1.
Wikimedia Foundation
–
The Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. is an American non-profit and charitable organization headquartered in San Francisco, California. It is mostly known for participating in the Wikimedia movement and it owns the internet domain names of most movement projects and hosts sites like Wikipedia. The foundation was founded in 2003 by Jimmy Wales as a way to fund Wikipedia, as of 2015, the foundation employs over 280 people, with annual revenues in excess of US$75 million. Christophe Henner is chairman of the board, Katherine Maher is the executive director since March 2016. The Wikimedia Foundation has stated its goal is to develop and maintain open content, wiki-based projects, another main objective of the Wikimedia Foundation is political advocacy. The Wikimedia Foundation was granted section 501 status by the U. S, internal Revenue Code as a public charity in 2005. Its National Taxonomy of Exempt Entities code is B60, the foundations by-laws declare a statement of purpose of collecting and developing educational content and to disseminate it effectively and globally. In 2001, Jimmy Wales, an Internet entrepreneur, and Larry Sanger, the project was originally funded by Bomis, Wales for-profit business. As Wikipedias popularity skyrocketed, revenues to fund the project stalled, since Wikipedia was depleting Bomis resources, Wales and Sanger thought of a charity model to fund the project. The Wikimedia Foundation was incorporated in Florida on June 20,2003 and it applied to the United States Patent and Trademark Office to trademark Wikipedia on September 17,2004. The mark was granted status on January 10,2006. Trademark protection was accorded by Japan on December 16,2004, there were plans to license the use of the Wikipedia trademark for some products, such as books or DVDs. In April 2005, the U. S. Accordingly, the by-laws were amended to remove all reference to membership rights, the decision to change the bylaws was passed by the board unanimously. On September 25,2007, the board gave notice that the operations would be moving to the San Francisco Bay Area. Lila Tretikov was appointed director of the Wikimedia Foundation in May 2014. Former chief communications officer Katherine Maher was appointed the executive director. In addition to Wikipedia, the foundation operates other wikis that follow the free content model with their goal being the dissemination of knowledge. These include, Several additional projects exist to provide infrastructure or coordination of the free knowledge projects, for instance, a wiki helps coordinate work on MediaWiki software and Outreach gives guidelines for best practices on encouraging the use of Wikimedia sites
Wikimedia Foundation
–
Executive director
Lila Tretikov, 2014
Wikimedia Foundation
–
Logo of the Wikimedia Foundation
Wikimedia Foundation
–
Wikimedia Foundation servers
Wikimedia Foundation
–
Wikimedia Foundation and chapters finance meeting 2012, Paris
2.
Slogan
–
The Oxford Dictionary of English defines a slogan as a short and striking or memorable phrase used in advertising. A slogan usually has the attributes of being memorable, very concise and these attributes are necessary in a slogan, as it is only a short phrase. Therefore, it is necessary for slogans to be memorable, as well as concise in what the organisation or brand is trying to say, the word slogan is derived from slogorn which was an Anglicisation of the Scottish Gaelic and Irish sluagh-ghairm. Slogans vary from the written and the visual to the chanted and their simple rhetorical nature usually leaves little room for detail and a chanted slogan may serve more as social expression of unified purpose than as communication to an intended audience. George E. Shankels research states that, English-speaking people began using the term by 1704, the term at that time meant the distinctive note, phrase or cry of any person or body of persons. Slogans were common throughout the European continent during the Middle Ages, crimmins research suggests that brands are an extremely valuable corporate asset, and can make up a lot of a businesss total value. With this in mind, if we take into consideration Kellers research and these include, name, logo and slogan. Brands names and logos both can be changed by the way the receiver interprets them, therefore, the slogan has a large job in portraying the brand. Therefore, the slogan should create a sense of likability in order for the name to be likable. Dass, Kumar, Kohli, & Thomas research suggests there are certain factors that make up the likability of a slogan. The clarity of the message the brand is trying to encode within the slogan, the slogan emphasizes the benefit of the product or service it is portraying. The creativity of a slogan is another factor that had an effect on the likability of a slogan. Lastly, leaving the name out of the slogan will have a positive effect on the likability of the brand itself. The original usage refers to the usage as a clan motto among Highland clans, marketing slogans are often called taglines in the United States or straplines in the United Kingdom. Europeans use the terms baselines, signatures, claims or pay-offs, sloganeering is a mostly derogatory term for activity which degrades discourse to the level of slogans. Slogans are used to convey a message about the product, service or cause that it is representing and it can have a musical tone to it or written as a song. Slogans are often used to capture the attention of the audience it is trying to reach, if the slogan is used for commercial purposes, often it is written to be memorable/catchy in order for a consumer to associate the slogan with the product it is representing. A slogan is part of the aspect that helps create an image for the product
Slogan
–
In 1995,
FDA's assertion of authority to regulate
tobacco drew heavy opposition from the tobacco community, which erupted into lawsuits and slogans urging "Keep FDA Off the Farm."
3.
Alexa Internet
–
Alexa Internet, Inc. is a California-based company that provides commercial web traffic data and analytics. It is an owned subsidiary of Amazon. com. Founded as an independent company in 1996, Alexa was acquired by Amazon in 1999 and its toolbar collects data on browsing behavior and transmits them to the Alexa website, where they are stored and analyzed. This is the basis for the web traffic reporting. According to its website, Alexa provides traffic data, global rankings, as of 2015, its website has been visited by over 6.5 million people monthly. Alexa Internet was founded in April 1996 by American web entrepreneurs Brewster Kahle, Alexa initially offered a toolbar that gave Internet users suggestions on where to go next, based on the traffic patterns of its user community. The company also offered context for each site visited, to whom it was registered, how many pages it had, how other sites pointed to it. Alexas operations grew to include archiving of web pages as they are crawled and this database served as the basis for the creation of the Internet Archive accessible through the Wayback Machine. In 1998, the company donated a copy of the archive, Alexa continues to supply the Internet Archive with Web crawls. In 1999, as the company moved away from its vision of providing an intelligent search engine. Alexa began a partnership with Google in early 2002, and with the web directory DMOZ in January 2003, in May 2006, replaced Google with Bing as a provider of search results. In December 2006, Amazon released Alexa Image Search, built in-house, it was the first major application built on the companys Web platform. In December 2005, Alexa opened its extensive search index and Web-crawling facilities to third-party programs through a set of Web services. These could be used, for instance, to construct vertical search engines that could run on Alexas own servers or elsewhere. In May 2007, Alexa changed their API to limit comparisons to three websites, reduce the size of embedded graphs in Flash, and add mandatory embedded BritePic advertisements. In April 2007, the company filed a lawsuit, Alexa v. Hornbaker, in the lawsuit, Alexa alleged that Ron Hornbaker was stealing traffic graphs for profit, and that the primary purpose of his site was to display graphs that were generated by Alexas servers. Hornbaker removed the term Alexa from his name on March 19,2007. Thereafter, Alexa became a purely analytics-focused company, on March 31,2009, Alexa launched a major website redesign
Alexa Internet
–
Alexa Internet, Inc.
Alexa Internet
–
2014 screenshot of Alexa.com home page
4.
Free content
–
Free content, libre content, or free information, is any kind of functional work, work of art, or other creative content that meets the definition of a free cultural work. Free content encompasses all works in the domain and also those copyrighted works whose licenses honor. Although there are a great many different definitions in regular use, free content is legally very similar, if not like an identical twin. An analogy is the use of the terms free software and open source. For instance, the Open Knowledge Foundations Open Definition describes open as synonymous to the definition of free in the Definition of Free Cultural Works, for such free/open content both movements recommend the same three Creative Commons licenses, the CC BY, CC BY-SA, and CC0. Copyright is a concept, which gives the author or creator of a work legal control over the duplication. In many jurisdictions, this is limited by a period after which the works then enter the public domain. Copyright laws are a balance between the rights of creators of intellectual and artistic works and the rights of others to build upon those works. During the time period of copyright the authors work may only be copied, modified, or publicly performed with the consent of the author, unless the use is a fair use. Traditional copyright control limits the use of the work of the author to those who pay royalties to the author for usage of the authors content. Secondly it limits the use of content whose author cannot be found, a public domain work is a work whose author has either relinquished to the public, or no longer can claim control over, the distribution and usage of the work. As such any person may manipulate, distribute, or otherwise utilize the work, a work in the public domain or released under a permissive licence may be referred to as copycenter. Copyleft is a play on the copyright and describes the practice of using copyright law to remove restrictions on distributing copies. The aim of copyleft is to use the framework of copyright to enable non-author parties to be able to reuse and, in many licensing schemes. Copyleft licenses require that any derivative works be distributed under the terms. A symbol commonly associated with copyleft is a reversal of the symbol, facing the other way. Unlike the copyright symbol, the symbol does not have a codified meaning. Projects that provide free content exist in areas of interest, such as software, academic literature, general literature, music, images, video
Free content
–
copyright
5.
Wiki
–
A wiki is a website that provides collaborative modification of its content and structure directly from the web browser. In a typical wiki, text is written using a markup language. A wiki is run using wiki software, otherwise known as a wiki engine, there are dozens of different wiki engines in use, both standalone and part of other software, such as bug tracking systems. Some wiki engines are open source, whereas others are proprietary, some permit control over different functions, for example, editing rights may permit changing, adding or removing material. Others may permit access without enforcing access control, other rules may also be imposed to organize content. Wikipedia is not a wiki but rather a collection of hundreds of wikis. There are at least tens of thousands of other wikis in use, both public and private, including functioning as knowledge management resources, notetaking tools, community websites. The English-language Wikipedia has the largest collection of articles, as of September 2016, ward Cunningham, the developer of the first wiki software, WikiWikiWeb, originally described it as the simplest online database that could possibly work. Wiki is a Hawaiian word meaning quick, Wiki promotes meaningful topic associations between different pages by making page link creation intuitively easy and showing whether an intended target page exists or not. A wiki is not a carefully crafted site created by experts and professional writers, instead, it seeks to involve the typical visitor/user in an ongoing process of creation and collaboration that constantly changes the website landscape. A wiki enables communities of editors and contributors to write documents collaboratively, all that people require to contribute is a computer, Internet access, a web browser and a basic understanding of a simple markup language. A single page in a website is referred to as a wiki page, while the entire collection of pages. A wiki is essentially a database for creating, browsing, a wiki allows non-linear, evolving, complex and networked text, while also allowing for editor argument, debate and interaction regarding the content and formatting. A defining characteristic of wiki technology is the ease with which pages can be created and updated, generally, there is no review by a moderator or gatekeeper before modifications are accepted and thus lead to changes on the website. Many wikis are open to alteration by the public without requiring registration of user accounts. Many edits can be made in real-time and appear almost instantly online, however, this feature facilitates abuse of the system. Private wiki servers require user authentication to edit pages, and sometimes even to read them, maged N. Kamel Boulos, Cito Maramba and Steve Wheeler write that the open wikis produce a process of Social Darwinism. Unfit sentences and sections are ruthlessly culled, edited and replaced if they are not considered fit, while such openness may invite vandalism and the posting of untrue information, this same openness also makes it possible to rapidly correct or restore a quality wiki page
Wiki
–
Ward Cunningham, inventor of the wiki
Wiki
Wiki
–
Wiki Wiki Shuttle at
Honolulu International Airport
Wiki
–
Homepage of Wikipedia
6.
Project Gutenberg
–
Project Gutenberg is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, to encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks. It was founded in 1971 by Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital library, most of the items in its collection are the full texts of public domain books. The project tries to make these as free as possible, in long-lasting, as of 3 October 2015, Project Gutenberg reached 50,000 items in its collection. The releases are available in plain text but, wherever possible, other formats are included, such as HTML, PDF, EPUB, MOBI, most releases are in the English language, but many non-English works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, including regional, Project Gutenberg is also closely affiliated with Distributed Proofreaders, an Internet-based community for proofreading scanned texts. Project Gutenberg was started by Michael Hart in 1971 with the digitization of the United States Declaration of Independence, Hart, a student at the University of Illinois, obtained access to a Xerox Sigma V mainframe computer in the universitys Materials Research Lab. Through friendly operators, he received an account with an unlimited amount of computer time. Hart has said he wanted to back this gift by doing something that could be considered to be of great value. His initial goal was to make the 10,000 most consulted books available to the public at little or no charge and this particular computer was one of the 15 nodes on ARPANET, the computer network that would become the Internet. Hart believed that computers would one day be accessible to the general public and he used a copy of the United States Declaration of Independence in his backpack, and this became the first Project Gutenberg e-text. He named the project after Johannes Gutenberg, the fifteenth century German printer who propelled the movable type printing press revolution, by the mid-1990s, Hart was running Project Gutenberg from Illinois Benedictine College. More volunteers had joined the effort, all of the text was entered manually until 1989 when image scanners and optical character recognition software improved and became more widely available, which made book scanning more feasible. Hart later came to an arrangement with Carnegie Mellon University, which agreed to administer Project Gutenbergs finances, as the volume of e-texts increased, volunteers began to take over the projects day-to-day operations that Hart had run. Starting in 2004, an online catalog made Project Gutenberg content easier to browse, access. Project Gutenberg is now hosted by ibiblio at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Italian volunteer Pietro Di Miceli developed and administered the first Project Gutenberg website and started the development of the Project online Catalog. In his ten years in this role, the Project web pages won a number of awards, often being featured in best of the Web listings, Hart died on 6 September 2011 at his home in Urbana, Illinois at the age of 64. In 2000, a corporation, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Long-time Project Gutenberg volunteer Gregory Newby became the foundations first CEO, also in 2000, Charles Franks founded Distributed Proofreaders, which allowed the proofreading of scanned texts to be distributed among many volunteers over the Internet
Project Gutenberg
–
Michael Hart (left) and Gregory Newby (right) of Project Gutenberg, 2006
Project Gutenberg
–
Project Gutenberg
Project Gutenberg
–
Formats
7.
Domain name
–
A domain name is an identification string that defines a realm of administrative autonomy, authority or control within the Internet. Domain names are formed by the rules and procedures of the Domain Name System, any name registered in the DNS is a domain name. Domain names are used in various networking contexts and application-specific naming and addressing purposes, in 2015,294 million domain names had been registered. Domain names are organized in levels of the DNS root domain. The registration of domain names is usually administered by domain name registrars who sell their services to the public. A fully qualified domain name is a name that is completely specified with all labels in the hierarchy of the DNS. A domain name may represent entire collections of resources or individual instances. Individual Internet host computers use domain names as host identifiers, also called host names, the term host name is also used for the leaf labels in the domain name system, usually without further subordinate domain name space. Host names appear as a component in Uniform Resource Locators for Internet resources such as web sites, Domain names are also used as simple identification labels to indicate ownership or control of a resource. Such examples are the realm identifiers used in the Session Initiation Protocol, the Domain Keys used to verify DNS domains in e-mail systems, an important function of domain names is to provide easily recognizable and memorizable names to numerically addressed Internet resources. This abstraction allows any resource to be moved to a different physical location in the topology of the network. Such a move usually requires changing the IP address of a resource, Domain names are used to establish a unique identity. Organizations can choose a name that corresponds to their name. A generic domain is a name that defines a category, rather than a specific or personal instance, for example. Some examples of names are books. com, music. com. Companies have created brands based on names, and such generic domain names may be valuable. The use of names in commerce may subject them to trademark law. The practice of using a simple memorable abstraction of a hosts numerical address on a computer network dates back to the ARPANET era, before the advent of todays commercial Internet
Domain name
–
channelsurfing.net
Domain name
–
The hierarchy of labels in a fully qualified domain name.
8.
National Archives and Records Administration
–
The NARA also transmits votes of the Electoral College to Congress. The chief administrator of NARA is the Archivist of the United States, the Archivist of the United States is the chief official overseeing the operation of the National Archives and Records Administration. The Archivist not only maintains the official documentation of the passage of amendments to the U. S, Constitution by state legislatures, but has the authority to declare when the constitutional threshold for passage has been reached, and therefore when an act has become an amendment. The Office of the Federal Register publishes the Federal Register, Code of Federal Regulations and it also administers the Electoral College. Since 1964, the NHPRC has awarded some 4,500 grants, the Office of Government Information Services is a Freedom of Information Act resource for the public and the government. Congress has charged NARA with reviewing FOIA policies, procedures and compliance of Federal agencies, NARAs mission also includes resolving FOIA disputes between Federal agencies and requesters. Originally, each branch and agency of the U. S. government was responsible for maintaining its own documents, Congress established the National Archives Establishment in 1934 to centralize federal record keeping, with the Archivist of the United States as chief administrator. The National Archives was incorporated with GSA in 1949, in 1985 it became an independent agency as NARA, connor, began serving in 1934, when the National Archives was established by Congress. As a result of a first Hoover Commission recommendation, in 1949 the National Archives was placed within the newly formed General Services Administration. The Archivist served as an official to the GSA Administrator until the National Archives. An audit indicated that more than one third withdrawn since 1999 did not contain sensitive information, the program was originally scheduled to end in 2007. In 2011, a retired employee pleaded guilty to stealing original sound recordings from the archives, Archival Recovery Teams investigate the theft of records. NARAs holdings are classed into record groups reflecting the governmental department or agency from which they originated, Records include paper documents, microfilm, still pictures, motion pictures, and electronic media. Archival descriptions of the permanent holdings of the government in the custody of NARA are stored in the National Archives Catalog. The archival descriptions include information on traditional paper holdings, electronic records, as of December 2012, the catalog consisted of about 10 billion logical data records describing 527,000 artifacts and encompassing 81% of NARAs records. There are also 922,000 digital copies of already digitized materials, most records at NARA are in the public domain, as works of the federal government are excluded from copyright protection. However, records from other sources may still be protected by copyright or donor agreements and its Information Security Oversight Office monitors and sets policy for the U. S. governments security classification system. Many of NARAs most requested records are used for genealogy research
National Archives and Records Administration
–
Rotunda of the National Archives Building
National Archives and Records Administration
–
Seal
National Archives and Records Administration
–
The
National Archives Building from
Constitution Avenue
National Archives and Records Administration
–
NARA facility near the
University of Maryland, College Park
9.
Public domain
–
The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
Public domain
–
Newton's own copy of his
Principia, with hand-written corrections for the second edition
Public domain
–
L.H.O.O.Q. (1919). Derivative work by the
Dadaist Marcel Duchamp based on the
Mona Lisa.
10.
Freely licensed
–
Free content, libre content, or free information, is any kind of functional work, work of art, or other creative content that meets the definition of a free cultural work. Free content encompasses all works in the domain and also those copyrighted works whose licenses honor. Although there are a great many different definitions in regular use, free content is legally very similar, if not like an identical twin. An analogy is the use of the terms free software and open source. For instance, the Open Knowledge Foundations Open Definition describes open as synonymous to the definition of free in the Definition of Free Cultural Works, for such free/open content both movements recommend the same three Creative Commons licenses, the CC BY, CC BY-SA, and CC0. Copyright is a concept, which gives the author or creator of a work legal control over the duplication. In many jurisdictions, this is limited by a period after which the works then enter the public domain. Copyright laws are a balance between the rights of creators of intellectual and artistic works and the rights of others to build upon those works. During the time period of copyright the authors work may only be copied, modified, or publicly performed with the consent of the author, unless the use is a fair use. Traditional copyright control limits the use of the work of the author to those who pay royalties to the author for usage of the authors content. Secondly it limits the use of content whose author cannot be found, a public domain work is a work whose author has either relinquished to the public, or no longer can claim control over, the distribution and usage of the work. As such any person may manipulate, distribute, or otherwise utilize the work, a work in the public domain or released under a permissive licence may be referred to as copycenter. Copyleft is a play on the copyright and describes the practice of using copyright law to remove restrictions on distributing copies. The aim of copyleft is to use the framework of copyright to enable non-author parties to be able to reuse and, in many licensing schemes. Copyleft licenses require that any derivative works be distributed under the terms. A symbol commonly associated with copyleft is a reversal of the symbol, facing the other way. Unlike the copyright symbol, the symbol does not have a codified meaning. Projects that provide free content exist in areas of interest, such as software, academic literature, general literature, music, images, video
Freely licensed
–
copyright
11.
Audiobook
–
An audiobook is a recording of a text being read. A reading of the text is noted as unabridged, while readings of a reduced version. Spoken audio has been available in schools and public libraries and to an extent in music shops since the 1930s. Many spoken word albums were made prior to the age of videocassettes, DVDs, compact discs and it was not until the 1980s that the medium began to attract book retailers, and then book retailers started displaying audiobooks on bookshelves rather than in separate displays. In 1994, the Audio Publishers Association established the term audiobook as the industry standard, Spoken word recordings first became possible with the invention of the phonograph by Thomas Edison in 1877. Phonographic books were one of the original applications envisioned by Edison which would speak to people without effort on their part. The initial words spoken into the phonograph were Edisons recital of Mary Had a Little Lamb, one early listener complained that he would need a wheelbarrow to carry around talking books recorded on discs with such limited storage capacity. By the 1930s close-grooved records increased to 20 minutes making possible longer narrative, the first test recordings in 1932 included a chapter from Helen Kellers Midstream and Edgar Allan Poes The Raven. The organization received approval for exemption from copyright and free postal distribution of talking books. M. Delafield, Cora Jarrett, Rudyard Kipling, John Masefield, Macdonald mobilized the women of the Auxiliary under the motto Education is a right, not a privilege. In 1952, Macdonald established recording studios in seven cities across the United States. Caedmon Records was a pioneer in the business, it was the first company dedicated to selling spoken work recordings to the public and has been called the seed of the audiobook industry. Caedmon was formed in New York in 1952 by college graduates Barbara Holdridge and their first release was a collection of poems by Dylan Thomas as read by the author. The original 1952 recording was a selection for the 2008 United States National Recording Registry, Listening Library was also a pioneering company, it was one of the first to distribute childrens audiobooks to schools, libraries and other special markets, including VA hospitals. It was founded by Anthony Ditlow and his wife in 1955 in their Red Bank, New Jersey home, like Caedemon, Listening Library and Spoken Arts benefited from the new technology of LPs, but also increased governmental funding for schools and libraries beginning in the 1950s and 60s. Cassette tapes were invented in 1963 and a few libraries, such as the Library of Congress, however, during the 1970s, a number of technological innovations allowed the cassette tape wider usage in libraries and also spawned the creation of new commercial audiobook market. In the early 1970s, instructional recordings were among the first commercial products sold on cassette, there were 8 companies distributing materials on cassette with titles such as Managing and Selling Companies and Executive Seminar in Sound on a series of 60-minute cassettes. His company, the Maryland-based Recorded Books, followed the model of Books on Tape but with higher quality studio recordings, Recorded Books and Chivers Audio Books were the first to develop integrated production teams and to work with professional actors
Audiobook
–
Caption reads: "The phonograph at home reading out a novel." From Daily Graphic (New York), April 2, 1878. Less than a year after the invention of the phonograph, this drawing offered a future vision. Novels however would remain impractical for phonographs until the 1930s.
Audiobook
–
An audiobook collection in a library
Audiobook
–
Example of an audio studio of professional readings.
12.
URL
–
A Uniform Resource Locator, commonly informally termed a web address is a reference to a web resource that specifies its location on a computer network and a mechanism for retrieving it. A URL is a type of Uniform Resource Identifier, although many people use the two terms interchangeably. A URL implies the means to access a resource and is denoted by a protocol or an access mechanism. Thus http, //www. example. com is an URL, URLs occur most commonly to reference web pages, but are also used for file transfer, email, database access, and many other applications. Most web browsers display the URL of a web page above the page in an address bar, a typical URL could have the form http, //www. example. com/index. html, which indicates a protocol, a hostname, and a file name. The format combines the pre-existing system of names with file path syntax. Conventions already existed where server names could be prefixed to complete file paths, every HTTP URL conforms to the syntax of a generic URI. Although schemes are case-insensitive, the form is lowercase and documents that specify schemes must do so with lowercase letters. It is followed by a colon, examples of popular schemes include http, ftp, mailto, file, data, and irc. URI schemes should be registered with the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, two slashes, This is required by some schemes and not required by some others. When the authority component is absent, the path component cannot begin with two slashes, iPv4 addresses must be in dot-decimal notation, and IPv6 addresses must be enclosed in brackets. An optional port number, separated from the hostname by a colon A path, which contains data, usually organized in hierarchical form, such a sequence may resemble or map exactly to a file system path, but does not always imply a relation to one. The path must begin with a single slash if an authority part was present, and may also if one was not, but must not begin with a double slash. The path is defined, though the defined path may be empty An optional query, separated from the preceding part by a question mark. Its syntax is not well defined, but by convention is most often a sequence of attribute–value pairs separated by a delimiter, an optional fragment, separated from the preceding part by a hash. The fragment contains a fragment identifier providing direction to a secondary resource, when the primary resource is an HTML document, the fragment is often an id attribute of a specific element, and web browsers will scroll this element into view. A web browser will usually dereference a URL by performing an HTTP request to the specified host, URLs using the https scheme require that requests and responses will be made over a secure connection to the website. Internet users are distributed throughout the world using a variety of languages and alphabets
URL
–
This
Euler diagram shows that a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) is either a Uniform Resource Locator (URL), a
Uniform Resource Name (URN), or both.
13.
Edit war
–
A wiki is a website that provides collaborative modification of its content and structure directly from the web browser. In a typical wiki, text is written using a markup language. A wiki is run using wiki software, otherwise known as a wiki engine, there are dozens of different wiki engines in use, both standalone and part of other software, such as bug tracking systems. Some wiki engines are open source, whereas others are proprietary, some permit control over different functions, for example, editing rights may permit changing, adding or removing material. Others may permit access without enforcing access control, other rules may also be imposed to organize content. Wikipedia is not a wiki but rather a collection of hundreds of wikis. There are at least tens of thousands of other wikis in use, both public and private, including functioning as knowledge management resources, notetaking tools, community websites. The English-language Wikipedia has the largest collection of articles, as of September 2016, ward Cunningham, the developer of the first wiki software, WikiWikiWeb, originally described it as the simplest online database that could possibly work. Wiki is a Hawaiian word meaning quick, Wiki promotes meaningful topic associations between different pages by making page link creation intuitively easy and showing whether an intended target page exists or not. A wiki is not a carefully crafted site created by experts and professional writers, instead, it seeks to involve the typical visitor/user in an ongoing process of creation and collaboration that constantly changes the website landscape. A wiki enables communities of editors and contributors to write documents collaboratively, all that people require to contribute is a computer, Internet access, a web browser and a basic understanding of a simple markup language. A single page in a website is referred to as a wiki page, while the entire collection of pages. A wiki is essentially a database for creating, browsing, a wiki allows non-linear, evolving, complex and networked text, while also allowing for editor argument, debate and interaction regarding the content and formatting. A defining characteristic of wiki technology is the ease with which pages can be created and updated, generally, there is no review by a moderator or gatekeeper before modifications are accepted and thus lead to changes on the website. Many wikis are open to alteration by the public without requiring registration of user accounts. Many edits can be made in real-time and appear almost instantly online, however, this feature facilitates abuse of the system. Private wiki servers require user authentication to edit pages, and sometimes even to read them, maged N. Kamel Boulos, Cito Maramba and Steve Wheeler write that the open wikis produce a process of Social Darwinism. Unfit sentences and sections are ruthlessly culled, edited and replaced if they are not considered fit, while such openness may invite vandalism and the posting of untrue information, this same openness also makes it possible to rapidly correct or restore a quality wiki page
Edit war
–
Ward Cunningham, inventor of the wiki
Edit war
–
Wiki Wiki Shuttle at
Honolulu International Airport
Edit war
–
Homepage of Wikipedia
14.
Nupedia
–
It was founded by Jimmy Wales and underwritten by Bomis, with Larry Sanger as editor-in-chief. Nupedia lasted from October 1999 until September 2003 and it is mostly known now as the predecessor of Wikipedia, but Nupedia had a seven-step approval process to control content of articles before being posted, rather than live wiki-based updating. Nupedia wanted scholars to volunteer content, before it ceased operating, Nupedia produced 25 approved articles that had completed its review process, and 74 more articles were in progress. Jimmy Wales preferred Wikipedias easier posting of articles, but Larry Sanger wanted to control content at Nupedia and founded Citizendium instead. In June 2008, CNET UK listed Nupedia as one of the greatest defunct websites in the still young internet history, in October 1999, Jimmy Wales began thinking about an online encyclopedia built by volunteers and, in January 2000, hired Larry Sanger to oversee its development. The project officially went online on March 9,2000, by November 2000, however, only two full-length articles had been published. From its beginning, Nupedia was a free content encyclopedia, with Bomis intending to generate revenue from online ads on Nupedia. com, initially the project used a homegrown license, the Nupedia Open Content License. In January 2001, it switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman, also in January 2001, Nupedia started Wikipedia as a side-project to allow collaboration on articles before entering the peer review process. This attracted interest from both sides, as it provided the less bureaucratic structure favored by advocates of the GNE encyclopedia, as a result, GNE never really developed, and the threat of competition between the projects was averted. Besides leading to discontinuation of the GNE project, Wikipedia also led to the demise of Nupedia. After Sangers departure, Nupedia increasingly became an afterthought to Wikipedia, of the Nupedia articles that completed the review process, as Nupedia dwindled into inactivity, the idea of converting it into a stable version of approved Wikipedia articles was occasionally broached, but never implemented. The Nupedia website at nupedia. com was shut down on September 26,2003, Nupedias encyclopedic content, which was often described as limited, has since been assimilated into Wikipedia. Ruth Ifcher was someone Sanger depended upon and worked closely with on Nupedias early policies and procedures, ifner, holding several higher degrees, was a computer programmer and former copy editor and agreed to be volunteer chief copy editor. Nupedia was powered by NupeCode collaborative software, NupeCode is free/open source software designed for large peer review projects. The code was available via Nupedias CVS repository, one of the problems experienced by Nupedia during much of its existence was that the software lacked functionality. Much of the functionality had been mocked-up using underlined blocks of text which appeared to be hyperlinks. As part of the project, a new version of the software was under development. NuNupedia was implemented for testing at SourceForge, but never reached a sufficient stage of development to replace the original software, Larry Sanger, Nupedia. com Statement of Editorial Policy, Version 2.1, Printable Version dated May 10,2000
Nupedia
–
Nupedia
15.
Larry Sanger
–
Lawrence Mark Larry Sanger /sæŋər/ is an American Internet project developer, co-founder of Wikipedia, and the founder of Citizendium. He grew up in Anchorage, Alaska, from an early age he has been interested in philosophy. Sanger received a Bachelor of Arts in philosophy from Reed College in 1991, most of his philosophical work has focused on epistemology, the theory of knowledge. He has been involved with various online encyclopedia projects and he is the former editor-in-chief of Nupedia, chief organizer of its successor, Wikipedia, and founding editor-in-chief of Citizendium. From his position at Nupedia, he assembled the process for article development, Sanger proposed implementing a wiki, which led directly to the creation of Wikipedia. Initially Wikipedia was a project for Nupedia. He was Wikipedias early community leader and established many of its original policies, Sanger left Wikipedia in 2002, and has since been critical of the project. He states that, despite its merits, Wikipedia lacks credibility due to, among other things, in October 2006, Sanger started a somewhat similar encyclopedia to Wikipedia, Citizendium. Sanger has taught philosophy at Ohio State University and was an early strategist for the expert-authored Encyclopedia of Earth and he has worked on developing educational projects for individuals behind WatchKnowLearn. He has designed a web-based reading program named Reading Bear which aims to teach children how to read, in February 2013, he attempted to start a news crowdsourcing project named Infobitt, it ran out of money in mid-2015 without the code being ready to handle a fullscale launch. Sanger was born in Bellevue, Washington and his father was a marine biologist and his mother cared for the children. When he was seven years old, the moved to Anchorage. At an early age, he was interested in philosophical topics and he graduated from high school in 1986 and went off to Reed College, majoring in philosophy. In college he became interested in the Internet and its publishing abilities and he started and moderated a philosophy discussion list, the Association for Systematic Philosophy. Sanger wrote in 1994 a manifesto for the group, The history of philosophy is full of disagreement. One reaction by philosophers to this state of things is to doubt whether the truth about philosophy can ever be known, but there is another reaction, one may set out to think more carefully and methodically than ones intellectual forebears. Sanger received a Bachelor of Arts degree in philosophy from Reed College in 1991, a Master of Arts from Ohio State University in 1995, and a Doctor of Philosophy from Ohio State University in 2000. Beginning in 1998 he ran a website called Sangers Review of Y2K News Reports, in 2007, Sanger examined the possibilities for education online
Larry Sanger
–
Sanger in July 2006
Larry Sanger
–
The Bomis staff in the summer of 2000. Sanger is second from the left in the front row seated.
Larry Sanger
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Nupedia's logo
16.
Jimmy Wales
–
Jimmy Donal Jimbo Wales is an American Internet entrepreneur. He is the co-founder and promoter of the online non-profit encyclopedia Wikipedia, Wales was born in Huntsville, Alabama, where he attended Randolph School, a university-preparatory school. Later, he earned bachelors and masters degrees in Finance from Auburn University, in 1996, he and two partners founded Bomis, an adult web portal featuring entertainment and adult content. The company would provide the funding for the peer-reviewed free encyclopedia, Nupedia. He is historically cited as a co-founder of Wikipedia, though he has disputed the co- designation, Wales serves on the Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees, the non-profit charitable organization that he helped establish to operate Wikipedia, holding its board-appointed community founder seat. In 2004, he co-founded Wikia, a wiki hosting service. His role in creating Wikipedia, which has become the worlds largest encyclopedia, Wales was born in Huntsville, Alabama, shortly before midnight on August 7,1966, however, his birth certificate lists his date of birth as the 8th. As a child, Wales was a reader with an acute intellectual curiosity. When he was three, his mother bought a World Book Encyclopedia from a door-to-door salesman, as he grew up and learned to read, it became an object of reverence. But Wales soon discovered that the World Book had shortcomings, no matter how much was in it, there were only four other children in Waless grade, so the school grouped together the first through fourth-grade students and the fifth through eighth-grade students. After eighth grade, Wales attended Randolph School, a school in Huntsville. Wales said that the school was expensive for his family, and you know, the very traditional approach to knowledge and learning and establishing that as a base for a good life. He received his bachelors degree in finance from Auburn University in 1986 and he began his Auburn education when he was 16 years old. Wales then entered the PhD finance program at the University of Alabama before leaving with a degree to enter the PhD finance program at Indiana University. At the University of Alabama, he played Internet fantasy games and he taught at both universities during his postgraduate studies but did not write the doctoral dissertation required for a PhD, something he ascribed to boredom. In 1994, Wales took a job with Chicago Options Associates, Wales has described himself as having been addicted to the Internet from an early stage and he wrote computer code during his leisure time. In 1996, he and two partners founded Bomis, a web portal featuring user-generated webrings and, for a time, Wales described it as a guy-oriented search engine with a market similar to that of Maxim magazine, the Bomis venture did not ultimately turn out to be successful. Though Bomis had struggled to make money, it provided Wales with the funding to pursue his greater passion, while moderating an online discussion group devoted to the philosophy of Objectivism in the early 1990s, Wales had encountered Larry Sanger, a skeptic of the philosophy
Jimmy Wales
–
Wales in 2015
Jimmy Wales
Jimmy Wales
–
The staff of Wales's Internet company
Bomis photographed in summer 2000. Wales is third from the left in the back row, with his then-wife Christine.
Jimmy Wales
–
Nupedia 's logo
17.
Pashto language
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Pashto, known in Persian literature as Afghānistani and in Urdu and Hindi literature as Paṭhānī, is the South-Central Asian language of the Pashtuns. Its speakers are called Pashtuns or Pukhtuns and sometimes Afghans or Pathans and it is an Eastern Iranian language, belonging to the Indo-European family. Pashto is one of the two languages of Afghanistan, and it is the second-largest regional language of Pakistan, mainly spoken in the west and northwest of the country. Pakistans Federally Administered Tribal Areas are almost 100% Pashto-speaking, while it is the majority language of the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pashto is the main language among the Pashtun diaspora around the world. The total number of Pashto-speakers is estimated to be 45–60 million people worldwide, Pashto belongs to the Northeastern Iranian group of the Indo-Iranian branch, but Ethnologue lists it as Southeastern Iranian. Pashto has two main groups, “soft” and “hard”, the latter known as Pakhto. As a national language of Afghanistan, Pashto is primarily spoken in the east, south, and southwest, the exact numbers of speakers are unavailable, but different estimates show that Pashto is the mother tongue of 45–60% of the total population of Afghanistan. In Pakistan Pashto is spoken as a first language by about 15. 42% of Pakistans 170 million people and it is the main language of the Pashtun-majority regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Federally Administered Tribal Areas and northern Balochistan. It is also spoken in parts of Mianwali and Attock districts of the Punjab province and in Islamabad, modern Pashto-speaking communities are found in the cities of Karachi and Hyderabad in Sindh. Other communities of Pashto speakers are found in Tajikistan, and further in the Pashtun diaspora, there are also communities of Pashtun descent in the southwestern part of Jammu and Kashmir. Pashto is one of the two languages of Afghanistan, along with Dari. Since the early 18th century, all the kings of Afghanistan were ethnic Pashtuns except for Habibullah Kalakani, Persian as the literary language of the royal court was more widely used in government institutions while Pashto was spoken by the Pashtun tribes as their native tongue. Although officially strengthening the use of Pashto, the Afghan elite regarded Persian as a “sophisticated language, king Zahir Shah thus followed suit after his father Nadir Khan had decreed in 1933, that both Persian and Pashto were to be studied and utilized by officials. Thus Pashto became a language, a symbol for Afghan nationalism. The status of language was reaffirmed in 1964 by the constitutional assembly when Afghan Persian was officially renamed to Dari. The lyrics of the anthem of Afghanistan are in Pashto. In Pakistan, Urdu and English are the two official languages, Pashto has no official status at the federal level. On a provincial level, Pashto is the language of Khyber Pukhtunkhwa, Federally Administered Tribal Areas
Pashto language
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Pashto language on the map of Afghanistan.The brown areas speak Pashto.
Pashto language
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The word Pax̌tō written in the
Pashto alphabet
18.
Iceberg
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An iceberg or ice mountain is a large piece of freshwater ice that has broken off a glacier or an ice shelf and is floating freely in open water. It may subsequently become frozen into pack ice, as it drifts into shallower waters, it may come into contact with the seabed, a process referred to as seabed gouging by ice. Almost 91% of an iceberg is below the surface of the water, the word iceberg is a partial loan translation from Dutch ijsberg, literally meaning ice mountain, cognate to Danish isbjerg, German Eisberg, Low Saxon Iesbarg and Swedish isberg. Because the density of ice is about 920 kg/m³. The shape of the underwater portion can be difficult to judge by looking at the portion above the surface and this has led to the expression tip of the iceberg, for a problem or difficulty that is only a small manifestation of a larger problem. Icebergs generally range from 1 to 75 metres above sea level, the largest known iceberg in the North Atlantic was 168 metres above sea level, reported by the USCG icebreaker East Wind in 1958, making it the height of a 55-story building. These icebergs originate from the glaciers of western Greenland and may have a temperature of −15 to −20 °C. Icebergs are usually confined by winds and currents to move close to the coast, the largest icebergs recorded have been calved, or broken off, from the Ross Ice Shelf of Antarctica. Iceberg B-15, photographed by satellite in 2000, measured 295 by 37 kilometres and this iceberg was larger than Belgium. When a piece of ice melts, it makes a fizzing sound called Bergie Seltzer. This sound is made when the water-ice interface reaches compressed air trapped in the ice. As this happens, each bubble bursts, making a popping sound, the bubbles contain air trapped in snow layers very early in the history of the ice, that eventually got buried to a given depth and pressurized as it transformed into firn then to glacial ice. About a month later, this split into two pieces upon crashing into Joe Island in the Nares Strait next to Greenland. In June 2011, large fragments of the Petermann Ice Islands were observed off the Labrador coast, iceberg B-17B140 km2,1999, shipping alert issued December 2009. In addition to classification, icebergs can be classified on the basis of their shape. The two basic types of forms are tabular and non-tabular. Tabular icebergs have steep sides and a top, much like a plateau. This type of iceberg, also known as an ice island, can be quite large, Antarctic icebergs formed by breaking off from an ice shelf, such as the Ross Ice Shelf or Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf, are typically tabular
Iceberg
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An artist's impression of an iceberg viewed from the side, with the majority underwater
Iceberg
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Grotto in an iceberg, photographed during the
British Antarctic Expedition of 1911–1913, 5 Jan 1911. Photographer: Herbert Ponting, Alexander Turnbull Library
Iceberg
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The
calving of Iceberg A-38 off
Ronne Ice Shelf
Iceberg
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Iceberg A22A in the South
Atlantic Ocean
19.
MediaWiki
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MediaWiki is free and open-source wiki software. Originally developed by Magnus Manske and improved by Lee Daniel Crocker, it runs on many websites, including Wikipedia, Wiktionary and it is written in the PHP programming language and stores the contents into a database. Like WordPress, which is based on a licensing and architecture. The first version of the software was deployed to serve the needs of the Wikipedia encyclopedia in 2002, Wikipedia and other Wikimedia projects continue to define a large part of the requirement set for MediaWiki. The software is optimized to handle large projects, which can have terabytes of content. Because Wikipedia is one of the worlds largest websites, achieving scalability through multiple layers of caching, the software has more than 900 configuration settings and more than 2,200 extensions available for enabling various features to be added or changed. On Wikipedia alone, more than 1000 automated and semi-automated bots and this was done to eliminate legal issues arising from the help pages being imported into wikis with licenses that are incompatible with the Creative Commons license. MediaWiki development has generally favored the use of media formats. MediaWiki has a volunteer community for development and maintenance. There is also a group of paid programmers who primarily develop projects for the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikimedia participates in the Google Summer of Code by facilitating the assignment of mentors to students wishing to work on MediaWiki core, as of early November 2012, there were about two hundred developers who had committed changes to the MediaWiki core or extensions within the past year. MediaWiki also has a bug tracker, phabricator. wikimedia. org. The site is used for feature and enhancement requests. When Wikipedia was first launched in January 2001, it ran on the wiki software UseModWiki. This software soon proved limiting, both in its functionality and its performance and this software was written in PHP and stored all its information in a MySQL database. It launched on the English Wikipedia in January 2002, and was deployed on all the Wikipedia language sites of that time. This software was referred to as the PHP script and as phase II, increasing usage soon caused load problems again, and soon afterward, another rewrite of the software began, done by Lee Daniel Crocker, which was first known as phase III. This new software was written in PHP with a MySQL backend, and kept the basic interface of the phase II software
MediaWiki
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Brion Vibber in 2012
MediaWiki
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Official logo with slogan
MediaWiki
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Wikia also makes use of MediaWiki.
MediaWiki
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A
screenshot of a wiki using MediaWiki with a customized skin
20.
Image processing
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Most image-processing techniques involve treating the image as a two-dimensional signal and applying standard signal-processing techniques to it. Images are also processed as three-dimensional signals with the third-dimension being time or the z-axis, Image processing usually refers to digital image processing, but optical and analog image processing also are possible. This article is about general techniques that apply to all of them, the acquisition of images is referred to as imaging. Closely related to image processing are computer graphics and computer vision, in computer graphics, images are manually made from physical models of objects, environments, and lighting, instead of being acquired from natural scenes, as in most animated movies. In modern sciences and technologies, images also gain much broader scopes due to the growing importance of scientific visualization. Examples include microarray data in genetic research, or real-time multi-asset portfolio trading in finance, Image analysis Image sharpening Image smoothing Multidimensional systems Near sets Photo manipulation Image compression Tinku Acharya and Ajoy K. Ray. Image Processing - Principles and Applications, wilhelm Burger and Mark J. Burge. Digital Image Processing, An Algorithmic Approach Using Java, tony F. Chan and Jackie Shen. Image Processing and Analysis - Variational, PDE, Wavelet, society of Industrial and Applied Mathematics. Milan Sonka, Vaclav Hlavac and Roger Boyle, Image Processing, Analysis, and Machine Vision. Lectures on Image Processing, by Alan Peters
Image processing
–
Monochrome black/white image
21.
Portable Document Format
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The Portable Document Format is a file format used to present documents in a manner independent of application software, hardware, and operating systems. Each PDF file encapsulates a complete description of a fixed-layout flat document, including the text, fonts, graphics, PDF was developed in the early 1990s as a way to share computer documents, including text formatting and inline images. It was among a number of competing formats such as DjVu, Envoy, Common Ground Digital Paper, Farallon Replica, in those early years before the rise of the World Wide Web and HTML documents, PDF was popular mainly in desktop publishing workflows. Adobe Systems made the PDF specification available free of charge in 1993 and these proprietary technologies are not standardized and their specification is published only on Adobe’s website. Many of them are not supported by popular third-party implementations of PDF. So when organizations publish PDFs which use proprietary technologies, they present accessibility issues for some users. In 2014, ISO TC171 voted to deprecate XFA for ISO 32000-2, on January 9,2017, the final draft for ISO 32000-2 was published, thus reaching the approval stage. The PDF combines three technologies, A subset of the PostScript page description programming language, for generating the layout, a font-embedding/replacement system to allow fonts to travel with the documents. A structured storage system to bundle these elements and any associated content into a single file, PostScript is a page description language run in an interpreter to generate an image, a process requiring many resources. It can handle graphics and standard features of programming such as if. PDF is largely based on PostScript but simplified to remove flow control features like these, often, the PostScript-like PDF code is generated from a source PostScript file. The graphics commands that are output by the PostScript code are collected and tokenized, any files, graphics, or fonts to which the document refers also are collected. Then, everything is compressed to a single file, therefore, the entire PostScript world remains intact. PDF supports graphic transparency, PostScript does not, PostScript is an interpreted programming language with an implicit global state, so instructions accompanying the description of one page can affect the appearance of any following page. Therefore, all preceding pages in a PostScript document must be processed to determine the appearance of a given page. A PDF file is a 7-bit ASCII file, except for elements that may have binary content. A PDF file starts with a header containing the magic number, the format is a subset of a COS format. A COS tree file consists primarily of objects, of which there are eight types, Boolean values, representing true or false Numbers Strings, enclosed within parentheses, objects may be either direct or indirect
Portable Document Format
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Formats
Portable Document Format
–
Adobe PDF icon
22.
Wikimedia Commons
–
Wikimedia Commons is an online repository of free-use images, sound, and other media files. It is a project of the Wikimedia Foundation, the repository contains over 38 million media files. In July 2013, the number of edits on Commons reached 100,000,000, the project was proposed by Erik Möller in March 2004 and launched on September 7,2004. The expression educational is to be according to its broad meaning of providing knowledge. Wikimedia Commons itself does not allow fair use or uploads under non-free licenses, for this reason, Wikimedia Commons always hosts freely licensed media and deletes copyright violations. The default language for Commons is English, but registered users can customize their interface to use any other user interface translations. Many content pages, in particular policy pages and portals, have also translated into various languages. Files on Wikimedia Commons are categorized using MediaWikis category system, in addition, they are often collected on individual topical gallery pages. While the project was proposed to also contain free text files. In 2012, BuzzFeed described Wikimedia Commons as littered with dicks, in 2010, Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger reported Wikimedia Commons to the FBI for hosting sexualized images of children known as lolicon. Wales responded to the backlash from the Commons community by voluntarily relinquishing some site privileges, over time, additional functionality has been developed to interface Wikimedia Commons with the other Wikimedia projects. Specialized uploading tools and scripts such as Commonist have been created to simplify the process of uploading large numbers of files. In order to free content photos uploaded to Flickr, users can participate in a defunct collaborative external review process. The site has three mechanisms for recognizing quality works, one is known as Featured pictures, where works are nominated and other community members vote to accept or reject the nomination. This process began in November 2004, another process known as Quality images began in June 2006, and has a simpler nomination process comparable to Featured pictures. Quality images only accepts works created by Wikimedia users, whereas Featured pictures additionally accepts nominations of works by third parties such as NASA, the three mentioned processes select a slight part from the total number of files. However, Commons collects files of all quality levels, from the most professional level across simple documental, files with specific defects can be tagged for improvement and warning or even proposed for deletion but there exists no process of systematic rating of all files. The site held its inaugural Picture of the Year competition, for 2006, all images that were made a Featured picture during 2006 were eligible, and voted on by eligible Wikimedia users during two rounds of voting
Wikimedia Commons
Wikimedia Commons
Wikimedia Commons
Wikimedia Commons
23.
Francis Bicknell Carpenter
–
Francis Bicknell Carpenter was an American painter born in Homer, New York. Carpenter is best known for his painting First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln, Carpenter resided with President Lincoln at the White House and in 1866 published his one volume memoir Six Months at the White House with Abraham Lincoln. Carpenter was a descendant of the New England Rehoboth Carpenter Family, Carpenter was born to Asaph Harmon and Almira Clark. He was one of nine children, on January 6,1853 Francis married Augusta Herrick Prentiss. Francis and Augusta had the children, Florence Trumbell Carpenter was born on March 10,1854 in Homer, Cortland County. She died on December 30,1899 and she is number 6550 in the Carpenter Memorial on page 645. Florence married Albert Chester Ives on May 12,1877 in New York, Albert was born about 1854 in Buffalo, NY. Herbert Sanford Carpenter was born on May 22,1862 in Homer, Cortland and he is number 6551 in the Carpenter Memorial on page 645. Herbert married Cora Anderson on February 13,1894 in NY, Cora was born on April 3,1860 in of Louisville, KY. She died in 1923 and was buried in Glenwood Cem and her tombstone indicates she was born in 1860 in the Carpenter Memorial gives 1863. In 1844, after showing his father a painting of his mother that the former viewed as a success, Carpenter was allowed to go to Syracuse, in 1848, at age 18, he was awarded a purchase prize by the American Art-Union. By the age of twenty-one, Carpenter established a studio in New York City, Carpenter was elected to the National Academy of Design as an associate member in 1852. In 1852, Carpenter was commissioned to paint a portrait of President Millard Fillmore, fremont, the first Republican presidential candidate. Carpenter felt a desire to do something expressive of. The great moral issue involved in the war, Carpenter, having formulated his idea for the subject of the painting and outlined its composition, fortuitously met Frederick A. Lane, a friend who recently had earned a large amount of money. Carpenter met with the President on February 6,1864, Carpenter began with many sketches of Cabinet members and of Lincoln himself, working from life, as Lincoln worked, and from photographs taken by Mathew Brady of Lincoln and members of his Cabinet. Carpenter was given access to Lincolns White House office for the former purpose. On July 12,1864, Lincoln led his cabinet into the State Dining Room to view the completed work, when Lincoln had the painting exhibited to the public in the East Room of the White House, Carpenter noted that the exhibition was thronged with visitors
Francis Bicknell Carpenter
–
Francis Bicknell Carpenter Daguerreotype
Francis Bicknell Carpenter
Francis Bicknell Carpenter
–
First Lady Mary Todd Lincoln, photographed by
Mathew Brady. Compare to the forged portrait here.
24.
Venn diagram
–
A Venn diagram is a diagram that shows all possible logical relations between a finite collection of different sets. These diagrams depict elements as points in the plane, and sets as regions inside closed curves, a Venn diagram consists of multiple overlapping closed curves, usually circles, each representing a set. In Venn diagrams the curves are overlapped in every possible way and they are thus a special case of Euler diagrams, which do not necessarily show all relations. Venn diagrams were conceived around 1880 by John Venn and they are used to teach elementary set theory, as well as illustrate simple set relationships in probability, logic, statistics, linguistics and computer science. A Venn diagram in which in addition the area of each shape is proportional to the number of elements it contains is called an area-proportional or scaled Venn diagram and this example involves two sets, A and B, represented here as coloured circles. The orange circle, set A, represents all living creatures that are two-legged, the blue circle, set B, represents the living creatures that can fly. Each separate type of creature can be imagined as a point somewhere in the diagram, living creatures that both can fly and have two legs—for example, parrots—are then in both sets, so they correspond to points in the region where the blue and orange circles overlap. That region contains all such and only living creatures. Humans and penguins are bipedal, and so are then in the circle, but since they cannot fly they appear in the left part of the orange circle. Mosquitoes have six legs, and fly, so the point for mosquitoes is in the part of the circle that does not overlap with the orange one. Creatures that are not two-legged and cannot fly would all be represented by points outside both circles, the combined region of sets A and B is called the union of A and B, denoted by A ∪ B. The union in this case contains all living creatures that are either two-legged or that can fly, the region in both A and B, where the two sets overlap, is called the intersection of A and B, denoted by A ∩ B. For example, the intersection of the two sets is not empty, because there are points that represent creatures that are in both the orange and blue circles. They are rightly associated with Venn, however, because he comprehensively surveyed and formalized their usage, Venn himself did not use the term Venn diagram and referred to his invention as Eulerian Circles. Of these schemes one only, viz. that commonly called Eulerian circles, has met with any general acceptance, the first to use the term Venn diagram was Clarence Irving Lewis in 1918, in his book A Survey of Symbolic Logic. Venn diagrams are similar to Euler diagrams, which were invented by Leonhard Euler in the 18th century. Baron has noted that Leibniz in the 17th century produced similar diagrams before Euler and she also observes even earlier Euler-like diagrams by Ramon Lull in the 13th Century. In the 20th century, Venn diagrams were further developed, D. W. Henderson showed in 1963 that the existence of an n-Venn diagram with n-fold rotational symmetry implied that n was a prime number
Venn diagram
–
Venn diagram showing which uppercase letter
glyphs are shared by the
Greek,
Latin and
Cyrillic alphabets
25.
Digitizing
–
Digitizing or digitization is the representation of an object, image, sound, document or signal by generating a series of numbers that describe a discrete set of its points or samples. The result is called digital representation or, more specifically, an image, for the object. Unlike analog data, which typically suffers some loss of quality each time it is copied or transmitted, digital data can, in theory and this is why it is a favored way of preserving information for many organisations around the world. The term digitization is often used when diverse forms of information, such as text, sound, Digital information exists as one of two digits, either 0 or 1. These are known as bits and the sequences of 0s and 1s that constitute information are called bytes. Analog signals are continuously variable, both in the number of values of the signal at a given time, as well as in the number of points in the signal in a given period of time. Digitization occurs in two parts, Discretization The reading of an analog signal A, and, at time intervals. Each such reading is called a sample and may be considered to have infinite precision at this stage, Quantization Samples are rounded to a set of numbers. In general, these can occur at the time, though they are conceptually distinct. A series of integers can be transformed into an analog output that approximates the original analog signal. Such a transformation is called a DA conversion, the sampling rate and the number of bits used to represent the integers combine to determine how close such an approximation to the analog signal a digitization will be. The term is used to describe the scanning of analog sources into computers for editing. In this last case, as in normal photos, sampling rate refers to the resolution of the image, Digitization is also used to describe the process of populating databases with files or data. Digitizing may also used in the field of apparel, where an image may be recreated with the help of embroidery digitizing software tools and this machine code is fed into an embroidery machine and applied to the fabric. The most supported format is DST file, apparel companies also digitize clothing patterns Analog signals are continuous electrical signals, digital signals are non-continuous. Analog signal can be converted to digital signal by ADC, nearly all recorded music has been digitized. About 12 percent of the 500, 000+ movies listed on the Internet Movie Database are digitized on DVD, handling of analog signal becomes easy when it is digitized because the signal is digitized before modulation and transmission. The conversion process of analog to digital consists of two processes, sampling and quantizing, Digitization of personal multimedia such as home movies, slides, and photographs is a popular method of preserving and sharing older repositories
Digitizing
–
Internet Archive book
scanner
Digitizing
–
Digitization at the
British Library of a
Dunhuang manuscript for the
International Dunhuang Project
26.
Creative Commons
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Creative Commons is an American non-profit organization devoted to expanding the range of creative works available for others to build upon legally and to share. The organization has released several copyright-licenses known as Creative Commons licenses free of charge to the public and these licenses allow creators to communicate which rights they reserve, and which rights they waive for the benefit of recipients or other creators. An easy-to-understand one-page explanation of rights, with associated visual symbols, Creative Commons licenses do not replace copyright, but are based upon it. The result is an agile, low-overhead and low-cost copyright-management regime, Wikipedia uses one of these licenses. The organization was founded in 2001 by Lawrence Lessig, Hal Abelson, the first article in a general interest publication about Creative Commons, written by Hal Plotkin, was published in February 2002. The first set of licenses was released in December 2002. In 2003 the Open Content Project, a 1998 precursor project by David A. Wiley, announced the Creative Commons as successor project, matthew Haughey and Aaron Swartz also played a role in the early stages of the project. As of January 2016 there were an estimated 1.1 billion works licensed under the various Creative Commons licenses, as of March 2015, Flickr alone hosts over 306 million Creative Commons licensed photos. Creative Commons is governed by a board of directors and their licenses have been embraced by many as a way for creators to take control of how they choose to share their copyrighted works. Beyond that, Creative Commons has provided institutional, practical and legal support for individuals and groups wishing to experiment, Creative Commons attempts to counter what Lawrence Lessig, founder of Creative Commons, considers to be a dominant and increasingly restrictive permission culture. Lessig describes this as a culture in which creators get to create only with the permission of the powerful, as of 2017, they are Paul Keller, Jonathan Nightingale, Chris Thorne. As of 2015, there are more than 100 affiliates working in over 75 jurisdictions to support, Creative Commons Korea is the affiliated network of Creative Commons in South Korea. In March 2005, CC Korea was initiated by Jongsoo Yoon, the major Korean portal sites, including Daum and Naver, have been participating in the use of Creative Commons licences. In January 2009, the Creative Commons Korea Association was consequently founded as an incorporated association. Since then, CC Korea has been promoting the liberal. Since March 15,2012 he has been detained by the Syrian government in Damascus at Adra Prison, on October 17,2015 Creative Commons Board of Directors approved a resolution calling for Bassel Khartabil release. All current CC licenses require attribution, which can be inconvenient for works based on other works. Critics also worried that the lack of rewards for content producers will dissuade artists from publishing their work, Creative Commons founder Lawrence Lessig countered that copyright laws have not always offered the strong and seemingly indefinite protection that todays law provides
Creative Commons
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Golden Nica Award (2004)
Creative Commons
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Creative Commons
Creative Commons
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Lawrence Lessig (2008)
Creative Commons
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Creative Commons Japan Seminar,
Tokyo (2007)
27.
Wikibooks
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Wikibooks is a wiki-based Wikimedia project hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation for the creation of free content textbooks and annotated texts that anyone can edit. In June 2016, Compete. com estimated that Wikibooks had 1,478,812 unique visitors, the wikibooks. org domain was registered on July 19,2003, and launched to host and build free textbooks on subjects such as organic chemistry and physics. In August 2006, Wikiversity became an independent Wikimedia Foundation project, Wikijunior is a subproject of Wikibooks that specializes in books for children. The project consists of both a magazine and a website, and is currently being developed in English, Danish, Finnish, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Spanish and it is funded by a grant from the Beck Foundation. While some books are original, others began as text copied over from other sources of free content textbooks found on the Internet, all of the sites content is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike license. The project is working towards completion of textbooks on numerous subjects, cK-12 Foundation Digital library e-book European Library Free High School Science Texts Global Text ibiblio LibriVox, an online digital library of free public domain audiobooks. Open Content Alliance Project Gutenberg Universal library Wikibooks, What is Wikibooks, all Systems Go, The Newly Emerging Infrastructure to Support Free Books. An Interview with Curtis Bonk, A Look at Wikibooks and Wikibookians, English Wikibooks Main Page Wikijunior Main Page Wikibooks multilingual portal Wikibooks Language Editions, list of Wikibooks for various languages ordered by size. Wikibooks page on Meta-Wiki Wikibooks takes on textbook industry
Wikibooks
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Formats
Wikibooks
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Wikibooks
28.
The Bible
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The Bible is a collection of sacred texts or scriptures that Jews and Christians consider to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between God and humans. Many different authors contributed to the Bible, what is regarded as canonical text differs depending on traditions and groups, a number of Bible canons have evolved, with overlapping and diverging contents. The Christian Old Testament overlaps with the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint, the New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians, believed to be mostly Jewish disciples of Christ, written in first-century Koine Greek. These early Christian Greek writings consist of narratives, letters, among Christian denominations there is some disagreement about the contents of the canon, primarily the Apocrypha, a list of works that are regarded with varying levels of respect. Attitudes towards the Bible also differ amongst Christian groups and this concept arose during the Protestant Reformation, and many denominations today support the use of the Bible as the only source of Christian teaching. With estimated total sales of over 5 billion copies, the Bible is widely considered to be the book of all time. It has estimated sales of 100 million copies, and has been a major influence on literature and history, especially in the West. The English word Bible is from the Latin biblia, from the word in Medieval Latin and Late Latin. Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra holy book, while biblia in Greek and it gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun in medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as a singular into the vernaculars of Western Europe. Latin biblia sacra holy books translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια ta biblia ta hagia, the word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of paper or scroll and came to be used as the ordinary word for book. It is the diminutive of βύβλος byblos, Egyptian papyrus, possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician sea port Byblos from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece, the Greek ta biblia was an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books. Christian use of the term can be traced to c.223 CE, bruce notes that Chrysostom appears to be the first writer to use the Greek phrase ta biblia to describe both the Old and New Testaments together. The division of the Hebrew Bible into verses is based on the sof passuk cantillation mark used by the 10th-century Masoretes to record the verse divisions used in oral traditions. The oldest extant copy of a complete Bible is an early 4th-century parchment book preserved in the Vatican Library, the oldest copy of the Tanakh in Hebrew and Aramaic dates from the 10th century CE. The oldest copy of a complete Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus and he states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind. In Christian Bibles, the New Testament Gospels were derived from traditions in the second half of the first century CE. Riches says that, Scholars have attempted to reconstruct something of the history of the oral traditions behind the Gospels, the period of transmission is short, less than 40 years passed between the death of Jesus and the writing of Marks Gospel. This means that there was time for oral traditions to assume fixed form
The Bible
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The
Gutenberg Bible, the first printed Bible
The Bible
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The Kennicott Bible, by
Benjamin Kennicott, with illustration, Jonah being swallowed by the fish, 1476
The Bible
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Tanakh
29.
Hebrew language
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it
Hebrew language
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Hebrew street sign, above in
Hebrew alphabet, below in
Latin transliteration. Aluf Batslut veAluf Shum (he) ("The Onion Champion and the Garlic Champion") is a
play by
Hayim Nahman Bialik.
Hebrew language
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Portion of the
Temple Scroll, one of the longest of the
Dead Sea Scrolls discovered at
Qumran
Hebrew language
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The
Shebna Inscription, from the tomb of a royal steward found in
Siloam, dates to the 7th century BCE.
Hebrew language
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Hebrew script used in writing a Torah scroll. Note ornamental "crowns" on tops of certain letters.
30.
Bi-directional text
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Bi-directional text is text containing text in both text directionalities, both right-to-left and left-to-right. It generally involves text containing different types of alphabets, but may refer to boustrophedon. This is different from the direction used by most writing systems in the world. When LTR text is mixed with RTL in the paragraph, each type of text is written in its own direction. This can get complex when multiple levels of quotation are used. Many computer programs fail to display bi-directional text correctly, for example, the Hebrew name Sarah is spelled, sin, then resh, and finally heh. Note, Some web browsers may display the Hebrew text in this article in the opposite direction, Bidirectional script support is the capability of a computer system to correctly display bi-directional text. The term is shortened to BiDi or bidi. Early computer installations were designed only to support a single writing system, right-to-left scripts were introduced through encodings like ISO/IEC 8859-6 and ISO/IEC 8859-8, storing the letters in writing and reading order. It is possible to flip the left-to-right display order to a right-to-left display order. With bidirectional script support, it is possible to mix scripts from different scripts on the same page, in particular, the Unicode standard provides foundations for complete BiDi support, with detailed rules as to how mixtures of left-to-right and right-to-left scripts are to be encoded and displayed. The Unicode standard calls for characters to be ordered logically, i. e. in the sequence they are intended to be interpreted, as opposed to visually, the sequence they appear. This distinction is relevant for bidi support because at any bidi transition, thus, in order to offer bidi support, Unicode prescribes an algorithm for how to convert the logical sequence of characters into the correct visual presentation. For this purpose, the Unicode encoding standard divides all its characters into one of four types, strong, weak, neutral, strong characters are those with definite directionality. Weak characters are those with vague directionality, Examples of this type of character include European digits, Eastern Arabic-Indic digits, arithmetic symbols, and currency symbols. Punctuation symbols that are common to many scripts, such as the colon, comma, full-stop, unless a directional override is present numbers are always encoded big-endian, and the numerals rendered LTR. The weak directionality only applies to the placement of the number in its entirety, neutral characters have directionality indeterminable without context. Examples include paragraph separators, tabs, and most other whitespace characters, explicit formatting characters, also referred to as directional formatting characters, are special Unicode sequences that direct the unicode algorithm to modify its default behavior
Bi-directional text
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The right side (text runs from right to left)
Bi-directional text
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The left side (text runs from left to right)
Bi-directional text
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On the right side of this
Hainan Airlines aircraft, the text runs from right to left (空 航 南 海).
Bi-directional text
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The left side, however, shows the text running from left to right (海 南 航 空).
4,960 (September 2017[update])[1]
