1.
Reconstruction Era
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Johnson followed a lenient policy toward ex-Confederates. Lincolns last speeches show that he was leaning toward supporting the enfranchisement of all freedmen, whereas Johnson was opposed to this. A Republican coalition came to power in all the southern states and set out to transform the society by setting up a free labor economy, using the U. S. Army. The Bureau protected the rights of freedmen, negotiated labor contracts. Thousands of Northerners came South as missionaries, teachers, businessmen, rebuilding the rundown railroad system was a major strategy, but it collapsed when a nationwide depression struck the economy. The Radicals in the House of Representatives, frustrated by Johnsons opposition to Congressional Reconstruction, filed impeachment charges, in early 1866, Congress passed the Freedmens Bureau and Civil Rights Bills and sent them to Johnson for his signature. Meanwhile, self-styled Conservatives strongly opposed reconstruction and they alleged widespread corruption by the Carpetbaggers, excessive state spending and ruinous taxes. Southern democrats and conservatives violently counterattacked and had regained power in each redeemed Southern state by 1877, meanwhile, public support for Reconstruction policies, requiring continued supervision of the South, faded in the North, as voters decided that the Civil War and years of conflict should stop. Reconstruction was a significant chapter in the history of civil rights in the United States, in the different states Reconstruction began and ended at different times, federal Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877. In recent decades most historians follow Foner in dating the Reconstruction of the south as starting in 1863 rather than 1865, Reconstruction policies were debated in the North when the war began, and commenced in earnest after Lincolns Emancipation Proclamation, issued on January 1,1863. As Confederate states came back under control of the US Army, President Abraham Lincoln set up reconstructed governments in Tennessee, Arkansas and he experimented by giving land to blacks in South Carolina. By fall 1865, the new President Andrew Johnson declared the war goals of national unity, Republicans in Congress, refusing to accept Johnsons lenient terms, rejected new members of Congress, some of whom had been high-ranking Confederate officials a few months before. Johnson broke with the Republicans after vetoing two key bills that supported the Freedmens Bureau and provided federal civil rights to the freedmen and that same year, Congress removed civilian governments in the South, and placed the former Confederacy under the rule of the U. S. Army. In ten states, coalitions of freedmen, recent black and white arrivals from the North, Conservative opponents called the Republican regimes corrupt and instigated violence toward freedmen and whites who supported Reconstruction. Most of the violence was carried out by members of the Ku Klux Klan, Klan members attacked and intimidated blacks seeking to exercise their new civil rights, as well as Republican politicians in the south favoring those civil rights. One such politician murdered by the Klan on the eve of the 1868 presidential election was Republican Congressman James M. Hinds of Arkansas, widespread violence in the south led to federal intervention by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1871, which suppressed the Klan. Nevertheless, white Democrats, calling themselves Redeemers, regained control of the state by state, sometimes using fraud. The end of Reconstruction was a process, and the period of Republican control ended at different times in different states
2.
Ku Klux Klan
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Historically the KKK used terrorism, both physical assault and murder, against groups or individuals whom they opposed. All three movements have called for the purification of American society, and all are considered right-wing extremist organizations, the first Klan flourished in the Southern United States in the late 1860s, then died out by the early 1870s. It sought to overthrow the Republican state governments in the South during the Reconstruction Era, with numerous chapters across the South, it was suppressed around 1871, through federal law enforcement. Members made their own, often colorful, costumes, robes, masks, and conical hats, designed to be terrifying, the second group was founded in 1915, and it flourished nationwide in the early and mid-1920s, particularly in urban areas of the Midwest and West. This second organization adopted a white costume and used code words which were similar to those used by the first Klan, while adding cross burnings. The third and current manifestation of the KKK emerged after 1950, in the form of small, local and they have focused on opposition to the Civil Rights Movement, often using violence and murder to suppress activists. It is classified as a group by the Anti-Defamation League. As of 2016, the Anti-Defamation League puts total Klan membership nationwide at around 3,000, the second and third incarnations of the Ku Klux Klan made frequent references to Americas Anglo-Saxon blood, hearkening back to 19th-century nativism. Although members of the KKK swear to uphold Christian morality, virtually every Christian denomination has officially denounced the KKK, the manual of rituals was printed by Laps D. McCord of Pulaski. According to The Cyclopædia of Fraternities, Beginning in April,1867, the members had conjured up a veritable Frankenstein. Although there was little organizational structure above the level, similar groups rose across the South and adopted the same name. Klan groups spread throughout the South as an insurgent movement promoting resistance, for example, Confederate veteran John W. Morton founded a chapter in Nashville, Tennessee. As a secret vigilante group, the Klan targeted freedmen and their allies, it sought to restore white supremacy by threats and violence, including murder, against black and white Republicans. In 1870 and 1871, the government passed the Enforcement Acts. The first Klan had mixed results in terms of achieving its objectives and it seriously weakened the black political establishment through its use of assassinations and threats of violence, it drove some people out of politics. Rable argues that the Klan was a failure and therefore was discarded by the Democratic leaders of the South. He says, the Klan declined in strength in part because of weaknesses, its lack of central organization. More fundamentally, it declined because it failed to achieve its central objective – the overthrow of Republican state governments in the South, for instance, the Red Shirts are credited with helping elect Wade Hampton as governor in South Carolina
3.
Thomas Nast
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Thomas Nast was a German-born American caricaturist and editorial cartoonist considered to be the Father of the American Cartoon. He was the scourge of Democratic Representative Boss Tweed and the Tammany Hall Democratic party political machine, among his notable works were the creation of the modern version of Santa Claus and the political symbol of the elephant for the Republican Party. Contrary to popular belief, Nast did not create Uncle Sam, Columbia, or the Democratic donkey, Nast was associated with the magazine Harpers Weekly from 1859 to 1860 and from 1862 until 1886. Albert Boime argues that, As a political cartoonist, Thomas Nast wielded more influence than any other artist of the 19th century. He not only enthralled a vast audience with boldness and wit, both Lincoln and Grant acknowledged his effectiveness in their behalf, and as a crusading civil reformer he helped destroy the corrupt Tweed Ring that swindled New York City of millions of dollars. Indeed, his impact on American public life was formidable enough to affect the outcome of every presidential election during the period 1864 to 1884. Nast was born in the barracks of Landau, Germany, the last child of Appolonia and he had a sister named Andie, two other siblings died before he was born. His father, a trombonist in the Bavarian 9th regiment band, in 1846, Joseph Nast left Landau, enlisting first on a French man-of-war and subsequently on an American ship. He sent his wife and children to New York City, Nast attended school in New York City from the age of six to fourteen. He did poorly at his lessons, but his passion for drawing was apparent from an early age, in 1854, he was enrolled for about a year of study with Alfred Fredericks and Theodore Kaufmann, and then at the school of the National Academy of Design. In 1856, he started working as a draftsman for Frank Leslies Illustrated Newspaper and his drawings appeared for the first time in Harpers Weekly on March 19,1859, when he illustrated a report exposing police corruption. A few months later, as artist for The Illustrated London News, Nasts cartoons and articles about the Garibaldi military campaign to unify Italy captured the popular imagination in the U. S. In February 1861, he arrived back in New York, in September of that year, he married Sarah Edwards, whom he had met two years earlier. He left the New York Illustrated News to work again, briefly, in 1862, he became a staff illustrator for Harpers Weekly. In his first years with Harpers, Nast became known especially for compositions that appealed to the sentiment of the viewer, one of his most celebrated cartoons was Compromise with the South, directed against those in the North who opposed the prosecution of the American Civil War. He was known for drawing battlefields in border and southern states and these attracted great attention, and Nast was called by President Abraham Lincoln our best recruiting sergeant. Nasts cartoons frequently had numerous sidebars and panels with intricate subplots to the main cartoon, a Sunday feature could provide hours of entertainment and highlight social causes. After 1870, Nast favored simpler compositions featuring a central image
4.
Harper's Weekly
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Harpers Weekly, A Journal of Civilization was an American political magazine based in New York City. Published by Harper & Brothers from 1857 until 1916, it featured foreign and domestic news, fiction, essays on many subjects and it carried extensive coverage of the American Civil War, including many illustrations of events from the war. During its most influential period, it was the forum of the political cartoonist Thomas Nast, along with his brothers James, John, and Wesley, Fletcher Harper began the publishing company Harper & Brothers in 1825. Following the successful example of the Illustrated London News, Harper started publishing Harpers Magazine in 1850, in 1857, his company began publishing Harpers Weekly in New York City. By 1860 the circulation of the Weekly had reached 200,000, among the recurring features were the political cartoons of Thomas Nast, who was recruited in 1862 and worked with the Weekly for more than 20 years. Nast was a feared caricaturist, and is called the father of American political cartooning. He was the first to use an elephant as the symbol of the Republican Party and he also drew the legendary character of Santa Claus, his version became strongly associated with the figure, who was popularized as part of Christmas customs in the late nineteenth century. Harpers Weekly was the most widely read journal in the United States throughout the period of the Civil War, so as not to upset its wide readership in the South, Harpers took a moderate editorial position on the issue of slavery. Publications that supported abolition referred to it as Harpers Weakly, the Weekly had supported the Stephen A. Douglas presidential campaign against Abraham Lincoln, but as the American Civil War broke out, it fully supported Lincoln and the Union. The photograph inspired many free blacks in the North to enlist, some of the most important articles and illustrations of the time were Harpers reporting on the war. Besides renderings by Homer and Nast, the magazine also published illustrations by Theodore R. Davis, Henry Mosler, and the brothers Alfred and William Waud. In 1863, George William Curtis, one of the founders of the Republican Party, became the editor of the magazine. His editorials advocated civil service reform, low tariffs, and adherence to the gold standard, after the war, Harpers Weekly more openly supported the Republican Party in its editorial positions, and contributed to the election of Ulysses S. Grant in 1868 and 1872. It supported the Radical Republican position on Reconstruction, in the 1870s, the cartoonist Thomas Nast began an aggressive campaign in the journal against the corrupt New York political leader William Boss Tweed. Nast turned down a $500,000 bribe to end his attack, Tweed was arrested in 1873 and convicted of fraud. Nast and Harpers also played an important part in securing Rutherford B. Hayes 1876 presidential election, later on Hayes remarked that Nast was the most powerful, single-handed aid had. After the election, Nasts role in the magazine diminished considerably, since the late 1860s, Nast and George W. Curtis had frequently differed on political matters and particularly on the role of cartoons in political discourse. Harpers publisher Fletcher Harper strongly supported Nast in his disputes with Curtis, in 1877, Harper died, and his nephews, Joseph W. Harper Jr. and John Henry Harper, assumed control of the magazine
5.
White supremacy
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White supremacy has roots in scientific racism and often relies on pseudoscientific arguments. The term is typically used to describe a political ideology that perpetuates. Different forms of white supremacism put forth different conceptions of who is considered white, White supremacist groups have typically opposed people of color and Jews. White supremacy was dominant in the United States even after the American Civil War, in large areas of the U. S. this included the holding of non-whites in chattel slavery with four million denied freedom from bondage. The outbreak of the Civil War saw the desire to uphold white supremacy cited as a cause for state secession, in an editorial about Native Americans in 1890, author L. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, the denial of social and political freedom continued into the mid-20th century resulting in the Civil Rights Movement. On the U. S. immigration laws prior to 1965, many U. S. states banned interracial marriage through anti-miscegenation laws until 1967, when these laws were invalidated by the Supreme Court of the United States decision in Loving v. Virginia. Additionally, white leaders often viewed Native Americans as obstacles to economic and political progress with respect to the claims to land. The terms recent rise in popularity among leftist activists has been characterized by some as counterproductive, in an opinion piece in The Atlantic, Conor Friedersdorf has said that the usage of the term by activists creates confusion because it strays from the common definition. Nazism promoted the idea of a superior Germanic people or Aryan race in Germany during the early 20th century, gobineaus theories, which attracted a strong following in Germany, emphasized the existence of an irreconcilable polarity between Aryan or Germanic peoples and Jewish cultures. Many modern-day white supremacist groups around the world reuse Nazi symbolism, including the swastika, racial segregation in South Africa began in colonial times under the Dutch Empire, and continued when the British took over the Cape of Good Hope in 1795. Apartheid as an officially structured policy was introduced by the Afrikaner-dominated National Party after the election of 1948. Legislation divided inhabitants into four racial groups—black, white, coloured, and Indian, in 1970, the Afrikaner-run government abolished non-white political representation, and starting that year black people were deprived of South African citizenship. South Africa abolished apartheid in 1991, in Rhodesia, a predominantly white government issued its own unilateral declaration of independence from the United Kingdom during an unsuccessful attempt to avoid immediate majority rule. Neo-Nazi organisations embracing white-supremacist ideology are present in countries in the world. It has been claimed in 2007, that Russian Neo-Nazis accounted for half of the worlds total, White racial advantages occur both at a collective and an individual level. Legal scholar Frances Lee Ansley explains this definition as follows, By white supremacy I do not mean to allude only to the racism of white supremacist hate groups. Some anti-racist educators, such as Betita Martinez and the Challenging White Supremacy workshop, the term expresses historic continuities between a pre-African-American Civil Rights Movement era of open white supremacism and the current racial power structure of the United States
6.
Confederate States Army
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The Confederate States Army was the military ground force of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. S. Military Academy and colonel of a regiment during the Mexican War. In March 1861, the Provisional Confederate Congress established a more permanent Confederate States Army, the better estimates of the number of individual Confederate soldiers are between 750,000 and 1,000,000 men. This does not include a number of slaves who were pressed into performing various tasks for the army, such as construction of fortifications. Since these figures include estimates of the number of individual soldiers who served at any time during the war. These numbers do not include men who served in Confederate naval forces, although most of the soldiers who fought in the American Civil War were volunteers, both sides by 1862 resorted to conscription, primarily as a means to force men to register and to volunteer. In the absence of records, estimates of the percentage of Confederate soldiers who were draftees are about double the 6 percent of Union soldiers who were conscripts. Confederate casualty figures also are incomplete and unreliable, one estimate of Confederate wounded, which is considered incomplete, is 194,026. These numbers do not include men who died from causes such as accidents. Other Confederate forces surrendered between April 16,1865 and June 28,1865, by the end of the war, more than 100,000 Confederate soldiers had deserted. The Confederacys government effectively dissolved when it fled Richmond in April, by the time Abraham Lincoln took office as President of the United States on March 4,1861, the seven seceding slave states had formed the Confederate States. The Confederacy seized federal property, including nearly all U. S. Army forts, Lincoln was determined to hold the forts remaining under U. S. control when he took office, especially Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Under orders from Confederate President Jefferson Davis, C. S. troops under the command of General P. G. T, Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12–13,1861, forcing its capitulation on April 14. The Northern states were outraged by the Confederacys attack and demanded war and it rallied behind Lincolns call on April 15, for all the states to send troops to recapture the forts from the secessionists, to put down the rebellion and to preserve the Union intact. Four more slave states joined the Confederacy. The Confederate Congress provided for a Confederate army patterned after the United States Army and it was to consist of a large provisional force to exist only in time of war and a small permanent regular army. Although the two forces were to exist concurrently, very little was done to organize the Confederate regular army, the Provisional Army of the Confederate States began organizing on April 27. Virtually all regular, volunteer, and conscripted men preferred to enter this organization since officers could achieve a rank in the Provisional Army than they could in the Regular Army
7.
National Guard of the United States
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All members of the National Guard of the United States are also members of the militia of the United States as defined by 10 U. S. C. National Guard units are under the control of the state. The majority of National Guard soldiers and airmen hold a civilian job full-time while serving part-time as a National Guard member, local militias were formed from the earliest English colonization of the Americas in 1607. The first colony-wide militia was formed by Massachusetts in 1636 by merging small older local units, the various colonial militias became state militias when the United States became independent. The title National Guard was used from 1824 by some New York State militia units, National Guard became a standard nationwide militia title in 1903, and specifically indicated reserve forces under mixed state and federal control from 1933. The first muster of militia forces in what is today the United States took place on September 16,1565, appropriately enough, this muster occurred in the shadow of an oncoming hurricane. This Spanish militia tradition and the English tradition that would be established to the north would provide the nucleus for Colonial defense in the New World. The militia tradition continued with the first permanent English settlements in the New World, Jamestown Colony and Plymouth Colony both had militia forces, which initially consisted of every able bodied adult male. By the mid-1600s every town had at least one militia company, as a result of the Spanish–American War, Congress was called upon to reform and regulate the training and qualification of state militias. The first national laws regulating the militia were the Militia acts of 1792, in 1903, with passage of the Dick Act, the predecessor to the modern-day National Guard was formed. It required the states to divide their militias into two sections, the law recommended the title National Guard for the first section, known as the organized militia, and Reserve Militia for all others. During World War I, Congress passed the National Defense Act of 1916, Congress also authorized the states to maintain Home Guards, which were reserve forces outside the National Guards being deployed by the Federal Government. The National Guard of the states, territories, and the District of Columbia serves as part of the first-line of defense for the United States. C. Where the National Guard operates under the President of the United States or his designee, the governors exercise control through the state adjutants general. The National Guard may be called up for duty by the governors to help respond to domestic emergencies and disasters, such as hurricanes, floods. The National Guard is administered by the National Guard Bureau, which is a joint activity of the Army, the National Guard Bureau provides a communication channel for state National Guards to the DoD. S. C. The National Guard Bureau is headed by the Chief of the National Guard Bureau, prior to 2008, the functions of Agricultural Development Teams were within Provincial Reconstruction Teams of the US Government. Today, ADTs consist of soldiers and airmen from the Army National Guard, today, ADTs bring an effective platform for enhanced dialogue, building confidence, sharing interests, and increasing cooperation amongst the disparate peoples and tribes of Afghanistan
8.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
9.
Federal government of the United States
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The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms
10.
Republican Party (United States)
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The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
11.
African Americans
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African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
12.
Carpetbagger
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In the history of the United States, a carpetbagger was a Northerner who moved to the South after the American Civil War, during the Reconstruction era. Many white Southerners denounced them fearing they would loot and plunder the defeated South, sixty men from the North, including educated free people of color and slaves who had escaped to the North and returned South after the war, were elected as Republicans to Congress. The majority of Republican governors in the South during Reconstruction were from the North, most carpetbaggers probably combine the desire for personal gain with a commitment to taking part in an effort to substitute the civilization of freedom for that of slavery. Carpetbaggers generally supported measures aimed at democratizing and modernizing the South – civil rights legislation, aid to economic development, Carpetbagger was used by Southerners as a pejorative term, referring to the carpet bags which many of these newcomers carried. The term came to be associated with opportunism and exploitation by outsiders, such individuals are seeking personal financial gain through such actions. Three groups comprised the Republican Party in the South after the Civil War, scalawags were white Southerners who supported the party, carpetbaggers were recent arrivals in the region from the North, and Freedmen were freed slaves. Although carpetbagger and scalawag were originally terms of opprobrium, in the early 21st century they are used in the scholarly literature to refer to these classes of people. Politically, the carpetbaggers were usually dominant, they comprised the majority of Republican governors, however, the Republican Party inside each state was increasingly torn between the more conservative scalawags on one side and the more Radical carpetbaggers with their black allies on the other. In most cases, the carpetbaggers won out, and many scalawags moved into the conservative or Democratic opposition, most of the 430 Republican newspapers in the South were edited by scalawags—20 percent were edited by carpetbaggers. White businessmen generally boycotted Republican papers, which survived through government patronage, beginning in 1862, Northern abolitionists moved to areas in the South that had fallen under Union control. Schoolteachers and religious went to the South to teach the freedmen. The bureau established schools in areas of the South for the purpose of educating the mostly illiterate black. During the time most blacks were enslaved, many were prohibited from being educated, Southern states had no public school systems, and upper-class white Southerners either sent their children to private schools or hired private tutors. After the war, hundreds of Northern white women moved South, while some Northerners went to the South with reformist impulses, many others went south to exploit the chaotic situation for personal gain. Although the stated purpose of these initiatives was to empower freedmen politically and economically and they became wealthy landowners, hiring freedmen and white Southerners to do the labor through the development of sharecropping. Within a year of Andrew Johnsons presidency, most of what was left of the Souths white elite had been restored to power, Men who had avoided bankruptcy regained their plantations and re-established businesses. Carpetbaggers also established banks and retail businesses, issuing monies and goods under high-interest loan programs, Foner notes that joined with the quest for profit, however, was a reforming spirit, a vision of themselves as agents of sectional reconciliation and the Souths economic regeneration. Carpetbaggers tended to be educated and middle class in origin
13.
Scalawag
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In United States history, scalawags were southern whites who supported Reconstruction and the Republican Party, after the American Civil War. Like the similar term carpetbagger, the word has a history of use as a slur in Southern partisan debates. The opponents of the scalawags claimed they were disloyal to traditional values of white supremacy, the term is commonly used in historical studies as a neutral descriptor of Southern white Republicans, although some historians have discarded the term due to its history of pejorative connotations. The term is an epithet, yet it is used by many historians anyway, as in Wiggins, Baggett, Rubin. Historian Ted Tunnel writes that Reference works such as Joseph E. Worcesters 1860 Dictionary of the English Language defined scalawag as A low worthless fellow, Scalawag was also a word for low-grade farm animals. In early 1868 a Mississippi editor observed that scalawag has been used from time immemorial to designate inferior milch cows in the markets of Virginia. That June the Richmond Enquirer concurred, scalawag had heretofore applied to all of the mean, lean, mangy, hidebound skiny, only in recent months, the Richmond paper remarked, had the term taken on political meaning. Some accounts record his testimony as a native Southern white man, who says that a negro is as good as he is, by October 1868 a Mississippi newspaper was defining the expression scathingly in terms of Redemption politics. The term continued to be used as a pejorative by conservative pro-segregationist southerners well into the 20th century, but historians commonly use the term to refer to the group of historical actors with no pejorative meaning intended. In the South, Black Freedmen and White Southerners with Republican sympathies joined forces with Northerners who had moved south to implement the policies of the Republican party. The coalition controlled every former Confederate state except Virginia, as well as Kentucky, two of the most prominent scalawags were General James Longstreet, one of Robert E. Lees top generals, and Joseph E. Brown, who had been the wartime governor of Georgia. During the 1870s, many left the Republican Party and joined the conservative-Democrat coalition. Franklin gives an assessment of the motives of Southern Unionists and he noted that as more Southerners were allowed to vote and participate, A curious assortment of native Southerners thus became eligible to participate in Radical Reconstruction. They found it expedient to do business with Negroes and so-called carpetbaggers, eventually most scalawags joined the Democratic Redeemer coalition. A minority persisted as Republicans and formed the tan half of the Black and it was a minority element in the GOP in every southern state after 1877. Most of the 430 Republican newspapers in the South were edited by scalawags—only 20 percent were edited by carpetbaggers, White businessmen generally boycotted Republican papers, which survived through government patronage. In Alabama, Wiggins says scalawags dominated the Republican Party and they included 76 white southerners,35 northerners, and 6 former slaves. In state offices during Reconstruction, white southerners were even more predominant,51 won nominations, compared to 11 carpetbaggers,27 scalawags won state executive nominations,24 won state judicial nominations, and 101 were elected to the Alabama General Assembly
14.
Battle of Liberty Place
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The insurgents held the statehouse, armory, and downtown for three days, retreating before arrival of Federal troops that restored the elected government. No insurgents were charged in the action and this was the last major event of violence stemming from the disputed 1872 gubernatorial election, after which Democrat John McEnery and Republican William Pitt Kellogg both claimed victory. Among those injured in the fighting at Liberty Place was Algernon Sidney Badger, born in Boston and a veteran of the Union Army, he had been living and working in New Orleans since the end of the war. The white marble obelisk was placed at a prominent location on Canal Street, in 1932, the city added an inscription that expressed a white supremacist view. In 1974, the rethinking of race relations after the Civil Rights Movement caused the city to add a marker near the monument explaining that the inscription did not express current philosophy. After major construction work on Canal Street in 1989 required that the monument be removed, it was relocated to a less prominent location. They viewed the government as corrupt and illegal, in the election of 1872, John McEnery, a Democrat, was supported by a coalition of Democrats and anti-Grant Republicans, including Republican Gov. Henry C. Warmoths opponents in the Republican Party remained loyal to President Grant, Governor Warmoth had appointed the State Returning Board, which administered elections, it declared McEnery the winner. A rival board endorsed Kellogg, who had charged election fraud because of the violence and intimidation that took place at and near the polls, the legislature impeached Warmoth from office and removed him for stealing the election. The Lieutenant Governor P. B. S. Pinchback, became Governor for the last 35 days of Warmoths term, both McEnery and Kellogg had inaugural parties and certified lists of appointed local officeholders. The federal government eventually certified Kellogg as the governor of the state, antoine was certified lieutenant-governor over Democrat D. B. This action was related to political tensions between Democratic whites and Republican blacks. In Colfax, three whites and a total of 150 blacks were killed, at least 50 of the latter after having been taken prisoner, in 1874 McEnery and his allies formed a rump legislature in New Orleans, then the location of state government. The paramilitary White League entered the city with a force of 5,000 to seat McEnery, they fought against 3500 police, the White League defeated the state militia, inflicting about 100 casualties. The insurgents occupied the house and armory for three days, and turned out Governor Kellogg. When former Confederate general James Longstreet tried to stop the fighting, he was pulled from his horse, shot by a spent bullet, Kellogg wired for federal troops and, within three days, President Ulysses S. Grant sent Federal troops there. The White League insurgents retreated from New Orleans before the troops arrived. The governor refused to meet and considered the committee as representing now armed masses a menace, Marr declared that the masses were unarmed, but Dibble countered that while those on Canal Street may be unarmed, beyond there were armed bodies assembled for the same purpose
15.
Freedman
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A freedman or freedwoman is a former slave who has been released from slavery, usually by legal means. Historically, slaves were freed either by manumission or emancipation, a fugitive slave is one who escaped slavery by fleeing. Rome differed from Greek city-states in allowing freed slaves to become plebeian citizens, the act of freeing a slave was called manumissio, from manus, hand, and missio, the act of releasing. After manumission, a slave who had belonged to a Roman citizen enjoyed not only freedom from ownership. A slave who had acquired libertas was known as a libertus in relation to his former master, as a social class, freed slaves were liberti, though later Latin texts used the terms libertus and libertini interchangeably. Libertini were not entitled to public office or state priesthoods. During the early Empire, however, freedmen held key positions in the government bureaucracy, any future children of a freedman would be born free, with full rights of citizenship. The Claudian Civil Service set a precedent whereby freedmen could be used as servants in the Roman bureaucracy. In addition, Claudius passed legislation concerning slaves, including a law stating that sick slaves abandoned by their owners became freedmen if they recovered, the emperor was criticized for using freedmen in the Imperial Courts. Some freedmen enjoyed enormous success and became quite wealthy, the brothers who owned House of the Vettii, one of the biggest and most magnificent houses in Pompeii, are thought to have been freedmen. A freedman who became rich and influential might still be looked down on by the aristocracy as a vulgar nouveau riche. Trimalchio, a character in the Satyricon of Petronius, is a caricature of such a freedman, for centuries Arab slave traders took and transported an estimated 10 to 15 million sub-Saharan Africans to slavery in North Africa and the Middle East. They also enslaved Europeans from coastal areas and the Balkans, many Arabs took women slaves as concubines in their harems. In the patrilineal societies, mixed-race children of concubines and Arab men were considered free and were given inheritance rights related to their fathers property. In the United States, the freedmen and freedwomen refer chiefly to former slaves emancipated during and after the American Civil War, by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves freed before the war, usually by individual manumissions, often in wills, were referred to as Free Negroes or free blacks. There were numerous such families formed in the Upper South before the Revolution, for the first two decades after the Revolution, thousands of slaves were freed in the Upper South, and most northern states abolished slavery, some on a gradual basis. In Louisiana and other areas of the former New France, free people of color were classified in French as gens de couleur libres and they were born to African or African-European mothers and white fathers of mixed-race African and French or other European ancestry
16.
Grant Parish, Louisiana
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Grant Parish is a parish located in the north central portion of the U. S. state of Louisiana. As of the 2010 census, the population was 22,309, the parish was founded in 1869. Grant Parish is part of the Alexandria, LA Metropolitan Statistical Area, from 1940-1960, the parish had a dramatic population loss, as many African Americans left in the Great Migration to seek better opportunities elsewhere. Such migration continued until about 1970, the parish was also one of the eleven Reconstruction parishes created, created from Winn and Rapides parishes. Grant Parish is a home of United States Penitentiary, Pollock, Grant Parish was originally a part of the more populous Rapides Parish to the south. Prior to the American Civil War, the center of activity focused upon Calhouns Landing, named for the cotton and sugar planter Meredith Calhoun, Calhoun also published the former National Democrat newspaper in what became Colfax, the seat of government of the new parish. Grant was one of new parishes created by the Reconstruction legislature in an attempt to build the Republican Party. Founded in 1869, it had a majority of freedmen. It was named for U. S. President Ulysses S. Grant, the parish seat of Colfax was named for Grants first vice president, Schuyler M. Colfax of Indiana. However, the town of Colfax is pronounced CAHL-facks, the parish encompassed both cotton plantations and pinewoods. It was one of areas along the Red River that had considerable violence during Reconstruction. The gubernatorial election of 1872 was disputed, leading to both parties certifying their slates of local officers, the election was finally settled in favor of the Republican candidates, but the decision was disputed in certain areas. As social tensions rose, Republican officials took their places at the courthouse in Colfax and they were defended by freedmen and state militia, who feared a Democratic Party takeover of the parish. Amid widespread rumors, whites organized a militia and advanced on the courthouse on Easter Sunday,1873, in the ensuing violence, three whites and 120-150 blacks were killed, including 50 that night who were held as prisoners. Leading 20th-century historians renamed the Colfax Riot, the state designation. The total number of deaths were never established because some of the bodies were thrown into the river. The white militia was led by Christopher Columbus Nash, a Confederate officer who had been a prisoner of war at Johnsons Island in Ohio and it consisted of veterans from Grant and neighboring parishes. The following year, Nash gathered many of the militia members as the basis of the first chapter of the White League
17.
Confederate States of America
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The Confederate States, officially the Confederate States of America, commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was a breakaway country of 11 secessionist slave states existing from 1861 to 1865. It was never recognized as an Independent country, although it achieved belligerent status by Britain. A new Confederate government was established in February 1861 before Lincoln took office in March, after the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession, the Civil War began with the April 12,1861, Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In spring 1865, after four years of fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered. Jefferson Davis later lamented that the Confederacy had disappeared in 1865, Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the Five Civilized Tribes located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of law, while Delaware, though of divided loyalty. A Unionist government in parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal, as Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers, the most notable advance was Shermans March to the Sea in late 1864. Much of the Confederacys infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads, plantations in the path of Shermans forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and these losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Daviss administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, after four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, President Davis was captured on May 10,1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held. The U. S. government began a process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many areas, the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure
18.
Veteran
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A veteran is a person who has had long service or experience in a particular occupation or field. This page refers to military veterans, i. e. a person who has served or is serving in the armed forces and those veterans that have had direct exposure to acts of military conflict may also be referred to as war veterans. Military veterans often receive special treatment in their countries due to the sacrifices they made during wars. Different countries handle this differently, some openly support veterans through government programs, Veterans are also subject to illnesses directly related to their military service such as posttraumatic stress disorder. War veterans are generally treated with respect and honour for their contribution to the world. Veterans of unpopular or lost conflicts may be discriminated against, Veterans of short or small conflicts are often forgotten when the country fought bigger conflicts. Many countries have longstanding traditions, ceremonies, and holidays to honour their veterans, in the UK Remembrance Day is held on November the 11th and is focused mostly on the veterans who died in service to the monarch and country. A red or white poppy is worn on the lapel in the weeks up to the date, in Russia, a tradition was established after World War II where newly married couples would on their wedding day visit a military cemetery. In France, for instance, those wounded in war are given the first claim on any seat on public transit, most countries have a holiday such as Veterans Day to honour their veterans, along with the war dead. Britain, with its historic distrust of standing armies, did little for its veterans before the 19th century and it did set up two small hospitals for them in the 1680s. In London and other cities the streets teemed with disabled or disfigured veterans begging for alms, the First World War focused national attention on veterans, especially those who had been partly or wholly disabled. The Kings National Roll Scheme was an employment program for disabled veterans of the First World War, kowalsky says it was practical, innovative, and ahead of its time and was the most important piece of legislation enacted for disabled veterans in interwar Britain. In the 21st century Britain has one of the highest densities of veterans in a country, with 13 million in 2000. Some veterans from the Belgian commitment of the Congolese to WWII live in communities throughout the Congo, though they received compensation from the government during the rule of the dictator Mobutu Sese Seko, after his overthrow they no longer receive pensions. The most common usage is for former armed services personnel, a veteran is one who has served in the armed forces, especially one who has served in combat. The National Guard and Reserve is included and it is especially applied to those who served for an entire career, usually of 20 years or more, but may be applied for someone who has only served one tour of duty. A common misconception is that only those who have served in combat or those who have retired from active duty can be called military veterans, the American Civil War produced veterans organizations, such as the Grand Army of the Republic and United Confederate Veterans. The treatment of veterans changed after the First World War, in the years following, discontented veterans became a source of instability
19.
Colfax massacre
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The Colfax massacre, or Colfax riot as the events are termed on the 1950 state historic marker, occurred on Easter Sunday, April 13,1873, in Colfax, Louisiana, the seat of Grant Parish. This event marks the largest racial massacre in U. S. History, Southern Whites saw recently freed people as threats to Democratic hegemony. Approximately 150 black men were murdered by white Southern Democrats, and 37 of those men were executed, most of the freedmen were killed after they surrendered, nearly 50 were killed later that night after being held as prisoners for several hours. There were rumors of mass graves at the site, historian Eric Foner described the massacre as the worst instance of racial violence during Reconstruction. In Louisiana, it had the highest fatalities of any of the violent events following the disputed gubernatorial contest in 1872 between Republicans and Democrats. Foner wrote. every election between 1868 and 1876 was marked by rampant violence and pervasive fraud, a Republican federal judge in New Orleans ruled that the Republican-majority legislature be seated. Federal prosecution and conviction of a few perpetrators at Colfax under the Enforcement Acts was appealed to the Supreme Court. In a key case, the court ruled in United States v. Cruikshank that protections of the Fourteenth Amendment did not apply to the actions of individuals, but only to the actions of state governments. Intimidation and black voter suppression by such groups were instrumental to the Democratic Party regaining political control in the state legislature by the late 1870s. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, historians have paid renewed attention to the events at Colfax and the resulting Supreme Court case, and their meaning in American history. In 1864, after the Union Army occupied Louisiana, only a few blacks were allowed to vote in the state, based on Union military service, payment of taxes and intellectual fitness. There was a population of free people of color, especially in New Orleans. In March 1865, Unionist planter James Madison Wells became governor, as the ex-Confederate-dominated legislature passed Black Codes that restricted rights of freedmen, Wells began to lean toward allowing blacks to vote and temporarily disfranchising ex-Confederates. To accomplish this, he scheduled a new constitutional convention for July 30,1866 and it was postponed because of the New Orleans Massacre that day, in which armed whites attacked blacks who had a parade in support of the convention. Anticipating trouble, the mayor of New Orleans asked the military commander to police the city. It passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866 over Andrew Johnsons veto, earlier the Freedmens Bureau and the occupation armies had prevented Southern Black Codes, which had limited the rights of freedmen and other blacks, from going into effect. On July 16,1866, Congress extended the life of the Freedmens Bureau, by April 1868, a biracial coalition in Louisiana had elected a Republican-majority state legislature but violence increased before the fall election. Opposition among white Democrats to suffrage for blacks resulted in 1,081 political murders from April to November 1868, almost all of the victims were black, and some of the whites who were killed were Republicans
20.
New Orleans
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New Orleans is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana. The population of the city was 343,829 as of the 2010 U. S. Census, the New Orleans metropolitan area had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,452,502. The city is named after the Duke of Orleans, who reigned as Regent for Louis XV from 1715 to 1723, as it was established by French colonists and it is well known for its distinct French and Spanish Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine, music, and its celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The city is referred to as the most unique in the United States. New Orleans is located in southeastern Louisiana, straddling the Mississippi River, the city and Orleans Parish are coterminous. The city and parish are bounded by the parishes of St. Tammany to the north, St. Bernard to the east, Plaquemines to the south, and Jefferson to the south and west. Lake Pontchartrain, part of which is included in the city limits, lies to the north, before Hurricane Katrina, Orleans Parish was the most populous parish in Louisiana. As of 2015, it ranks third in population, trailing neighboring Jefferson Parish, La Nouvelle-Orléans was founded May 7,1718, by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was Regent of the Kingdom of France at the time and his title came from the French city of Orléans. The French colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the Treaty of Paris, during the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the rebels, transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully launched a campaign against the British from the city in 1779. New Orleans remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French oversight, nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré dates from the Spanish period, the most notable exception being the Old Ursuline Convent. Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles, and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans, and Italians, Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on large plantations outside the city. The Haitian Revolution ended in 1804 and established the republic in the Western Hemisphere. It had occurred several years in what was then the French colony of Saint-Domingue
21.
Red Shirts (United States)
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Similar groups in the Carolinas also adopted red shirts. Among the most prominent Red Shirts were the supporters of Democratic Party candidate Wade Hampton during the campaigns for the South Carolina gubernatorial elections of 1876 and 1878 and these groups acted as the military arm of the Democratic Party. Their goals were to use violence and terrorism to restore the Democrats to power and repress the exercise of civil, during the 1876,1898 and 1900 campaigns in North Carolina, the Red Shirts played prominent roles in intimidating non-Democratic Party voters. The Red Shirts disrupted Republican rallies, intimidated or assassinated black leaders, Men wearing red shirts appeared in Charleston, South Carolina on August 25,1876, during a Democratic torchlight parade. It was to mock the waving of the bloody shirt speech by Senator Oliver Morton in the Senate that was meant to support for the Republicans Reconstruction policies in South Carolina. The red shirt symbolism quickly spread, suspects accused in the Hamburg Massacre wore red shirts as they marched on September 5 to their arraignment in Aiken, South Carolina. Martin Gary, the organizer in South Carolina of the Democratic campaign in 1876, mandated that his supporters were to wear red shirts at all party rallies, wearing a red shirt became a source of pride and resistance to Republican rule for white Democrats in South Carolina. Women sewed red flannel shirts and made garments of red. It also became fashionable for women to wear red ribbons in their hair or about their waists, for young men, a red shirt was viewed as compensation for their inability to have contributed to the Southern cause because of their age. State Democrats organized parades and rallies in every county of South Carolina, many of the participants were armed and mounted, all wore red. Mounted men gave an impression of greater numbers, when Wade Hampton and other Democrats spoke, the Red Shirts would respond enthusiastically, shouting the campaign slogan, Hurrah for Hampton. This created a spectacle that united and motivated those present. Red Shirts sought to both white and black watchers into voting for the Democrats or even not at all. The Red Shirts and similar groups were active in those few states with an African-American majority. They broke up Republican meetings, disrupted their organizing, and intimidated voters at the polls. Many freedmen stopped voting from fear, and others voted for Democrats under pressure, the Red Shirts did not hesitate to use violence, nor did the other private militia groups. In the Piedmont counties of Aiken, Edgefield, and Barnwell, freedmen who voted were driven from their homes and whipped, during the 1876 presidential election, Democrats in Edgefield and Laurens counties voted early and often, while freedmen were barred from the polls. Armed and mounted Red Shirts accompanied Hampton on his tour of the state and they attended Republican meetings and would demand equal time, but they usually only stood in silence
22.
Louisiana State Legislature
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The Louisiana State Legislature is the state legislature of the U. S. state of Louisiana. It is a body, comprising the lower house, the Louisiana House of Representatives with 105 representatives, and the upper house. Members of both houses are elected from single-member constituencies, the State Legislature meets in the Louisiana State Capitol in Baton Rouge. Members of both houses of the serve a four-year term, with a term limit of three terms. Term limits were passed by voters in a constitutional referendum in 1995 and were subsequently added as Article III, §4. The year 2007 saw legislators termed out of office for the first time, the term limits are consecutive rather than lifetime. The officers of each house of the Legislature are elected at the beginning of term to serve for four-year terms. The Louisiana House of Representatives elects from among its members a speaker and speaker pro tempore, although the procedure is not mandated constitutionally, the speaker of the House is traditionally recommended by the governor of Louisiana to the body. The current speaker, Taylor Barras, a Republican, presides over the House, the House also elects its chief clerical officer, the clerk of the House, who is not an elected member. The Louisiana Senate elects its presiding officer, the President of the Senate, from among its membership, the current President is John Alario. Each house provides for the election of its officers, originally the Lieutenant Governor presided over the Louisiana Senate from 1853 until the adoption of the Louisiana constitution of 1974. Today, the Lieutenant Governor exercises powers delegated to him by the Governor as provided by law and he also serves as governor in the event of a vacancy in the office, if the Governor is unable to act as governor, or is out of the state. Since the Lieutenant Governor no longer serves as president of the Senate, he has made an ex-officio member of each committee, board. Additionally, the Lieutenant Governor serves as head of the Louisiana Department of Culture, Recreation, in even-numbered years, a state legislature convenes at noon on the last Monday in March to extend for no longer than 60 legislative days during a period of 85 days. In odd-numbered years, a limited jurisdiction session convenes at noon on the last Monday in April for no longer than 45 legislative days during a period of 60 days, the legislature also may convene for extraordinary sessions and for veto sessions. The legislature is required to meet in a session, which cannot exceed three days, on the date its members take office. A special session may be called by the Governor or may be convened by the officers of both houses upon a written petition of a majority of the elected members of each house. A special session is limited to the number of days stated in the proclamation, the power to legislate in a special session is limited to the objects specifically enumerated in the proclamation
23.
Redeemers
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In United States history, the Redeemers were a political coalition in the Southern United States during the Reconstruction Era that followed the Civil War. They generally were led by the landowners, businessmen and professionals. During Reconstruction, the South was under occupation by federal forces, Republicans nationally pressed for the granting of political rights to the newly freed slaves as the key to their becoming full citizens. The Thirteenth Amendment, Fourteenth Amendment, and Fifteenth Amendment enshrined such political rights in the Constitution, numerous educated blacks moved to the South to work for Reconstruction, and some blacks attained positions of political power under these conditions. However, the Reconstruction governments were unpopular with many white Southerners, in the 1870s, paramilitary organizations such as the White League in Louisiana and Red Shirts in Mississippi and North Carolina undermined the opposition. These paramilitary bands used violence and threats to undermine the Republican vote, by the presidential election of 1876, only three Southern states – Louisiana, South Carolina, and Florida – were unredeemed, or not yet taken over by white Democrats. The disputed Presidential election between Rutherford B. Hayes and Samuel J. Tilden was allegedly resolved by the Compromise of 1877, with the removal of these forces, Reconstruction came to an end. In the 1870s, southern Democrats began to more political power as former Confederates began to vote again. It was a movement that gathered energy up until the Compromise of 1877, White Democratic Southerners saw themselves as redeeming the South by regaining power. More importantly, in a wave of violence following the suppression of the Ku Klux Klan. In 1868 white terrorists tried to prevent Republicans from winning the election in Louisiana. Over a few days, they killed two hundred freedmen in St. Landry Parish in the Opelousas massacre. From April to October, there were 1,081 political murders in Louisiana, Violence was part of campaigns prior to the election of 1872 in several states. These included the White League and Red Shirts and they worked openly for specific political ends, and often solicited coverage of their activities by the press. Every election from 1868 on was surrounded by intimidation and violence, in the aftermath of the disputed gubernatorial election of 1872 in Louisiana, for instance, the competing governors each certified slates of local officers. This situation contributed to the Colfax Massacre of 1873, in which white Democratic militia killed more than 100 Republican blacks in a confrontation over control of parish offices, three whites died in the violence. In August the White League turned out six Republican office holders in Coushatta, Louisiana, before they could make their way, they and five to twenty black witnesses were assassinated by white paramilitary. They took over the government offices in New Orleans and occupied the capitol
24.
Knights of the White Camelia
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The Knights of the White Camelia was an American political terrorist organization that operated in the Southern United States during the 19th century. Similar to and associated with the Ku Klux Klan, the Knights of the White Camelia supported white supremacy, the Knights of the White Camelia was founded by Confederate army veteran Confederate Colonel Alcibiades DeBlanc on May 22,1867 in Franklin, Louisiana. Historian Nicholas Lemann calls the Knights the leading terrorist organization in Louisiana and their tactics, produced a reign of terror among the states black population during the summer and fall of 1868. Chapters existed primarily in the part of the Deep South. Rable noted that, Although the Republicans saw evidence of a conspiracy in these outrages, in Louisiana as elsewhere. They were also usually Confederate veterans, the part of antebellum society. It began to decline, despite a convention in 1869, the more aggressive people joined the White League or similar paramilitary organizations that organized in the mid-1870s. By 1870, the original Knights of the White Camelia had mostly ceased to exist, among its members was Louisiana Judge Taylor Beattie, who led the Thibodaux massacre of 1887. Earlier, David Theophilus Stafford of Alexandria, prior to his election as sheriff of Rapides Parish, was a member of the Knights and he joined the Citizens League and was at Canal Street during the Battle of Liberty Place. In 1939, Time reported that the West Virginian anti-Semite George E. Deatherage was describing himself as the commander of the Knights of the White Camellia. In the 1990s, a Ku Klux Klan group based in eastern Texas adopted the name, according to the book Soldiers of God, the new age White Camelia has a strong influence in Vidor, Texas. Ever since the return of the White Camelia name, so-called White Camelia Klan groups have emerged in Louisiana. Knights of the Golden Circle Mississippi Plan Redeemers Red Shirts Dictionary of Louisiana Biography vol 1, pg.222 Dictionary of Louisiana Biography vol 2, 1-760-805-7018 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
25.
Mississippi
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Mississippi /ˌmɪsᵻˈsɪpi/ is a state in the southern region of the United States, with part of its southern border formed by the Gulf of Mexico. Its western border is formed by the Mississippi River, the state has a population of approximately 3 million. It is the 32nd most extensive and the 32nd most populous of the 50 United States, located in the center of the state, Jackson is the state capital and largest city, with a population of approximately 175,000 people. The state is heavily forested outside of the Mississippi Delta area, before the American Civil War, most development in the state was along riverfronts, where slaves worked on cotton plantations. After the war, the bottomlands to the interior were cleared, by the end of the 19th century, African Americans made up two-thirds of the Deltas property owners, but timber and railroad companies acquired much of the land after a financial crisis. Clearing altered the Deltas ecology, increasing the severity of flooding along the Mississippi, much land is now held by agribusinesses. The states catfish aquaculture farms produce the majority of farm-raised catfish consumed in the United States, since the 1930s and the Great Migration, Mississippi has been majority white, albeit with the highest percentage of black residents of any U. S. state. From the early 19th century to the 1930s, its residents were mostly black, whites retained political power through Jim Crow laws. In 2010, 37% of Mississippians were African Americans, the highest percentage of African Americans in any U. S. state, since gaining enforcement of their voting franchise in the late 1960s, most African Americans support Democratic candidates in local, state and national elections. Conservative whites have shifted to the Republican Party, African Americans are a majority in many counties of the Mississippi-Yazoo Delta, an area of historic settlement during the plantation era. Since 2011 Mississippi has been ranked as the most religious state in the country, the states name is derived from the Mississippi River, which flows along its western boundary. Settlers named it after the Ojibwe word misi-ziibi, in addition to its namesake, major rivers in Mississippi include the Big Black River, the Pearl River, the Yazoo River, the Pascagoula River, and the Tombigbee River. Major lakes include Ross Barnett Reservoir, Arkabutla Lake, Sardis Lake, Mississippi is entirely composed of lowlands, the highest point being Woodall Mountain, in the foothills of the Cumberland Mountains,807 feet above sea level. The lowest point is sea level at the Gulf coast, the states mean elevation is 300 feet above sea level. Most of Mississippi is part of the East Gulf Coastal Plain, the coastal plain is generally composed of low hills, such as the Pine Hills in the south and the North Central Hills. The Pontotoc Ridge and the Fall Line Hills in the northeast have somewhat higher elevations, yellow-brown loess soil is found in the western parts of the state. The northeast is a region of black earth that extends into the Alabama Black Belt. The coastline includes large bays at Bay St. Louis, Biloxi, the northwest remainder of the state consists of the Mississippi Delta, a section of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain
26.
North Carolina
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North Carolina is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west, Virginia to the north, North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 9th most populous of the U. S. states. The state is divided into 100 counties, the most populous municipality is Charlotte, which is the second largest banking center in the United States after New York City. The state has a range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to 6,684 feet at Mount Mitchell. The climate of the plains is strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the falls in the humid subtropical climate zone. More than 300 miles from the coast, the western, mountainous part of the state has a highland climate. North Carolina is bordered by South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, the United States Census Bureau places North Carolina in the South Atlantic division of the southern region. So many ships have been lost off Cape Hatteras that the area is known as the Graveyard of the Atlantic, the most famous of these is the Queen Annes Revenge, which went aground in Beaufort Inlet in 1718. The coastal plain transitions to the Piedmont region along the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, the Piedmont region of central North Carolina is the states most populous region, containing the six largest cities in the state by population. It consists of rolling countryside frequently broken by hills or low mountain ridges. The Piedmont ranges from about 300 feet in elevation in the east to about 1,500 feet in the west, the western section of the state is part of the Appalachian Mountain range. Among the subranges of the Appalachians located in the state are the Great Smoky Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountains, the Black Mountains are the highest in the eastern United States, and culminate in Mount Mitchell at 6,684 feet, the highest point east of the Mississippi River. North Carolina has 17 major river basins, the five basins west of the Blue Ridge Mountains flow to the Gulf of Mexico, while the remainder flow to the Atlantic Ocean. Of the 17 basins,11 originate within the state of North Carolina, but only four are contained entirely within the states border – the Cape Fear, the Neuse, the White Oak, and the Tar-Pamlico basin. Elevation above sea level is most responsible for temperature change across the state, the climate is also influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream, especially in the coastal plain. These influences tend to cause warmer winter temperatures along the coast, the coastal plain averages around 1 inch of snow or ice annually, and in many years, there may be no snow or ice at all. North Carolina experiences severe weather in summer and winter, with summer bringing threat of hurricanes, tropical storms, heavy rain
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South Carolina
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South Carolina /ˌsaʊθ kærəˈlaɪnə/ is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state is bordered to the north by North Carolina, to the south and west by Georgia across the Savannah River, South Carolina became the eighth state to ratify the U. S. Constitution, doing so on May 23,1788. South Carolina became the first state to vote to secede from the Union on December 20,1860, after the American Civil War, it was readmitted into the United States on June 25,1868. South Carolina is the 40th most extensive and the 23rd most populous U. S. state and its GDP as of 2013 was $183.6 billion, with an annual growth rate of 3. 13%. The capital and largest city is Columbia with a 2013 population of 133,358, South Carolina is named in honor of King Charles I of England, under whose reign the English colony was first formed, with Carolus being Latin for Charles. There is evidence of activity in the area about 12000 years ago. Along the Savannah River were the Apalachee, Yuchi, and the Yamasee, further west were the Cherokee, and along the Catawba River, the Catawba. These tribes were village-dwellers, relying on agriculture as their food source. The Cherokee lived in wattle and daub houses made with wood and clay, about a dozen separate small tribes summered on the coast harvesting oysters and fish, and cultivating corn, peas and beans. Travelling inland as much as 50 miles mostly by canoe, they wintered on the plain, hunting deer and gathering nuts. The names of these survive in place names like Edisto Island, Kiawah Island. The Spanish were the first Europeans in the area, in 1521, founding San Miguel de Gualdape, established with 500 settlers, it was abandoned within a year by 150 survivors. In 1562 French settlers established a settlement at what is now the Charlesfort-Santa Elena archaeological site on Parris Island, three years later the Spanish built a fort on the same site, but withdrew following hostilities with the English navy. In 1629, King Charles I of England established the Province of Carolina an area covering what is now South and North Carolina, Georgia, in the 1670s, English planters from the Barbados established themselves near what is now Charleston. Settlers built rice plantations in the South Carolina Lowcountry, east of the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, settlers came from all over Europe. Plantation labor was done by African slaves who formed the majority of the population by 1720, another cash crop was the Indigo plant, a plant source of blue dye, developed by Eliza Lucas. Meanwhile, in Upstate South Carolina, west of the Fall Line, was settled by farmers and traders. Colonists overthrew the rule, seeing more direct representation
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Northern United States
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The Northern United States, commonly referred to as the American North or simply the North, can be a geographic or historical term and definition. Geographically, the term includes the U. S. states and it includes, but is not limited to, states along the Canada–United States border. The United States Census Bureau divides some of the northernmost United States into the Midwest Region, the Census Bureau also includes the northernmost states of the Northwestern United States, that are, within the West Region. Before 19th-century westward expansion, the Northern United States corresponded to the present day New England region, by the 1830s it corresponded to the present day Northeastern United States. During the American Civil War, the Northern United States was composed of the U. S. states that supported the United States of America, in this context, The North is synonymous with the Union. In this context, The South is composed of the states that attempted secession from the U. S. to form the Confederate States of America, however, which states comprised The North in this context can be the subject of historical disagreement. Five slave-holding state, called the Border states, that remained with the Union – Missouri, Kentucky, West Virginia, Maryland, Northern Tier Flora of the Northern United States Southern United States Southeastern United States Yankee
29.
Winchester rifle
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Winchester rifle is a comprehensive term describing a series of lever-action repeating rifles manufactured by the Winchester Repeating Arms Company. Developed from the 1860 Henry rifle, Winchester rifles were among the earliest repeaters, the Model 1873 was particularly successful, being colloquially known as The Gun that Won the West. In 1848, Walter Hunt of New York patented his Volition Repeating Rifle incorporating a tubular magazine, the Hunt rifle fired what he called the Rocket Ball, an early form of caseless ammunition in which the powder charge was contained in the bullets hollow base. Horace Smith and Daniel Wesson of Norwich, Connecticut acquired the Jennings patent from Robbins & Lawrence and its largest stockholder was Oliver Winchester. Smiths cartridge, the.22 Short, would be introduced commercially in 1857 with the landmark Smith & Wesson Model 1 revolver and is manufactured today. Wesson had left Volcanic soon after it was formed and Smith followed eight months later, Volcanic moved to New Haven in 1856, but by the end of that year became insolvent. Oliver Winchester purchased the firms assets from the remaining stockholders. Benjamin Henry continued to work with Smiths cartridge concept, and perfected the much larger, Henry also supervised the redesign of the rifle to use the new ammunition, retaining only the general form of the breech mechanism and the tubular magazine. This became the Henry rifle of 1860, which was manufactured by the New Haven Arms Company, confederates called the Henry that damned Yankee rifle that they load on Sunday and shoot all week. After the war, Oliver Winchester renamed New Haven Arms the Winchester Repeating Arms Company, the company modified and improved the basic design of the Henry rifle, creating the first Winchester rifle, the Model 1866. It retained the.44 Henry cartridge, was built on a bronze-alloy frame, and had an improved magazine. In 1873 Winchester introduced the steel-framed Model 1873 chambering the more potent. 44-40 centerfire cartridge, in 1876, in a bid to compete with the powerful single-shot rifles of the time, Winchester brought out the Model 1876. The first Winchester rifle – the Winchester Model 1866 – was originally chambered for the rimfire.44 Henry. Nelson Kings improved patent remedied flaws in the Henry rifle by incorporating a loading gate on the side of the frame and integrating a round, france purchased 6,000 Model 1866 rifles along with 4.5 million.44 Henry cartridges during the Franco-Prussian War. The Ottoman Empire purchased 45,000 Model 1866 muskets and 5,000 carbines in 1870 and 1871, the Model 1866 compelled Russians to develop a new rifle, the Mosin–Nagant, after the war. The Swiss Army initially selected the Model 1866 to replace their existing single-shot Milbank-Amsler rifles, however, ensuing political pressure to adopt a domestic design resulted in the Vetterli Model 1867, a bolt-action design utilizing a copy of the Winchesters tubular magazine, being adopted instead. Due to public demand, the Model 1866 continued to be manufactured and sold until 1899, the Model 1873 was one of the most successful Winchester rifles of its day, with Winchester marketing it as The Gun that Won the West. Still an icon in the day, it was manufactured between 1873 and 1923
30.
Prussia
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Prussia was a historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg, and centred on the region of Prussia. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organised, Prussia, with its capital in Königsberg and from 1701 in Berlin, shaped the history of Germany. In 1871, German states united to create the German Empire under Prussian leadership, in November 1918, the monarchies were abolished and the nobility lost its political power during the German Revolution of 1918–19. The Kingdom of Prussia was thus abolished in favour of a republic—the Free State of Prussia, from 1933, Prussia lost its independence as a result of the Prussian coup, when the Nazi regime was successfully establishing its Gleichschaltung laws in pursuit of a unitary state. Prussia existed de jure until its liquidation by the Allied Control Council Enactment No.46 of 25 February 1947. The name Prussia derives from the Old Prussians, in the 13th century, the Teutonic Knights—an organized Catholic medieval military order of German crusaders—conquered the lands inhabited by them. In 1308, the Teutonic Knights conquered the region of Pomerelia with Gdańsk and their monastic state was mostly Germanised through immigration from central and western Germany and in the south, it was Polonised by settlers from Masovia. The Second Peace of Thorn split Prussia into the western Royal Prussia, a province of Poland, and the part, from 1525 called the Duchy of Prussia. The union of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia in 1618 led to the proclamation of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701, Prussia entered the ranks of the great powers shortly after becoming a kingdom, and exercised most influence in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 18th century it had a say in many international affairs under the reign of Frederick the Great. During the 19th century, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck united the German principalities into a Lesser Germany which excluded the Austrian Empire. At the Congress of Vienna, which redrew the map of Europe following Napoleons defeat, Prussia acquired a section of north western Germany. The country then grew rapidly in influence economically and politically, and became the core of the North German Confederation in 1867, and then of the German Empire in 1871. The Kingdom of Prussia was now so large and so dominant in the new Germany that Junkers and other Prussian élites identified more and more as Germans and less as Prussians. In the Weimar Republic, the state of Prussia lost nearly all of its legal and political importance following the 1932 coup led by Franz von Papen. East Prussia lost all of its German population after 1945, as Poland, the main coat of arms of Prussia, as well as the flag of Prussia, depicted a black eagle on a white background. The black and white colours were already used by the Teutonic Knights. The Teutonic Order wore a white coat embroidered with a cross with gold insert
31.
Needle gun
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A needle gun is a firearm that has a needle-like firing pin, which can pass through the paper cartridge case to strike a percussion cap at the bullet base. A needle gun with a barrel that has a groove or pattern of grooves cut into the barrel walls is also called needle rifle. The first experimental needle gun was designed by Jean Samuel Pauly, the cartridge was loaded through the breech and fired with a needle. The needle-activated central-fire breech-loading gun became a feature of firearms thereafter. The corresponding firearm was also developed by Pauly, Pauly made an improved version which was protected by a patent on 29 September 1812. The cartridge was improved by the French gunsmith Casimir Lefaucheux in 1836. In 1809 Pauly employed the German Johann Nicolaus von Dreyse, who invented the famous Dreyse rifle. The early Dreyse needle guns were smooth-bore, later Dreyse guns adopted by the Prussian army were rifles using self-contained combustible cartridges holding oblong lead balls held in a papier-mache sabot. From 1848 onwards the new weapon was introduced into Prussian service. The Dreyse rifle became widely used during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 when it played a role at the Battle of Königgrätz. This Model 1861 rifle was an improvement of the Dreyse rifle by Johannes Doersch and they shortened the needle mechanism and moved the handle to the rear of the bolt. The rifle was adopted in the Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe. More than one thousand rifles were produced until the principality was forced to join the German Empire in 1871, in 1865, Johannes Friedrich Christian Carl, a ship- and insurance broker of Hamburg, patented a needle gun which was an improvement on the Dreyse gun. Sohs, a Hamburg citizen, participated in the design and development of it, the Carl system was officially adopted by the Russian Empire in 1867. Only 215,500 Carl rifles were manufactured in Russia, because a time later, needle rifles were replaced by rifles with metal cartridges. In the following year it made its first appearance on the battlefield at Mentana on 3 November 1867 and it was reported at the French Parliament that Les Chassepots ont fait merveille. Or loosely translated, The Chassepots have done wonderfully, the undisguised truth is that the heavy cylindrical lead bullets fired at high velocity by the Chassepot rifle inflicted wounds that were even worse than those of the earlier Minié rifle. In the Franco-Prussian War it proved superior to the German Dreyse needle gun
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Prisoner of war
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A prisoner of war is a person, whether combatant or non-combatant, who is held in custody by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the prisoner of war dates to 1660. The first Roman gladiators were prisoners of war and were named according to their ethnic roots such as Samnite, Thracian, typically, little distinction was made between enemy combatants and enemy civilians, although women and children were more likely to be spared. Sometimes, the purpose of a battle, if not a war, was to capture women, a known as raptio. Typically women had no rights, and were legally as chattel. For this he was eventually canonized, during Childerics siege and blockade of Paris in 464, the nun Geneviève pleaded with the Frankish king for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so, many French prisoners of war were killed during the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In the later Middle Ages, a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat, in Christian Europe, the extermination of heretics was considered desirable. Examples include the 13th century Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades, likewise, the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during the Crusades against the Muslims in the 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed, their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the status of the captive. In feudal Japan there was no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, in Termez, on the Oxus, all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain. The Aztecs were constantly at war with neighbouring tribes and groups, for the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, between 10,000 and 80,400 persons were sacrificed. During the early Muslim conquests, Muslims routinely captured large number of prisoners, aside from those who converted, most were ransomed or enslaved. Christians who were captured during the Crusades, were either killed or sold into slavery if they could not pay a ransom. The freeing of prisoners was highly recommended as a charitable act, there also evolved the right of parole, French for discourse, in which a captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations, if he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who held him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity. Early historical narratives of captured colonial Europeans, including perspectives of literate women captured by the peoples of North America. The writings of Mary Rowlandson, captured in the fighting of King Philips War, are an example
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Johnson's Island
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Johnsons Island is a 300-acre island in Sandusky Bay, located on the coast of Lake Erie,3 miles from the city of Sandusky, Ohio. It was the site of a camp for Confederate officers captured during the American Civil War. Johnsons Island was the only Union prison exclusively for Southern officers but, civilians who were arrested as guerrillas, or bushwhackers, were also imprisoned on the island. During its three years of operation, more than 15,000 men were incarcerated there, the island is named after L. B. Johnson, the owner of the beginning about 1852. It was originally named Bulls Island by its first owner, Epaphras* W. Bull, in late 1861, Federal officials selected Johnson’s Island as the site for a prisoner of war camp to hold up to 2,500 captured Confederate officers. The island offered easy access by ship for supplies to construct and maintain a prison, Sandusky Bay offered more protection from the elements than on other nearby islands, which were also closer to Canada in the event of a prison break. Woods of hickory and oak trees could provide lumber and fuel, the U. S. government leased half the island from private owner Leonard B. Johnson for $500 a year, and for the duration of the war carefully controlled access to the island. The 16. 5-acre prison opened in April 1862, a 15-foot-high wooden stockade surrounded 12 two-story prisoner housing barracks, a hospital, latrines, sutler’s stand, three wells, a pest house, and two large mess halls. More than 40 buildings stood outside the walls, including barns, stables, a limekiln, forts, barracks for officers. They were used by the 128th Ohio Volunteer Infantry, which guarded the prison, lieutenant Christopher Columbus Nash, later the sheriff of Grant Parish, Louisiana, who directed the Colfax Riot in 1873, was also imprisoned at Johnsons Island. The prisoners had a community, with amateur theatrical performances, publishing. They were not operational until March 1865, in the final months. More than 15,000 men passed through Johnson’s Island until it was closed in September 1865, wardens lost only about 200 prisoners as a result of the harsh Ohio winters, food and fuel shortages, and disease. Johnsons Island had one of the lowest mortality rates of any Civil War prison, confederates made many escape attempts, including efforts by some to walk across the frozen Lake Erie to freedom in Canada. A handful of escapes were successful, after the war, the prison camp was abandoned. Most of the buildings were auctioned off by the Army, and some were razed after falling into disrepair, and the last-remaining circa-1861 block-house, here, finally burned by accident in 1901. -- About 1894, a summer-resort was established at the eastern-end of the island, but its pavilion burned in 1897 -- and, although the pavilion was later rebuilt, afterward, during the first-half of the 20th-Century, the land was used for farming and rock quarrying
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Ohio
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Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the Northwest Territory, the state was admitted to the Union as the 17th state on March 1,1803, Ohio is historically known as the Buckeye State after its Ohio buckeye trees, and Ohioans are also known as Buckeyes. Ohio occupies 16 seats in the United States House of Representatives, Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections. Six Presidents of the United States have been elected who had Ohio as their home state, Ohios geographic location has proven to be an asset for economic growth and expansion. Because Ohio links the Northeast to the Midwest, much cargo, Ohio has the nations 10th largest highway network, and is within a one-day drive of 50% of North Americas population and 70% of North Americas manufacturing capacity. To the north, Lake Erie gives Ohio 312 miles of coastline, Ohios southern border is defined by the Ohio River, and much of the northern border is defined by Lake Erie. Ohios neighbors are Pennsylvania to the east, Michigan to the northwest, Ontario Canada, to the north, Indiana to the west, Kentucky on the south, Ohio is bounded by the Ohio River, but nearly all of the river itself belongs to Kentucky and West Virginia. Ohio has only that portion of the river between the rivers 1792 low-water mark and the present high-water mark, the border with Michigan has also changed, as a result of the Toledo War, to angle slightly northeast to the north shore of the mouth of the Maumee River. Much of Ohio features glaciated plains, with a flat area in the northwest being known as the Great Black Swamp. Most of Ohio is of low relief, but the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau features rugged hills, in 1965 the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Development Act, at attempt to address the persistent poverty and growing economic despair of the Appalachian Region. This act defines 29 Ohio counties as part of Appalachia, the worst weather disaster in Ohio history occurred along the Great Miami River in 1913. Known as the Great Dayton Flood, the entire Miami River watershed flooded, as a result, the Miami Conservancy District was created as the first major flood plain engineering project in Ohio and the United States. Grand Lake St. Marys in the west central part of the state was constructed as a supply of water for canals in the era of 1820–1850. For many years this body of water, over 20 square miles, was the largest artificial lake in the world and it should be noted that Ohios canal-building projects were not the economic fiasco that similar efforts were in other states. Some cities, such as Dayton, owe their emergence to location on canals. Summers are typically hot and humid throughout the state, while winters generally range from cool to cold, precipitation in Ohio is moderate year-round
35.
Militia
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For instance, the members of some U. S. Army National Guard units are considered professional soldiers, as they are trained to maintain the same standards as their full-time counterparts. Militias thus can be military or paramilitary, depending on the instance, some of the contexts in which the term militia is used include, Forces engaged in defense activity or service, to protect a community, its territory, property, and laws. The entire able-bodied population of a community, town, county, or state, a subset of these who may be legally penalized for failing to respond to a call-up. A subset of these who actually respond to a call-up, regardless of legal obligation, a private, non-government force, not necessarily directly supported or sanctioned by its government. An irregular armed force enabling its leader to exercise military, economic, an official reserve army, composed of citizen soldiers. Called by various names in different countries, such as the Army Reserve, National Guard, the national police forces in several former communist states such as the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact countries, but also in the non-aligned SFR Yugoslavia. The term was inherited in Russia and other former CIS countries, in France the equivalent term Milice has become tainted due to its use by notorious collaborators with Nazi Germany. A select militia is composed of a small, non-representative portion of the population, as regular military forces were insufficient to counter the British attackers, Santiago de Liniers drafted all males in the city capable of bearing arms into the military. These recruits included the peoples, who ranked low down in the social hierarchy. With these reinforcements, the British armies were twice defeated, the militias became a strong factor in the politics of the city afterwards, as a springboard from which the criollos could manifest their political ambitions. They were a key element in the success of the May Revolution, a decree by Mariano Moreno derogated the system of promotions involving criollos, allowing instead their promotion on military merit. The Argentine Civil War was waged by militias again, as both federalists and unitarians drafted common people into their ranks as part of ongoing conflicts and these irregular armies were organized at a provincial level, and assembled as leagues depending on political pacts. This system had declined by the 1870s, mainly due to the establishment of the modern Argentine Army, provincial militias were outlawed and decimated by the new army throughout the presidential terms of Mitre, Sarmiento, Avellaneda and Roca. Armenian militia also played a role in the Georgia-Abkhazia War of 1992–1993, in the Colony of New South Wales Governor Lachlan Macquarie proposed a colonial militia but the idea was rejected. Governor Ralph Darling felt a mounted force was more efficient than a militia. A military volunteer movement attracted wide interest during the Crimean War, following Federation, the various military reserve forces of the Commonwealth of Australia became the Citizen Military Force. In the beginning, members didnt have uniforms and often paraded in business attire and they were given instruction on guerrilla warfare, and later the private organization was taken over by the Australian Government and became part of the Australian Military Forces. After World War I, multiple militias formed as soldiers returned home to their villages, only to many of them occupied by Slovene
36.
Colfax, Louisiana
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Colfax is the largest town and parish seat of Grant Parish, Louisiana, United States. The town, founded in 1869, is named for the president of the United States, Schuyler M. Colfax. Colfax is part of the Alexandria, Louisiana Metropolitan Statistical Area, the population of Colfax was 1,558 at the 2010 census. During the first weekend of November, Colfax hosts the annual Louisiana Pecan Festival, the festival, which draws large crowds to Colfax, includes a parade, fireworks, carnival rides, music, and the unveiling of Miss Louisiana Pecan Festival and her court. Pecans are sold whole, cracked, or shelled in bags of ten, fifteen, or twenty pounds, Colfax was settled by European Americans as a Red River port within Rapides Parish. Prior to the Civil War, it was known as Calhouns Landing, named for the cotton and sugar planter Meredith Calhoun, Calhoun also published the former National Democrat newspaper in Colfax. During the Reconstruction Era, Colfax was the scene of the Colfax massacre on Easter, some three white attackers and about 150 African Americans were killed in one of the most egregious acts of terrorism during Reconstruction. A white militia was led against freedmen by Christopher Columbus Nash, freedmen were defending Republican officials at the county courthouse and had gathered there as tensions rose in a post-election dispute. A contemporary report by the U. S. military documented the three fatalities and 105 black victims by name, with 15-20 unidentified blacks found in the Red River. The event is significant because blacks, who comprised the majority in the county, organized to defend themselves, the riot arose from the disputed gubernatorial election of 1872, finally determined in the favor of the Republican William Pitt Kellogg by the federal government. Both the Fusion-Democrats and the Republicans held inaugurations and certified their own slates of local officers, Kellogg had not recognized Nashs election as sheriff. A native of Sabine Parish, Nash had been a Confederate army officer and it worked to intimidate and attack black voters, to run Republicans out of office, and to suppress black voting. Who fell in the Colfax Riot, fighting for White Supremacy, in 1950 the state commerce department erected a historical marker identifying the site of the Colfax Riot, it says that the militias victory marked the end of carpetbag misrule in the South. S. In 2007, the Red River Heritage Association was founded to collect and interpret the history of Reconstruction, especially in the Red River area and Louisiana. The association is raising funds to restore a bank in Colfax near the courthouse site to use as a museum, archives. On January 15,2016, the Wal-Mart Neighborhood Market on Main Street in Colfax was among the 296 stores announced for closure, the business began only in May 2015. It was to close on January 28,2016, Wal-Mart closed all of its 102 express locations, which came into being in 2011. Colfax is located in western Grant County at 31°31′11″N 92°42′30″W, on the northeast side of the Red River, Louisiana Highway 8 passes through the center of town, leading east 2 miles to U. S. Route 71 and south 12 miles to Boyce
37.
Hartsville, Tennessee
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Hartsville is a town in Trousdale County, Tennessee, United States. It is the county seat of Trousdale County, with which it shares a consolidated city-county government, the population of Hartsville was 2,369 as of 2010. Hartsville now shares with Trousdale County a consolidated city-county government by virtue of a referendum passed in Trousdale County in 2000. Despite the city-county government, under Tennessee law, Hartsville is also considered to be a distinct municipality, Trousdale County High School is located here, as well a Tennessee Colleges of Applied Technology campus operated by the Tennessee Board of Regents. Trousdale County is one of two counties in Tennessee to have legalized parimutuel betting on racing, but no group has ever stepped forward to build a racetrack. Hartsville is located north of the Cumberland River and is approximately fifty miles northeast of Nashville. In 1977, the Tennessee Valley Authority began construction on the Hartsville Nuclear Plant, the plants unused cooling tower dominates the view south from State Route 25 between Smith County and Trousdale County. Donoho erected a mill shortly thereafter, and the town was known as Donohos Mill. James Hart established Harts Ferry along the Cumberland River several miles to the south, Hartsville was officially recognized as a town in 1817. Donohos Mill, on the east bank of the creek, had known as Damascus. During the Civil War, Hartsville was site of the Battle of Hartsville, Trousdale County is serviced by three public schools, Trousdale County High School, Trousdale County Elementary School, and Jim B. Trousdale County serves more than 1,200 students and has significantly narrowed the achievement gap in science between white students and African-American and Hispanic students and it also has shown notable growth on TVAAS in math and Biology I. Hartsville is located at 36°23′30″N 86°9′37″W, a large hill rises immediately to the west of the business district and overlooks the entire eastern half of the county. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 3.6 square miles in 2000. As of the census of 2000, there were 2,395 people,938 households, the population density was 673.5 people per square mile. There were 1,043 housing units at a density of 293.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 75. 70% White,22. 46% African American,0. 29% Native American,0. 21% Asian,0. 04% Pacific Islander,0. 84% from other races, and 0. 46% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 46% of the population,31. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older
38.
State of the Union
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The State of the Union address is a speech presented by the President of the United States to a joint session of the United States Congress, except in the first year of a new presidents term. The address not only reports on the condition of the nation but also allows the President to outline his legislative agenda, during most of the countrys first century, the President primarily only submitted a written report to Congress. With the advent of radio and television, the address is now broadcast live across the country on most networks, although the language of this Section of the Constitution is not specific, by tradition, the President makes this report annually in late January or early February. Between 1934 and 2013 the date has been as early as January 3, before that time, most presidents delivered the State of the Union as a written report. When a presidential inauguration occurs in January, the date may be delayed until February, what began as a communication between president and Congress has become a communication between the president and the people of the United States. Since the advent of radio, and then television, the speech has been broadcast live on most networks, to reach the largest audience, the speech, once given during the day, is now typically given in the evening, after 9pm ET. George Washington delivered the first regular annual message before a joint session of Congress on January 8,1790, in New York City, in 1801, Thomas Jefferson discontinued the practice of delivering the address in person, regarding it as too monarchical. Instead, the address was written and then sent to Congress to be read by a clerk until 1913 when Woodrow Wilson re-established the practice despite some initial controversy, however, there have been exceptions to this rule. Presidents during the half of the 20th century have sent written State of the Union addresses. The last President to do this was Jimmy Carter in 1981, for many years, the speech was referred to as the Presidents Annual Message to Congress. The actual term State of the Union first emerged in 1934 when Franklin D. Roosevelt used the phrase, prior to 1934, the annual message was delivered at the end of the calendar year, in December. The ratification of the 20th Amendment on January 23,1933 changed the opening of Congress from early March to early January, since 1934, the message or address has been delivered to Congress in January or February. The Twentieth Amendment also established January 20 as the beginning of the presidential term, in years when a new president is inaugurated, the outgoing president may deliver a final State of the Union message, but none has done so since Jimmy Carter sent a written message in 1981. In 1953 and 1961, Congress received both a written State of the Union message from the president and a separate State of the Union speech by the incoming president. In 1936, President Roosevelt set a precedent when he delivered the address at night, only once before—when Woodrow Wilson asked Congress to order the U. S. into World War I—had a sitting president addressed Congress at night. Calvin Coolidges 1923 speech was the first to be broadcast on radio, harry S. Trumans 1947 address was the first to be broadcast on television. Johnsons address in 1965 was the first delivered in the evening, three years later, in 1968, television networks in the United States, for the first time, imposed no time limit for their coverage of a State of the Union address. Johnson, this address was followed by extensive televised commentary by, among others, Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Ronald Reagans 1986 State of the Union Address is the only one to have been postponed
39.
Ulysses S. Grant
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Ulysses S. Grant was the 18th President of the United States. As Commanding General, Grant worked closely with President Abraham Lincoln to lead the Union Army to victory over the Confederacy in the American Civil War and he implemented Congressional Reconstruction, often at odds with President Andrew Johnson. His presidency has often criticized for tolerating corruption and for the severe economic depression in his second term. Grant graduated in 1843 from the United States Military Academy at West Point, after the war he married Julia Boggs Dent in 1848, their marriage producing four children. Grant initially retired from the Army in 1854 and he struggled financially in civilian life. When the Civil War began in 1861, he rejoined the U. S. Army, in 1862, Grant took control of Kentucky and most of Tennessee, and led Union forces to victory in the Battle of Shiloh, earning a reputation as an aggressive commander. He incorporated displaced African American slaves into the Union war effort, in July 1863, after a series of coordinated battles, Grant defeated Confederate armies and seized Vicksburg, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River and dividing the Confederacy in two. After his victories in the Chattanooga Campaign, Lincoln promoted him to lieutenant general, Grant confronted Robert E. Lee in a series of bloody battles, trapping Lees army in their defense of Richmond. Grant coordinated a series of devastating campaigns in other theaters, as well, in April 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox, effectively ending the war. Historians have hailed Grants military genius, and his strategies are featured in history textbooks. After the Civil War, Grant led the armys supervision of Reconstruction in the former Confederate states and he also used the army to build the Republican Party in the South. After the disenfranchisement of some former Confederates, Republicans gained majorities, in his second term, the Republican coalitions in the South splintered and were defeated one by one as redeemers regained control using coercion and violence. In May 1875, Grant authorized his Secretary of Treasury Benjamin Bristow to shut down and his peace policy with the Indians initially reduced frontier violence, but is best known for the Great Sioux War of 1876. Grant responded to charges of corruption in executive offices more than any other 19th Century president and he appointed the first Civil Service Commission and signed legislation ending the corrupt moiety system. In foreign policy, Grant sought to trade and influence while remaining at peace with the world. His administration successfully resolved the Alabama claims by the Treaty of Washington with Great Britain, Grant avoided war with Spain over the Virginius Affair, but Congress rejected his attempted annexation of the Dominican Republic. His administration implemented a standard and sought to strengthen the dollar. Grant left office in 1877 and embarked on a two-year diplomatic world tour that captured the nations attention, in 1880, Grant was unsuccessful in obtaining the Republican presidential nomination for a third term
40.
William Pitt Kellogg
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He is also notable as one of few incumbent Senators to be elected to the House of Representatives, where he served from 1883 to 1885. He was the last elected Republican Governor of Louisiana until Dave Treen in 1980, Kellogg was born in Orwell in Addison County in western Vermont near the New York boundary, where he spent his childhood. After completing his education in the schools, he moved to Peoria, Illinois. His fifth cousin William Kellogg lived in the area and served as a member of the United States House of Representatives from 1857 to 1863, Kellogg became a lawyer, likely reading law and studying with practicing lawyers, as was typical for many then. He moved to Canton, Illinois, and started a law practice, Republican Party and eventually came to know Abraham Lincoln, a fellow lawyer. When Lincoln became President in 1861, he appointed Kellogg as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Nebraska Territory, with the outbreak of the American Civil War, Kellogg was granted a leave of absence and he returned to Illinois and joined the 7th Regiment Illinois Volunteer Cavalry. By 1862, he had risen to the rank of Colonel and played an important role at a battle near Sikeston. Kellogg resigned because of ill health on June 1,1862 and he then returned to Nebraska and resumed his work as Chief Justice. After the Civil War, Kellogg was elected as a companion of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States. In 1865, at the end of the Civil War, days before his assassination and this launched Kelloggs 20-year political career in Louisiana, notable as he was one of the first carpetbaggers. He remained Collector of New Orleans until 1868, when he was elected to the United States Senate and that year, reconstructed Louisiana was readmitted to the federal Union. In 1872, Kellogg ran on the Republican ticket and was elected Governor and he resigned from the Senate to take office. In the election, John McEnery, a Democrat, ran against Kellogg, the sitting Governor Henry Clay Warmoth, although a Republican, opposed the Republican Party faction that was loyal to President Ulysses S. Grant, who was supporting Kellogg. Former Confederate Assistant Secretary of War John Archibald Campbell was involved in the controversy surrounding Kellogg and he was a member of the “Committee of One Hundred” that went to Washington to persuade President Grant to end his support of what they called the “Kellogg usurpation”. Grant initially refused to meet them but later relented, Campbell stated the case before Grant but was refused. The results of the election were disputed by the Democrats, the politics of the state was in turmoil for months, as both candidates held inauguration celebrations, certified their local candidate slates and tried to gather political power. Political tensions broke out in violence, including the Colfax Massacre in April 1873, as Governor, Warmoth controlled the State Returning Board, the institution which administered elections. With the election challenged, Warmoths board named McEnery the winner, a rival board claimed Kellogg to be the victor, although the board had no ballots or returns to count
41.
John McEnery (Louisiana)
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John McEnery was a Louisiana Democratic politician and lawyer who was considered by Democrats to be the winner of the highly contested 1872 election for Governor of Louisiana. After extended controversy over election results, the Republican candidate William Pitt Kellogg was certified, in the election of 1872, McEnery, a Democrat, was supported by a coalition of Democrats and anti-Grant Republicans, including Republican Gov. Henry C. Warmoths opponents in the Republican Party remained loyal to President Grant, Governor Warmoth had appointed the State Returning Board, which administered elections. A rival board endorsed Kellogg, although Kelloggs board had no returns or ballots to count, the Lieutenant Governor, black Republican P. B. S. Pinchback, became Governor for the last 35 days of Warmoths term. Both McEnery and Kellogg had inaugural parties and certified lists of local officeholders, in the spring of 1873, McEnery and his friends formed a rump legislature in New Orleans. Five thousand of his armed white militia entered New Orleans and fought off the police and they occupied the state house and armory and turned the Republican Kellogg out of office. This was called the Battle of Liberty Place and it was not until Federal troops were on their way that the forces retreated from New Orleans. The extended controversy contributed to violence throughout the state, the Colfax Massacre on Easter Sunday 1873 was related to the contested election. White Democratic militia, raised from surrounding parishes, attacked Republican blacks who had gathered at the Colfax courthouse to defend Republican officeholders, the attackers killed more than 80 black men, three whites were killed. The events were preceded by rumors on both sides, as tensions rose in the parish, similarly, in Coushatta, the seat of the new Red River Parish, Republican Marshall H. Twitchell was the influential state senator. White militia drove six Republican officeholders from town, but killed them before they could leave the state, in 1874, whites in Grant Parish who had been part of the militia at Colfax, formed the first chapter of the paramilitary organization the White League. They served as an arm of the Democratic Party in driving out Republicans, Grant Parish and Colfax, formed under the Reconstruction legislature, were named for Reconstruction President Grant and Vice President Schuyler Colfax. McEnerys prominent identification with white supremacy assisted his brother Samuel McEnery in being elected Lieutenant Governor of Louisiana in 1880, Samuel McEnery succeeded to the Governorship after Louis Wiltz died, and retained the office until 1888. Amid allegations of corruption, Samuel McEnery was not re-elected that year, State of Louisiana – Biography National Governors Association Cemetery Memorial by La-Cemeteries John McEnery at Find a Grave
42.
History of New Orleans
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In the 19th century, it was the largest port in the South, exporting most of the nations cotton output and other products to Western Europe and New England. It was the largest and most important city in the South, the land mass that was to become the city of New Orleans was formed around 2200 BC when the Mississippi River deposited silt creating the delta which would be New Orleans. Before Europeans founded what would become known as the city of New Orleans, the Mississippian culture peoples built mounds and earthworks in the area. Later Native Americans created a portage between the headwaters of Bayou St. John and the Mississippi River, the bayou flowed into Lake Pontchartrain. This became an important trade route, by the end of the decade, the French made an encampment called Port Bayou St. Jean near the head of the bayou, this would later be known as the Faubourg St. John neighborhood. The French also built a fort, St. Jean at the mouth of the bayou in 1701. These early European settlements are now within the limits of the city of New Orleans, New Orleans was founded in 1718 by the French as Nouvelle-Orléans, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville. From its founding, the French intended it to be an important colonial city, the city was named in honor of the then Regent of France, Philip II, Duke of Orléans. In 1722, Nouvelle-Orléans was made the capital of French Louisiana, in September of that year, a hurricane struck the city, blowing most of the structures down. After this, the administrators enforced the grid pattern dictated by Bienville and this grid plan is still seen today in the streets of the citys French Quarter. A third body of water, Lake Borgne, was originally an inlet of the sea. This was to compensate Spain for the loss of Florida to the British, no Spanish governor came to take control until 1766. French and German settlers, hoping to restore New Orleans to French control, a year later, the Spanish reasserted control, executing five ringleaders and sending five plotters to a prison in Cuba, and formally instituting Spanish law. Other members of the rebellion were forgiven as long as they pledged loyalty to Spain, although a Spanish governor was in New Orleans, it was under the jurisdiction of the Spanish garrison in Cuba. In the final third of the Spanish period, two massive fires burned the majority of the citys buildings. The Great New Orleans Fire of 1788 destroyed 856 buildings in the city on Good Friday, in December 1794 another fire destroyed 212 buildings. After the fires, the city was rebuilt with bricks, replacing the wooden buildings constructed in the early colonial period. Much of the 18th-century architecture still present in the French Quarter was built during this time, louis Cathedral, the Cabildo and the Presbytere
43.
Black Legion (political movement)
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The Legion became active in chapters throughout Ohio. One of its leaders, Virgil Bert Effinger, lived and worked in Lima. In 1931 a chapter was formed in Highland Park, Michigan and its members were generally native-born Protestant men, many of whom had previously migrated from the South. One third of the lived in Detroit, which had also been a strong center of KKK activity in the 1920s. In May 1936 Charles A. Poole, a Works Progress Administration organizer, was kidnapped from home by a gang of Black Legion members, authorities arrested and prosecuted a gang of twelve men affiliated with the Legion. Dayton Dean pleaded guilty and testified against numerous other members, ten others were convicted of the murder, Dean and the others were all sentenced to life in prison. Deans testimony and other evidence stimulated investigations and indictments into a series of other murders, another 37 men of the Legion were prosecuted for related crimes, convicted and sentenced to prison terms. The trials revealed the network of Black Legion members in local governments, particularly in Highland Park. Members included a mayor, chief of police, and city councilman. Following the convictions, membership in the Legion dropped quickly, its reign of terror ended in the Detroit area, in 1931 a unit was founded in Michigan by Arthur F. Lupp, Sr. of Highland Park, who styled himself its major general. The Michigan Legion was organized along lines, with 5 brigades,16 regiments,64 battalions. Its members boasted of one million Legionnaires in Michigan, but observers estimated that it only had between 20,000 and 30,000 members in the state in the 1930s, one third of them were located in Detroit, with many of them living in Highland Park. They resented having to compete with immigrants and black migrants for jobs. Their enemies list included all immigrants, Catholics, Jews and blacks, nontraditional Protestant faiths, labor unions, farm cooperatives, membership was concentrated in Michigan and Ohio. In the early 20th century, the Ku Klux Klan had undergone a revival, with a membership in the urban areas of the Midwest by the 1920s, including Detroit, Cleveland. A national leadership scandal in the mid-1920s caused its membership to drop rapidly, Black Legion members created a network for jobs and influence. They generally opposed socialism and union organizing, and had a reputation for frequent violence against alleged enemies, from 1933 to 1936, they were rumored to be responsible for some unsolved deaths, which had been officially attributed to suicide or unknown perpetrators. On May 12,1936, Charles A. Poole, a Works Progress Administration organizer, was kidnapped by a gang of the Black Legion, an ethnic French Catholic married to a Protestant woman, he was shot and killed that night by Dayton Dean
44.
Maury County, Tennessee
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Maury County is a county located in the U. S. state of Tennessee, in the Middle Tennessee region. As of the 2010 census, the population was 80,956, Maury County is part of the Nashville-Davidson-Murfreesboro-Franklin, TN Metropolitan Statistical Area. The county was formed in 1807 from Williamson County and Indian lands, Maury County was named in honor of Major Abram Poindexter Maury of Williamson County, who was a member of the Tennessee legislature, and an uncle of Commodore Matthew Fontaine Maury. The rich soil of Maury County led to an agricultural sector. The county was part of a 41-county region that became known, the area contains the majority of population in the state. Planters in Maury County formerly relied on the labor of African-American slaves to raise and process cotton, tobacco, with the mechanization of agriculture, particularly from the 1930s, the need for farm labor in the county was reduced. Also, many African Americans moved to northern and midwestern cities in the 20th century for the employment opportunities. This movement out of the county continued after World War II, other changes have led to increased population since the late 20th century, and the county has led the state in beef cattle production. On the night of February 26–27,1946, a known as the Columbia Race Riot took place in Columbia. It began when James Stephenson, an African-American Navy veteran, was in a store when his mother complained about being overcharged for poor repairs, a white repair apprentice, Billy Fleming struck the woman. Stephenson had been a welterweight on the Navy boxing team and promptly sent Fleming through a glass window, both Stephenson and his mother were arrested, and Flemings father convinced the sheriff to charge them with attempted murder. When they learned that Fleming had gone to a hospital, a mob gathered. Julius Blair, a 76-year-old store owner in the black community and he drove them out of town for their protection. The mob did not disperse, but about one hundred black men patrolled their neighborhood, four police officers were ambushed while walking in Mink Slide, the name for the African-American business district, also known as The Bottom. After this attack on the police, state troopers were sent as reinforcements, the state troopers began ransacking businesses and rounding up African Americans. They cut off service to Mink Slide, but the owner of a funeral home managed to call Nashville. The county jail was overcrowded with black suspects, who were questioned for days without counsel, two black men were killed trying to escape. More than 20 black men were charged with rioting and attempted murder
