1.
University of Paris
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The University of Paris, metonymically known as the Sorbonne, was a university in Paris, France. Emerging around 1150 as an associated with the cathedral school of Notre Dame de Paris. Vast numbers of popes, royalties, scientists and intellectuals were educated at the University of Paris, following the turbulence of the French Revolution, education was suspended in 1793 whereafter its faculties were partly reorganised by Napoleon as the University of France. In 1896, it was renamed again to the University of Paris, in 1970, following the May 1968 events, the university was divided into 13 autonomous universities. Others, like Panthéon-Sorbonne University, chose to be multidisciplinary, in 1150, the future University of Paris was a student-teacher corporation operating as an annex of the Notre-Dame cathedral school. The university had four faculties, Arts, Medicine, Law, the Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest, as students had to graduate there in order to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin, France, Normandy, Picardy, the last came to be known as the Alemannian nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply, the faculty and nation system of the University of Paris became the model for all later medieval universities. Under the governance of the Church, students wore robes and shaved the tops of their heads in tonsure, students followed the rules and laws of the Church and were not subject to the kings laws or courts. This presented problems for the city of Paris, as students ran wild, students were often very young, entering the school at age 13 or 14 and staying for 6 to 12 years. Three schools were especially famous in Paris, the palatine or palace school, the school of Notre-Dame, the decline of royalty brought about the decline of the first. The other two were ancient but did not have much visibility in the early centuries, the glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipsed theirs, until it completely gave way to them. These two centres were much frequented and many of their masters were esteemed for their learning, the first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève was Hubold, who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège, he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the century include Lambert, disciple of Fulbert of Chartres, Drogo of Paris, Manegold of Germany. Three other men who added prestige to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux, Abélard, humanistic instruction comprised grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology, whose source was the Scriptures and it was completed by the study of Canon law. The School of Saint-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève and it was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of Saint-Victor
2.
National Museum of Women in the Arts
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NMWA was incorporated in 1981 by Wallace and Wilhelmina Holladay. Since opening its doors in 1987, the museum has acquired a collection of more than 4,500 paintings, sculptures, works on paper, highlights of the collection include works by Mary Cassatt, Frida Kahlo, and Élisabeth Louise Vigée-Le Brun. The museum occupies the old Masonic Temple, a listed on the U. S. National Register of Historic Places. The museum was founded to reform traditional histories of art and it is dedicated to discovering and making known women artists who have been overlooked or unacknowledged, and assuring the place of women in contemporary art. They became committed to collecting artwork by women and eventually to creating a museum, the National Museum of Women in the Arts was incorporated in December 1981 as a private, non-profit museum, and the Holladay donation became the core of the institution’s permanent collection. After purchasing and extensively renovating a former Masonic Temple, NMWA opened in April 1987 with the inaugural exhibition American Women Artists, in November 1997, the Elisabeth A. Kasser Wing was opened, adding two new galleries, a larger museum shop, and a reception room. Currently, Director Susan Fisher Sterling heads a staff of more than 30 people, in 1983, NMWA purchased a landmark 78,810 square feet former Masonic temple in the Renaissance Revival style to house its works. After extensive renovations that included the addition of the two dramatic marble stairways linking the first floor and mezzanine, the museum opened to the public on April 7,1987. The Elizabeth A. Kasser Wing opened November 8,1997 making the entire facility 84,110 square feet, Wilhelmina Cole Holladay is the founder and chair of the Board of the National Museum of Women in the Arts. Wilhelmina Cole Holladays interest in art was sparked as a student at Elmira College in New York, where she studied art history, followed by graduate work at the University of Paris. She is listed in Whos Who of American Women, Whos Who in American Art, Whos Who in the World, in 2006 she received the National Medal of Arts from the United States and the Légion dhonneur from the French government. In 2007 Holladay received the Gold Medal for the Arts from the National Arts Club in New York City, by 2015, a selection of sculptures will be installed along New York Avenue from 13th Street to 9th Street, in the heart of Mount Vernon Square. The museums efforts are in part to bring character to an area there is a lot of good stuff going on. Niki de Saint Phalles works, four in total, were the first in a series of installations, the museums installation of de Saint Phalles iconic pop art works are meant to be contrasting to the traditional sculpture that graces the streets and squares of Washington. All five major median strips will eventually be made into sculpture islands, another inspiration for the project comes from the lack of innovative contemporary art in Washington, encouraging the evolution of an area that is in need of becoming hip and vibrant. The second artist to be featured, whose works are on display March 8, the project has been sponsored by Medda Gudelsky, the D. C. The Philip L. Graham Fund, the Homer and Martha Gudelsky Family Foundation, members of the museum and these works will remain up for one year, before being returned to the artists foundation. The collection currently contains more than 4,500 works in a variety of styles and media, among the earliest works is Lavinia Fontana’s Portrait of a Noblewoman, ca
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
5.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
6.
Clara Peeters
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Many aspects of her life and work remain very unclear, especially outside the period 1607 to 1621 from which period dated paintings are known. As Seymour Slive puts it Not a single uncontested document has surfaced about her life, most female Dutch painters also specialized in still lifes, which did not require knowledge of anatomy, among other advantages for women. More than any other artist, her works often include depictions of different types of cheese. Little is known about the life of Clara Peeters and it is generally agreed by scholars that her work points to her being a native of Antwerp. The city of Antwerps archives hold a record of a Clara Peeters, daughter of Jean Peeters, a second document indicates a marriage between a Clara Peeters and Henricus Joosen on 31 May 1639, in the same church. However, both Clara and especially Peeters were common names in Antwerp, a baptism in 1594 would imply that her 1607-dated paintings were done when she was 12 or 13. Some scholars doubt that early works could have been done by one so young and have posited that she was born in the 1580s. Peeters was established in Amsterdam by 1611 and is documented in The Hague in 1617, some have suggested that in light of there not being any evident work by Peeters after 1621, she ceased painting after getting married, as for example Judith Leyster effectively did. Because of the number of apparent copies of her work by various hands, two 1630s paintings of nearly the same still life, in her style and signed CP, are currently considered anonymous and not from her hand. A painting supposedly by her and dated 1657 was recorded but is now lost and this is much later than the dating given to her surviving works. No record indicating Peeters date of death has been found, however, scholars speculate various dates, in or after 1621, after 1654 and her work suggests training in Antwerp, a city where artists stressed detail and careful finish in painting. No record of her apprenticeship has been found, most artists as well as apprentices were included in the records of the local Guild of Saint Luke. However, her name is not found in any of the Guilds records in Antwerp nor those of Amsterdam, Haarlem, Delft, scholars speculate that she may have been the daughter of a painter, and thus not required to be included in the apprenticeship records. Or, perhaps the answer may be in the fact that the Antwerp Guild records were lost for the years 1607 to 1628, many scholars believe her work closely resembles that of Osias Beert and suppose a relationship between the two. Some suggest she was his pupil, Beert began his career as a still-life painter when he became a master of the Antwerp guild in 1602. However none of his works are dated, although some of the plates were stamped with dates from 1606 to 1609 by their supplier. She has also linked to Antwerp artists Hans van Essen. Jan Bruegel the elder has also suggested as a possible teacher
7.
Artemisia Gentileschi
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Artemisia Gentileschi was an Italian Baroque painter, today considered one of the most accomplished painters in the generation following that of Caravaggio. In an era when women painters were not easily accepted by the community or patrons. She painted many pictures of strong and suffering women from myth and her best-known work is Judith Slaying Holofernes, which shows the decapitation of Holofernes, a scene of horrific struggle and blood-letting. That she was a painting in the seventeenth century and that she was raped and participated in the prosecution of the rapist long overshadowed her achievements as an artist. For many years she was regarded as a curiosity, today she is regarded as one of the most progressive and expressive painters of her generation. Artemisia was introduced to painting in her fathers workshop, showing much more talent than her brothers and she learned drawing, how to mix color, and how to paint. Since her fathers style took inspiration from Caravaggio during that period and her approach to subject matter was different from her fathers, however, as her paintings are highly naturalistic, where Orazios are idealized. At the same time, Artemisia had to resist the traditional attitude and psychological submission to this brainwashing, by doing so, she gained great respect and recognition for her work. The first work of the young seventeen-year-old Artemisia was the Susanna e i Vecchioni, at the time some, influenced by the prevailing misconceptions, suspected that she was helped by her father. The painting shows how Artemisia assimilated the realism of Caravaggio without being indifferent to the language of the Bologna school and it is one of the few paintings on the theme of Susanna showing the sexual accosting by the two Elders as a traumatic event. During this tutelage, Tassi raped Artemisia, another man, Cosimo Quorlis, was also involved. After the rape, Artemisia continued to have relations with Tassi, with the expectation that they were going to be married and with the hope to restore her dignity. Tassi reneged on his promise to marry Artemisia, nine months after the rape, when he learnt that Artemisia and Tassi were not going to be married, Orazio pressed charges against Tassi. Orazio also claimed that Tassi stole a painting of Judith from the Gentileschi household, the major issue of this trial was the fact that Tassi had taken Artemisias virginity. If Artemisia had not been a virgin before Tassi raped her, during the ensuing seven-month trial, it was discovered that Tassi had planned to murder his wife, had engaged in adultery with his sister-in-law, and planned to steal some of Orazio’s paintings. During the trial, Artemisia was subjected to a gynecological examination, at the end of the trial Tassi was sentenced to imprisonment for one year, although he never served the time. The trial influenced the feminist view of Artemisia Gentileschi during the twentieth century. Artemisia was surrounded mainly by the presence of males since the loss of her mother at age 12, when Artemisia was 17, Orazio rented the upstairs apartment of their home to a female tenant, Tuzia
8.
Angelica Kauffman
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Maria Anna Angelika Kauffmann RA, usually known in English as Angelica Kauffman, was a Swiss Neoclassical painter who had a successful career in London and Rome. Remembered primarily as a painter, Kauffmann was a skilled portraitist, landscape. She was one of the two founding members of the Royal Academy in London in 1768. Kauffman was born at Chur in Graubünden, Switzerland and her family moved to Morbegno in 1742, then Como in Lombardy in 1752 at that time under Austrian rule. In 1757 she accompanied her father to Schwarzenberg in Vorarlberg/Austria where her father was working for the local bishop and her father, Joseph Johann Kauffmann, was a relatively poor man but a skilled Swiss muralist and painter, who was often traveling for his work. He trained Angelica and she worked as his assistant, moving through Switzerland, Austria, Angelica, a child prodigy, rapidly acquired several languages from her mother, Cleophea Lutz, including German, Italian, French and English. She also showed talent as a musician and was forced to choose between opera and art and she quickly chose art as a Catholic priest told Kauffman that the opera was a dangerous place filled with seedy people. By her twelfth year she had known as a painter, with bishops. In 1754, her mother died and her decided to move to Milan. Later visits to Italy of long duration followed and she became a member of the Accademia di Belle Arti di Firenze in 1762. In 1763 she visited Rome, returning again in 1764, from Rome she passed to Bologna and Venice, everywhere feted for her talents and charm. Writing from Rome in August 1764 to his friend Franke, Winckelmann refers to her popularity, she was painting his picture. She may be styled beautiful, he adds, and in singing may vie with our best virtuosi, in 1765, her work appeared in England in an exhibition of the Free Society of Artists. She moved to England shortly after and established herself as a leading artist, while in Venice, Kauffman was persuaded by Lady Wentworth, the wife of the British ambassador, to accompany her to London. One of the first pieces she completed in London was a portrait of David Garrick, the rank of Lady Wentworth opened society to her, and she was everywhere well received, the royal family especially showing her great favor. Her firmest friend, however, was Sir Joshua Reynolds, in his pocket-book her name as Miss Angelica or Miss Angel appears frequently, and in 1766 he painted her, a compliment which she returned by her Portrait of Sir Joshua Reynolds. In 1767 Kauffman was seduced by an imposter going under the name Count Frederick de Horn, whom she married and it was probably owing to Reynoldss good offices that she was among the signatories to the petition to the king for the establishment of the Royal Academy. In its first catalogue of 1769 she appears with R. A. after her name, and she contributed the Interview of Hector and Andromache, and three other classical compositions
9.
Freemasonry
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The degrees of freemasonry retain the three grades of medieval craft guilds, those of Apprentice, Journeyman or fellow, and Master Mason. These are the degrees offered by Craft Freemasonry, members of these organisations are known as Freemasons or Masons. There are additional degrees, which vary with locality and jurisdiction, the basic, local organisational unit of Freemasonry is the Lodge. The Lodges are usually supervised and governed at the level by a Grand Lodge or Grand Orient. There is no international, worldwide Grand Lodge that supervises all of Freemasonry, each Grand Lodge is independent, modern Freemasonry broadly consists of two main recognition groups. Continental Freemasonry is now the term for the liberal jurisdictions who have removed some, or all. The Masonic Lodge is the organisational unit of Freemasonry. The Lodge meets regularly to conduct the formal business of any small organisation. In addition to business, the meeting may perform a ceremony to confer a Masonic degree or receive a lecture, at the conclusion of the meeting, the Lodge might adjourn for a formal dinner, or festive board, sometimes involving toasting and song. The bulk of Masonic ritual consists of degree ceremonies, candidates for Freemasonry are progressively initiated into Freemasonry, first in the degree of Entered Apprentice. Some time later, in a ceremony, they will be passed to the degree of Fellowcraft. In all of ceremonies, the candidate is entrusted with passwords, signs. Another ceremony is the installation of the Master and officers of the Lodge. In some jurisdictions Installed Master is valued as a separate rank, in other jurisdictions, the grade is not recognised, and no inner ceremony conveys new secrets during the installation of a new Master of the Lodge. Most Lodges have some sort of calendar, allowing Masons. Often coupled with events is the obligation placed on every Mason to contribute to charity. This occurs at both Lodge and Grand Lodge level, Masonic charities contribute to many fields from education to disaster relief. These private local Lodges form the backbone of Freemasonry, and a Freemason will necessarily have been initiated into one of these, there also exist specialist Lodges where Masons meet to celebrate anything from sport to Masonic research
10.
Legion of Honour
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The Legion of Honour, full name National Order of the Legion of Honour, is the highest French order of merit for military and civil merits, established 1802 by Napoléon Bonaparte. The order is divided into five degrees of increasing distinction, Chevalier, Officier, Commandeur, Grand Officier and Grand-Croix. The orders motto is Honneur et Patrie and its seat is the Palais de la Légion dHonneur next to the Musée dOrsay, in the French Revolution, all French orders of chivalry were abolished, and replaced with Weapons of Honour. The Légion however did use the organization of old French orders of chivalry, the badges of the legion also bear a resemblance to the Ordre de Saint-Louis, which also used a red ribbon. Napoleon originally created this to ensure political loyalty, the organization would be used as a facade to give political favours, gifts, and concessions. The Légion was loosely patterned after a Roman legion, with legionaries, officers, commanders, regional cohorts, the highest rank was not a grand cross but a Grand Aigle, a rank that wore all the insignia common to grand crosses. The members were paid, the highest of them extremely generously,5,000 francs to an officier,2,000 francs to a commandeur,1,000 francs to an officier,250 francs to a légionnaire. Napoleon famously declared, You call these baubles, well, it is with baubles that men are led, do you think that you would be able to make men fight by reasoning. That is good only for the scholar in his study, the soldier needs glory, distinctions, rewards. This has been quoted as It is with such baubles that men are led. The order was the first modern order of merit, under the monarchy, such orders were often limited to Roman Catholics, and all knights had to be noblemen. The military decorations were the perks of the officers, the Légion, however, was open to men of all ranks and professions—only merit or bravery counted. The new legionnaire had to be sworn in the Légion and it is noteworthy that all previous orders were crosses or shared a clear Christian background, whereas the Légion is a secular institution. The jewel of the Légion has five arms, in a decree issued on the 10 Pluviôse XIII, a grand decoration was instituted. This decoration, a cross on a sash and a silver star with an eagle, symbol of the Napoleonic Empire, became known as the Grand Aigle. After Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French in 1804 and established the Napoleonic nobility in 1808, the title was made hereditary after three generations of grantees. Napoleon had dispensed 15 golden collars of the legion among his family and this collar was abolished in 1815. The Légion dhonneur was prominent and visible in the French Empire, the Emperor always wore it and the fashion of the time allowed for decorations to be worn most of the time
11.
Moore College of Art and Design
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Moore College of Art & Design is an independent college of art and design in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Founded in 1848 by Sarah Worthington Peter as the Philadelphia School of Design for Women, the school was established to prepare women to work in the new industries created during the Industrial Revolution, of which Philadelphia was a center. The school occupied the Edwin Forrest Mansion at 1326 North Broad Street from 1880 to 1960, the institution was renamed Moore College of Art & Design in 1932 after Joseph Moore, Jr. set up a $3 Million dollar endowment in memory of his parents. The endowment was used to found the Moore Institute of Art, Science, Moore has approximately 500 women enrolled in its all-female undergraduate BFA program. Co-educational graduate programs, post-Baccalaureate programs as well as continuing education. The college offers ten majors, one post-baccalaureate program, three graduate programs, in addition to continuing education programs for adults and youth. Alice Neel, artist Margie Palatini, author of childrens literature Polly Smith, Emmy-award winning costume designer, Jim Henson, The Muppets
12.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
13.
Jane Addams
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She co-founded, with Ellen Gates Starr, the first settlement house in the United States, Chicagos Hull House that would later become known as one of the most famous settlement houses in America. In an era when presidents such as Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson identified themselves as reformers and social activists and she helped America address and focus on issues that were of concern to mothers, such as the needs of children, local public health, and world peace. Thus, these were matters of which women would have more knowledge than men and she said that if women were to be responsible for cleaning up their communities and making them better places to live, they needed to be able to vote to do so effectively. Addams became a model for middle-class women who volunteered to uplift their communities. She is increasingly being recognized as a member of the American pragmatist school of philosophy, in 1889 she co-founded Hull House, and in 1920 she was a co-founder for the ACLU. In 1931 she became the first American woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, three of her siblings died in infancy, and another died at age 16, leaving only four by the time Addams was age eight. Her mother, Sarah Addams, died when Jane was two years old, Addams spent her childhood playing outdoors, reading indoors, and attending Sunday school. When she was four she contracted tuberculosis of the spine, known as Pottss disease and this made it complicated as a child to function with the other children, considering she had a limp and could not run as well. As a child, she thought she was ugly and later remembered wanting not to embarrass her father, Addams adored her father when she was a child, as she made clear in the stories of her memoir, Twenty Years at Hull House. John Huy Addams was a businessman with large timber, cattle, and agricultural holdings, flour and timber mills. He was the president of The Second National Bank of Freeport and he remarried in 1868, when Jane was eight years old. His second wife was Anna Hostetter Haldeman, the widow of a miller in Freeport, John Addams was a founding member of the Illinois Republican Party, served as an Illinois State Senator, and supported his friend Abraham Lincoln in his candidacies, for senator and the presidency. John Addams kept a letter from Lincoln in his desk, in her teens, Addams had big dreams—to do something useful in the world. Long interested in the poor from her reading of Dickens and inspired by her mothers kindness to the Cedarville poor, she decided to become a doctor so that she could live and it was a vague idea, nurtured by literary fiction. Addamss father encouraged her to higher education but close to home. She was eager to attend the new college for women, Smith College in Massachusetts, after graduating from Rockford in 1881, with a collegiate certificate and membership in Phi Beta Kappa, she still hoped to attend Smith to earn a proper B. A. That summer, her father died unexpectedly from a case of appendicitis. That fall, Addams, her sister Alice, Alices husband Harry, Harry was already trained in medicine and did further studies at the University of Pennsylvania
14.
Marian Anderson
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Marian Anderson was an American contralto and one of the most celebrated singers of the twentieth century. Music critic Alan Blyth said, Her voice was a rich, most of her singing career was spent performing in concert and recital in major music venues and with famous orchestras throughout the United States and Europe between 1925 and 1965. Although offered roles with many important European opera companies, Anderson declined and she preferred to perform in concert and recital only. She did, however, perform opera arias within her concerts and she made many recordings that reflected her broad performance repertoire of everything from concert literature to lieder to opera to traditional American songs and spirituals. Between 1940 and 1965 the German-American pianist Franz Rupp was her permanent accompanist, Anderson became an important figure in the struggle for black artists to overcome racial prejudice in the United States during the mid-twentieth century. In 1939, the Daughters of the American Revolution refused permission for Anderson to sing to an audience in Constitution Hall. The incident placed Anderson into the spotlight of the community on a level unusual for a classical musician. She sang before a crowd of more than 75,000 people and her performance as Ulrica in Giuseppe Verdis Un ballo in maschera at the Met was the only time she sang an opera role on stage. She participated in the civil movement in the 1960s, singing at the March on Washington for Jobs. Marian Anderson was born on February 27,1897, in Philadelphia, the daughter of John Berkley Anderson and her father sold ice and coal at the Reading Terminal in downtown Philadelphia and eventually opened a small liquor business as well. Prior to her marriage, Andersons mother had attended the Virginia Seminary. As she did not obtain a degree, Annie Anderson was unable to teach in Philadelphia under a law that was applied only to black teachers and she therefore earned an income caring for small children. Marian was the eldest of the three Anderson children and her two sisters, Alice and Ethel, also became singers. Ethel married James DePreist and their son, James Anderson DePreist was a noted conductor. Andersons parents were both devout Christians and the family was active in the Union Baptist Church in South Philadelphia. Marians aunt Mary, her fathers sister, was active in the churchs musical life and, noticing her nieces talent. In that role she got to perform solos and duets, often with her aunt Mary, Marian was also taken by her aunt to concerts at local churches, the YMCA, benefit concerts, and other community music events throughout the city. Anderson credited her aunts influence as the reason she pursued a singing career, beginning as young as six, her aunt arranged for Marian to sing for local functions where she was often paid 25 or 50 cents for singing a few songs
15.
Susan B. Anthony
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Susan Brownell Anthony was an American social reformer and womens rights activist who played a pivotal role in the womens suffrage movement. Born into a Quaker family committed to equality, she collected anti-slavery petitions at the age of 17. In 1856, she became the New York state agent for the American Anti-Slavery Society, in 1851, she met Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who became her lifelong friend and co-worker in social reform activities, primarily in the field of womens rights. In 1852, they founded the New York Womens State Temperance Society after Anthony was prevented from speaking at a temperance conference because she was female, in 1866, they initiated the American Equal Rights Association, which campaigned for equal rights for both women and African Americans. In 1868, they began publishing a womens rights newspaper called The Revolution, in 1869, they founded the National Woman Suffrage Association as part of a split in the womens movement. In 1876, Anthony and Stanton began working with Matilda Joslyn Gage on what eventually grew into the six-volume History of Woman Suffrage, the interests of Anthony and Stanton diverged somewhat in later years, but the two remained close friends. In 1872, Anthony was arrested for voting in her hometown of Rochester, New York, although she refused to pay the fine, the authorities declined to take further action. In 1878, Anthony and Stanton arranged for Congress to be presented with an amendment giving women the right to vote, popularly known as the Anthony Amendment and introduced by Sen. Aaron A. Sargent, it became the Nineteenth Amendment to the U. S. Anthony traveled extensively in support of suffrage, giving as many as 75 to 100 speeches per year. She worked internationally for womens rights, playing a key role in creating the International Council of Women and she also helped to bring about the Worlds Congress of Representative Women at the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. When she first began campaigning for rights, Anthony was harshly ridiculed and accused of trying to destroy the institution of marriage. Public perception of her changed radically during her lifetime, however and her 80th birthday was celebrated in the White House at the invitation of President William McKinley. She became the first actual woman to be depicted on U. S. coinage when her portrait appeared on the 1979 dollar coin. Susan Brownell Anthony was born on February 15,1820, to Daniel Anthony and Lucy Read in Adams, Massachusetts and her family shared a passion for social reform. Her brothers Daniel and Merritt moved to Kansas to support the movement there. Merritt fought with John Brown against pro-slavery forces during the Bleeding Kansas crisis, Daniel eventually owned a newspaper and became mayor of Leavenworth. Anthonys sister Mary, with whom she shared a home in years, became a public school principal in Rochester. Anthonys father was an abolitionist and a temperance advocate, a Quaker, he had a difficult relationship with his traditionalist congregation, which rebuked him for marrying a non-Quaker and then disowned him for allowing a dance school to operate in his home
16.
Clara Barton
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Clarissa Clara Harlowe Barton was a pioneering nurse who founded the American Red Cross. She was a nurse in the American Civil War, a teacher. Barton is noteworthy for doing work at a time when relatively few women worked outside the home. She had a relationship with John J. Elwell and received three proposals throughout her lifetime, but never married, Clara Barton was born on December 25,1821 in North Oxford, Massachusetts. Bartons father was Captain Stephen Barton, a member of the militia and a selectman who inspired his daughter with patriotism. Bartons mother was Sarah Stone Barton, when she was three years old, Clara Barton was sent to school with her brother Stephen, where she excelled in reading and spelling. At school, she became friends with Nancy Fitts, she is the only known friend Clara Barton had as a child due to her extreme timidity. When Clara was 10, she assigned herself the task of nursing her brother David back to health after he fell from the roof of a barn and received a severe injury. Clara learned how to distribute the medication to her brother. She continued to care for David long after doctors had given up and her parents tried to help cure her shyness by sending her to Col. Stones High School, but their strategy turned out to be a disaster. Clara became more timid and depressed and would not eat and she was brought back home to regain her health. Upon her return, her family relocated to help a family member, a cousin of Claras had died and left his wife with four children. The house that the Barton family was to live in needed to be painted and repaired, Clara was persistent in offering assistance, much to the gratitude of her family. After the work was done, Clara was at a loss because she had nothing else to help with and she began to play with her male cousins and, to their surprise, she was good at keeping up with such activities as horseback riding. It was not until after she had injured herself that Claras mother began to question her playing with the boys, Claras mother decided she should focus on more feminine skills. She invited one of Claras female cousins over to develop her femininity. From her cousin, she gained proper social skills as well, to assist Clara with overcoming her shyness, her parents persuaded her to become a schoolteacher. She achieved her first teachers certificate in 1839, at only 17 years old and this profession interested Barton greatly and helped motivate her, she ended up conducting an effective redistricting campaign that allowed the children of workers to receive an education
17.
Mary McLeod Bethune
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She attracted donations of time and money, and developed the academic school as a college. It later continued to develop as Bethune-Cookman University and she also was appointed as a national adviser to President Franklin D. Roosevelt as part of what was known as his Black Cabinet. She was known as The First Lady of The Struggle because of her commitment to better lives for African Americans. Born in Mayesville, South Carolina, to parents who had been slaves and she took an early interest in becoming educated, with the help of benefactors, Bethune attended college hoping to become a missionary in Africa. She started a school for African-American girls in Daytona Beach, Florida and it later merged with a private institute for African-American boys, and was known as the Bethune-Cookman School. Bethune maintained high standards and promoted the school with tourists and donors and she was president of the college from 1923 to 1942, and 1946 to 1947. She was one of the few women in the world to serve as a president at that time. Bethune was also active in clubs, which were strong civic organizations supporting welfare and other needs. After working on the campaign for Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932. She advised him on concerns of people and helped share Roosevelts message and achievements with blacks. At the time, blacks had been disenfranchised in the South since the turn of the century. Upon her death, columnist Louis E. Martin said, She gave out faith and hope as if they were pills, McLeod was born in 1875 in a small log cabin near Mayesville, South Carolina, on a rice and cotton farm in Sumter County. She was the fifteenth of seventeen children born to Sam and Patsy McLeod, Most of her siblings had been born into slavery. Her mother worked for her master, and her father farmed cotton near a large house they called The Homestead. Her parents wanted to be independent so had sacrificed to buy a farm for the family, as a child, Mary would accompany her mother to deliver white people’s wash. Allowed to go into the white children’s nursery, Mary became fascinated with their toys, One day she picked up a book and as she opened it, a white child took it away from her, saying she didn’t know how to read. Mary decided then that the difference between white and colored people was the ability to read and write. McLeod attended Mayesvilles one-room black schoolhouse, Trinity Mission School, which was run by the Presbyterian Board of Missions of Freedmen and she was the only child in her family to attend school, so each day, she taught her family what she had learned
18.
Elizabeth Blackwell
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Elizabeth Blackwell was a British-born physician, notable as the first woman to receive a medical degree in the United States, as well as the first woman on the UK Medical Register. Her sister Emily was the woman in the US to get a medical degree. Elizabeth was born in a house on Dicksons Street in Bristol, Gloucestershire, England, to Samuel Blackwell, a sugar refiner, and his wife Hannah Blackwell. She had two siblings, Anna and Marian, and would eventually have six younger siblings, Samuel, Henry, Emily, Sarah Ellen, John. Four maiden aunts, Barbara, Ann, Lucy and Mary, Blackwells earliest memories were of her time living at a house on 1 Wilson Street, off Portland Square, Bristol. Her childhood at Wilson Street was a happy one, Blackwell especially remembered the positive and loving influence of her father. Samuel Blackwell was somewhat liberal in his attitudes towards, not only child rearing, for example, rather than beating his children for bad behavior, Barbara Blackwell recorded their trespasses in a black book. If the offences accumulated, the children might be exiled to the attic during dinner, however, Blackwells father was by no means lax in the education of his children. Samuel Blackwell was a Congregationalist, and exerted an influence over the religious. He believed that child, including his girls, should be given the opportunity for unlimited development of their talents and gifts. Blackwell had not only a governess, but also private tutors to supplement her intellectual development, as a result, she was rather socially isolated from all but her family as she grew up. The Blackwells financial situation was unfortunate, the school was not terribly innovative in its education methods – it was merely a source of income for the Blackwell sisters. Blackwells abolition work took a seat during these years, most likely due to the Academy. Blackwell converted to Episcopalianism, probably due to her sister Annas influence, in December 1838, however, William Henry Channings arrival in 1839 to Cincinnati changed her mind. Channing, a charismatic Unitarian minister, introduced the ideas of transcendentalism to Blackwell, a conservative backlash from the Cincinnati community ensued, and as a result, the Academy lost many pupils and was abandoned in 1842. Channings arrival renewed Blackwells interests in education and reform and she worked at intellectual self-improvement, studying art, attending various lectures, writing short stories and attending various religious services in all denominations. In the early 1840s, she began to articulate thoughts about womens rights in her diaries and letters, in 1844, with the help of her sister Anna, Blackwell procured a teaching job that paid $400 per year in Henderson, Kentucky. Although she was pleased with her class, she found the accommodations, what disturbed her most was that this was her first real encounter with the realities of slavery
19.
Pearl S. Buck
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Pearl Sydenstricker Buck was an American writer and novelist. As the daughter of missionaries, Buck spent most of her life before 1934 in Zhenjiang and her novel The Good Earth was the best-selling fiction book in the United States in 1931 and 1932 and won the Pulitzer Prize in 1932. In 1938, she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for her rich and truly epic descriptions of peasant life in China and she was the first American woman to win the Nobel Prize for Literature. Originally named Comfort by her parents, Pearl Sydenstricker was born in Hillsboro, West Virginia, to Caroline Stulting and her parents, Southern Presbyterian missionaries, traveled to China soon after their marriage on July 8,1880, but returned to the United States for Pearls birth. When Pearl was five months old, the arrived in China, first in Huaian and then in 1896 moved to Zhenjiang. The Boxer Uprising greatly affected the family, their Chinese friends deserted them and her father, convinced that no Chinese could wish him harm, stayed behind as the rest of the family went to Shanghai for safety. A few years later, Pearl was enrolled in Miss Jewells School there and she also read voraciously, especially, in spite of her fathers disapproval, the novels of Charles Dickens, which she later said she read through once a year for the rest of her life. In 1911, Pearl left China to attend Randolph-Macon Womans College in Lynchburg, Virginia, in the United States, graduating Phi Beta Kappa in 1914 and a member of Kappa Delta Sorority. Although she had not intended to return to China, much less become a missionary, from 1914 to 1932, she served as a Presbyterian missionary, but her views later became highly controversial during the Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy, leading to her resignation. In 1914, Pearl returned to China and she married an agricultural economist missionary, John Lossing Buck, on May 13,1917, and they moved to Suzhou, Anhui Province, a small town on the Huai River. This region she describes in her books The Good Earth and Sons, from 1920 to 1933, the Bucks made their home in Nanjing, on the campus of the University of Nanking, where they both had teaching positions. She taught English literature at the private, church-run University of Nanking, Ginling College, in 1920, the Bucks had a daughter, Carol, afflicted with phenylketonuria. In 1921, Bucks mother died of a disease, sprue. In 1924, they left China for John Bucks year of sabbatical and returned to the United States for a short time, in 1925, the Bucks adopted Janice. That autumn, they returned to China, the tragedies and dislocations that Buck suffered in the 1920s reached a climax in March 1927, during the Nanking Incident. In a confused battle involving elements of Chiang Kai-sheks Nationalist troops, Communist forces, since her father Absalom insisted, as he had in 1900 in the face of the Boxers, the family decided to stay in Nanjing until the battle reached the city. When violence broke out, a poor Chinese family invited them to hide in their hut while the house was looted. The family spent a day terrified and in hiding, after which they were rescued by American gunboats and they traveled to Shanghai and then sailed to Japan, where they stayed for a year, after which they moved back to Nanjing
20.
Rachel Carson
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Rachel Louise Carson was an American marine biologist, author, and conservationist whose book Silent Spring and other writings are credited with advancing the global environmental movement. Carson began her career as an aquatic biologist in the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries and her widely praised 1951 bestseller The Sea Around Us won her a U. S. National Book Award, recognition as a gifted writer, and financial security. Her next book, The Edge of the Sea, and the version of her first book. This sea trilogy explores the whole of life from the shores to the depths. Late in the 1950s, Carson turned her attention to conservation, the result was the book Silent Spring, which brought environmental concerns to an unprecedented share of the American people. Although Silent Spring was met with opposition by chemical companies, it spurred a reversal in national pesticide policy. It also inspired a grassroots movement that led to the creation of the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Carson was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Jimmy Carter, Rachel Carson was born on May 27,1907, on a family farm near Springdale, Pennsylvania, just up the Allegheny River from Pittsburgh. She was the daughter of Maria Frazier and Robert Warden Carson, an avid reader, she also spent a lot of time exploring around her familys 65-acre farm. She began writing stories at age eight, and had her first story published at age ten. She especially enjoyed the St. Nicholas Magazine, the works of Beatrix Potter, and the novels of Gene Stratton Porter, the natural world, particularly the ocean, was the common thread of her favorite literature. Carson attended Springdales small school through tenth grade, then completed school in nearby Parnassus, Pennsylvania. At the Pennsylvania College for Women, as in high school and she originally studied English, but switched her major to biology in January 1928, though she continued contributing to the schools student newspaper and literary supplement. After a summer course at the Marine Biological Laboratory, she continued her studies in zoology and genetics at Johns Hopkins in the fall of 1929. After her first year of school, Carson became a part-time student, taking an assistantship in Raymond Pearls laboratory. After false starts with pit vipers and squirrels, she completed a project on the embryonic development of the pronephros in fish. She earned a degree in zoology in June 1932. She had intended to continue for a doctorate, but in 1934 Carson was forced to leave Johns Hopkins to search for a teaching position to help support her family
21.
Mary Cassatt
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Mary Stevenson Cassatt was an American painter and printmaker. She was born in Pennsylvania, but lived much of her life in France. Cassatt often created images of the social and private lives of women and she was described by Gustave Geffroy in 1894 as one of les trois grandes dames of Impressionism alongside Marie Bracquemond and Berthe Morisot. Cassatt was born in Allegheny City, Pennsylvania, which is now part of Pittsburgh and she was born into an upper-middle-class family, Her father, Robert Simpson Cassat, was a successful stockbroker and land speculator. He was descended from the French Huguenot Jacques Cossart, who came to New Amsterdam in 1662 and her mother, Katherine Kelso Johnston, came from a banking family. Katherine Cassatt, educated and well-read, had a influence on her daughter. The ancestral name had been Cossart, a distant cousin of artist Robert Henri, Cassatt was one of seven children, of whom two died in infancy. One brother, Alexander Johnston Cassatt, later president of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The family moved eastward, first to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, then to the Philadelphia area, Cassatt grew up in an environment that viewed travel as integral to education, she spent five years in Europe and visited many of the capitals, including London, Paris, and Berlin. While abroad she learned German and French and had her first lessons in drawing and it is likely that her first exposure to French artists Ingres, Delacroix, Corot, and Courbet was at the Paris World’s Fair of 1855. Also in the exhibition were Degas and Pissarro, both of whom were later her colleagues and mentors, though her family objected to her becoming a professional artist, Cassatt began studying painting at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia at the early age of 15. Part of her parents concern may have been Cassatts exposure to feminist ideas, although about 20 percent of the students were female, most viewed art as a socially valuable skill, few of them were determined, as Cassatt was, to make art their career. She continued her studies from 1861 through 1865, the duration of the American Civil War, among her fellow students was Thomas Eakins, later the controversial director of the Academy. Impatient with the pace of instruction and the patronizing attitude of the male students and teachers. She later said, There was no teaching at the Academy, female students could not use live models, until somewhat later, and the principal training was primarily drawing from casts. Cassatt decided to end her studies, At that time, no degree was granted, after overcoming her fathers objections, she moved to Paris in 1866, with her mother and family friends acting as chaperones. The museum also served as a place for Frenchmen and American female students. In this manner, fellow artist and friend Elizabeth Jane Gardner met, toward the end of 1866, she joined a painting class taught by Charles Chaplin, a noted genre artist
22.
Emily Dickinson
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Emily Elizabeth Dickinson was an American poet. Dickinson was born in Amherst, Massachusetts, although part of a prominent family with strong ties to its community, Dickinson lived much of her life in reclusive isolation. After studying at the Amherst Academy for seven years in her youth, considered an eccentric by locals, she developed a noted penchant for white clothing and became known for her reluctance to greet guests or, later in life, to even leave her bedroom. Dickinson never married, and most friendships between her and others depended entirely upon correspondence, Dickinson was a recluse for the later years of her life. While Dickinson was a private poet, fewer than a dozen of her nearly 1,800 poems were published during her lifetime. The work that was published during her lifetime was usually altered significantly by the publishers to fit the conventional rules of the time. Dickinsons poems are unique for the era in which she wrote, they contain short lines, typically lack titles, many of her poems deal with themes of death and immortality, two recurring topics in letters to her friends. Her first collection of poetry was published in 1890 by personal acquaintances Thomas Wentworth Higginson and Mabel Loomis Todd, a complete, and mostly unaltered, collection of her poetry became available for the first time when scholar Thomas H. Johnson published The Poems of Emily Dickinson in 1955. Emily Elizabeth Dickinson was born at the homestead in Amherst, Massachusetts, on December 10,1830, into a prominent. Her father, Edward Dickinson was a prominent lawyer in Amherst, two hundred years earlier, her patrilineal ancestors had arrived in the New World—in the Puritan Great Migration—where they prospered. Emily Dickinsons paternal grandfather, Samuel Dickinson, had almost single-handedly founded Amherst College, in 1813, he built the homestead, a large mansion on the towns Main Street, that became the focus of Dickinson family life for the better part of a century. On May 6,1828, he married Emily Norcross from Monson and they had three children, William Austin, known as Austin, Aust or Awe Emily Elizabeth Lavinia Norcross, known as Lavinia or Vinnie By all accounts, young Emily was a well-behaved girl. On an extended visit to Monson when she was two, Emilys Aunt Lavinia described Emily as perfectly well & contented—She is a good child &. Emilys aunt also noted the affinity for music and her particular talent for the piano. Dickinson attended primary school in a building on Pleasant Street. Her education was ambitiously classical for a Victorian girl and her father wanted his children well-educated and he followed their progress even while away on business. When Emily was seven, he wrote home, reminding his children to school, and learn, so as to tell me. While Emily consistently described her father in a manner, her correspondence suggests that her mother was regularly cold
23.
Amelia Earhart
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Amelia Mary Earhart was an American aviation pioneer and author. Earhart was the first female aviator to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean, distinguished Flying Cross for this accomplishment. She set many records, wrote best-selling books about her flying experiences and was instrumental in the formation of The Ninety-Nines. In 1935, Earhart became a faculty member at Purdue University as an advisor to aeronautical engineering. She was also a member of the National Womans Party and a supporter of the Equal Rights Amendment. During an attempt to make a flight of the globe in 1937 in a Purdue-funded Lockheed Model 10 Electra. Fascination with her life, career and disappearance continues to this day, Earhart was the daughter of Samuel Edwin Stanton Earhart and Amelia Amy. Amelia was the child of the marriage, after an infant stillborn in August 1896. She was of part German descent, alfred Otis had not initially favored the marriage and was not satisfied with Edwins progress as a lawyer. According to family custom, Earhart was named after her two grandmothers, Amelia Josephine Harres and Mary Wells Patton, from an early age, Earhart, nicknamed Meeley was the ringleader while her younger sister, Grace Muriel Earhart, nicknamed Pidge, acted the dutiful follower. Both girls continued to answer to their childhood nicknames well into adulthood and their upbringing was unconventional since Amy Earhart did not believe in molding her children into nice little girls. A spirit of adventure seemed to abide in the Earhart children, as a child, Earhart spent long hours playing with sister Pidge, climbing trees, hunting rats with a rifle and belly-slamming her sled downhill. Although this love of the outdoors and rough-and-tumble play was common to many youngsters, the girls kept worms, moths, katydids and a tree toad in a growing collection gathered in their outings. In 1904, with the help of her uncle, she cobbled together a home-made ramp fashioned after a roller coaster she had seen on a trip to St. Louis, Earharts well-documented first flight ended dramatically. She emerged from the wooden box that had served as a sled with a bruised lip, torn dress. She exclaimed, Oh, Pidge, its just like flying, although there had been some missteps in his career up to that point, in 1907 Edwin Earharts job as a claims officer for the Rock Island Railroad led to a transfer to Des Moines, Iowa. The next year, at the age of 10, Earhart saw her first aircraft at the Iowa State Fair in Des Moines and her father tried to interest her and her sister in taking a flight. One look at the rickety flivver was enough for Earhart, who asked if they could go back to the merry-go-round
24.
Alice Hamilton
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Alice Hamilton was a leading expert in the field of occupational health and the first woman appointed to the faculty of Harvard University. She was a pioneer in the field of toxicology, studying occupational illnesses, Alice Hamilton was born in 1869 to Montgomery Hamilton and Gertrude Hamilton, in New York City, New York and raised in Fort Wayne, Indiana. She was the second of four girls, all of whom remained close throughout their childhood, among her sisters was classicist Edith Hamilton. Alice was home schooled and completed her education at Miss Porters School in Farmington, Connecticut. I doubted if I could ever be enough to be a real missionary, but if I could care for the sick. She studied sciences with a school teacher in Fort Wayne and at a little. She then enrolled at the University of Michigan Medical School in 1892 and she completed internships at the Northwestern Hospital for Women and Children in Minneapolis and the New England Hospital for Women and Children near Boston. During her internships, Hamilton developed interest in public health, at advice of her professors, Hamilton traveled to Europe to study bacteriology and pathology from 1895 to 1897. She was welcomed in Frankfurt, rejected in Berlin, and experienced some opposition at universities in Munich, when she returned to the United States, she continued her postgraduate studies at the Johns Hopkins University Medical School, where she worked with Simon Flexner. In 1897, she moved to Chicago, where she became a professor of pathology at the Womans Medical School of Northwestern University, soon after moving to Chicago, Hamilton became a member and resident of Hull House, the settlement house founded by social reformer Jane Addams. Hamilton attempted to identify causes of typhoid and tuberculosis in the surrounding community and her work on typhoid in 1902 led to the replacement of the chief sanitary inspector of the area by the Chicago Board of Health. Living side by side with the residents of the community, she became increasingly interested in the problems workers faced. The study of medicine had become increasingly important since the Industrial Revolution of the late nineteenth century had led to new dangers in the workplace. In 1907, Hamilton began exploring existing literature from abroad, noticing that industrial medicine was not being studied much in America and she set out to change this, and in 1908 published her first article on the topic. In 1908, Hamilton was appointed by the governor of Illinois to the newly formed Illinois Commission on Occupational Diseases, the commission focused on industrial poisons, with Hamliton leading the investigation. The commissions report resulted in occupational disease laws being passed in Illinois and other states, for the next decade she investigated a range of issues for a variety of state and federal health committees. Her work on the manufacture of lead and lead oxide. Relying primarily on shoe leather epidemiology, and the emerging science of toxicology, she pioneered occupational epidemiology
25.
Helen Hayes
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Helen Hayes MacArthur was an American actress whose career spanned almost 80 years. She eventually garnered the nickname First Lady of American Theatre and was one of 12 people who have won an Emmy, a Grammy, an Oscar, Hayes also received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, Americas highest civilian honor, from then-President Ronald Reagan in 1986. In 1988, she was awarded the National Medal of Arts, the annual Helen Hayes Awards, which have recognized excellence in professional theatre in greater Washington, DC, since 1984, are her namesake. In 1955, the former Fulton Theatre on 46th Street in New York Citys Broadway Theater District was renamed the Helen Hayes Theatre, when that venue was torn down in 1982, the nearby Little Theatre was renamed in her honor. Helen Hayes is regarded as one of the Greatest Leading Ladies of the 20th century theatre, Helen Hayes Brown was born in Washington, D. C. on October 10,1900. Her mother, Catherine Estelle, or Essie, was an actress who worked in touring companies. Her father, Francis van Arnum Brown, worked at a number of jobs, including as a clerk at the Washington Patent Office and as a manager, Hayes Irish Catholic maternal grandparents emigrated from Ireland during the Irish Potato Famine. Hayes began a career at an early age. She attended the Academy of the Sacred Heart Convent in Washington and her sound film debut was The Sin of Madelon Claudet, for which she won the Academy Award for Best Actress. She followed that with starring roles in Arrowsmith, A Farewell to Arms, The White Sister, What Every Woman Knows, however, Hayes did not prefer that medium to the stage. In 1951, she was involved with the Broadway revival of J. M. Barries play Mary Rose at the ANTA Playhouse, in 1953, she was the first-ever recipient of the Sarah Siddons Award for her work in Chicago theatre, repeating as the winner in 1969. She returned to Hollywood in the 1950s, and her star began to rise. She starred in My Son John and Anastasia, and won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her role as a stowaway in the disaster film Airport. She followed that up with roles in Disney films such as Herbie Rides Again, One of Our Dinosaurs is Missing. Her performance in Anastasia was considered a comeback—she had suspended her career for years due to the death of her daughter Mary. In 1955, the Fulton Theatre was renamed for her, however, business interests in the 1980s wished to raze that theatre and four others to construct a large hotel that included the Marquis Theatre. Parts of the original Helen Hayes Theatre on Broadway were used to construct the Shakespeare Center on the Upper Westside of Manhattan, which Hayes dedicated with Joseph Papp in 1982. In 1983 the Little Theater on West 45th Street was renamed the Helen Hayes Theatre in her honor, as was a theatre in Nyack, which has since been renamed the Riverspace-Arts Center
26.
Helen Keller
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Helen Adams Keller was an American author, political activist, and lecturer. She was the first deaf-blind person to earn a bachelor of arts degree and her birthplace in West Tuscumbia, Alabama, is now a museum and sponsors an annual Helen Keller Day. A prolific author, Keller was well-traveled and outspoken in her convictions, a member of the Socialist Party of America and the Industrial Workers of the World, she campaigned for womens suffrage, labor rights, socialism, antimilitarism, and other similar causes. She was inducted into the Alabama Womens Hall of Fame in 1971 and was one of twelve inaugural inductees to the Alabama Writers Hall of Fame on June 8,2015. Helen proved to the world that people could all learn to communicate. She also taught that people are capable of doing things that hearing people can do. She is one of the most famous people in history. Helen Adams Keller was born on June 27,1880, in Tuscumbia and her family lived on a homestead, Ivy Green, that Helens grandfather had built decades earlier. She had two siblings, Mildred Campbell and Phillip Brooks Keller, and two older half-brothers from her fathers prior marriage, James and William Simpson Keller. Her father, Arthur H. Keller, spent many years as an editor for the Tuscumbia North Alabamian and her paternal grandmother was the second cousin of Robert E. Lee. Her mother, Kate Adams, was the daughter of Charles W. Adams, though originally from Massachusetts, Charles Adams also fought for the Confederate Army during the American Civil War, earning the rank of colonel. Her paternal lineage was traced to Casper Keller, a native of Switzerland, one of Helens Swiss ancestors was the first teacher for the deaf in Zurich. Keller reflected on this coincidence in her first autobiography, stating there is no king who has not had a slave among his ancestors. Helen Keller was born with the ability to see and hear, at 19 months old, she contracted an illness described by doctors as an acute congestion of the stomach and the brain, which might have been scarlet fever or meningitis. The illness left her deaf and blind. Even though blind and deaf, Helen Keller had passed through many obstacles and she learned how to tell which person was walking by from the vibrations their footsteps would make. The sex and age of the person could be identified by how strong, julian Chisolm, an eye, ear, nose, and throat specialist in Baltimore, for advice. Chisholm referred the Kellers to Alexander Graham Bell, who was working with children at the time
27.
Eleanor Roosevelt
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Anna Eleanor Roosevelt was an American politician, diplomat, and activist. President Harry S. Truman later called her the First Lady of the World in tribute to her human rights achievements, Roosevelt was a member of the prominent American Roosevelt and Livingston families and a niece of President Theodore Roosevelt. She had a childhood, having suffered the deaths of both parents and one of her brothers at a young age. At 15, she attended Allenwood Academy in London and was influenced by its feminist headmistress Marie Souvestre. Returning to the U. S. she married her fifth cousin once removed, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, though widely respected in her later years, Roosevelt was a controversial First Lady at the time for her outspokenness, particularly her stance on racial issues. On a few occasions, she disagreed with her husbands policies. She launched a community at Arthurdale, West Virginia, for the families of unemployed miners. She advocated for expanded roles for women in the workplace, the rights of African Americans and Asian Americans. Following her husbands death in 1945, Roosevelt remained active in politics for the remaining 17 years of her life and she pressed the United States to join and support the United Nations and became its first delegate. She served as the first chair of the UN Commission on Human Rights, later she chaired the John F. Kennedy administrations Presidential Commission on the Status of Women. By the time of her death, Roosevelt was regarded as one of the most esteemed women in the world, in 1999, she was ranked ninth in the top ten of Gallups List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th Century. Anna Eleanor Roosevelt was born in 1884 at 56 West 37th Street in Manhattan, New York City, to socialites Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt, from an early age, she preferred to be called by her middle name, Eleanor. Through her father, she was a niece of President Theodore Roosevelt, through her mother, she was a niece of tennis champions Valentine Gill Vallie Hall III and Edward Ludlow Hall. Her mother nicknamed her Granny because she acted in such a manner as a child. Her mother was somewhat ashamed of Eleanors plainness. Eleanor had two brothers, Elliott Jr. and Gracie Hall Roosevelt, usually called Hall. She also had a brother, Elliott Roosevelt Mann, through her fathers affair with Katy Mann. Roosevelt was born into a world of wealth and privilege
28.
Florence R. Sabin
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Florence Rena Sabin was an American medical scientist. In her retirement years, she pursued a career as a public health activist in Colorado. Florence Sabin was born in Central City, Colorado, on November 9,1871 and her father was a mining engineer, so the family spent several years in mining communities. Sabin earned her bachelors degree from Smith College in 1893 and she taught high school mathematics in Denver for two years and zoology at Smith for one year in order to earn enough money for her first year of tuition. Sabin attended the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine as one of fourteen women in her class, the school had opened in 1893 and from the beginning admitted both men and women, in fulfillment of one of the conditions of the gift that made its opening possible. While at Hopkins, Sabin’s observational skills and perseverance in the laboratory captured the attention of anatomist Franklin P. Mall, Mall encouraged Sabin and helped her to become involved in two projects that would build a solid reputation for her among fellow scientists. The projects suggested by Franklin P. Mall shaped the future of Sabin’s research, the first project was to produce a three-dimensional model of a newborn baby’s brainstem which became the focus of the textbook, An Atlas of the Medulla and Midbrain, published in 1901. The second project involved the development of the lymphatic system which proved that the lymphatic system is formed from the embryo’s blood vessels. Following graduation from the school, Sabin obtained an internship at Johns Hopkins Hospital under physician Sir William Osler. In 1902 she began to teach in the Department of Anatomy at Johns Hopkins, by 1905 she was promoted to associate professor and finally appointed full professor of embryology and histology in 1917, the first woman to become a full professor at a medical college. In 1924 Sabin was elected the first woman president of the American Association of Anatomists, at Hopkins in 1924 Sabin continued her research on the origins of blood, blood vessels, blood cells, the histology of the brain, and the pathology and immunology of tuberculosis. In 1924, Sabin’s work on the origins of blood vessels earned her membership in the National Academy of Science, in September 1925 she became head of the Department of Cellular Studies at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in New York City. Her research focused on the system, blood vessels and cells. In 1944 she came out of a retirement to accept Colorado governor John Vivians request to chair a subcommittee on health. Sabin assessed the health needs of the state and its citizens. In reply, she told him, “pick me up at nine. Her tenacity paid off as the bills she supported were passed. The results of her efforts were known as the “Sabin Health Laws” which modernized the public system in Colorado
29.
Margaret Chase Smith
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Margaret Madeline Chase Smith was a United States politician. A member of the Republican Party, she served as a U. S Representative and she was the first woman to serve in both houses of the United States Congress, and the first woman to represent Maine in either. A moderate Republican, she was among the first to criticize the tactics of McCarthyism in her 1950 speech, Declaration of Conscience. Upon leaving office, she was the longest-serving female Senator in history, a distinction that was not surpassed until January 5,2011, to date, Smith is ranked as the longest-serving Republican woman in the Senate. Margaret Chase was born in Skowhegan in western Maine, to George Emery and she was the oldest of six children, two of whom did not survive to adulthood. Her father was the barber, and her mother worked as a waitress, store clerk. She received her education at Lincoln and Garfield Elementary Schools. At age 12, she went to work at a local five-and-dime store and she also shaved her fathers customers when he was busy or away from the shop. She attended Skowhegan High School, graduating in 1916, during high school, she played on the girls basketball team, of which she was captain in her senior year. She also worked as an operator with a telephone company during this time. In that position she met Clyde Smith, a prominent local politician, following her high school graduation, Chase briefly taught at the Pitts School, a one-room school near Skowhegan. She also coached the basketball team at Skowhegan High. She became involved with womens organizations. She co-founded the Skowhegan chapter of the Business and Professional Womens Club in 1922, from 1926 to 1928, she was president of the statewide organization, the Maine Federation of Business and Professional Womens Clubs. She became treasurer of the New England Waste Process Company in 1928, and was employed as an office worker with the Daniel E. Cummings Woolen Company. On May 14,1930, Chase married Clyde Smith, who was 21 years her senior and she soon became active in politics, and was elected to the Maine Republican State Committee, on which she served from 1930 to 1936. After Clyde was elected to the U. S. House of Representatives from Maines 2nd congressional district in 1936, Smith accompanied her husband to Washington, in this position, she managed his office, handled his correspondence, conducted research, and helped write his speeches. She also served as treasurer of the Congressional Club, a composed of the wives of congressmen
30.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
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Elizabeth Cady Stanton was an American suffragist, social activist, abolitionist, and leading figure of the early womens rights movement. Stanton was president of the National Woman Suffrage Association from 1892 until 1900, before Stanton narrowed her political focus almost exclusively to womens rights, she was an active abolitionist with her husband Henry Brewster Stanton and cousin Gerrit Smith. Unlike many of those involved in the womens movement, Stanton addressed various issues pertaining to women beyond voting rights. Her concerns included womens parental and custody rights, property rights, employment and income rights, divorce, the health of the family. She was also a supporter of the 19th-century temperance movement. After the American Civil War, Stantons commitment to female suffrage caused a schism in the womens rights movement when she, Anthony, declined to support passage of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution. She opposed giving added legal protection and voting rights to African American men while women, black, Stanton died in 1902, having written both The Womans Bible and her autobiography Eighty Years and More, and many other articles and pamphlets about female suffrage and womens rights. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, the eighth of 11 children, was born in Johnstown, New York, to Daniel Cady, five of her siblings died in early childhood or infancy. A sixth sibling, her older brother Eleazar, died at age 20 just before his graduation from Union College in Schenectady, only Elizabeth Cady and four sisters lived well into adulthood and old age. Later in life, Elizabeth named her two daughters after two of her sisters, Margaret and Harriot, judge Cady introduced his daughter to the law and, together with her brother-in-law, Edward Bayard, planted the early seeds that grew into her legal and social activism. Even as a girl, she enjoyed reading her fathers law books. It was this exposure to law that, in part, caused Stanton to realize how disproportionately the law favored men over women. Her realization that women had virtually no property, income, employment, or even custody rights over their own children. Stantons mother, Margaret Livingston Cady, a descendant of early Dutch settlers, was the daughter of Colonel James Livingston, Margaret Cady, an unusually tall woman for her time, had a commanding presence, and Stanton routinely described her mother as queenly. While Stantons daughter, Harriot Stanton Blatch, remembers her grandmother as being fun, affectionate, Bayard, a Union College classmate of Eleazar Cadys and son of James A. Bayard, Sr. a U. S. Senator from Wilmington, Delaware was, at the time of his engagement and marriage to Tryphena and he was instrumental in nurturing Stantons growing understanding of the explicit and implicit gender hierarchies within the legal system. Slavery did not end in New York State until July 4,1827, peter Teabout, a slave in the Cady household who was later freed in Johnstown, took care of Stanton and her sister Margaret. While she makes no mention of Teabouts position as a slave in her familys household, he is remembered with fondness by Stanton in her memoir
31.
Helen B. Taussig
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Helen Brooke Taussig was an American cardiologist, working in Baltimore and Boston who founded the field of pediatric cardiology. Notably, she is credited with developing the concept for a procedure that would extend the lives of children born with Tetralogy of Fallot and this concept was applied in practice as a procedure known as the Blalock-Taussig shunt. The procedure was developed by Alfred Blalock and Vivien Thomas, who were Taussigs colleagues at the Johns Hopkins Hospital, Taussig is also known for her work in banning thalidomide and was widely recognized as a highly skilled physician. Helen Brooke Taussig was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts on May 24,1898 to Frank W. Taussig and Edith Thomas Guild and her father was an economist at Harvard University, and her mother was one of the first students at Radcliffe College, a womens college. When Taussig was 11 years old, her mother succumbed to tuberculosis, Helen also contracted the disease and was ill for several years and she also struggled with severe dyslexia through her early school years. She graduated from Cambridge School for Girls in 1917, then studied for two years at Radcliffe before earning a degree from the University of California, Berkeley in 1921. Taussig later studied histology, bacteriology, and anatomy at both Harvard Medical School and Boston University, though neither school allowed her to earn a degree. She was particularly discriminated against in her class, where she was barred from speaking to her male classmates for fear of contamination. As an anatomy student at Boston University in 1925, she published her first scientific paper on studies of ox heart muscles with Alexander Begg and she applied to the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine and was accepted as a full-degree candidate. She completed her MD degree in 1927 at Johns Hopkins, where she remained for one year as a cardiology fellow. While at Hopkins, she received two Archibald Fellowships, spanning 1927-1930, Dr. Taussig became deaf in the later part of her career. She learned to use lip-reading techniques and hearing aids to speak with her patients, Taussig began her career after her fellowship in cardiology with a stint as head of a rheumatic fever department. She then was hired by the department of Johns Hopkins, the Harriet Lane Home, as its chief. She worked with surgeon Alfred Blalock and Vivien Thomas to develop a surgery to correct the defect and they first performed the corrective surgery on dogs but by 1946 began to perform the operation on human babies. That year, she became a professor at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. In 1947, Taussig published her magnum opus, Congenital Malformations of the Heart, Taussig formally retired from Johns Hopkins in 1963, but continued to teach, give lectures, and lobby for various causes. In addition, she kept writing scientific papers and she advocated the use of animals in medical research and legalized abortion, as well as the benefits of palliative care and hospice. As a result of her efforts, thalidomide was banned in the United States, in 1977, Taussig moved to a retirement community in Kennett Square, Pennsylvania
32.
Harriet Tubman
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Harriet Tubman was an American abolitionist, humanitarian, and an armed scout and spy for the United States Army during the American Civil War. She later helped abolitionist John Brown recruit men for his raid on Harpers Ferry, born a slave in Dorchester County, Maryland, Tubman was beaten and whipped by her various masters as a child. Early in life, she suffered a head wound when an irate slave owner threw a heavy metal weight intending to hit another slave. The injury caused dizziness, pain, and spells of hypersomnia and she was a devout Christian and experienced strange visions and vivid dreams, which she ascribed to premonitions from God. In 1849, Tubman escaped to Philadelphia, then returned to Maryland to rescue her family. Slowly, one group at a time, she brought relatives with her out of the state, traveling by night and in extreme secrecy, Tubman never lost a passenger. After the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was passed, she helped guide fugitives farther north into British North America, when the Civil War began, Tubman worked for the Union Army, first as a cook and nurse, and then as an armed scout and spy. The first woman to lead an expedition in the war, she guided the raid at Combahee Ferry. After the war, she retired to the home on property she had purchased in 1859 in Auburn, New York. She was active in the suffrage movement until illness overtook her. After she died in 1913, she became an icon of American courage, on April 20,2016, the U. S. Treasury Department announced a plan for Tubman to replace Andrew Jackson as the portrait gracing the $20 bill. Tubman was born Araminta Minty Ross to slave parents, Harriet Green and Ben Ross, Rit was owned by Mary Pattison Brodess. Ben was held by Anthony Thompson, who became Marys second husband, as with many slaves in the United States, neither the exact year nor place of Aramintas birth is known, and historians differ as to the best estimate. Catherine Clinton notes that Tubman reported the year of her birth as 1825, while her death certificate lists 1815 and her gravestone lists 1820. In her Civil War widows pension records, Tubman claimed she was born in 1820,1822, and 1825, an indication, perhaps, that she had only a general idea of when she was born. Modesty, Tubmans maternal grandmother, arrived in the United States on a ship from Africa. As a child, Tubman was told that she was of Ashanti lineage and her mother Rit was a cook for the Brodess family. Her father Ben was a woodsman who managed the timber work on Thompsons plantation
33.
Abigail Adams
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Abigail Adams was the closest advisor and wife of John Adams, as well as the mother of John Quincy Adams. John frequently sought the advice of Abigail on many matters, and their letters are filled with discussions on government. Her letters also serve as eyewitness accounts of the American Revolutionary War home front, Abigail Adams was born at the North Parish Congregational Church in Weymouth, Massachusetts, to William Smith and Elizabeth Smith. On her mothers side she was descended from the Quincy family, through her mother she was a cousin of Dorothy Quincy, wife of John Hancock. Adams was also the great-granddaughter of John Norton, founding pastor of Old Ship Church in Hingham, Massachusetts, the only remaining 17th-century Puritan meetinghouse in Massachusetts. Smith married Elizabeth Quincy in 1742, and together they had four children and their only son, born in 1746, died of alcoholism in 1787. As with several of her ancestors, Adamss father was a liberal Congregationalist minister, Smith did not focus his preaching on predestination or original sin, instead he emphasized the importance of reason and morality. In July 1775 his wife Elizabeth, with whom he had married for 33 years. In 1784, at age 77, Smith died, Abigail did not receive formal schooling, she was frequently sick as child, which may have been a factor which prevented her from receiving an education. Later in life, Adams would also consider that she was deprived an education because females were given such an opportunity. Her grandmother, Elizabeth Quincy, also contributed to Adams education, as she grew up, Adams read with friends in an effort to further her learning. As an intellectually open-minded woman for her day, Adams ideas on womens rights and government would play a major role, albeit indirectly. She became one of the most erudite women ever to serve as First Lady, as third cousins, Abigail and John had known each other since they were children. In 1762, John accompanied his friend Richard Cranch to the Smith household, Cranch was engaged to Adams older sister, Mary, and they would be the parents of federal judge William Cranch. John was quickly attracted to the petite, shy, 17-year-old brunette who was bent over some book. He was surprised to learn she knew so much poetry, philosophy. Smith, Abigails father, presided over the marriage of John Adams, after the reception, the couple mounted a single horse and rode off to their new home, the small cottage and farm John had inherited from his father in Braintree, Massachusetts. Later they moved to Boston, where his law practice expanded, the couple welcomed their first child nine months into their marriage
34.
Margaret Mead
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Margaret Mead was an American cultural anthropologist who featured frequently as an author and speaker in the mass media during the 1960s and 1970s. She earned her bachelors degree at Barnard College in New York City and her M. A. Mead was a respected and often controversial academic who popularized the insights of anthropology in modern American and Western culture. Her reports detailing the attitudes towards sex in South Pacific and Southeast Asian traditional cultures influenced the 1960s sexual revolution and she was a proponent of broadening sexual mores within a context of traditional Western religious life. Margaret Mead, the first of five children, was born in Philadelphia and her father, Edward Sherwood Mead, was a professor of finance at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, and her mother, Emily Mead, was a sociologist who studied Italian immigrants. Her sister Katharine died at the age of nine months and this was a traumatic event for Mead, who had named the girl, and thoughts of her lost sister permeated her daydreams for many years. Her family moved frequently, so her early education was directed by her Grandmother until, at age 11, she was enrolled by her family at Buckingham Friends School in Lahaska and her family owned the Longland farm from 1912 to 1926. Born into a family of various religious outlooks, she searched for a form of religion that gave an expression of the faith that she had been acquainted with. In doing so, she found the rituals of the Episcopal Church to fit the expression of religion she was seeking, Margaret studied one year,1919, at DePauw University, then transferred to Barnard College where she earned her bachelors degree in 1923. She studied with professor Franz Boas and Dr. Ruth Benedict at Columbia University before earning her masters degree in 1924, Mead set out in 1925 to do fieldwork in Samoa. In 1926, she joined the American Museum of Natural History, New York City and she received her Ph. D. from Columbia University in 1929. Before departing for Samoa, Mead had an affair with the linguist Edward Sapir. But Sapirs conservative ideas about marriage and the role were anathema to Mead. Mead received news of Sapirs remarriage while living in Samoa, where, on a beach and her first husband was American Luther Cressman, a theology student at the time who eventually became an anthropologist. Mead dismissively characterized their union as my student marriage in Blackberry Winter and her second husband was New Zealander Reo Fortune, a Cambridge graduate and fellow anthropologist. Meads third and longest-lasting marriage was to the British anthropologist Gregory Bateson, with whom she had a daughter, Mary Catherine Bateson and she readily acknowledged that Gregory Bateson was the husband she loved the most. She was devastated when he left her, and she remained his friend ever after, keeping his photograph by her bedside wherever she traveled. Mead also had a close relationship with Ruth Benedict, one of her instructors. In her memoir about her parents, With a Daughters Eye, Mead never openly identified herself as lesbian or bisexual
35.
Babe Didrikson Zaharias
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Mildred Ella Babe Didrikson Zaharias was an American athlete who achieved a great deal of success in golf, basketball and track and field. She won two medals in track and field at the 1932 Summer Olympics, before turning to professional golf. Mildred Ella Didrikson was born on June 26,1911, the sixth of seven children, in the city of Port Arthur. Her mother, Hannah, and her father, Ole Didriksen, were immigrants from Norway, although her three eldest siblings were born in Norway, Babe and her three other siblings were born in Port Arthur. She later changed the spelling of her surname from Didriksen to Didrikson and she moved with her family to 850 Doucette in Beaumont, Texas, at age 4. She claimed to have acquired the nickname Babe upon hitting five home runs in a baseball game. Though best known for her gifts, Didrikson had many talents. An excellent seamstress, she made many of her clothes, including her golfing outfits. She claimed to have won the championship at the 1931 State Fair of Texas in Dallas, she did win the South Texas State Fair in Beaumont. Never a strong student, she was forced to repeat the grade and was a year older than her classmates. She eventually dropped out without graduating after she moved to Dallas to play basketball and she was a singer and a harmonica player and recorded several songs on the Mercury Records label. Her biggest seller was I Felt a Little Teardrop with Detour on the flip side, already famous as Babe Didrikson, she married George Zaharias, a professional wrestler, in St. Louis, Missouri, on December 23,1938. Thereafter, she was known as Babe Didrikson Zaharias or Babe Zaharias. The two met while playing golf, George Zaharias, a Greek American, was a native of Pueblo, Colorado. Called the Crying Greek from Cripple Creek, Zaharias also did some part-time acting and they were rebuffed by authorities when they sought to adopt. Didrikson gained world fame in track and field and All-American status in basketball and she played organized baseball and softball and was an expert diver, roller-skater, and bowler. As a side note, the competition was governed by the Amateur Athletic Union. Despite leading the team to an AAU Basketball Championship in 1931, Didrikson had first achieved attention as a track
36.
Dorothea Dix
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During the Civil War, she served as a Superintendent of Army Nurses. Born in the town of Hampden, Maine, she grew up first in Worcester and she was the first child of three born to Joseph Dix and Mary Bigelow, who had deep ancestral roots in Massachusetts Bay Colony. Her father was an itinerant worker as a Methodist preacher, at the age of twelve, she sought refuge with her wealthy grandmother, Dorothea Lynde in Boston to get away from her alcoholic parents and abusive father. About 1821 Dix opened a school in Boston, which was patronized by well-to-do families, soon afterward she also began teaching poor and neglected children out of the barn of her grandmothers house, but she suffered poor health. From 1824 to 1830, she wrote mainly devotional books and stories for children and her Conversations on Common Things reached its sixtieth edition by 1869. Her book The Garland of Flora was, along with Elizabeth Wirts Floras Dictionary, Other books of Dixs include Private Hours, Alice and Ruth, and Prisons and Prison Discipline. After Dixs health forced her to relinquish her school, she began working out as a governess for the family of Dr. W. E. Channing. It was while working with family that Dix traveled to St. Croix. In 1831, she established a school for girls in Boston, operating it until 1836. Dix was encouraged to take a trip to Europe to help aid her health by her physician, when she was there she met the other reformers who inspired her to start working on equal rights for the mentally ill. These reformers were Elizabeth Fry, Samuel Tuke and William Rathbone whom which she lived with during the duration of her trip to Europe, in hopes of a cure, in 1836 she traveled to England, where she met the Rathbone family. They invited her as a guest to Greenbank, their mansion in Liverpool. The Rathbones were Quakers and prominent social reformers, at Greenbank, Dix met their circle of men and women who believed that government should play a direct, active role in social welfare. She was also introduced to the movement for care of the mentally ill in Great Britain. Its members were making deep investigations of madhouses and asylums, publishing their studies in reports to the House of Commons, Reform movements for treatment of the mentally ill were related in this period to other progressive causes, abolitionism, temperance, and voter reforms. After returning to America, in 1840-41 Dix conducted an investigation of care for the insane poor in Massachusetts. In most cases, towns contracted with local individuals to care for ill people who could not care for themselves. Unregulated and underfunded, this resulted in widespread abuse
37.
Juliette Gordon Low
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Juliette Gordon Low was the founder of Girl Scouts of the USA with help from Sir Robert Baden-Powell, the founder of the Scouting Movement. Low and Baden-Powell both shared a love of travel and support of the Girl Guides, Juliette Low joined the Girl Guide movement, forming a group of Girl Guides in Scotland in 1911. In 1912 she returned to the United States and established the first American Girl Guide troop in Savannah, in 1915 the United States Girl Guides became known as the Girl Scouts, and Juliette Gordon Low was the first president. She stayed active until the time of her death and her birthday, October 31, is commemorated by the Girl Scouts as Founders Day. Juliette Magill Kinzie Gordon was born on October 31,1860 in Savannah and she was named after her grandmother, Juliette Augusta Magill Kinzie, and nicknamed Daisy, a common nickname at the time, by her uncle. Six months after her birth, her father joined the Confederate States Army to fight in the American Civil War, in 1864, due to the close proximity of Union troops to Savannah, she moved with her mother and two sisters to Thunderbolt, Georgia. After the Union victory in Savannah the same year, her family received visits from General William T. Sherman. Sherman arranged an escort to take her family to Chicago in March 1865, upon arriving in Chicago, Gordon Low became sick with brain fever, although she recovered without severe complications. A few months later, after President Andrew Johnson issued the amnesty proclamation, as a child, Gordon Low was accident-prone, and she suffered numerous injuries and illnesses. In 1866, her mother mentioned in a letter that Daisy fell out of bed – on her head and that year, she broke two of her fingers so severely that her parents considered having them amputated. She also suffered frequent earaches and recurring bouts of malaria, Gordon Low spent more time pursuing art and poetry than she did working on school work. She wrote and performed plays, and she started a newspaper with her cousins called The Malbone Bouquet and she formed a club with her cousins with the goal of helping others. The Helpful Hands Club learned to sew and tried to make clothes for the children of Italian immigrants and she was dubbed Crazy Daisy by her family and friends due to her eccentricities. Her cousin Caroline described her by saying, While you never knew what she would do next, Gordon Low’s parents raised her with traditional Southern values, and they emphasized the importance of duty, obedience, loyalty, and respect. While studying at Edgehill, she joined the secret group Theta Tau, in 1880, after she had finished boarding school, Gordon Low took painting lessons in New York. Among her teachers was Robert Walter Weir, a prominent landscape painter, after the death of her sister Alice in 1880, Gordon Low relocated to Savannah to take over the household duties while her mother grieved. During this period she met William Mackay Low, the son of a family friend, William Low left Savannah to study at the University of Oxford, and they didnt meet again until almost three years later in 1884. Gordon Low traveled through Europe while they were separated, and she learned several new skills including shorthand, bareback riding, in late 1885, William Low proposed marriage
38.
Alice Paul
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Alice Paul was an American suffragist, feminist, and womens rights activist, and one of the main leaders and strategists of the 1910s campaign for the Nineteenth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution which prohibits sex discrimination in the right to vote, after 1920, Paul spent a half century as leader of the National Womans Party, which fought for her Equal Rights Amendment to secure constitutional equality for women. She won a degree of success with the inclusion of women as a group protected against discrimination by the Civil Rights Act of 1964. She insisted that her National Womans Party focus on the status of all women. Alice Paul was born on January 11,1885, at Paulsdale in Mount Laurel Township and she was the eldest of four children of William Mickle Paul I and Tacie Paul, and a descendant of William Penn, the Quaker founder of Pennsylvania. Her siblings were Willam, Helen, and Parry, the Quakers believed that all people, including women, were equal in the sight of God. Alice first learned about womens suffrage from her mother, a member of the National American Woman Suffrage Association, Paul attended Moorestown Friends School, where she graduated at the top of her class. In 1901, Paul went to Swarthmore College, an institution co-founded by her grandfather, while attending Swarthmore, Paul served as a member on the Executive Board of Student Government, one experience which may have sparked her eventual excitement for political activism. Alice graduated from Swarthmore College with a degree in Biology in 1905. You couldnt change the situation by social work, Paul then earned her M. A. from the University of Pennsylvania in 1907, after completing coursework in political science, sociology and economics. She continued her studies at the Woodbrooke Quaker Study Centre in Birmingham, England and she first heard Christabel Pankhurst speak at Birmingham. When she later moved to London to work, she joined the militant suffrage group the Womens Social and Political Union led by Christabel and her mother and she was arrested repeatedly during suffrage demonstrations and served three jail terms. After returning from England in 1910, Paul continued her studies at the University of Pennsylvania, Paul later received her law degree from the Washington College of Law at American University in 1922, after the suffrage fight was over. In 1927, she earned an LL. M, and in 1928, Alice Paul had an active social life until she moved to Washington in late 1912. She enjoyed close relationships with women and befriended, sometimes dated, Paul did not preserve private correspondence for the most part, so few details are available. Once Paul devoted herself to winning the vote for women, she placed the suffrage effort first in her life, nevertheless, Elsie Hill and Dora Kelly Lewis, two women she met early in her work for NAWSA, remained close to her all their lives. She knew William Parker, a scholar she met at the University of Pennsylvania, for several years, the more thorough discussion of Pauls familial relations and friendships is found in J. D. Zahnisers biography. After a conversion experience seeing Christabel Pankhurst speak at the University of Birmingham and she first became involved by selling a Suffragette magazine on street corners
39.
Elizabeth Ann Seton
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Elizabeth Ann Bayley Seton, S. C. was the first native-born citizen of the United States to be canonized by the Roman Catholic Church. She established the first Catholic girls school in the nation in Emmitsburg, Maryland, where she founded the first American congregation of religious sisters. Elizabeth Ann Bayley was born on August 28,1774, the child of a socially prominent couple, Dr. Richard Bayley. The Bayley and Charlton families were among the earliest European settlers in the New York area and her fathers parents were French Huguenots and lived in New Rochelle, New York. Dr. Bayley later served as the first professor of anatomy at Columbia College and her mother, Catherine, died in 1777 when Elizabeth was three years old. This may have resulted from complications after the birth of the final child, also Catherine. Elizabeths father then married Charlotte Amelia Barclay, a member of the Jacobus James Roosevelt family, the couple had five children, but the marriage ended in separation. During the breakup, their stepmother rejected Elizabeth and her older sister and their father then traveled to London for further medical studies, so the sisters lived temporarily in New Rochelle with their paternal uncle, William Bayley, and his wife, Sarah Pell Bayley. Elizabeth experienced a period of darkness during this time, feeling the separation as loss of a second mother, in these journals, Elizabeth also showed her love for nature, poetry, and music, especially the piano. Entries frequently expressed her religious aspirations, as well as passages from her reading, showing her introspection. Seton was also fluent in French, a musician. On January 25,1794, at age 19, Elizabeth married William Magee Seton, aged 25, samuel Provoost, the first Episcopal bishop of New York, presided at their wedding. A loyalist, the senior William Seton was the last royal public notary for the city and he brought his sons William and James into the import-export mercantile firm, the William Seton Company, which became Seton, Maitland and Company in 1793. The younger William had visited important counting houses in Europe in 1788, was a friend of Filippo Filicchi, shortly after they married, Elizabeth and William moved into a fashionable residence on Wall Street. Socially prominent in New York society, the Setons belonged to Trinity Episcopal Church, near Broadway, a devout communicant, Elizabeth took the Rev. John Henry Hobart as her spiritual director. Along with her sister-in-law Rebecca Mary Seton, Elizabeth continued her former stepmothers social ministry—nursing the sick and dying among family, friends, and needy neighbors. Influenced by her father she became a member of The Society for the Relief of Poor Widows with Small Children. When the elder William Seton died, the Seton family fortunes began to decline in the economic climate preceding the War of 1812
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Margaret Sanger
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Margaret Higgins Sanger was an American birth control activist, sex educator, writer, and nurse. Sanger popularized the term control, opened the first birth control clinic in the United States. Sanger used her writings and speeches primarily to promote her way of thinking and she was prosecuted for her book Family Limitation under the Comstock Act in 1914. She was afraid of what would happen, so she fled to Britain until she knew it was safe to return to the US, Sangers efforts contributed to several judicial cases that helped legalize contraception in the United States. Sanger, who has criticized for supporting negative eugenics, remains an admired figure in the American reproductive rights movement. Her subsequent trial and appeal generated controversy, Sanger felt that in order for women to have a more equal footing in society and to lead healthier lives, they needed to be able to determine when to bear children. She also wanted to prevent so-called back-alley abortions, which were common at the time because abortions were illegal in the United States and she believed that while abortion was sometimes justified it should generally be avoided, and she considered contraception the only practical way to avoid them. In 1921, Sanger founded the American Birth Control League, which became the Planned Parenthood Federation of America. In 1929, she formed the National Committee on Federal Legislation for Birth Control, from 1952 to 1959, Sanger served as president of the International Planned Parenthood Federation. She died in 1966, and is regarded as a founder of the modern birth control movement. Sanger was born Margaret Louise Higgins in 1879 in Corning, New York, to Michael Hennessey Higgins, an Irish-born stonemason and free-thinker, and Anne Purcell Higgins, a Catholic Irish-American. Michael Hennessey Higgins had emigrated to the USA at age 14 and joined the U. S. Army as a drummer at age 15, after leaving the army, Michael studied medicine and phrenology, but ultimately became a stonecutter, making stone angels, saints, and tombstones. Michael H. Higgins was a Catholic who became an atheist and her parents brought the family to Canada during the Potato Famine. Anne Higgins went through 18 pregnancies in 22 years before dying at the age of 49, Sanger was the sixth of eleven surviving children, and spent much of her youth assisting with household chores and caring for her younger siblings. Supported by her two sisters, Margaret Higgins attended Claverack College and Hudson River Institute, before enrolling in 1900 at White Plains Hospital as a nurse probationer. In 1902, she married the architect William Sanger and gave up her education, though she was plagued by a recurring active tubercular condition, Margaret Sanger bore three children, and the couple settled down to a quiet life in Westchester, New York. In 1911, after a fire destroyed their home in Hastings-on-Hudson, Margaret Sanger worked as a visiting nurse in the slums of the East Side, while her husband worked as an architect and a house painter. Already imbued with her husbands leftist politics, Margaret Sanger also threw herself into the radical politics, by the standards of the day, Sangers articles were extremely frank in their discussion of sexuality, and many New York Call readers were outraged by them
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Sojourner Truth
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Sojourner Truth was an African-American abolitionist and womens rights activist. Truth was born into slavery in Swartekill, Ulster County, New York, after going to court to recover her son, in 1828 she became the first black woman to win such a case against a white man. She gave herself the name Sojourner Truth in 1843 after she became convinced that God had called her to leave the city and her best-known speech was delivered extemporaneously, in 1851, at the Ohio Womens Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio. The speech became known during the Civil War by the title Aint I a Woman. A variation of the original speech re-written by someone using a stereotypical Southern dialect, whereas Sojourner Truth was from New York. During the Civil War, Truth helped recruit troops for the Union Army, after the war. In 2014, Truth was included in Smithsonian magazines list of the 100 Most Significant Americans of All Time, Truth was one of the ten or twelve children born to James and Elizabeth Baumfree. Charles Hardenbergh inherited his fathers estate and continued to enslave people as a part of that estates property, when Charles Hardenbergh died in 1806, nine-year-old Truth, was sold at an auction with a flock of sheep for $100 to John Neely, near Kingston, New York. Until that time, Truth spoke only Dutch and she later described Neely as cruel and harsh, relating how he beat her daily and once even with a bundle of rods. Neely sold her in 1808, for $105, to Martinus Schryver of Port Ewen, a tavern keeper, Schryver sold her in 1810 to John Dumont of West Park, New York. Around 1815, Truth met and fell in love with a slave named Robert from a neighboring farm, roberts owner forbade their relationship, he did not want the people he enslaved to have children with people he was not enslaving, because he would not own the children. One day Robert sneaked over to see Truth, when Catton and his son found him, they savagely beat Robert until Dumont finally intervened, and Truth never saw Robert again. He later died some years later, perhaps as a result of the injuries, Truth eventually married an older slave named Thomas. She bore five children, James, her firstborn, who died in childhood, Diana, fathered by either Robert or John Dumont, and Peter, Elizabeth, and Sophia, all born after she and Thomas united. The state of New York began, in 1799, to legislate the abolition of slavery, Dumont had promised to grant Truth her freedom a year before the state emancipation, if she would do well and be faithful. However, he changed his mind, claiming an injury had made her less productive. She was infuriated but continued working, spinning 100 pounds of wool, late in 1826, Truth escaped to freedom with her infant daughter, Sophia. She had to leave her children behind because they were not legally freed in the emancipation order until they had served as bound servants into their twenties
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Carrie Chapman Catt
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Carrie Chapman Catt was an American womens suffrage leader who campaigned for the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which gave U. S. women the right to vote in 1920. Catt served as president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association and was the founder of the League of Women Voters, Catt was born Carrie Clinton Lane in Ripon, Wisconsin, the daughter of Maria Louisa and Lucius Lane. Catt spent her childhood in Charles City, Iowa and she moved to Iowa at the age of seven where she began school. As a child, Catt was interested in science and wanted to become a doctor, after graduating from high school, she enrolled at Iowa State Agricultural College in Ames, Iowa. Catts father was reluctant to allow her to attend college. To make ends meet, Catt worked as a dishwasher, in the school library, Catt’s freshman class consisted of 27 students, six of whom were female. Catt joined the Crescent Literary Society, a student organization aimed at advancing student learning skills, because only men were allowed to speak in meetings, Catt defied the rules and spoke up during a male debate. This started a discussion about women’s participation in the group, Catt was also a member of Pi Beta Phi, started an all girls debate club, and advocated for womens participation in military drill. After three years, Catt graduated on November 10,1880 with a Bachelor of Science degree and she was the valedictorian and only female in her graduating class. She worked as a law clerk after graduating then she became a teacher and then superintendent of schools in Mason City and she was the first female superintendent of the district. In February 1885, Carrie married newspaper editor Leo Chapman, but he died in California in August 1886 and she remained in San Francisco where she worked as the citys first female reporter. In 1890, she married George Catt, a wealthy engineer and he encouraged her being involved in suffrage. Their marriage allowed her to spend a part of each year on the road campaigning for womens suffrage. In 1887, Catt returned to Charles City, where she had grown up, from 1890 to 1892, Catt served as the Iowa association’s state organizer and groups recording secretary. During her time in office, Catt began working nationally for the National American Woman Suffrage Association, in 1892, Catt was asked by Susan B. Anthony to address Congress on the proposed suffrage amendment. Catt would go on to succeed Anthony as NAWSA president and she was elected president of NAWSA twice, her first term was from 1900 to 1904 and her second term was from 1915 to 1920. She resigned after her first term to care for her ailing husband and she would resume leadership of NAWSA in 1915, which had become badly divided under the leadership of Anna Howard Shaw
43.
Frances Perkins
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As a loyal supporter of her friend, Franklin D. Roosevelt, she helped pull the labor movement into the New Deal coalition. She and Interior Secretary Harold L. Ickes were the original members of the Roosevelt cabinet to remain in office for his entire presidency. With the Social Security Act she established unemployment benefits, pensions for the many uncovered elderly Americans and she pushed to reduce workplace accidents and helped craft laws against child labor. Through the Fair Labor Standards Act, she established the first minimum wage and overtime laws for American workers and she formed governmental policy for working with labor unions and helped to alleviate strikes by way of the United States Conciliation Service. Perkins dealt with many questions during World War II, when skilled manpower was vital. Perkins was born in Boston, Massachusetts, to Susan Bean Perkins and Frederick W. Perkins and she spent much of her childhood in Worcester, Massachusetts. She was christened Fannie Coralie Perkins, but she changed her name to Frances when she joined the Episcopal church in 1905, Perkins attended the Classical High School in Worcester. She graduated from Mount Holyoke College with a Bachelor of Arts degree in chemistry and she obtained a masters degree in political science from Columbia University in 1910. In the interim, she held a variety of teaching positions including a position teaching chemistry from 1904 to 1906 at Ferry Hall School, in Chicago, she volunteered at settlement houses, including Hull House. In 1918 she began her years of study in economics and sociology at the University of Pennsylvanias Wharton School and she achieved statewide prominence as head of the New York Consumers League in 1910 and lobbied with vigor for better working hours and conditions. Perkins also taught as a professor of sociology at Adelphi College, the next year, she witnessed the tragic Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire, a pivotal event in her life. It was because of this event that Frances Perkins would leave her office at the New York Consumers League, in 1913, Perkins married New York economist Paul Caldwell Wilson. She kept her name, defending her right to do so in court. The couple had a daughter, Susanna, both father and daughter were described by biographer Kirstin Downey as having manic-depressive symptoms. Wilson was frequently institutionalized for mental illness, Perkins was the sole support for her household. Prior to moving to Washington, DC, Perkins held various positions in New York State government and she had gained respect from the political leaders in the state of New York. In 1919 she was added to the Industrial Commission of the State of New York by Governor Alfred Smith, in 1929 the newly elected New York governor, Franklin Roosevelt, appointed Perkins as the inaugural Commissioner of the New York State Department of Labor. Having earned the co-operation and respect of political factions, Perkins ably helped put New York in the forefront of progressive reform
44.
Belva Ann Lockwood
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Belva Ann Bennett Lockwood was an American attorney, politician, educator, and author. She was active in working for womens rights, the press of her day referred to her as a suffragist, someone who believed in womens suffrage or voting rights. Lockwood overcame many social and personal obstacles related to gender restrictions, after college, she became a teacher and principal, working to equalize pay for women in education. She supported the movement for peace, and was a proponent of temperance. Lockwood graduated from law school in Washington, D. C. in 1879, she successfully petitioned Congress to be allowed to practice before the United States Supreme Court, becoming the first woman attorney given this privilege. Lockwood ran for president in 1884 and 1888 on the ticket of the National Equal Rights Party and was the first woman to appear on official ballots. She was born Belva Ann Bennett in Royalton, New York, daughter of Lewis Johnson Bennett, a farmer, the homestead where she was born stands in ruins at Royalton Ravine Park in Gasport, N. Y. Her aunts house where she spent some of her childhood still stands at 5070 Griswold Street, in front of this house is a memorial to her with a plaque that gives a brief biography of her life. By 14, she was teaching at the local elementary school. In 1848, when she was 18, she married Uriah McNall, McNall died of tuberculosis in 1853, three years after their daughter Lura was born. Left with no money, Lockwood quickly realized she needed an education to support herself. She attended Genesee Wesleyan Seminary to prepare for study at college, nonetheless, she was determined and persuaded the administration at Genesee College in Lima, New York to admit her. Lockwood graduated with honors in 1857 and soon became the headmistress of Lockport Union School and it was a responsible position, but Lockwood found that whether she was teaching or working as an administrator, she was paid half of what her male counterparts were making. It was during her studies at Genesee College that she first became attracted to the law, since a local law professor was offering private classes, she became one of his students. It made her want to learn more, for the next few years, Lockwood continued to teach and also work as the principal at several local schools for young women. She stayed at Lockport until 1861, then principal of the Gainesville Female Seminary, soon after, she was selected to head a girls seminary in Owego. Her educational philosophy was gradually changing after she met womens rights activist Susan B, Lockwood agreed with many of Anthonys ideas about societys restrictions on women. Anthony was concerned about the limited education girls received, courses at most girls schools chiefly prepared female students for domestic life and possibly for temporary work as teachers
