1.
Bill Hickok (American football)
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William Orville Wild Bill Hickok III was an American football player and industrialist. After his athletic career, he became the president of his familys manufacturing business, Hickok was born in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, to William Orville Hickok, Jr. and Louisa Harrison Anderson Hickok. The family was prominent in Harrisburg civic life through his grandfathers machinery business, Bill played guard at Yale and was twice selected as an All-American. In addition, he set records in the put and hammer throw for the track team. After completing his studies, Hickok returned to Pennsylvania, in 1896 he was asked by another Yale graduate from Harrisburg, Vance McCormick, to coach the football team McCormick had organized at the nearby Carlisle Indian School. The team went 5-5 against a schedule that included the leading Ivy League powers. For the game against his alma mater, Hickok also served as a referee along with a provided by the Yale side. However, Hickok blew his whistle to call it back on the grounds that the play was dead prior to the handoff, one newspaper covering the contest would compare his action to that of a corrupt Indian agent. Other than serving as an assistant coach at Yale, Hickok spent most of his life in Harrisburg. He married Avis Cochran and eventually served as president of the Hickok Manufacturing Company, after his death in 1933, the position passed to his brother Ross. The Real All Americans, The Team That Changed a Game, a People, to correct the error copied from p.55 of Jenkins that the 1896 record was 6-4 when it was actually 5-5. Jenkins appears to have accepted the erroneous score of the 1896 Carlisle-Brown game on p.21 of Steckbeck, Hickok profile — College Football Hall of Fame Ross A. Hickok papers index — Pennsylvania State Archives
2.
LaSalle County, Illinois
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LaSalle County is located in the North Central region of the U. S. state of Illinois, it has an estimated population of 111,241 as of 2014 and its county seat and largest city is Ottawa. LaSalle County is part of the Ottawa-Peru, IL Micropolitan Statistical Area, LaSalle County borders Woodford, Marshall, Putnam, Bureau, Livingston, Lee, DeKalb, Kendall, and Grundy counties. Though LaSalle County is in the Chicago media market, it retains a unique identity with a mix of pleasant river towns, and vast expanses of farmland. The county is part of the far reaches of the Chicago metropolitan area, and it is also part of the Fox Valley subregion. LaSalle County was formed on January 15,1831 out of Tazewell and it is named for the early French explorer René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle. La Salle was the first European recorded as entering the area and he traveled the Mississippi River upriver from the Gulf of Mexico, claimed the land for France, or rather as a possession of King Louis XIV of France and named it Louisiana. In 1680, he and two other French traders built Fort Crevecoeur on the Illinois River in present-day Tazewell County, and in 1662, by 1857, the county was served by the daily arrivals of two trains of the Illinois Central Railroad. As William D. Boyce reportedly founded the Boy Scouts of America in Ottawa and he and two other founders established the BSA, but Boyce is given the sole credit since his faction of the BSA adopted the other two competing factions elements within the organization. LaSalle County is within what is called the Lowaneu Region of the W. D. Boyce Council, the Tri-County Area of DeKalb, LaSalle, and Kendall Counties have been influential in terms of their political, sports, multimedia, industry, and technology. DeKalb County was the birthplace of plant hybridization, the hand dryer. DeKalb, LaSalle, and Kendall Counties have all featured in major films, either having been written by residents or former residents, having been filmed in the communities. La Salle County was founded largely by immigrants from New England and these were old stock Yankee immigrants, who were descended from the English Puritans who settled New England in the 1600s. The completion of the Erie Canal caused a surge in New England immigration to what was then the Northwest Territory, some of these later settlers were from upstate New York and had parents who had moved to that region from New England shortly after the Revolutionary War. New Englanders and New England transplants from upstate New York were the vast majority of La Salle Countys inhabitants during the first several decades of its history. The Congregational Church has subsequently gone through many divisions, and some factions, including those in La Salle County, are now known as the Church of Christ and the United Church of Christ. When the New Englanders arrived in what is now La Salle County, there was nothing but dense virgin forest and they laid out farms, constructed roads, erected government buildings and established post routes. In 1834, Norwegian immigrants settled in the northwest corner of the county, Ottawa was the first site of the famous Lincoln–Douglas debates on August 21,1858. The community has an association with the 16th President
3.
Troy Grove, Illinois
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Troy Grove is a village in LaSalle County, Illinois, United States. The population was 305 at the 2000 census and it is part of the Ottawa–Streator Micropolitan Statistical Area. Troy Grove is notable as the birthplace of Wild Bill Hickok and it is home to the Wild Bill Hickok Memorial. Silica sand, a white sand used in making glass, is mined in the vicinity of Troy Grove. A post office called Troy Grove has been in operation since 1837, the community took its name from a nearby grove, which was named for an early settler. Troy Grove is located at 41°27′56″N 89°4′52″W, Troy Grove was formerly known as Homer. According to the 2010 census, Troy Grove has an area of 0.69 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 305 people,103 households, the population density was 444.2 people per square mile. There were 108 housing units at a density of 157.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 95. 41% White,1. 97% Asian,0. 33% Pacific Islander,1. 31% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 5. 57% of the population. 17. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 4. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.96 and the average family size was 3.45. In the village, the population was out with 33. 1% under the age of 18,10. 5% from 18 to 24,27. 2% from 25 to 44,20. 3% from 45 to 64. The median age was 33 years, for every 100 females there were 86.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.5 males, the median income for a household in the village was $55,682, and the median income for a family was $56,591. Males had an income of $40,417 versus $23,250 for females. The per capita income for the village was $16,595, about 6. 6% of families and 4. 5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5. 8% of those under the age of eighteen and none of those sixty five or over
4.
Deadwood, South Dakota
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Deadwood is a city in South Dakota, United States, and the county seat of Lawrence County. It is named after the trees found in its gulch. The population was 1,270 according to the 2010 census, the city includes the Deadwood Historic District, a National Historic Landmark District. The settlement of Deadwood began illegally in the 1870s on land which had granted to American Indians in the 1868 Treaty of Laramie. The treaty had guaranteed ownership of the Black Hills to the Lakota people and land disputes were endemic, however, in 1874, Colonel George Armstrong Custer led an expedition into the Black Hills and announced the discovery of gold on French Creek near present-day Custer, South Dakota. This announcement triggered the Black Hills Gold Rush and gave rise to the new and lawless town of Deadwood, in early 1876, frontiersman Charlie Utter and his brother Steve led a wagon train to Deadwood containing what were deemed to be needed commodities to bolster business. The gamblers and prostitutes resulted in the establishment of several profitable ventures, madame Mustache and Dirty Em were on the wagon train and set up shop in what was referred to as Deadwood Gulch. Demand for women was high and the business of prostitution proved to have a good market, Madam Dora DuFran would eventually become the most profitable brothel owner in Deadwood, closely followed by Madam Mollie Johnson. Businessman Tom Miller opened the Bella Union Saloon in September 1876, a saloon called the Gem Variety Theater, opened on April 7,1877 by Al Swearengen who also controlled the opium trade. The saloon was destroyed by a fire and rebuilt in 1879 and it burned down again in 1899, causing Swearengen to leave the town. Deadwood became known for its lawlessness, during which time murder was common and punishment for not always fair. The town attained further notoriety for the murder of gunman Wild Bill Hickok, mount Moriah Cemetery is the final resting place of Hickok and Calamity Jane, as well as slightly less notable figures such as Seth Bullock. This decision moved McCalls trial to a Dakota Territory court, where he was guilty of murder. As the economy changed from gold panning to deep mining, Deadwood lost its rough and rowdy character, in 1876, a smallpox epidemic swept through, with so many falling ill that tents were erected to quarantine the stricken. In 1876, General George Crook pursued the Sioux Indians from the Battle of Little Big Horn on an expedition that ended in Deadwood and is known as the Horsemeat March, the Homestake Mine in nearby Lead was established in 1877. For years, it was the longest continuously operating gold mine in the United States, Gold mining operations ceased in 2002 but the mine is still open to tourists. On September 26,1879, a fire devastated Deadwood, destroying more than three hundred buildings and consuming the belongings of many inhabitants, many of the newly impoverished left town to start again. Thomas Edison demonstrated the incandescent lamp in New Jersey in 1879, romans took a gamble and founded the Pilcher Electric Light Company of Deadwood on September 17,1883
5.
Lawrence County, South Dakota
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Lawrence County is a county located in the U. S. state of South Dakota. As of the 2010 census, the population was 24,097, Lawrence County is coextensive with the Spearfish, SD Micropolitan Statistical Area, which is also included in the Rapid City-Spearfish, SD Combined Statistical Area. Lawrence County was created January 11,1875, and organized in 1877, the county was named for Colonel John Lawrence who came to the county as first treasurer in 1877. Lawrence had previously served in the Dakota Territorial Legislature, as a Sergeant at Arms for the United States House of Representatives, after retirement he continued to act as county road supervisor and as an election judge. The title Colonel was honorary, bestowed by the governor of the Dakota Territory, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 800 square miles, of which 800 square miles is land and 0.3 square miles is water. Interstate 90 U. S. Highway 14 U. S. Highway 14A U. S. Highway 85 U. S, the population density was 27 people per square mile. There were 10,427 housing units at a density of 13 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 95. 79% White,0. 23% Black or African American,2. 18% Native American,0. 33% Asian,0. 05% Pacific Islander,0. 33% from other races, and 1. 08% from two or more races. 1. 82% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,36. 0% were of German,12. 0% Norwegian,9. 0% English and 7. 5% Irish ancestry according to the 2000 census. 29. 60% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.89. In the county, the population was out with 23. 10% under the age of 18,13. 70% from 18 to 24,25. 40% from 25 to 44,23. 10% from 45 to 64. The median age was 37 years, for every 100 females there were 96.80 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.30 males, the median income for a household in the county was $31,755, and the median income for a family was $40,501. Males had an income of $30,098 versus $19,679 for females. The per capita income for the county was $17,195, about 9. 50% of families and 14. 80% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15. 70% of those under age 18 and 9. 10% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 24,097 people,10,536 households, the population density was 30.1 inhabitants per square mile. There were 12,756 housing units at a density of 15.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 94. 4% white,2. 0% American Indian,0. 7% Asian,0. 4% black or African American,0. 5% from other races, and 2. 0% from two or more races
6.
Dakota Territory
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The name refers to the Dakota branch of the Sioux tribes which occupied the area at the time. Most of Dakota Territory was formerly part of the Minnesota and Nebraska territories, when Minnesota became a state in 1858, the leftover area between the Missouri River and Minnesotas western boundary fell unorganized. Three years later President-elect Abraham Lincolns cousin-in-law, J. B. S, todd, personally lobbied for territory status and the U. S. Congress formally created Dakota Territory. It became a territory on March 2,1861. Upon creation, Dakota Territory included much of present-day Montana and Wyoming as well as all of present-day North Dakota and South Dakota, the Department of the Northwest sent expeditions into Dakota Territory in 1863,1864 and 1865. It also established forts in Dakota Territory to protect the settlements of the Territory, Iowa and Minnesota. Following the Civil War, hostilities continued with the Sioux until the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie, by 1868, creation of new territories reduced Dakota Territory to the present boundaries of the Dakotas. Territorial counties were defined in 1872, including Bottineau County, Cass County, during the existence of the organized territory, the population first increased very slowly and then very rapidly with the Dakota Boom from 1870 to 1880. Because the Sioux were considered hostile and a threat to early settlers. Gradually, the population grew and the Sioux were not considered as severe a threat. The population increase can largely be attributed to the growth of the Northern Pacific Railroad, settlers who came to the Dakota Territory were from other western territories as well as many from northern and western Europe. These included large numbers of Norwegians, Germans, Swedes, commerce was originally organized around the fur trade. Furs were carried by steamboat along the rivers to the settlements, gold was discovered in the Black Hills in 1874 and attracted more settlers, setting off the last Sioux War. The population surge increased the demand for meat spurring expanded cattle ranching on the territorys vast open ranges, with the advent of the railroad agriculture intensified, wheat became the territorys main cash crop. Economic hardship hit the territory in the 1880s due to lower wheat prices, the territorial capital was Yankton from 1861 until 1883, when it was moved to Bismarck. The Dakota Territory was divided into the states of North Dakota, the admission of two states, as opposed to one, was done for a number of reasons. The two population centers in the territory were in the northeast and southeast corners of the territory, on a national level, there was pressure from the Republican Party to admit two states to add to their political power in the Senate. Admission of new states was a party political battleground with each party looking at how the proposed new states were likely to vote
7.
Shooting
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Shooting is the act or process of discharging firearms or other projectile weapons such as bows or crossbows. Even the firing of artillery, darts, grenades, rockets, a person who specializes in shooting is a marksman. Shooting can take place in a range or in the field in hunting, in shooting sports. Marksmanship has inspired competition, and in several countries rifle clubs started to form in the 19th century, soon international shooting events evolved, including shooting at the Summer and winter Olympics and World Championships. Shooting technique differs depending on factors like the type of firearm used, the distance to and nature of the target, the precision. Breathing and position play an important role when handling a handgun or a rifle, some shooting sports, such as IPSC shooting, make a sport of combat style shooting. The prone position, kneeling position, and standing position offer different amounts of support for the shooter, shooting most often refers to the use of a firearm, although is also used to describe the firing of a bow or crossbow. A person who shoots is called a shooter, the term weapon does not necessarily mean however that it is used as a weapon, but as a piece of equipment to help the user achieve the best in which they can in the sport. Shooting is used for hunting game birds such as grouse or pheasant, rabbits, culling, deer hunting, or other wild game animals. Clay pigeon shooting is meant to simulate shooting live pigeons released from traps, sometimes shooting refers to the hunting activity itself. Shooting is also used in warfare, self-defense, crime, duels were sometimes held using guns. Shooting without a target has applications such as gunfire, 21-gun salute, or firing starting pistols. In many countries, there are restrictions on what kind of firearm can be bought and by whom, leading to debate about how effective such measures are, attitudes in the United States are very different from those in the United Kingdom
8.
Mount Moriah Cemetery (South Dakota)
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By tradition, the American flag flies over the cemetery 24 hours a day, rather than merely from sunrise to sunset. Many prospectors, miners, settlers, prostitutes and children were buried within the Ingelside Cemetery, alongside Wild Bill Hickok, in the 1880s it was determined that the land where Ingelside Cemetery was located could be better used for housing. Most of the bodies there were moved up the mountain to Mount Moriah, however, since many graves were unmarked or unknown some were not moved. Today it is not uncommon for people working in their garden or remodelling a basement or shed to find human bones as a left over from the Ingelside Cemetery days, Mount Moriahs main attraction is Wild Bills gravesite. Calamity Jane and Potato Creek Johnny are buried next to him, the Cemetery has many different distinct sections in it. There are four different sections in the grave yard labelled Potters field, many of the inscriptions are written in Hebrew. Sol Star, a partner of Seth Bullock, was a member of this early Jewish community, one section is labelled as a Mass Grave site. A fire burned down a lumber mill killing eleven men sleeping there at the time, another section is labelled the childrens section, due to the large number of children buried in Mount Moriah that died from the typhus, cholera and small pox outbreaks. There are only two Chinese graves left in the cemetery, for Hui ta Fei-Men and a child of Fee Lee Wong, as all the other Chinese buried there were disinterred and sent back to China to be reburied. In addition there is a section, where many Civil War. Mount Moriah Cemetery records at Findagrave, Mount Moriah Cemetery records at Interment. Mount Moriah Historical Overview Mount Moriah Visitors Guide Deadwood dedicates Wild Bill sculpture Deadwood Magazine
9.
Droving
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Droving is the practice of moving livestock over long distances by walking them on the hoof. Droving stock to market, usually on foot and often with the aid of dogs, has a long history in the Old World. There has been droving since cities found it necessary to source food from distant supplies, romans are said to have had drovers and their flocks following their armies to feed their soldiers. An individual owner of livestock cannot both take care of animals on his farm and take other stock on a journey to market. So the owner might entrust this stock to an agent, usually a drover, drovers took their herds and flocks down traditional routes with organised sites for overnight shelter and fodder for men and for animals. The journey might last from a few days to months, the animals had to be driven so they would be in good condition on arrival. There would have to be prior agreement for payment for stock lost, for animals born on the journey, until provincial banking developed, a drover returning to base would be carrying substantial sums of money. Being in a position of great trust, the drover might carry to the town money to be banked and important letters. Drovers might take the no more than a part of their journey because stock might be sold at intervening markets to other drovers. The new drovers would finish the delivery, cattle drives were an important feature of the settlement of both the western United States and of Australia. In the year 1866, cattle drives in the United States moved 20 million head of cattle from Texas to railheads in Kansas, in Australia drives of sheep also took place. In both countries these drives covered great distances, with drovers on horseback, supported by wagons or packhorses, in some circumstances driving very large herds long distances remains economic. Drovers roads were wider than those for ordinary traffic and without any form of paving. The droving routes which still exist in Wales avoided settlements in order to save front gardens, a weekly cattle market was founded midway between North Wales and London in Newent, Gloucestershire in 1253. In an Ordinance for the cleansing of Smythfelde dated 1372 it was agreed by the dealers and drovers to pay a charge per head of horse, ox, cow, sheep or swine. Henry V brought about a boom in droving in the early fifteenth century when he ordered as many cattle as possible be sent to the Cinque Ports to provision his armies in France. Considerable expertise meant that flocks averaging 1,500 to 2,000 head of sheep travelled 20 to 25 days from Wales to London yet lost less than four per cent of their body weight. Obliged to trek much further than from Wales Scottish drovers would buy the cattle outright and it has been estimated that by the end of the 18th century around 100,000 cattle and 750,000 sheep arrived each year at Londons Smithfield market from the surrounding countryside
10.
Stagecoach
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A stagecoach is a type of covered wagon used to carry passengers and goods inside. It is strongly sprung and generally drawn by four horses, usually four-in-hand, widely used before the introduction of railway transport, it made regular trips between stages or stations, which were places of rest provided for stagecoach travelers. The business of running stagecoaches or the act of journeying in them was known as staging, the yard of ale drinking glass is associated by legend with stagecoach drivers, though it was mainly used for drinking feats and special toasts. The stagecoach was a vehicle pulled by horses or mules. The primary requirement was that it was used as a conveyance, running on an established route. Vehicles that were used included buckboards and dead axle wagons, surplus Army ambulances, on the outside were two back seats facing one another, which the British called baskets. In addition to the driver who guided the vehicle, a shotgun messenger, armed with a coach gun. The stagecoach traveled at an speed of about five miles per hour. The term stage originally referred to the distance between stations on a route, the coach traveling the route in stages, but through metonymy it came to apply to the coach. A fresh set of horses would be staged at the next station, under this staging system, the resting, watering and feeding of the spent horses would not delay the coach. This system based on making fresh horses regularly available along a route had been in use by a number of different civilisations, the stagecoach was also called a stage or stage carriage. Varieties included, mail coach or post coach, used for carrying mail, mud coach, lighter and smaller, with flat sides and simpler joinery. Road coach, revived in Great Britain and Ireland during the half of the 19th century. The first crude depiction of a coach, not necessarily a stagecoach, was in an English manuscript from the 13th century, crude coaches were built from the 16th century. Without suspension, these coaches achieved very low speeds on the poor quality rutted roads of the time, by the mid 17th century, a basic stagecoach infrastructure had been put in place. The first stagecoach route started in 1610 and ran from Edinburgh to Leith and this was followed by a steady proliferation of other routes around the country. A string of coaching inns operated as stopping points for travellers on the route between London and Liverpool by the mid 17th century, the coach would depart every Monday and Thursday and took roughly ten days to make the journey during the summer months. They also became adopted for travel in and around London by mid-century
11.
Reconnaissance
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In military operations, reconnaissance is the exploration outside an area occupied by friendly forces to gain information about natural features and enemy presence. Examples of reconnaissance include patrolling by troops, ships or submarines, manned/unmanned reconnaissance aircraft, satellites, espionage normally is not reconnaissance, because reconnaissance is a militarys special forces operating ahead of its main forces, spies are non-combatants operating behind enemy lines. Often called recce or recon, the verb is reconnaître. Traditionally, reconnaissance was a role that was adopted by the cavalry, speed was key in these maneuvers, thus infantry was ill suited to the task. From horses to vehicles, for warriors throughout history, commanders procured their ability to have speed and mobility, to mount and dismount, skirmishing is a traditional skill of reconnaissance, as well as harassment of the enemy. Reconnaissance conducted by ground forces includes special reconnaissance, armored reconnaissance, amphibious reconnaissance, aerial reconnaissance is reconnaissance carried out by aircraft. The purpose is to weather conditions, map terrain, and may include military purposes such as observing tangible structures, particular areas. Naval forces use aerial and satellite reconnaissance to observe enemy forces, navies also undertake hydrographic surveys and intelligence gathering. Reconnaissance satellites provide military commanders with photographs of enemy forces and other intelligence, military forces also use geographical and meteorological information from Earth observation satellites. A tracker needs to pay attention to both the environment and the psychology of his enemy. Knowledge of human psychology, sociology, and cultural backgrounds is necessary to know the actions of the enemy and this is almost as necessary as to know the physical character of the country, its climate and products. Certain people will do certain things almost without fail, certain other things, perfectly feasible, they will not do. There is no danger of knowing too much of the habits of an enemy. One should neither underestimate the enemy nor credit him with superhuman powers, fear and courage are latent in every human being, though roused into activity by very diverse means. Types of reconnaissance, Terrain-oriented reconnaissance is a survey of the terrain, force-oriented reconnaissance focuses on the enemy forces and may include target acquisition. Civil-oriented reconnaissance focuses on the dimension of the battlespace. The techniques and objectives are not mutually exclusive, it is up to the commander whether they are carried out separately or by the same unit, some military elements tasked with reconnaissance are armed only for self-defense, and rely on stealth to gather information. Others are well-enough armed to also deny information to the enemy by destroying their reconnaissance elements, reconnaissance-in-force is a type of military operation or military tactics used specifically to probe an enemys disposition
12.
Detective
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A detective is an investigator, usually a member of a law enforcement agency. Some are private persons, and may be known as private investigators, as The Eye That Never Sleeps, in some police departments, a detective position is achieved by passing a written test after a person completes the requirements for being a police officer. In many other systems, detectives are college graduates who join directly from civilian life without first serving as uniformed officers. Some people argue that detectives do a different job and therefore require completely different training, qualifications. In some countries, the practice of a detective is not yet recognized in courts, one of these countries is Portugal, where the proof presented loses all significance when collected by a private detective. Even under this circumstance, the practice of this activity is in demand, some private detectives also disguise themselves as other people so that no one could recognize them. Before the 1800s, there were few police departments, though the first had been created in Paris in 1667. As police activities moved from appointees helped by volunteers to professionals, the first private detective agency was founded by Eugène François Vidocq in Paris in the early 1800s, who had also headed a police agency in addition to being a criminal himself. Police detective activities were pioneered in England by the Bow Street Runners, the first police detective unit in the United States was formed in 1846 in Boston. Detectives have a variety of techniques available in conducting investigations. However, the majority of cases are solved by the interrogation of suspects and the interviewing of witnesses, besides interrogations, detectives may rely on a network of informants they have cultivated over the years. Informants often have connections with persons a detective would not be able to approach formally, evidence collection and preservation can also help in identifying a potential suspect. Criminal investigation, the investigation of criminal activity is conducted by the police, Criminal activity can relate to road use such as speeding, drunk driving, or to matters such as theft, drug distribution, assault, fraud, etc. In criminal investigations, once a detective has suspects in mind, physical forensic evidence in an investigation may provide leads to closing a case. Forensic science is the application of a spectrum of sciences to answer questions of interest to the legal system. This may be in relation to a crime or to a civil action, many major police stations in a city, county, or state, maintain their own forensic laboratories while others contract out the services. Detectives may use public and private records to provide information on a subject. Police detectives can search through files of fingerprint records, Police maintain records of people who have committed felonies and some misdemeanors
13.
Marshal
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Marshal is a term used in several official titles in various branches of society. As marshals became trusted members of the courts of Medieval Europe, during the last few centuries, it has been used for elevated offices, such as in military rank and civilian law enforcement. Marshal is an ancient loanword from Old French, which in turn is borrowed from Old Frankish *marhskalk, being still evident in Middle Dutch maerscalc, marscal and it is cognate with Old High German mar-scalc id. modern German Marschall. It originally and literally meant horse servant, from Germanic *marha- horse and this horse servant origin is retained in the current French name for farrier, maréchal-ferrant. The late Roman and Byzantine title of comes stabuli was adopted as a Latin analogue, which has become the French connétable and, derived from the French, finally, in Byzantium a marshal with elevated authority, notably a borderlands military command, is also known as an Exarch. In many countries, the rank of marshal, cf. field marshal, is the highest army rank, the equivalent navy rank is often admiral of the fleet. Marshals are typically, but not exclusively, appointed only in wartime, in many countries, especially in Europe, the special symbol of a marshal is a baton, and their insignia often incorporate batons. In some countries, the marshal is used instead of general in the higher air force ranks. The four highest Royal Air Force ranks are marshal of the Royal Air Force, air marshal, air marshal. The five-star rank of marshal of the Air Force is used by some Commonwealth, in the French Army and most National Armies modeled upon the French system, maréchal des logis is a cavalry term equivalent to sergeant. Some historical rulers have used special marshal titles to reward certain subjects, though not strictly military ranks, these honorary titles have been exclusively bestowed upon successful military leaders, such as the famous grand marshal of Ayacucho Antonio José de Sucre. Most famous are the Marshals of France, not least under Napoléon I, in England during the First Barons War the title Marshal of the Army of God was bestowed upon Robert Fitzwalter by election. Both the Soviet Union and Russia have army general as well as marshal in their rank system, the relationships between them is unresolved. Marshal of the Soviet Union Chief marshal of an arm was used in five Soviet military branches – the air force, artillery, armoured troops, engineer troops. Marshal of an arm was used in five Soviet military branches – the air force, artillery, armoured troops, engineer troops. Marshal of an arm is considered equivalent to the rank general of the army, which was used in the infantry. The function of the Marshal of the Court varies according to national tradition, often, the charge includes also the honorary privilege as chief of the protocol to announce formally the arrival of VIP guests at audiences, state dinners, and conferences in the monarchs premises. This office was made hereditary in the high nobility, e. g. the English Earl Marshal
14.
Gunfighter
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Gunman was a more common term used for these individuals in the 19th century. Today, the gunslinger is now more or less used to denote someone who is quick on the draw with a pistol. The gunfighter is also one of the most popular characters in the Western genre and has appeared in associated films, video games, the term gun slinger was used in the Western film Drag Harlan. The word was adopted by other Western writers, such as Zane Grey. Swarthout seems to have been correct about gunslinger, but the term existed in several newspapers in the 1870s. Bat Masterson used the term gunfighter in the articles which he wrote about the lawmen. However, Joseph Rosa noted that, even though Masterson used the term gunfighter, Clay Allison, a notorious New Mexico and Texas gunman and cattleman, originated the term shootist. Often, the term has been applied to men who would hire out for contract killings or at a ranch embroiled in a war where they would earn fighting wages. Others, like Billy the Kid, were notorious bandits, a gunfighter could be an outlaw—a robber or murderer who took advantage of the wilderness of the frontier to hide from genteel society and to make periodic raids on it. The gunfighter could also be an agent of the state, archetypically a lone avenger, there were also a few historical cowboys who were actual gunfighters, such as the Outlaw cowboy gang who participated in the bloody Skeleton Canyon Massacre. Gunslingers frequently appear as characters in Western movies and novels. Often, the hero of a Western meets his opposite double, Western gunslinger heroes are portrayed as local lawmen or enforcement officers, ranchers, army officers, cowboys, territorial marshals, nomadic loners, or skilled fast-draw artists. They are normally masculine persons of integrity and principle - courageous, moral, tough, solid, the Western hero usually stands alone and faces danger on his own, commonly against lawlessness, with an expert display of his physical skills. In films, the gunslinger often possesses a superhuman speed. Twirling pistols, lightning draws, and trick shots are standard fare for the gunmen of the big screen, in the real world, however, gunmen who relied on flashy tricks and theatrics died quickly, and most gunslingers took a much more practical approach to their weapons. Real gunslingers did not shoot to disarm or to impress, another classic bit of cinema that is largely a myth is the showdown at high noon, where two well-matched gunslingers agree to meet for a climactic formal duel. Gunfights could be won by simple distraction, or pistols could be emptied as gunmen fought from behind cover without injury, when a gunman did square off, it rarely was with another gunfighter. Gunslingers usually gave each other a wide berth, and it was uncommon for two well-known gunslingers to face off, the gunslingers reputation often was as valuable as any skills possessed
15.
Gambling
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Gambling is the wagering of money or something of value on an event with an uncertain outcome with the primary intent of winning money or material goods. Gambling thus requires three elements be present, consideration, chance and prize, the term gaming in this context typically refers to instances in which the activity has been specifically permitted by law. However, this distinction is not universally observed in the English-speaking world, for instance, in the United Kingdom, the regulator of gambling activities is called the Gambling Commission. Gambling is also an international commercial activity, with the legal gambling market totaling an estimated $335 billion in 2009. In other forms, gambling can be conducted with materials which have a value, many popular games played in modern casinos originate from Europe and China. Games such as craps, baccarat, roulette, and blackjack originate from different areas of Europe, a version of keno, an ancient Chinese lottery game, is played in casinos around the world. In addition, pai gow poker, a hybrid between pai gow and poker is also played, many jurisdictions, local as well as national, either ban gambling or heavily control it by licensing the vendors. Such regulation generally leads to gambling tourism and illegal gambling in the areas where it is not allowed, there is generally legislation requiring that the odds in gaming devices are statistically random, to prevent manufacturers from making some high-payoff results impossible. Since these high-payoffs have very low probability, a bias can quite easily be missed unless the odds are checked carefully. Most jurisdictions that allow gambling require participants to be above a certain age, in some jurisdictions, the gambling age differs depending on the type of gambling. For example, in many American states one must be over 21 to enter a casino, E. g. Nonetheless, both insurance and gambling contracts are typically considered aleatory contracts under most legal systems, though they are subject to different types of regulation. Under common law, particularly English Law, a contract may not give a casino bona fide purchaser status. For case law on recovery of gambling losses where the loser had stolen the funds see Rights of owner of money as against one who won it in gambling transaction from thief. This was a plot point in a Perry Mason novel, The Case of the Singing Skirt. Religious perspectives on gambling have been mixed, ancient Hindu poems like the Gamblers Lament and the Mahabharata testify to the popularity of gambling among ancient Indians. However, the text Arthashastra recommends taxation and control of gambling, ancient Jewish authorities frowned on gambling, even disqualifying professional gamblers from testifying in court. For these social and religious reasons, most legal jurisdictions limit gambling, in at least one case, the same bishop opposing a casino has sold land to be used for its construction. Although different interpretations of law exist in the Muslim world
16.
Folk hero
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This presence in the popular consciousness is evidenced by its historical frequency in folk songs, folk tales and other folklore, and its modern trope status in literature, art and films. Although some folk heroes are historical figures, many are not. The lives of heroes are generally fictional, their characteristics. One major category of folk hero is the defender of the people against the oppression or corruption of the established power structure. Members of this category of folk hero often, but not necessarily, robbed dozens of banks, escaped from jail multiple times. Before being boiled in oil, he saved his infant son at the cost of his own life, jack Mary Ann – a folk hero from the Wrexham area of north Wales whose fictionalised exploits continue to circulate in local folklore. James Morrow Walsh - Canada, a mountie who turned Sitting Bull, burned as a heretic she became a martyr, folk hero, and eventually a saint. She is now one of the saints of France. Miyamoto Musashi – Japan, a swordsman, soldier, philosopher and author Miloš Obilić – Serbia. Redmond OHanlon – Irish, rapparee of the 17th century Pemulwuy - Australia, sarutobi Sasuke – Japan, incredibly acrobatic spy said to have been raised by monkeys and trained in the Ninja heartland of Iga and Koga provinces during the golden age of the Ninja. Preventing bloodshed between the First Nation peoples and the peoples of Canada. Cúchulainn - Ireland, folk legend and the pre-eminent hero of Ulaid in the Ulster Cycle Fionn mac Cumhaill - Ireland, warrior, primary figure in the Oisin cycle. Homer - Credited author of The Iliad and The Odyssey, el Santo - Real life Mexican wrestler, with heavy fictionalised adventures in movies and comic books Culture hero Seal, Graham
17.
American Old West
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Frontier refers to a contrasting region at the edge of a European-American line of settlement. American historians cover multiple frontiers but the folklore is focused primarily on the 19th century west of the Mississippi River. As defined by Hine and Faragher, frontier history tells the story of the creation and defense of communities, the use of the land, the development of markets, and the formation of states. They explain, It is a tale of conquest, but also one of survival, persistence, thus, Turners Frontier Thesis proclaimed the westward frontier as the defining process of American history. As the American frontier passed into history, the myths of the West in fiction and film took firm hold in the imagination of Americans, America is exceptional in choosing its iconic self-image. David Murdoch has said, No other nation has taken a time and place from its past, the frontier line was the outer line of European-American settlement. It moved steadily westward from the 1630s to the 1880s, Turner favored the Census Bureau definition of the frontier line as a settlement density of two people per square mile. The West was the settled area near that boundary. Thus, parts of the Midwest and American South, though no longer considered western, have a frontier heritage along with the western states. In the 21st century, however, the term American West is most often used for the area west of the Mississippi River, in the colonial era, before 1776, the west was of high priority for settlers and politicians. The American frontier began when Jamestown, Virginia was settled by the English in 1607, English, French, Spanish and Dutch patterns of expansion and settlement were quite different. Although French fur traders ranged widely through the Great Lakes and mid-west region they settled down. French settlement was limited to a few small villages such as Kaskaskia. They created a rural settlement in upstate New York. Areas in the north that were in the stage by 1700 generally had poor transportation facilities. The wealthy speculator, if one was involved, usually remained at home, the class of landless poor was small. Few artisans settled on the frontier except for those who practiced a trade to supplement their primary occupation of farming, there might be a storekeeper, a minister, and perhaps a doctor, and there were a number of landless laborers. However frontier areas of 1700 that had good river connections were transformed into plantation agriculture
18.
Wagon master
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A wagon master was the person hired to oversee the transportation of a group of wagons from one place to another. On the American frontier, the term applies to the person responsible for assisting groups of immigrants or pioneers from the eastern U. S. to the western U. S. Wagon masters were also hired to oversee shipments of cargo or mail, a group of wagons traveling together were referred to as a train. The trip across the western U. S. by wagon was long, typically, a wagon train would travel at around two miles an hour, which would only permit the train to average ten miles a day. Therefore, the 2,000 mile journey from Missouri to California or Oregon would take five to six months depending on weather or other difficulties. The job of wagon master was very important as the difference between a good and skilled wagon master and one who wasnt was often the difference between life and death, the wagon master had many responsibilities. It was vital that the master be a knowledgeable and skilled individual in order for the people. The wagon master also had to be familiar with the trail that they would be traveling. He would have to know what the terrain were going to be that they wagons were going to travel over, where the wagons could go, crossing the continent by wagon was an extremely expensive enterprise. It was estimated that the journey cost a family about $1,000 and they had to have special wagon that could handle the weight and rough use. These wagons typically would cost about $400, the wagons had wooden hoops that went from one side to the other which were covered by a canvas top which would be waterproofed with linseed oil. The canvas protected the immigrants and their goods from weather and the sun, the wagons would be packed with food supplies, cooking equipment, water kegs, and other things needed for a long journey. Knowing that this was the chance they had to transport their goods and that they may not be able to get what they needed where they were going. This often led to the breaking down and the draw animals being overly fatigued. It was common to see route along the wagon trails littered with items that had been cast off along the journey. When the wagon train would stop for any length of time, at night for instance and this served two purposes, one as a corral for the animals and secondly, as protection against a possible attacks. The main cause of death on the trails was accidental shootings. The second most prevalent reason for death was drowning, as the immigrants would have to cross dangerous rivers with their animals, other reasons for people dying on the trip included sickness, disease, fighting, wild animals, and old age
19.
Illinois
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Illinois is a state in the midwestern region of the United States, achieving statehood in 1818. It is the 6th most populous state and 25th largest state in terms of land area, the word Illinois comes from a French rendering of a native Algonquin word. For decades, OHare International Airport has been ranked as one of the worlds busiest airports, Illinois has long had a reputation as a bellwether both in social and cultural terms and politics. With the War of 1812 Illinois growth slowed as both Native Americans and Canadian forces often raided the American Frontier, mineral finds and timber stands also had spurred immigration—by the 1810s, the Eastern U. S. Railroads arose and matured in the 1840s, and soon carried immigrants to new homes in Illinois, as well as being a resource to ship their commodity crops out to markets. Railroads freed most of the land of Illinois and other states from the tyranny of water transport. By 1900, the growth of jobs in the northern cities and coal mining in the central and southern areas attracted a new group of immigrants. Illinois was an important manufacturing center during both world wars, the Great Migration from the South established a large community of African Americans in Chicago, who created the citys famous jazz and blues cultures. Three U. S. presidents have been elected while living in Illinois, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, additionally, Ronald Reagan, whose political career was based in California, was the only U. S. president born and raised in Illinois. Today, Illinois honors Lincoln with its official slogan, Land of Lincoln. The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum is located in the capital of Springfield. Illinois is the spelling for the early French Catholic missionaries and explorers name for the Illinois Native Americans. American scholars previously thought the name Illinois meant man or men in the Miami-Illinois language and this etymology is not supported by the Illinois language, as the word for man is ireniwa and plural men is ireniwaki. The name Illiniwek has also said to mean tribe of superior men. The name Illinois derives from the Miami-Illinois verb irenwe·wa he speaks the regular way and this was taken into the Ojibwe language, perhaps in the Ottawa dialect, and modified into ilinwe·. The French borrowed these forms, changing the ending to spell it as -ois. The current spelling form, Illinois, began to appear in the early 1670s, the Illinois name for themselves, as attested in all three of the French missionary-period dictionaries of Illinois, was Inoka, of unknown meaning and unrelated to the other terms. American Indians of successive cultures lived along the waterways of the Illinois area for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans, the Koster Site has been excavated and demonstrates 7,000 years of continuous habitation
20.
Banditti of the Prairie
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Though bands of roving criminals were common in many parts of Illinois, the counties of Lee, DeKalb, Ogle, and Winnebago were especially affected by them. As the crimes continued, local citizens formed bands of vigilantes known as Regulators, a clash between the Banditti and the Regulators in Ogle County near Oregon, Illinois, resulted in the outlaws demise and decreased Banditti activity and violent crime within the county. Banditti and Regulator activity continued well after the lynching took place in 1841. Crimes continued, committed by both sides, across northern/central Illinois, the Banditti were involved in other notable events as well, including the 1845 torture-murder of merchant Colonel George Davenport, the namesake of Davenport, Iowa. A Tale of the Mississippi Valley, published in Chicago in 1850, the outlaw gangs also continued to be active in Lee and Winnebago counties following the events in Oregon. The Prairie Bandits were active across northern Illinois, especially in Lee, Ogle, Winnebago, the Banditti posed a far greater threat, for a much longer period, than the exaggerated paranoia of the two month Native American conflict. Former Illinois Governor Thomas Ford wrote in History of Illinois, In Lee County, Illinois, the group had enough allies that they were scattered throughout the county. The connections the Banditti had around the county made illegal activities such as counterfeiting and dealing in and it was reported that, at one time, every township officer in Lee County was a member of the Banditti. Acts of theft were carried on in defiance of authority, citizens were threatened when they tried to seek redress from the thieves. In the end, the Prairie Bandits activity in Ogle and Lee County became more than area residents were willing to withstand, in Ogle County the crimes that occurred in March 1841 resulted in a kangaroo court which culminated with the lynching of two Banditti near Oregon, Illinois. In nearby Lee County, a Vigilance Committee was formed by men from throughout Lee County, beginning with the events on March 21,1841, violence and retribution escalated in the area around the Ogle County seat of Oregon. Illinois, still frontier in 1841, was settled by large numbers of migrants after the Black Hawk War, the settlers were followed to the area by a criminal element. The Banditti of the Prairie were part of the problem that plagued much of northern Illinois. As such, the citizens of Ogle County organized and eventually took the law into their own hands. On March 21,1841, six members of the Banditti were arrested on charges of counterfeiting and they were held at the Ogle County Jail in the city of Oregon. That night a fire out in the newly completed courthouse. The fire, set by the Banditti, was meant as a diversion to facilitate the escape of the gang members. The diversion failed, though the courthouse burned to the ground, the court records concerning the case had been safely concealed in the home of the court clerk
21.
Kansas Territory
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The territory extended from the Missouri border west to the summit of the Rocky Mountains and from the 37th parallel north to the 40th parallel north. Much of the region of what is now the State of Colorado was part of Kansas Territory. The Territory of Colorado was created to govern this western region of the former Kansas Territory on February 28,1861, Kansas Territory was established by the Kansas–Nebraska Act. The Kansas–Nebraska Act became a law on May 30,1854, establishing the Nebraska Territory, the provisions relating to Kansas Territory were embodied in the last eighteen sections. Section 28 Declares the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 to be in force in the Territory. Section 31 Locates the seat of government of the Territory, temporarily at Fort Leavenworth, and authorizes the use for public purposes of the government buildings. As early as June 10,1854, the Missourians held a meeting at Salt Creek Valley and they said they were in favor of making Kansas a slave state if it should require half the citizens of Missouri, musket in hand, to emigrate there. The desire to facilitate the colonization of the Territory took practical shape while the bill was still under debate in the United States Congress, the largest organization created for this purpose was the New England Emigrant Aid Company, organized by Eli Thayer. Emigration from the states, including New England, Iowa, Ohio. These emigrants were known as Free-Staters, because Missourians had claimed much of the land closest to the border, the Free-Staters were forced to establish settlements further into Kansas Territory. Among these were Lawrence, Topeka, and Manhattan, to protect themselves against the encroachments of non-residents, the Actual Settlers Association of Kansas Territory was formed. The first territorial appointments, looking to the inauguration of a government, under the provisions of the organic law, were made in June. The officers appointed by President Pierce, whose appointments were confirmed by the United States Senate, the first governor was Andrew Horatio Reeder was appointed June 29,1854 and removed July 28,1858. On March 30,1855 Border Ruffians from Missouri entered Kansas during the territorys first legislative election, antislavery candidates prevailed in one election district, the future Riley County. The first session of the legislature was held in Pawnee, Kansas at the request of Governor Reeder, the two-story stone building still stands and is open to the public as the First Territorial Capitol of Kansas. The building remained as the seat of the legislature for five days from July 2–6,1855, the last legislative act of the Territorial Legislature was the approval of the charter for the College of the Sisters of Bethany. This was February 2, 1861—four days after James Buchanan signed the act of Congress that officially brought Kansas into the Union, James H. Lane joined the Free-State movement in 1855 and became president the Topeka Constitutional Convention from October 23 to November 11,1855. He was later a leader of Jayhawkers and it was claimed that some Missourians had used violence toward the persons and property of the inhabitants of the Kansas Territory
22.
Nebraska Territory
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The Nebraska Territory was created by the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854. The territory encompassed areas of what is today Nebraska, Wyoming, South Dakota, North Dakota, Colorado, an enabling act was passed by Congress in 1864. Delegates for a convention were elected, this convention did not produce a constitution. Two years later, in 1866, a constitution was drafted and voted upon and it was approved by 100 votes. However, a clause in this constitution that limited suffrage to white males delayed Nebraskas entry into the Union for almost a year. The 1866 enabling act for the state was subject to a veto by President Andrew Johnson. When Congress reconvened in 1867, it passed another bill to create the state of Nebraska and this bill was also vetoed by President Johnson. It was first mentioned in fur trading records in 1823, Fort Lisa, founded by Manuel Lisa near present-day Dodge Park in North Omaha was founded in 1812, although Lisa had earlier founded posts further up the Missouri in Montana and North Dakota. Fort Atkinson, was founded on the Council Bluff in 1819, mormon settlers founded Cutlers Park in 1846, and the town of Bellevue was incorporated in 1853. Nearby Omaha City was founded in 1854, with Nebraska City, the influential towns of Brownville and Fontanelle were founded that year as well. The early village of Lancaster, later called Lincoln, was founded in 1856, along with the towns of Saratoga, South Nebraska City, thirty years later the Nebraska territory was settled and print media served the dual purposes of sharing the news and promoting the area for settlement. In 1854 the Nebraska Palladium was the first paper to be published in the territory however it would last less than a year and these territorial newspapers were efficient but rough and many of the papers folded under quickly, changed owners, or consolidated with other publications. By 1860 the Nebraska territory had twelve weekly publications, one biweekly and one monthly, after statehood in 1867 the newspaper industry expanded greatly. With a variety of fur trading posts, Fort Atkinson, founded in 1819, was the location of the first military post in what became the Nebraska Territory. Upon creation, the territory encompassed most of the northern Great Plains, much of the upper Missouri River basin, the Nebraska Territory gradually reduced in size as new territories were created in the 1860s. The Colorado Territory was formed February 28,1861 from portions of the south of 41° N and west of 102°03′ W. March 2,1861. It was made of all of the portions of Nebraska Territory north of 43° N and these portions had not been part of the Louisiana Purchase, rather, they had been part of Oregon Country and became part of the United States in 1846. On March 3,1863, the Idaho Territory was formed of all the territory west of 104°03′ W. S. S, T. Andreas,1882 History of Nebraska History of Nebraska State Government Organization
23.
Union Army
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The Union Army was the land force that fought for the Union during the American Civil War,1861 to 1865. It included the permanent regular army of the United States, which was augmented by numbers of temporary units consisting of volunteers as well as conscripts. The Union Army fought and eventually defeated the Confederate Army during the war, at least two and a half million men served in the Union Army, almost all were volunteers. About 360,000 Union soldiers died from all causes,280,000 were wounded and 200,000 deserted. When the American Civil War began in April 1861, there were only 16,000 men in the U. S. Army, and of these many Southern officers resigned and joined the Confederate army. The U. S. Army consisted of ten regiments of infantry, four of artillery, Lincolns call forced the border states to choose sides, and four seceded, making the Confederacy eleven states strong. The war proved to be longer and more extensive than anyone North or South had expected, the call for volunteers initially was easily met by patriotic Northerners, abolitionists, and even immigrants who enlisted for a steady income and meals. Over 10,000 Germans in New York and Pennsylvania immediately responded to Lincolns call, as more men were needed, however, the number of volunteers fell and both money bounties and forced conscription had to be turned to. Nevertheless, between April 1861 and April 1865, at least two and a million men served in the Union Army, of whom the majority were volunteers. It is a misconception that the South held an advantage because of the percentage of professional officers who resigned to join the Confederate army. At the start of the war, there were 824 graduates of the U. S, Military Academy on the active list, of these,296 resigned or were dismissed, and 184 of those became Confederate officers. Of the approximately 900 West Point graduates who were civilians,400 returned to the Union Army and 99 to the Confederate. Therefore, the ratio of Union to Confederate professional officers was 642 to 283, the South did have the advantage of other military colleges, such as The Citadel and Virginia Military Institute, but they produced fewer officers. The Union Army was composed of numerous organizations, which were generally organized geographically, Military Division A collection of Departments reporting to one commander. Military Divisions were similar to the modern term Theater, and were modeled close to, though not synonymous with. Department An organization that covered a region, including responsibilities for the Federal installations therein. Those named for states usually referred to Southern states that had been occupied and it was more common to name departments for rivers or regions. District A subdivision of a Department, there were also Subdistricts for smaller regions
24.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
25.
Marksman
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In popular and historical usage, sharpshooter and marksman are considered synonyms. Within the shooting sports and military usages today, however, sharpshooter and marksman refer to different levels of skill. Specifically, in the US Army, marksman is a rating below sharpshooter, four levels of skill are generally recognized today in both military and civilian shooting circles, unqualified, marksman, sharpshooter, and expert. Marksmanship badges for the three qualified levels are commonly awarded to civilian and military shooters who attain proficiency in shooting higher than unqualified. Snipers are also tasked with responsibilities other than delivering long-range fire—specifically, conducting reconnaissance. In the Middle Ages, in the first use of the marksman was given to the royal archers, or bowmen, of a palace guard. This was around the 10th century, although records of some 9th century English Kings show the listings of groups of marksmen specifically chosen for their militaries, in the Australian Army, marksmanship is currently recognized by the award of one of three skill-at-arms badges. The Skill at Arms Badge consists of a representation of crossed.303 Short Magazine Lee–Enfield rifles and is awarded for achieving a prescribed standard of shooting skill and this must be repeated within twelve months for the badge to be awarded in perpetuity to the recipient. The Snipers Badge is similar in design but incorporates the letter S into the design and is awarded to soldiers who qualify on the Army Snipers Course. The Army Top 20 Badge consists of crossed.303 SMLE rifles upon a laurel wreath and is awarded to the final 20 competitors in the annual Champion Shot for the Army, the winner of this competition is also awarded the Champion Shots Medal. Only one badge may be worn, in the British Armed Forces, marksman is traditionally the highest shooting rating and holders may wear a crossed rifles badge on the lower sleeve. From Army Operational Shooting Policy for the Annual Personal Weapons Test Combat Infantryman, Marksman, to qualify for Marksman all practices are to be completed and the firer must achieve a score of 55 or more of the total Highest Possible Score for the entire shoot. Soldiers achieving a non-marksman passing score are NOT permitted to re-shoot practices in order to qualify for Marksman, Infantry soldiers who qualify as Marksmen during the Combat Infantrymans Course are entitled to retain the award on joining their units. Soldiers who qualify as Marksmen are entitled to wear the Marksman badge for one year before they must requalify, in the United States Army and Marine Corps, the marksmanship of the soldiers is ranked based on their skill, marksman-sharpshooter-expert. Holders of each level wear qualification badges below their ribbons with bars for the weapons they qualify in, in the United States Navy and the United States Coast Guard, full-sized medals are only issued at the expert level. Both services award separate medals for pistol and rifle proficiency, the United States Air Force gives just a ribbon for qualifying at the expert level, although a bronze star can be earned if the wearer qualifies on both of these types of small arms. Within the United States military, a marksman in the U. S. Army is referred to as Squad Designated Marksman, and a marksman in the Marines is called a Designated Marksman. The United States Army particularly emphasizes the concept, according to US Army Field Manual 3-21.8 a typical United States Army fireteam consists of four soldiers
26.
Poker
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Poker is a family of card games that combine gambling, strategy, and skill. Poker games vary in the number of cards dealt, the number of shared or community cards, the number of cards that remain hidden, and the betting procedures. In most modern games, the first round of betting begins with one or more of the players making some form of a forced bet. In standard poker, each player bets according to the rank they believe their hand is worth as compared to the other players. The action then proceeds clockwise as each player in turn must either match, or call, a player who matches a bet may also raise, or increase the bet. The betting round ends when all players have called the last bet or folded. If all but one player folds on any round, the player collects the pot without being required to reveal their hand. If more than one remains in contention after the final betting round, a showdown takes place where the hands are revealed. By the 1990s some gaming historians including David Parlett started to challenge the notion that poker is a derivative of As-Nas. There is evidence that a game called poque, a French game similar to poker, was played around the region where poker is said to have originated. The name of the game likely descended from the Irish Poca or even the French poque, yet it is not clear whether the origins of poker itself lie with the games bearing those names. It is commonly regarded as sharing ancestry with the Renaissance game of primero, the English game brag clearly descended from brelan and incorporated bluffing. It is quite possible that all of these earlier games influenced the development of poker as it exists now, the unique features of poker have to do with the betting, and do not appear in any known older game. In this view poker originated much later, in the early or mid-18th century and it was played in a variety of forms, with 52 cards, and included both straight poker and stud. 20 card poker was a variant for two players, the development of poker is linked to the historical movement that also saw the invention of commercial gambling. English actor Joseph Crowell reported that the game was played in New Orleans in 1829, with a deck of 20 cards, and four players betting on which players hand was the most valuable. As it spread north along the Mississippi River and to the West during the gold rush, soon after this spread, the full 52-card French deck was used and the flush was introduced. The draw was added prior to 1850, during the American Civil War, many additions were made including stud poker, and the straight
27.
South Dakota
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South Dakota is a state located in the Midwestern region of the United States. It is named after the Lakota and Dakota Sioux Native American tribes, South Dakota is the 17th most expansive, but the 5th least populous and the 5th least densely populated of the 50 United States. Once the southern portion of the Dakota Territory, South Dakota became a state on November 2,1889, Pierre is the state capital and Sioux Falls, with a population of about 171,000, is South Dakotas largest city. South Dakota is bordered by the states of North Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, Wyoming, the state is bisected by the Missouri River, dividing South Dakota into two geographically and socially distinct halves, known to residents as East River and West River. Eastern South Dakota is home to most of the states population, West of the Missouri, ranching is the predominant agricultural activity, and the economy is more dependent on tourism and defense spending. Most of the Native American reservations are located in West River, the Black Hills, a group of low pine-covered mountains sacred to the Sioux, are located in the southwest part of the state. Mount Rushmore, a major tourist destination, is located there, South Dakota experiences a temperate continental climate, with four distinct seasons and precipitation ranging from moderate in the east to semi-arid in the west. The ecology of the state features species typical of a North American grassland biome, humans have inhabited the area for several millennia, with the Sioux becoming dominant by the early 19th century. In the late 19th century, European-American settlement intensified after a rush in the Black Hills. Encroaching miners and settlers triggered a number of Indian wars, ending with the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890, historically dominated by an agricultural economy and a rural lifestyle, South Dakota has recently sought to diversify its economy in areas to attract and retain residents. South Dakotas history and rural character still strongly influence the culture of the state, South Dakota is situated in the north-central United States, and is considered a part of the Midwest by the U. S. Census Bureau, it is also part of the Great Plains region. The culture, economy, and geography of western South Dakota have more in common with the West than the Midwest, South Dakota has a total area of 77,116 square miles, making the state the 17th largest in the Union. Black Elk Peak, formerly named Harney Peak, with an elevation of 7,242 ft, is the states highest point, while the shoreline of Big Stone Lake is the lowest, with an elevation of 966 ft. South Dakota is bordered to the north by North Dakota, to the south by Nebraska, to the east by Iowa and Minnesota, the geographical center of the U. S. is 17 miles west of Castle Rock in Butte County. The North American continental pole of inaccessibility is located between Allen and Kyle,1,024 mi from the nearest coastline, the Missouri River is the largest and longest river in the state. Other major South Dakota rivers include the Cheyenne, James, Big Sioux, Eastern South Dakota has many natural lakes, mostly created by periods of glaciation. Additionally, dams on the Missouri River create four large reservoirs, Lake Oahe, Lake Sharpe, Lake Francis Case, South Dakota can generally be divided into three regions, eastern South Dakota, western South Dakota, and the Black Hills. The Missouri River serves as a boundary in terms of geographic, social, at times the Black Hills are combined with the rest of western South Dakota, and people often refer to the resulting two regions divided by the Missouri River as West River and East River
28.
Jack McCall
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John Jack McCall, was the murderer of Old West legend Wild Bill Hickok. McCall shot Hickok from behind as he played poker at Nuttal & Manns Saloon in Deadwood, McCall was executed for the murder on March 1,1877. Many details of McCalls life are unknown and he was born in the early 1850s in Jefferson County, Kentucky. McCall was raised in Kentucky with three sisters, and eventually drifted west to become a buffalo hunter, by 1876, he was living in a gold mining camp outside Deadwood, under the alias of Bill Sutherland. McCall was drinking at the bar at Nuttal & Manns saloon in Deadwood on August 1,1876, the inebriated McCall quickly took his place. McCall proceeded to lose several hands, and was soon broke, Hickok offered McCall money to buy breakfast and advised him not to play again until he could cover his losses. Though McCall accepted the money, he felt insulted. On August 2, a game was once again under way at the saloon. A resentful and drunken McCall shot Hickok in the back of the head with a single-action. 45-caliber revolver, McCall ran from the saloon and attempted to steal a horse to escape, but fell from the excited animal. McCall was soon found hiding in the back of a butcher shop. An impromptu court was called to order with the prosecution, defense, on trial the next day in McDaniels Theater, McCall claimed his actions were in retribution for Hickok having previously killed his brother in Abilene, Kansas. McCall was found innocent after two hours, the verdict brought the Black Hills Pioneer to editorialize, Should it ever be our misfortune to kill a man. We would simply ask that our trial may take place in some of the camps of these hills. Fearing for his safety, McCall soon left the area and headed into Wyoming Territory, but Wyoming authorities refused to recognize the result of McCalls acquittal on the grounds that the court in Deadwood had no legal jurisdiction. Therefore, the court could not legally acquit McCall. Because Deadwood was not under a legally constituted law enforcement or court system, agreeing, the federal court in Yankton, Dakota Territory, declared that double jeopardy did not apply, and set a date for a retrial. McCall was tried again in Yankton for Hickoks murder, and was found guilty. After almost three months in jail, he was hanged on March 1,1877, aged 24, McCall was buried in Sacred Heart Cemetery in Yankton County, South Dakota, a cemetery which was moved in 1881
29.
Dead man's hand
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The makeup of pokers dead mans hand has varied through the years. Currently, the mans hand is described as a two-pair poker hand consisting of the black aces. Along with a hole card, these were the cards reportedly held by Old West folk hero, lawman and gunfighter. The expression dead mans hand appears to have had currency in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The earliest detailed reference to the mans hand was 1886. Jacks and sevens are called the dead hand in the 1903 Encyclopaedia of Superstitions, Folklore. Edmond Hoyle references the Dead Mans Hand as Jacks and eights in 1907, reportedly, Hickoks final hand included the aces and eights of both black suits. According to a book by Western historian Carl W. Breihan, the cards were retrieved from the floor by a man named Neil Christy, the son, in turn, told Mr. However, Rosa said no contemporaneous source for this exact hand can be found. The western-themed collectible card game, Doomtown, uses the Dead Mans Hand as the highest rank in the game, Dead mans hand in popular culture
30.
Abolitionism
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Abolitionism is a movement to end slavery, whether formal or informal. In Western Europe and the Americas, abolitionism is a movement to end the African and Indian slave trade. An abolitionist movement only started in the late 18th century, however, soon after his death in 1785, they joined with William Wilberforce and others in forming the Clapham Sect. Massachusetts ratified a constitution that declared all men equal, freedom suits challenging slavery based on this principle brought an end to slavery in the state, Vermont, which existed as an unrecognized state from 1777 to 1791, abolished adult slavery in 1777. In other states, such as Virginia, similar declarations of rights were interpreted by the courts as not applicable to Africans, during the following decades, the abolitionist movement grew in northern states, and Congress regulated the expansion of slavery in new states admitted to the union. France abolished slavery within the French Kingdom in 1315, Haiti achieved independence from France in 1804 and brought an end to slavery in its territory. The northern states in the U. S. all abolished slavery by 1804, the United Kingdom and the United States outlawed the international slave trade in 1807, after which Britain led efforts to block slave ships. In Eastern Europe, groups organized to abolish the enslavement of the Roma in Wallachia and Moldavia and it was declared illegal in 1948 under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The last country to abolish slavery was Mauritania, where it was officially abolished by presidential decree in 1981. In 1315, Louis X, king of France, published a decree proclaiming that France signifies freedom and this prompted subsequent governments to circumscribe slavery in the overseas colonies. Some cases of African slaves freed by setting foot on the French soil were recorded such as example of a Norman slave merchant who tried to sell slaves in Bordeaux in 1571. He was arrested and his slaves were freed according to a declaration of the Parlement of Guyenne which stated that slavery was intolerable in France, born into slavery in Saint Domingue, Thomas-Alexandre Dumas became free when his father brought him to France in 1776. As in other New World colonies, the French relied on the Atlantic slave trade for labour for their sugar plantations in their Caribbean colonies. In addition, French colonists in Louisiane in North America held slaves, particularly in the South around New Orleans, Louis XIVs Code Noir regulated the slave trade and institution in the colonies. It gave unparalleled rights to slaves and it includes the right to marry, gather publicly, or take Sundays off. Although the Code Noir authorized and codified cruel corporal punishment against slaves under certain conditions and it also forced the owners to instruct them in the Catholic faith, implying that Africans were human beings endowed with a soul, a fact that was not seen as evident until then. It resulted in a far higher percentage of blacks being free in 1830 and they were on average exceptionally literate, with a significant number of them owning businesses, properties, and even slaves. Other free people of colour, such as Julien Raimond, spoke out against slavery, during the Age of Enlightenment, many philosophers wrote pamphlets against slavery and its moral and economical justifications, including Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws or in the Encyclopédie
31.
Underground Railroad
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The term is also applied to the abolitionists, both black and white, free and enslaved, who aided the fugitives. Various other routes led to Mexico or overseas, an earlier escape route running south toward Florida, then a Spanish possession, existed from the late 17th century until shortly after the American Revolution. However, the now generally known as the Underground Railroad was formed in the late 1700s. One estimate suggests that by 1850,100,000 slaves had escaped via the Railroad, British North America, where slavery was prohibited, was a popular destination, as its long border gave many points of access. Most former slaves settled in Ontario, more than 30,000 people were said to have escaped there via the network during its 20-year peak period, although U. S. Census figures account for only 6,000. Numerous fugitives stories are documented in the 1872 book The Underground Railroad Records by William Still, the resulting economic impact was minuscule, but the psychological influence on slaveholders was immense. With heavy lobbying by Southern politicians, the Compromise of 1850 was passed by Congress after the Mexican–American War, because the law required sparse documentation to claim a person was a fugitive, slave catchers also kidnapped free blacks, especially children, and sold them into slavery. Southern politicians often exaggerated the number of escaped slaves and often blamed escapes on Northerners interfering with Southern property rights. The law deprived suspected slaves of the right to themselves in court. In a de facto bribe, judges were paid a fee for a decision that confirmed a suspect as a slave than for one ruling that the suspect was free. Many Northerners who might have ignored slave issues in the South were confronted by local challenges that bound them to support slavery. This was a primary grievance cited by the Union during the American Civil War, the escape network was not literally underground nor a railroad. It was figuratively underground in the sense of being an underground resistance and it was known as a railroad by way of the use of rail terminology in the code. The Underground Railroad consisted of meeting points, secret routes, transportation, and safe houses, escaped slaves would move north along the route from one way station to the next. Conductors on the railroad came from various backgrounds and included blacks, white abolitionists, former slaves. Without the presence and support of black residents, there would have been almost no chance for fugitive slaves to pass into freedom unmolested. To reduce the risk of infiltration, many associated with the Underground Railroad knew only their part of the operation. Conductors led or transported the fugitives from station to station, a conductor sometimes pretended to be a slave in order to enter a plantation
32.
Leavenworth, Kansas
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Leavenworth is the largest city in and the county seat of Leavenworth County, Kansas, United States. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 35,251, located on the west bank of the Missouri River 25 mi northwest of Kansas City, Missouri, it is part of the Kansas City metropolitan area. The site of Fort Leavenworth, built in 1827, the city known in American history for its role as a key supply base in the settlement of the American West. It is important in nineteenth-century African-American history, during the American Civil War, it was the destination of numerous African-American refugee slaves who escaped from Missouri and other slave states. The city has been notable as the location of several prisons, particularly the United States Disciplinary Barracks and United States Penitentiary, Leavenworth, founded in 1854, was the first city incorporated in the territory of Kansas. The city developed south of Fort Leavenworth, which was established as Cantonment Leavenworth in 1827 by Colonel Henry Leavenworth and its location on the Missouri River made it a destination for refugee African-American slaves seeking freedom from the slave state of Missouri in the antebellum years. Abolition supporters helped them find refuge, in the years before the American Civil War, Leavenworth was a hotbed of anti-slavery and pro-slavery agitation, often leading to open physical confrontations on the street and in public meetings. On April 3,1858, it was in Leavenworth, Kansas that the Leavenworth Constitution for the state of Kansas was adopted, refugee African Americans continued to settle in the city during the war. By 1865 it had attracted nearly one-fifth of the 12,000 blacks in the state, charles Henry Langston was an important African-American leader in Leavenworth and northeast Kansas in the Reconstruction era and afterward. In Kansas, Langston worked for suffrage and the right to sit on juries, testify in court. African Americans gained suffrage in 1870 after passage of the federal 15th constitutional amendment, and the legislature voted for their right to sit on juries in 1874. African Americans continued to migrate to the state after the war, there were a total of 17,108 blacks in Kansas in 1870, with 43,107 in 1880, and 52,003 by 1900. Fort Leavenworth was located outside the city limits until its territory was annexed by the city on April 12,1977, in 2008, an underground series of vaults was found in the city, apparently built during the late 19th century. Leavenworth is located at 39°18′40″N 94°55′21″W at an elevation of 840 feet, the city lies on the west bank of the Missouri River in the Dissected Till Plains region of North Americas Central Lowlands. Four small tributaries of the river flow generally east through the city, from north to south, these are Quarry Creek, Corral Creek, Three Mile Creek, and Five Mile Creek. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 24.06 square miles. Fort Leavenworth occupies the half of the citys area. Leavenworth, along with the rest of Leavenworth County, lies within the Kansas City metropolitan area, Lansing, Kansas, is located to the south
33.
James Henry Lane (Union general)
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James Henry Lane also known as Jim Lane was a partisan during the Bleeding Kansas period that immediately preceded the American Civil War. During the war, Lane served as a United States Senator, although reelected as a Senator in 1865, Lane committed suicide the following year. The son of Amos Lane, Lane was born in Lawrenceburg, Indiana, during the Mexican-American War, he successively commanded the 3rd and 5th Indiana Regiments. He was a U. S. congressman from Indiana where he voted for the Kansas-Nebraska Act and he moved to the Kansas Territory in 1855. He immediately became involved in the abolitionist movement in Kansas, and was called the leader of the Jayhawkers. After the Free Soilers succeeded in getting Kansas admitted to the Union in 1861 as a state, Lane was elected as one of the new states first U. S. Senators. During that time he presided over the Topeka convention, Lane lost the battle but stayed behind and attacked pro-South pockets in Missouri behind Price. Lane was severely criticized for his actions in Osceola, most severely by General Henry Halleck, of their actions, he would state, The course pursued by those under Lane and Jennison has turned against us many thousands who were formerly Union men. A few more such raids will make this State unanimous against us, on December 18,1861 Lane was appointed brigadier general of volunteers. On March 21,1862, his commission was canceled in culmination of an argument over whether a sitting U. S, Senator could concurrently hold the rank of General. However on April 11,1862, he was reinstated as general of volunteers with the confirmation of the U. S. Senate. During 1862–1863, he served as recruiting commissioner for the State of Kansas, Senator Jim Lane recruited the 1st Regiment Kansas Volunteer Infantry who debuted at the Skirmish at Island Mound. They are the first African-American troops to fight in the war, in their first action,30 of their members defeated 130 mounted Confederate guerrillas. Lane was the target of the event that became the Lawrence Massacre on August 21,1863, Confederate guerrillas could be heard shouting, Remember Osceola. Though Lane was in residence in Lawrence at the time, he was able to escape the attack by racing through a nearby ravine. In 1864 when Sterling Price invaded Missouri, Lane served as a volunteer aide-de-camp to Samuel R. Curtis, Lane was with the victorious Union forces at the battle of Westport. Lane had survived many hardships in his life, including fighting in the Mexican-American War, but on July 1,1866 he shot himself in the head as he jumped from his carriage in Leavenworth, Kansas. He was allegedly deranged, depressed, had charged with abandoning his fellow Radical Republicans and had been accused of financial irregularities
34.
Buffalo Bill
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William Frederick Buffalo Bill Cody was an American scout, bison hunter, and showman. Buffalo Bill started working at the age of eleven, after his fathers death, during the American Civil War, he served the Union from 1863 to the end of the war in 1865. Later he served as a scout for the US Army during the Indian Wars. One of the most colorful figures of the American Old West, shortly thereafter he started performing in shows that displayed cowboy themes and episodes from the frontier and Indian Wars. He founded Buffalo Bills Wild West in 1883, taking his company on tours in the United States and, beginning in 1887, in Great Britain. Cody was born on February 26,1846, on a farm just outside Le Claire and his father, Isaac Cody, was born on September 5,1811, in Toronto Township, Upper Canada, now part of Mississauga, Ontario, directly west of Toronto. Mary Ann Bonsell Laycock, Bills mother, was born about 1817 in New Jersey and she moved to Cincinnati to teach school, and there she met and married Isaac. She was a descendant of Josiah Bunting, a Quaker who had settled in Pennsylvania, there is no evidence to indicate Buffalo Bill was raised as a Quaker. In 1847 the couple moved to Ontario, having their son baptized in 1847, as William Cody, at the Dixie Union Chapel in Peel County, the chapel was built with Cody money, and the land was donated by Philip Cody of Toronto Township. They lived in Ontario for several years, in 1853, Isaac Cody sold his land in rural Scott County, Iowa, for $2000, and the family moved to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas Territory. In the years before the Civil War, Kansas was overtaken by political and physical conflict over the slavery question and he was invited to speak at Rivelys store, a local trading post where pro-slavery men often held meetings. His antislavery speech so angered the crowd that they threatened to kill him if he didnt step down, a man jumped up and stabbed him twice with a Bowie knife. Rively, the owner, rushed Cody to get treatment. In Kansas, the family was persecuted by pro-slavery supporters. Codys father spent time away from home for his safety and his enemies learned of a planned visit to his family and plotted to kill him on the way. Bill, despite his youth and being ill at the time, Isaac Cody went to Cleveland, Ohio, to organize a group of thirty families to bring back to Kansas, in order to add to the antislavery population. During his return trip he caught an infection which, compounded by the lingering effects of his stabbing and complications from kidney disease. After his death, the family suffered financially, at age 11, Bill took a job with a freight carrier as a boy extra
35.
Utah War
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The confrontation lasted from May 1857 to July 1858. There were some casualties, mostly non-Mormon civilians, the war had no notable military battles. In 1857-1858, President James Buchanan sent U. S. forces to the Utah Territory in what known as the Utah Expedition. The Mormons, fearful that the large U. S. military force had sent to annihilate them and having faced persecution in other areas. Though bloodshed was to be avoided, and the U. S. government also hoped that its purpose might be attained without the loss of life, firearms were manufactured or repaired by the Mormons, scythes were turned into bayonets, and long-unused sabres were burnished and sharpened. Rather than engaging the enemy directly, Mormon strategy was one of hindering and weakening them. Daniel H. Wells, lieutenant-general of the Nauvoo Legion, instructed Major Joseph Taylor, On ascertaining the locality or route of the troops, use every exertion to stampede their animals and set fire to their trains. Burn the whole country before them and on their flanks, keep them from sleeping, by night surprises, blockade the road by felling trees or destroying the river fords where you can. Watch for opportunities to set fire to the grass on their windward, so as, if possible, leave no grass before them that can be burned. Keep your men concealed as much as possible, and guard against surprise, the Mormons blocked the armys entrance into the Salt Lake Valley, and weakened the U. S. Army by hindering them from receiving provisions. They first claimed that the migrants were killed by Indians, and this event was later called the Mountain Meadows massacre, and the motives behind the incident remain unclear. The Aiken massacre took place the following month, in October 1857, Mormons arrested six Californians traveling through Utah and charged them with being spies for the U. S. Army. They were released, but were murdered and robbed of their stock. Other incidents of violence have also linked to the Utah War. They killed two Mormons and wounded several others, the historian Brigham Madsen notes, he responsibility for the lay mainly with the Bannock. David Bigler concludes that the raid was probably caused by members of the Utah Expedition who were trying to replenish their stores of livestock which had been stolen by Mormon raiders. Taking all incidents into account, MacKinnon estimates that approximately 150 people died as a result of the year-long Utah War. He points out that this was close to the number of people killed during the seven-year contemporaneous struggle in Bleeding Kansas. S
36.
McCanles Gang
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The McCanles Gang or McCandless Gang was an alleged outlaw gang active in the early 1860s that was accused of train robbery, bank robbery, cattle rustling, horse theft, and murder. On July 12,1861, some of its supposed members, the incident was among the earliest to frame Hickoks later reputation as a legendary gunfighter. Historians have since argued that the victims of the shooting were innocent, questions remain surrounding the veracity of the allegations of the gangs crimes, and whether the McCanles Gang ever existed at all. McCanles, a sheriff of Watauga County, North Carolina, was known as a local bully and had earlier had an argument with Hickok over the latter stealing his mistress. The company hired Horace G. Wellman as station agent and later arranged to purchase the land in installments, in April or early May of 1861, 23-year-old James Butler Hickok was hired by the station as a stock tender. He quickly became a target of harassment by McCanles, who teased Hickok about his girlish build and nicknamed him Duck Bill for his long nose, there are several different versions of what happened next. In some versions, McCanles was initially met by Wellmans wife and Hickok at the door, other accounts suggest that Wellman himself was present for the confrontation. At some point, either by invitation or by force, McCanles entered the station cabin and he was then shot by Hickok, who was hiding behind a curtain. McCanless son immediately rushed into the building, Woods and Gordon, like McCanles, were unarmed and attempted to flee, but Hickok stepped from the cabin and wounded both with his pistols. The two men were killed by other members of the relay station, Gordon by station employee J. W. Doc Brink with a shotgun blast and Woods by Horace Wellman, Hickok was not reported as wounded. During the attack, McCanles son Monroe was able to escape via a dry creekbed and this violent encounter was an early contributor to Hickoks reputation as a legendary gunman, as reported years later in Harpers Monthly, where the story was wildly sensationalized. According to the story, Hickok single-handedly killed the nine desperadoes, horse-thieves, murderers, during the battle, Hickok, purportedly suffered 11 bullet wounds. David McCanles brother James immediately filed for an arrest warrant for Duck Bill, Wellman, and Dock Brink, the judge ruled that the defendants had acted in self-defense. He wanted me to go with him and as we started on our way, imagine my surprise, I would have rather been somewhere else, but Bill stopped. The trial did not last more than fifteen minutes, after this tragedy, some of the McCanles family moved to Florence, Colorado and changed the spelling of the name to McCandless. Hickok, making use of his new notoriety also changed his name after this incident, after growing a moustache to hide his protruding upper lip, he encouraged people to call him Wild Bill instead of Duck Bill. The first account was published around 1882 by S. C. Jenkins and S. J. Alexander, according to them, David McCanles brother James was a Southern sympathizer and had tried to persuade Hickok to join him and turn over the stage companys stock
37.
Johnson County, Kansas
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Johnson County is a county located in the U. S. state of Kansas. As of the 2010 census, the county population was 544,179 and its county seat is Olathe, and its most populous city is Overland Park. In the mid-19th century, this was part of the Shawnee Reservation after their removal from east of the Mississippi River, the people were later forced to move to Indian Territory in present-day Ottawa County, Oklahoma. This was part of the territory of the Osage people. The Santa Fe Trail and Oregon-California Trail, which pass through nearby Independence, Missouri, Johnson County was established in 1855 as one of the first counties in the newly organized Kansas Territory, it was named for American missionary Thomas Johnson. The renowned gunfighter Wild Bill Hickok settled for a time in the county, in 1862 during the American Civil War, Confederate guerrillas from nearby Missouri, led by William Quantrill, raided the Johnson County communities of Olathe and Spring Hill. They killed half a dozen men and destroyed homes and businesses. The county was rural until the early 20th century, when housing subdivisions were developed in the northeastern portion of the county adjacent to Kansas City. Developer J. C. Nichols spurred the boom in 1914 when he built the Mission Hills Country Club to lure upscale residents who previously had been reluctant to move from Missouri to Kansas, suburban development continued at a steady pace until the close of World War II. The US Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education ruled that segregation of schools was unconstitutional. From the mid-1980s the pace of growth increased significantly, with the county adding 100,000 residents each decade between the 1990 census and 2010 census. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 480 square miles. The natural topography of the county consists of rolling terrain. The Kansas River forms a portion of the northwest boundary of the county, the elevation generally increases from north to south as the distance from the Kansas and Missouri rivers increases. The county is drained by the watersheds of the Kansas, Blue, located in northeastern Kansas, the county receives plentiful rainfall. The county contains numerous small streams, including Kill Creek, Mill Creek, Turkey Creek, Indian Creek, Brush Creek, Tomahawk Creek, Kill Creek begins in the southwest portion of the county and flows northward into the Kansas River at DeSoto. Mill Creek begins in the portion of the county in Olathe. Turkey Creek and Brush Creek each begin in northeast Johnson County, Turkey Creek flows northeastward into Wyandotte County and joins the Kansas River just before its confluence with the Missouri River at Kaw Point
38.
Lenexa, Kansas
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Lenexa /lᵻˈnɛksə/ is a city in Johnson County, Kansas, United States, and part of the Kansas City Metropolitan Area. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 48,190 and it is bordered by the cities of Shawnee to the north, Overland Park to the east, De Soto to the west and Olathe to the south. A few miles east in Westport, Missouri, was the start of the Old Santa Fe Trail and it meandered through the southeast part of Lenexa on its way to Santa Fe, New Mexico. Later, Hickok became a scout for the Free-State Army, a sharpshooter and eventually, in 1865, shortly before Na-Nex-Se died, the Kansas and Neosho Valley Railroad was organized to take advantage of favorable new land laws. It later changed its name to Missouri River, Ft. Scott and Gulf Railroad, Bradshaw with the stipulation that the railroad build a depot on the property. Bradshaw then sold 10.5 acres to Octave Chanute, a civil engineer. Legend states that the town was first proposed to be named Bradshaw, but he refused and the name Lenexa. Lenexa is located at 38°57′53″N 94°45′34″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 34.45 square miles, of which,34.10 square miles is land and 0.35 square miles is water. The median income for a household was $61,990, males had a median income of $50,495 versus $32,166 for females. The per capita income for the city was $30,212, about 1. 8% of families and 3. 4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2. 9% of those under age 18 and 3. 0% of those age 65 or over. As of the census of 2010, there were 48,190 people,19,288 households, the population density was 1,413.2 inhabitants per square mile. There were 20,832 housing units at a density of 610.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 84. 4% White,5. 8% African American,0. 4% Native American,3. 8% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,3. 0% from other races, and 2. 5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7. 3% of the population,25. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the family size was 3.00. The median age in the city was 36.6 years. 24. 7% of residents were under the age of 18,8. 3% were between the ages of 18 and 24,28. 2% were from 25 to 44,28. 5% were from 45 to 64, and 10. 3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48. 7% male and 51. 3% female, as of the U. S. Census in 2000, there were 40,238 people,15,574 households, and 10,559 families residing in the city
39.
Pony Express
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The Pony Express was a mail service delivering messages, newspapers, and mail. Waddell, all of whom were notable in the freighting business, during its 19 months of operation, it reduced the time for messages to travel between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts to about 10 days. The idea of a fast mail route to the Pacific coast was prompted largely by Californias newfound prominence, after gold was discovered there in 1848, thousands of prospectors, investors and businessmen made their way to California, at that time a new territory of the U. S. By 1850, California entered the Union as a free state, by 1860, the population had grown to 380,000. The demand for a way to get mail and other communications to. In the late 1850s, William Russell, Alexander Majors, and they were already in the freighting and drayage business. At the peak of the operations, they employed 6,000 men, owned 75,000 oxen, thousands of wagons, and warehouses plus a sawmill, a plant, a bank. Russell was a prominent businessman, well respected among his peers, Waddell was co-owner of the firm Morehead, Waddell & Co. After Morehead was bought out and retired, Waddell merged his company with Russells, in 1855 they took on a new partner, Alexander Majors, and founded the company of Russell, Majors & Waddell. They held government contracts for delivering supplies to the western frontier. The initial price was set at $5 per 1⁄2 ounce, then $2.50, the founders of the Pony Express hoped to win an exclusive government mail contract, but that did not come about. Russell, Majors, and Waddell organized and put together the Pony Express in two months in the winter of 1860, the undertaking assembled 120 riders,184 stations,400 horses, and several hundred personnel during January and February 1861. Alexander Majors was a man and resolved by the help of God to overcome all difficulties. He presented each rider with a special edition Bible and required this oath, the Pony Express demonstrated that a unified transcontinental system of communications could be established and operated year-round. When replaced by the telegraph, the Pony Express quickly became romanticized and its reliance on the ability and endurance of individual young, hardy riders and fast horses was seen as evidence of rugged American individualism of the Frontier times. From 1866 until 1889, the Pony Express logo was used by stagecoach and freight company Wells Fargo, the United States Postal Service used Pony Express as a trademark for postal services in the US. Freight Link international courier services, based in Russia, adopted the Pony Express trademark, in 1860, there were about 157 Pony Express stations that were about 10 miles apart along the Pony Express route. At each station stop the rider would change to a fresh horse
40.
Independence, Missouri
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Independence is the fifth-largest city in the state of Missouri. It lies within Jackson County, of which it is the county seat, Independence is a satellite city of Kansas City, Missouri, and is part of the Kansas City metropolitan area. In 2010, it had a population of 116,830. Independence is known as the Queen City of the Trails because it was a point of departure for the California, Oregon and Santa Fe Trails. Independence was also the hometown of U. S. President Harry S. Truman, the Truman Presidential Library and Museum is located in the city, and Truman and First Lady Bess Truman are buried here. The city is also sacred to many Latter Day Saints, with Joseph Smiths 1831 Temple Lot being located here, Independence was originally inhabited by Missouri and Osage Indians, followed by the Spanish and a brief French tenure. It became part of the United States with the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, Lewis and Clark recorded in their journals that they stopped in 1804 to pick plums, raspberries, and wild apples at a site that would later form part of the city. Named after the Declaration of Independence, Independence was founded on March 29,1827, Independence immediately became a jumping-off point for the emerging fur trade, accommodating merchants and adventurers beginning the long trek westward on the Santa Fe Trail. In 1831, members of the Latter Day Saint movement began moving to the Jackson County, Missouri area. Shortly thereafter, founder Joseph Smith declared a spot west of the Courthouse Square to be the place for his temple of the New Jerusalem. Tension grew with local Missourians until the Latter Day Saints were driven from the area in 1833, several branches of this movement gradually returned to the city beginning in 1867, with many making their headquarters there. These include the Community of Christ, the Church of Christ, the Church of Jesus Christ, Independence saw great prosperity from the late 1830s through the mid-1840s, while the business of outfitting pioneers boomed. Between 1848 and 1868, it was a hub of the California Trail, on March 8,1849, the Missouri General Assembly granted a home-rule charter to the town and on July 18,1849, William McCoy was elected as its first mayor. In the mid-19th century an Act of the United States Congress defined Independence as the start of the Oregon Trail. The war took its toll on Independence and the town was never able to regain its previous prosperity, United States President Harry S. Truman grew up in Independence, and in 1922 was elected judge of the county Court of Jackson County, Missouri. Although he was defeated for reelection in 1924, he won back the office in 1926 and was reelected in 1930 and he would later return to the city after two terms as President. His wife, First Lady Bess Truman, was born and raised in Independence, the Harry S. Truman National Historic Site and the Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum are both located in Independence, as is one of Trumans boyhood residences. Independence is located at 39°4′47″N 94°24′24″W and it lies on the south bank of the Missouri River, near the western edge of the state
41.
Santa Fe, New Mexico
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Santa Fe is the capital of the state of New Mexico. It is the fourth-largest city in the state and is the seat of Santa Fe County and this area was occupied for at least several hundred years by indigenous peoples who built villages. The city of Santa Fe, founded by Spanish colonists in 1610, is known as the oldest state capital city in the United States, Santa Fe had a population of 69,204 in 2012. It is the city of a Metropolitan Statistical Area which encompasses all of Santa Fe County and is part of the larger Albuquerque–Santa Fe–Las Vegas combined statistical area. The citys full name when founded was La Villa Real de la Santa Fe de San Francisco de Asís, the area of Santa Fe was originally occupied by indigenous Tanoan peoples, who lived in numerous Pueblo villages along the Rio Grande. One of the earliest known settlements in what today is downtown Santa Fe came sometime after 900, the river had a year-round flow until the 1700s. By the 20th century the Santa Fe River was a seasonal waterway, as of 2007, the river was recognized as the most endangered river in the United States, according to the conservation group American Rivers. Don Juan de Oñate led the first European effort to colonize the region in 1598, under Juan de Oñate and his son, the capital of the province was the settlement of San Juan de los Caballeros north of Santa Fe near modern Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo. In 1610, he designated it as the capital of the province, Santa Fe remained Spains provincial seat until the outbreak of the Mexican War of Independence in 1810. It was considered important to fur traders based in present-day Saint Louis, when the area was still under Spanish rule, the Chouteau brothers of Saint Louis gained a monopoly on the fur trade, before the United States acquired Missouri under the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. The fur trade contributed to the wealth of St. Louis, the citys status as the capital of the Mexican territory of Santa Fe de Nuevo México was formalized in the 1824 Constitution after Mexico achieved independence from Spain. When the Republic of Texas seceded from Mexico in 1836, it claimed Santa Fe as part of the portion of Texas along the Rio Grande. In 1841, a military and trading expedition set out from Austin. Known as the Texan Santa Fe Expedition, the force was prepared and was easily captured by the Mexican army. In 1846, the United States declared war on Mexico, brigadier General Stephen W. Kearny led the main body of his Army of the West of some 1,700 soldiers into Santa Fe to claim it and the whole New Mexico Territory for the United States. By 1848 the U. S. officially gained New Mexico through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, colonel Alexander William Doniphan, under the command of Kearny, recovered ammunition from Santa Fe labeled Spain 1776. This showed that New Mexico had received munitions and other support under Mexican rule, some American visitors at first saw little promise in the remote town. One traveller in 1849 wrote, I can hardly imagine how Santa Fe is supported, the country around it is barren
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Cinnamon bear
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The cinnamon bear is both a color phase and subspecies of the American black bear, native to central and western areas of the United States and Canada. Established populations are found in Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, Idaho, Montana, Washington, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Wyoming, California, Alberta, the most striking difference between a cinnamon bear and any other black bear is its brown or red-brown fur, reminiscent of cinnamon. The subspecies was given the designation because the color phase is more common there than in other areas. Like other black bear subspecies, Cinnamon bears are omnivorous and their diet includes fruit, vegetation, nuts, honey, and occasionally insects, and meat, varying from other subspecies because of regional habitat differences. Cubs weigh approximately 230 grams at birth, with adults weighing between 92.1 and 270 kilograms, the life span for this bear is a maximum of 30 years. Cinnamon bears are excellent climbers, good runners, and powerful swimmers and they are mostly nocturnal, though sometimes active during daylight hours. The various colors are frequently intermixed in the family, hence it is a common occurrence to see a black bear female with brown cubs, a brown. The bears hibernate during the months, usually from late October or November to March or April depending upon the weather conditions. Their scat resembles that of domestic dogs
43.
Rock Creek Station
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Rock Creek Station was a stagecoach and Pony Express station in southeastern Nebraska, near the present-day village of Endicott. Rock Creek Station was established in 1857 by S. C. Glenn along the Oregon Trail and California Trail, the station was a supply center and campground for emigrants. In 1860 McCanles built a cabin and dug a well on the east side of Rock Creek which became known as the East Ranch. In early 1861 McCanles sold the East Ranch to the Russell, Waddell, and Majors firm, in July 1861, David McCanles stopped by Rock Creek Station to inquire about the status of an overdue installment. An argument ensued, and McCanles was shot and killed by a young James Butler Hickok, in 1980, the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission began development of 350 acres as a state historical park, an adjoining 40-acre tract was developed as a state recreation area. Deep trail ruts can be seen in the park complex, McCanles Gang Landmarks of the Nebraska Territory Rock Creek Station State Historical Park Rock Creek Station State Recreation Area Local information about the park and visitor center
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Fairbury, Nebraska
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Fairbury is a city and county seat of Jefferson County, Nebraska, United States. The population was 3,942 at the 2010 census, Fairbury has been closely connected with railroading for much of its history. It was founded on the route of a railway. For nearly 80 years, it was the location of the Western Division headquarters of the Rock Island Railroad, Fairbury prospered with the Rock Island, and lost business and residents as the railroad declined. Mattingly, an originally from Kentucky, established a sawmill on the banks of the Little Blue River. In 1869, Mattingly and McDowell each contributed 80 acres for a new townsite, the new town grew rapidly, even before the railroads arrival. In 1870, a population of 370 was reported, in that year, a year later, Fairbury was chosen as the county seat, in early 1872, the city was incorporated. By this time, its businesses included three hotels and five blacksmith shops, in 1872, the St. Joseph and Denver City reached Jefferson County. Fairbury became a center, in the first half of 1873, it shipped 255 cars of grain. By 1874, there were 600 residents,44 businesses operated in the city, an 1879 fire, supposed to have been the work of an incendiary, destroyed an estimated fourteen buildings, for a loss of $50,000, much of it uninsured. However, recovery was swift, and many of the frame buildings were replaced by more modern brick. By 1882, the population had grown to 1,600. In 1885, the Campbell Brothers Circus began wintering in Fairbury and it continued to winter in and around the city until its closing in 1913. At its peak, the circus was the second-largest in the world, in 1886, the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad reached Fairbury. The city lay at the junction of the Rock Islands north-south and east-west lines, because of this, an extensive rail yard was constructed, including shops, storage and maintenance facilities, switching yards, and an 18-stall roundhouse. The railroad had a impact on Fairbury, by 1890. The brick courthouse had survived the fire of 1879, but soon thereafter, it proved too small to handle the countys increasing business and store its growing records. In 1882, the county began renting the top two floors of the newly constructed Opera House, and moved its offices there, but this too was quickly outgrown
45.
Sedalia, Missouri
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Sedalia, Missouri is a city located about 30 miles south of the Missouri River in Pettis County. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 21,387. As the county seat of Pettis County, it is the city of the Sedalia Micropolitan Statistical Area. Sedalia is also the location of the Missouri State Fair and the Scott Joplin Ragtime Festival, routes 50 and 65 intersect in the city. Indigenous peoples lived along the Missouri River and its tributaries for thousands of years before European contact, historians believe the entire area around Sedalia was long occupied by the Osage. When the land was first settled by European Americans, bands of Shawnee, the area that became the European-American city of Sedalia was founded by General George Rappeen Smith, who also founded nearby Smithton, Missouri. He filed plans for the record on November 30,1857. The original plat included the land from todays Missouri Pacific Railroad south to Third Street, Smith and Bouldin anticipated that the city would grow to the north, however, it grew in a southern direction. In the post-Civil War period, two railroads were constructed connecting it to locations and Sedalia grew at a rapid pace, with a rough energy of its travelers. From 1866–1874, it was a terminus for cattle drives. At the same time, the established schools, churches. In the late 19th century, Sedalia was well-known as a center of vice, especially prostitution, in 1877 the St. Louis Post-Dispatch called Sedalia the Sodom and Gomorrah of the nineteenth century. Middle-class businessmen made money off illegal prostitution as building owners and lessees, others did business with people in the industry, reluctant to raise taxes, residents allowed money to run the city. Services were provided from the charged to prostitutes. These establishments also employed musicians, particularly piano players, contributing to a musical culture. It fostered the development of artists, including the renowned ragtime composer Scott Joplin. While the city attracted many travelers and railroad workers, its population of married couples and families also grew. By 1900 its population of more than 15,000 made it the fifth-largest city in the state, the entrepreneurial middle class created more formal separations between its residential areas and those of working class whites and African Americans
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Confederate States of America
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The Confederate States, officially the Confederate States of America, commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was a breakaway country of 11 secessionist slave states existing from 1861 to 1865. It was never recognized as an Independent country, although it achieved belligerent status by Britain. A new Confederate government was established in February 1861 before Lincoln took office in March, after the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession, the Civil War began with the April 12,1861, Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In spring 1865, after four years of fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered. Jefferson Davis later lamented that the Confederacy had disappeared in 1865, Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the Five Civilized Tribes located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of law, while Delaware, though of divided loyalty. A Unionist government in parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal, as Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers, the most notable advance was Shermans March to the Sea in late 1864. Much of the Confederacys infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads, plantations in the path of Shermans forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and these losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Daviss administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, after four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, President Davis was captured on May 10,1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held. The U. S. government began a process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many areas, the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure
