery of the same name they fiercely defended against the Sassanid invaders. The origin of the Mamikonians is shrouded in the mists of antiquity, moses of Chorene in his History of Armenia claims that three centuries earlier two noblemen of Chem origin, Mamik and Konak, rose against their half-brother, Chenbakir, the king of Chenk. They were defeated and fled to the king of Parthia who, braving the Emperors demands to extradite the culprits, sent them to live in Armenia, another 5th-century Armenian historian, Pavstos Buzand, seconded the story. In his History of Armenia, he mentions that the Mamikonians descended from the Han Dynasty of China. This genealogical legend may have part of an agenda by the Bagratid dynasty of Armenia to take away the legitimacy off the Mamikonian dynasty. More recent theories, however, suggests that the Chank are to be identified either with the Tzans, the family first appears in the early 4th century. The Mamikonian increased their property further with the death of the last hereditary Patriarch of Armenia,428, when they inherited many Church lands through the marriage of his only daughter to Hamazasp Mamikonian. The first known Mamikonid lord, or nakharar, about whom anything certain is known was a certain Vatche Mamikonian, the family reappears in chronicles in 355, when the bulk of their lands lay in the province of Tayk. At that point the chief was Vassak Mamikonian, who was the sparapetof Armenia. Later, the office of sparapet would become hereditary possession of the Mamikonians, Vassak Mamikonian was in charge of the Armenian defense against Persia but was eventually defeated through the treachery of Merujan Artsruni. Following the defeat, Vassaks brother Vahan Mamikonian and multiple other feudal lords defected to the Persian side, the Emperor Valens, however, interfered in Armenian affairs and had the office of sparapet bestowed on Vassaks son Mushegh I Mamikonian in 370. Four years later Varasdates, a new king, confirmed Mushegh in office, the latter was subsequently assassinated on behest of Sembat Saharuni who replaced him as sparapet of Armenia. On this event, the leadership passed to Musheghs brother, Manuel Mamikonian. The Mamikonids at once broke into insurrection and routed Varasdates and Saharuni at Karin, emmanuel, together with his sons Hemaiak and Artches, took the king prisoner and put him in a fortress, whence Varasdates escaped abroad. Zarmandukht, the widow of Varasdates predecessor, was proclaimed queen. Emmanuel came to an agreement with the powerful Sassanids, pledging his loyalty in recompense for their respect of the Armenian autonomy and laws. Upon the queens demise in 384, Manuel Mamikonian was proclaimed Regent of Armenia pending the minority of her son Arsaces III and had the infant king married to his daughter Vardandukht and it was Manuels death in 385 that precipitated the countrys conquest by the Persians in 386-387
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Battle of Avarayr
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The Battle of Avarayr was fought on 26 May 451 AD on the Avarayr Plain in Vaspurakan between the Armenian Army under Vardan Mamikonian and Sassanid Persia. It is considered one of the first battles in defense of the Christian faith in history, the battle is seen as one of the most significant events in Armenian history. The commander of the Armenian forces, Vardan Mamikonian, is considered a national hero, the Kingdom of Armenia under the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia was the first nation to officially convert to Christianity, in 301 AD under Tiridates III. In 428, Armenian nobles petitioned Bahram V to depose Artaxias IV, as a result, the country became a Sassanid dependency with a Sassanid governor. He summoned the leading Armenian nobles to Ctesiphon, and pressured them into cutting their ties with the Orthodox Church as he had intended, Yazdegerd II himself was a Zoroastrian rather than a Christian, and his concern was not enforcing a Nestorian orthodoxy but securing political loyalty. But Yazdegerds policy created, rather than forestalled, a Christian rebellion in Armenia, when news about the compulsion of the nobles reached Armenia, a mass revolt broke out, on their return, the nobility, led by Vardan Mamikonian, joined the rebels. Yazdegerd II, hearing the news, gathered an army to attack Armenia. The 66, 000-strong Armenian army took Holy Communion before the battle, the Armenians were allowed to maintain a core of their national army led by a supreme commander who was traditionally of the Mamikonian noble family. The Armenian cavalry was, at the time, practically a force greatly appreciated as a tactical ally by both Persia and Byzantium. In this particular case, both officers and men were motivated by a desire to save their religion and their way of life. The Persian army, said to be three times larger, included war elephants and the famous Savārān, or New Immortal, cavalry, following the victory, Yazdegerd jailed some Armenian priests and nobles and appointed a new governor for Armenia. The Armenian Church was also unable to send a delegation to the Council of Chalcedon, the Armenian Church would reject the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon, instead adhering to Miaphysitism. Armenian resistance continued in the following the battle, led by Vardans successor and nephew. In 484 AD, Sahag Bedros I signed the Nvarsak Treaty, thus, the Armenians see the Battle of Avarayr as a moral victory,26 May is considered to be a holy day by Armenians, and is one of the most important national and religious days in Armenia. Persian Armenia Zoroastrianism in Armenia Elishe, History of Vardan and the Armenian War,1982 Visions Of Ararat, Writings On Armenia By Christopher J. Walker, Page 3 Dr. Abd al-Husayn Zarrin’kub Ruzgaran, tarikh-i Iran az aghz ta saqut saltnat Pahlvi Sukhan,1999
36.
Arab conquest of Armenia
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The Arab conquest of Armenia was a part of the Muslim conquests after the death of Muhammad in 632 CE. Persian Armenia had fallen to the Arab Rashidun Caliphate by 645 CE, Byzantine Armenia was already conquered in 638–639. After Muhammads death in 632, his successors started a campaign in order to increase the territory of the new Caliphate. During the Muslim conquests, the Arabs conquered most of the Middle East. Towards the year 639, under the leadership of Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rabiah,18,000 Arabs penetrated the district of Taron, the Arab warriors were poor and ill-armed, but reckless and inflamed with an intense fanaticism until then unknown among ancient peoples. On January 6,642 the Arabs stormed and took the city of Dvin, slaughtered 12,000 of its inhabitants, prince Theodorus of the Rshtuni family confronted the Arabs, and came out victorious by liberating the enslaved Armenians. Bishop Sebeos recorded the history of the Arab conquest, in his History of Heraclius, he wrote of the sad fate of his country. He said, Who can tell the horrors of the invasion of the Ishmaelite, the blessed Daniel foresaw and foretold like misfortunes. In the following year, the Ishmaelite army crossed to Atrpatakan and was divided into three corps, one moved towards Ararat, another into the territory of Sephakan Gound, the third into the land of Alans. Those who invaded the domain of the Sephakan Gound spread over it, thence they marched together to Erevan, where they attacked the fortress, but were unable to capture it. Theodorus Rshtuni and other Armenian nakharars accepted Arab rule over Armenia, Constans II, the Byzantine Emperor, sent occasional reinforcements to Armenia, but they were inadequate. The commander of the city of Dvin, Smbat, confronted by the fact that he could no longer hold out against the Islamic army, submitted to Caliph Omar, in 644, Omar was assassinated by a Persian slave and was replaced by Caliph Uthman. The Armenian acceptance of Arab rule irritated the Byzantines, Emperor Constans sent his men to Armenia in order to impose the Chalcedonian creed of Christianity. He did not succeed in his objective, but the new Armenian prefect, Hamazasp. The Caliph thus ordered the massacre of 1,775 Armenian hostages then in his hands, Armenia remained under Arab rule for approximately 200 years, formally starting in 645 CE. Through many years of Umayyad and Abbasid rule, the Armenian Christians benefited from political autonomy and relative religious freedom, the Armenian Church enjoyed greater recognition than under Byzantine or Sassanid jurisdiction. The Caliph assigned Ostikans as governors and representatives, who sometimes were of Armenian origin, the first ostikan, for example, was Theodorus Rshtuni. However, the commander of the 15, 000-strong army was always of Armenian origin, often from the Mamikonian and he would either defend the country from foreigners, or assist the Caliph in his military expeditions
37.
Medieval Armenia
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Western Armenia had been under Byzantine control since the partition of the Kingdom of Armenia in AD387, while Eastern Armenia had been under the occupation of the Sassanid Empire starting 428. Regardless of religious disputes, many Armenians became successful in the Byzantine Empire, in Sassanid-occupied Armenia, the people struggled to preserve their Christian religion. This struggle reached its culmination in the Battle of Avarayr, although the battle was a military defeat, Vartan Mamigonians successor, Vahan, succeeded to force the Persians to grant religious freedom to the Christian Armenians in the Nvarsak Treaty of 484. After the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad in 632, the Arabs expanded their religion throughout the Middle East, in 639, with a force of 18,000 warriors, Abd‑er‑Rahman took Taron and sacked the country. In 642, the Muslims took Dvin, slaughtered 12,000 of its inhabitants, prince Theodoros Rshtuni organized resistance and liberated the enslaved Armenians. However, Theodoros eventually accepted Arab rule of Armenia, thus, in 645, the entirety of Armenia fell under Islamic rule. This period of 200 years was interrupted by a few restricted revolts, most petty Armenian families were weakened in favor of the Bagratunis and Artsrunis. As Islamic power was waning, Ashot I of the Bagratuni family got more influence in Armenia. He became prince of princes in 861, and after a war against nearby Arab emirs, in 885, after more than 450 years of foreign occupation, Armenians finally reasserted their sovereignty in their ancestral lands. Despite Bagratid efforts to control all Armenian noble families, the Artsrunis and Siunis eventually broke off from central rule, Ashot III transferred the capital from Kars to Ani, which came to be known as the city of 1001 churches. Ani became an important cultural and economic center in the whole region, Bagratid Armenia fell in 1045 to the Byzantines and then in 1064 to Seljuk Turks. The Kingdom of Cilicia was founded by the Rubenian dynasty, an offshoot of the larger Bagratid family that at times held the thrones of Armenia and Georgia. Cilicia was an ally of the European Crusaders, and saw itself as a bastion of Christendom in the East. It also served as a focus for Armenian nationalism and culture, Cilicia remained as a Mongol vassal until it too was destroyed in the mid-14th century by the Egyptian Mamluks. Marzpanate Period Mongol invasions of Georgia and Armenia
38.
Arminiya
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The first Arab expedition reached Armenia in 639 AD. Dvin was captured and pillaged during this raid on 6 October 640, according to bishop Sebeos, in 641, the Arabs took the city of Tovin by storm, killing 12,000 Armenians and taking 35,000 as captives. A third invasion took place in 642–643 and a fourth in 650, Armenia however remained under Byzantine suzerainty until 653/654, when Theodore Rshtuni voluntarily conceded Arab suzerainty and was recognized as autonomous prince of Armenia in return. According to this agreement, Armenia was recognized as a state subject to an annual tribute. The outbreak of the Muslim Civil War in 657 led to the recall of the Arab troops to Syria, thereupon the Byzantines re-asserted their authority over the country, aided by Mamikonian. In 661 however, the victor of the Muslim civil war Muawiyah ordered the Armenian princes to re-submit to his authority, in order to avoid another war, the princes complied. The Arab policy of demanding that the tribute be paid in money had an effect on Armenian economy, the Armenians were forced to produce a surplus of food and manufactured goods for sale. A strong urban life was developed in Caucasia as the economy revived, for most of the second half of the 7th century, Arab presence and control in Armenia was minimal. Armenia was considered conquered land by the Arabs, but enjoyed de facto autonomy, the Armenian princes were submitted to—relatively low—taxation and the obligation to provide soldiers when requested, for which the princes were to be paid an annual subsidy of 100,000 dirhams. In exchange, no Arab garrison or official was installed in Armenian lands, the situation changed in the reign of the caliph Abd al-Malik. Beginning in 700, the Caliphs brother and governor of Adharbayjan, Muhammad ibn Marwan, although the Armenians rebelled in 703 and received Byzantine aid, Muhammad ibn Marwan defeated them and sealed the failure of the revolt by executing the rebel princes in 705. For much of the remaining Umayyad period, Arminiya was usually grouped together with Adharbayjan and the Jazira into a single super-province. Arminiya was governed by an emir or wali headquartered at Dvin, whose role however was limited to defence and the collection of taxes, the country was run by the local princes. The Emirate of Armenia was divided into four regions, Arminiya I, Arminiya II, Arminiya III, a census and survey of Arminiya was undertaken c. 725, followed by a significant increase in taxation so as to finance the Caliphates increasing military needs in the various fronts, the Armenians participated with troops in the hard-fought campaigns of the Arab–Khazar wars in the 720s and 730s. As a result, in 732, governor Marwan ibn Muhammad named Ashot III Bagratuni as the prince of Armenia. The revolt was suppressed in the Battle of Bagrevand in April 775, the failure of the rebellion saw the near-extinction, reduction to insignificance or exile to Byzantium of some of the most prominent nakharar families, most importantly the Mamikonian. At the same time, the vacuum left by the destruction of so many nakharar clans was filled by two other great families, the Artsruni in the south and the Bagratuni in the north
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Principality of Hamamshen
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The Principality of Hamamshen was a small principality that was established in the 8th century by Armenians who fled the Arab invasions of Armenia. The Amatuni dynasty originated in the Artaz region in Vaspurakan who specialized in agriculture and architecture, in the 8th century, Prince Hamam, his father Prince Shapuh Amatuni and their people migrated North to the Black Sea region in order to escape Arab invasions of Vaspurakan. They settled in the city of Tambur and its surrounding villages. Prince Hamam rebuilt the city and named it Hamamshen, the Principality of Hamamshen was surrounded by foreign states, but they preserved their isolated independence until the 14th century. In the 14th century, the region was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, after several centuries, the name Hamamshen evolved into Hamshen in the Armenian language, and Hemshin in the Turkish language. The Armenians of Hamamshen were cut off from the rest of the Armenian social and cultural world, Hemshin peoples Hemşin Lazistan Emirate of Armenia Empire of Trebizond Pontus
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Amatuni
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The Amatuni who was of Caspio-Median or Matianian-Mannaean origin, is given a specious Jewish ancestry by the early Armenian tradition. Their forefathers name Manue suggests a connection with royal house of Adiabene, after the Sassanids of Iran abolished the Arsacid monarchy in Armenia in 428, Vahan Amatuni was appointed by the Great King as assistant governor to the Iranian marzpan. However, the Sassanid propagation of Zoroastrianism among the Christian Armenian caused the reversal of Amatunis loyalty and, in 451, Vahan revolted, only to be banished to Gorgan. Ironically, when preparations were underway for another insurrection in 482, it was an Amatuni, Varaz Sapuh,596 at Ctesiphon, and the king of Iran had him executed. The transfer of power from the Sassanids to Muslim Arab rule provoked a large-scale aristocratic insurrection of 774-75. The revolts failure forced many of its leaders to flee to Georgia or the Byzantine Empire, Sapuh Amatuni, his son Haman, and some 12,000 followers moved to Byzantium. In the 9th century, Amatuni still remained in the possession of Artaz, the Vachutean genealogy, based on epigraphic data, was reconstructed by Marie Brosset and can be found in his Rapports sur un voyage archéologique dans la Géorgie et dans lArménie III, 99-100. After the Middle Ages the Amatuni family disappeared from history, though in 1784 a family of the name was recognized as descended from it. After the Russian annexation of Georgia, the family was confirmed in the dignity of knyaz on March 25,1826, hemshin peoples Principality of Hamamshen Hemşin
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Bagratid Armenia
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Ashots prestige rose as he was courted by both Byzantine and Arab leaders eager to maintain a buffer state near their frontiers. The Caliphate recognized Ashot as prince of princes in 862 and, later on, the establishment of the Bagratuni kingdom later led to the founding of several other Armenian principalities and kingdoms, Taron, Vaspurakan, Kars, Khachen and Syunik. Unity among all states was sometimes difficult to maintain while the Byzantines. Under the reign of Ashot III, Ani became the capital and grew into a thriving economic. The first half of the 11th century saw the decline and eventual collapse of the kingdom, the weakening of the Sassanian Empire during the 7th century led to the rise of another regional power, the Muslim Arabs. The Umayyad Arabs had conquered vast swaths of territory in the Middle East and, turning north, theodore Rshtuni, the Armenian Curopalates, signed a peace treaty with the Caliphate although the continuing war with the Arabs and Byzantines soon lead to further destruction throughout Armenia. In 661, Armenian leaders agreed to submit under Muslim rule while the latter conceded to recognize Grigor Mamikonian from the powerful Mamikonian nakharar family as ishkhan of Armenia, known as al-Arminiya with its capital at Dvin, the province was headed by an ostikan, or governor. However, Umayyad rule in Armenia grew in cruelty in the early 8th century, revolts against the Arabs spread throughout Armenia until 705, when under the pretext of meeting for negotiations, the Arab ostikan of Nakhichevan massacred almost all of the Armenian nobility. The rebellions failure also resulted in the disintegration of the Mamikonian house which lost most of the land it controlled. A third and final rebellion, stemming from similar grievances as the second, was launched in 774 under the leadership of Mushegh Mamikonian, the Bagratuni family had done its best to improve its relations with the Abbasid caliphs ever since they took power in 750. Fortunately for the Armenians, the number of Arabs residing in Armenia never grew in number to form a majority nor were the emirates fully subordinate to the Caliph. As historian George Bournoutian observes, this fragmentation of Arab authority provided the opportunity for the resurgence of the Bagratuni family headed by Ashot Msaker, the brothers, however, were unable to resolve their differences with one another nor able to form a unified front against the Muslims. In 857, Smbat had been succeeded by his son Ashot I and he assumed the title prince of princes in 862 and appointed his brother Abas sparapet, as they began to push the Arabs out from their base in Tayk. His initial efforts to expel the ostikan of Arminiya failed, although this did not dissuade him in taking advantage of the Byzantine-Arab rivalry. A synod of Armenian church leaders was convoked and a letter laden with equivocal wording sent to Constantinople was able to sustain a temporary agreement between the two churches, in any case, religious differences mattered little to the Byzantines in consideration of the menace the Arabs continued to pose. This act was not lost on Basil who similarly sent a crown to Ashot, Ashot relocated his throne to the fortress-city of Bagaran and it was here where his coronation ceremony was held sometime in 884 or 885. Thus, Ashot restored the Armenian monarchy and became Armenias first king since 428 and he secured the favor of both the Byzantines and Arabs but ultimately showed loyalty to Basil and chose to conclude an alliance with the Byzantines in 885. Ashot was not the sole Armenian prince of the region yet he commanded the support of the other princes who recognized his authority in his becoming of king
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Bagratuni dynasty
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The Bagratuni or Bagratid royal dynasty was a royal family of Armenia that ruled many regional polities of the medieval Kingdom of Armenia, such as Syunik, Lori, Vaspurakan, Vanand, Taron, and Tayk. The Bagratid family first emerged as nakharars, members of the nobility of Armenia. Their holdings were in the region of İspir, in the Çoruh River valley, as early as 288–301, the Bagratid prince Smbat held the hereditary Armenian titles of Aspet, which means Master of the Horse, and Tagatir, which means Coronant of the King. According to Prince Cyril Toumanoff, the earliest Bagratid prince was chronicled as early as 314 AD, in the 8th century, Smbat VII Bagratuni revolted against the Abbasid Caliphate but the revolt was defeated. The Bagratid Princes of Armenia are known as early as 1st century BC when they served under the Artaxiad Dynasty, unlike most noble families of Armenia they held only strips of land, as opposed to the Mamikonians, who held a unified land territory. These are the earliest Bagratid princes in Armenia prior to the establishment of the kingdom, ashot I was the first Bagratid King, the founder of the Royal dynasty. He was recognized as prince of princes by the court at Baghdad in 861, ashot won the war, and was recognized as King of the Armenians by Baghdad in 885. Recognition from Constantinople followed in 886, in an effort to unify the Armenian nation under one flag, the Bagratids subjugated other Armenian noble families through conquests and fragile marriage alliances. Eventually, some families such as the Artsrunis and the Siunis broke off from the central Bagratid authority. Ashot III the Merciful transferred their capital to the city of Ani and they kept power by playing off the competition between the Byzantine Empire and the Arabs. They assumed the Persian-influenced titles of the King of Kings, the rule of the Ani branch ended in 1045 with the conquest of Ani by the Byzantines. The Kars branch held on until 1064, the dynasty of Cilician Armenia is believed to be a branch of the Bagratids, later took the throne of an Armenian Kingdom in Cilicia. The founder, Ruben I, had a relationship to the exiled king Gagik II. He was either a family member or kinsman. Ashot, son of Hovhannes, was governor of Ani under the Shaddadid dynasty. List of Armenian kings Pakradouni Prince Cyrille Toumanoff, Manuel de généalogie et de chronologie pour lhistoire de la Caucasie Chrétienne, - still remains the only account of the family generally available in the West, although its scientific standard has been criticized as very low. The Families of the Nobility of the Russian Empire, Volume III, - contains the latest research available in Russian, compiled by Georgian scientists, some of them Bagratids themselves. Armenian Nobility Site Robert Bedrosians History Page R. H. Hewsen, Armenia, A Historical Atlas,2001 ISBN 0-226-33228-4 Media related to Bagratuni at Wikimedia Commons
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Sajid dynasty
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The Sajid dynasty, was an Islamic dynasty that ruled from 889-890 until 929. Sajids ruled Azerbaijan and parts Armenia first from Maragha and Barda, the Sajids originated from the Central Asian province of Ushrusana and were of Iranian descent. Muhammad ibn Abil-Saj Diwdad the son of Diwdad, the first Sajid ruler of Azerbaijan, was appointed as its ruler in 889 or 890. Toward the end of the 9th century, as the authority of the Abbasid Caliphate weakened. Much of the Sajids energies were spent in attempting to control of neighboring Armenia. The dynasty ended with the death of Abul-Musafir al-Fath in 929, abdu Ubaydullah Muhammad Ibn Abil-Saj Abul Musafir Devdad Ibn Muhammad Yusuf Ibn Abil-Saj Subuk Yusuf Fath b. Abi l Saj Sajid invasion of Georgia List of Sunni Muslim dynasties Iranian Intermezzo Madelung, the Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4, The Period From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. New York, New York, Cambridge University Press,1975, clifford Edmund Bosworth, The New Islamic Dynasties, A Chronological and Genealogical Manual, Columbia University,1996. V. Minorsky, Studies in Caucasian history, Cambridge University Press,1957
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Kingdom of Vaspurakan
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Vaspurakan was the first and biggest province of Greater Armenia, which later became an independent kingdom during the Middle Ages, centered on Lake Van. Located in what is now called eastern Turkey and northwestern Iran, during most of its history it was ruled by the Ardzruni dynasty, which first managed to create a principality in the area. At its greatest extent Vaspurakan comprised the lands between Lake Van and Lake Urmia in 908, during this time they were under the sovereignty of the Bagratuni Kingdom of Ani. Soon he was recognized as the King of Vaspurakan by the Bagratuni Ashot II, in 1021 Seneqerim Artsruni gave Vaspurakan to the Byzantine Empire, receiving Sebasteia and its surroundings. Vaspurakan became the Byzantine province of Vasprakania or Media, in about 1050 Vasprakania was merged with that of Taron, but was conquered by the Saljuq Turks between 1054-1056. In the 13th century part of Vaspurakan was liberated by Zakarids, but soon was conquered by Mongols, then by Ottoman Turks. Turks several times tried to kill Armenians in Vaspurakan, especially in Van, but Vans Armenian population always resisted, especially is notable Siege of Van of 1915, when the Ottoman forces attacked on Van during 1915s Armenian Genocide. After the Byzantine annexation the dynasty continued with Derenik, son of Gurgen Khatchik, King Hovhannes-Seneqerim also had several children among them David, Atom, Abushal and Constantine. There is a legend that one of Seneqerims daughter is thought to have married Mendo Alao, David had a daughter that married King Gagik II of Ani. Another branch of the family appeared on the person of Khatchik the Great in 1040, Hasan had a son called Abelgharib who had a daughter that married King David of Ani. The kingdom of Vaspurakan had no capital, the court moving as the king transferred his residence from place to place – Van, Ostan/Vostan. Married to a daughter of Ashot Msaker of the Bagratuni family, Gurgen II Artsruni of Mardastan, Prince. Married Sofia, daughter of Ashot I Bagratuni the Great, Prince of Armenia, Gagik Abu Morvan Artsruni, regent for Grigor-Dereniks sons, then usurper prince. Afterhis death Vaspurakan is divided, Gagik III Artsruni, Prince in northwest Vaspurakan. Brother of Ashot-Sargis, Gurgen III Artsruni, Prince in southeast Vaspurakan. Gagik I Artsruni, crowned king Derenik-Ashot, King, gurgen-Khachik, King and Lord of Antzevasiq. Seneqerim-Hovhannes, Brother of Ashot-Sahak, King and lord of Rechtuniq, Armenia and the Byzantine Empire, a Brief Study of Armenian Art and Civilization
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Sallarid dynasty
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The Sallarid dynasty, was an Iranian Muslim dynasty ruled in Tarom, Samiran, Daylam, Gilan and subsequently Azerbaijan, Arran, some districts in Eastern Armenia in the 2nd half of the 10th century. They constitute the period in history that has named the Iranian Intermezzo. The Sallarids were Daylamites who, probably in the later 9th century, gained control of Shamiran, from Shamiran they established their rule over the surrounding region of Tarom. The Sallarids also established ties with the neighboring Justanid dynasty of Rudbar. In the early 10th century the Sallarid in control of Shamiran was Muhammad bin Musafir and he married a Justanid and subsequently involved himself in their internal affairs. His harsh rule, however, eventually turned even his family against him, Wahsudan remained in Shamiran while Marzuban invaded Azerbaijan and took it from its ruler, Daisam. Marzuban took Dvin and successfully held off attacks from the Rus, however, he was captured in a war with the Buwayhid Rukn al-Daula and control of Azerbaijan was fought over between Muhammad bin Musafir, Wahsudan, the Buyids, and Daisam. Eventually Marzuban escaped and reestablished control over Azerbaijan and made peace with Rukn al-Daula and he ruled until his death in 957. Marzuban had designated his brother Wahsudan as his successor, when he came to Azerbaijan, however, the commanders of the fortresses refused to surrender to him, recognizing instead Marzubans son Justan I ibn Marzuban I as his successor. Unable to establish his rule in the province, Wahusdan returned to Tarum, Justan was recognized as ruler in Azerbaijan, with his brother Ibrahim I ibn Marzuban I made governor of Dvin. Shortly afterwards Justan and another brother, Nasir, came to Tarum, where they were imprisoned by Wahsudan. Ibrahim raised an army in Armenia to oppose Ismail, prompting Wahsudan to execute Justan, his mother, Ibrahim was driven out of Azerbaijan by Ismail, but retained his rule in Dvin. Ismail died in 962, however, allowing Ibrahim to occupy Azerbaijan and he then invaded Tarum and forced Wahsudan to flee to Dailaman. In 966 Ibrahim was defeated by an army of Wahsudans and his soldiers deserted him. He fled to his brother-in-law, the Buyid Rukn al-Daula, while Wahsudan installed his son Nuh in Azerbaijan, Rukn al-Daula sent an army under his vizier to reinstate Ibrahim in Azerbaijan, and Wahsudan was ejected from Tarum for a time. In 967 however he sent an army, which burnt Ardabil before Ibrahim concluded a peace with his uncle. In 968 he reaffirmed Sallarid authority over Shirvan, forcing the Shirvanshah to pay him tribute, Ibrahims authority began to decline in the latter part of his reign. In 971 the Shaddadids took Ganja, and Ibrahim was forced to recognize their rule in that city after a siege failed to dislodge them, in around 979 he was deposed and imprisoned, he died in 983
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