1.
Willem Janszoon
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Willem Janszoon, sometimes abbreviated to Willem Jansz. was a Dutch navigator and colonial governor. Janszoon served in the Netherlands East Indies in the periods 1603–11 and 1612–16 and he is the first European known to have seen the coast of Australia during his voyage of 1605–06. Willem Janszoon was born around 1570, but nothing is known of his early life, Van Neck, dispatched by the Dutch to the Dutch East Indies. On 5 May 1601, he sailed for the East Indies as master of the Lam. Janszoon sailed from the Netherlands for the East Indies for the time on 18 December 1603, as captain of the Duyfken. When the other ships left Java, Janszoon was sent to search for other outlets of trade, particularly in the land of New Guinea and other East. On 18 November 1605, the Duyfken sailed from Bantam to the coast of western New Guinea, after that, Janszoon crossed the eastern end of the Arafura Sea, without seeing the Torres Strait, into the Gulf of Carpentaria. On 26 February 1606, he made landfall at the Pennefather River on the shore of Cape York in Queensland. This is the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, Janszoon proceeded to chart some 320 km of the coastline, which he thought was a southerly extension of New Guinea. Finding the land swampy and the inhospitable, at Cape Keerweer, south of Albatross Bay, Willem Janszoon decided to return. He called the land he had discovered Nieu Zeland after the Dutch province of Zeeland, the Duyfken was actually in Torres Strait in March 1606, a few months before Luís Vaz de Torres sailed through it. In 1607 Cornelis Matelieff de Jonge sent him to Ambon and Banda, in 1611 Janszoon returned to the Netherlands believing that the south coast of New Guinea was joined to the land along which he sailed, and Dutch maps reproduced this error for many years. Janszoon reported that on 31 July 1618, he had landed on an island at 22° South with a length of 22 miles and 240 miles SSE of the Sunda Strait. Around 1617/18 he was back in the Netherlands and was appointed as a member of the Council of the Indies, in 1620 he was one of the negotiators with the English. In a combined fleet sailed to Manila to prevent Chinese merchants dealing with the Spanish. Janszoon became vice-admiral, and the later admiral. Near the end of his life, Janszoon served as governor of Banda and he returned to Batavia in June 1627 and soon afterwards, as admiral of a fleet of eight vessels, went on a diplomatic mission to India. On 4 December 1628, he sailed for Holland and on 16 July 1629 and he was now probably about sixty years old and ready to retire from his strenuous and successful career in the service of his country
Willem Janszoon
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19th-century artist impression of the ship
Duyfken in the
Gulf of Carpentaria
Willem Janszoon
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Hessel Willem Janszoon’s Vliege Bay, Dubbelde Rev., R. Visch, and Cape Keerweer on the coast of Nueva Guinea on Hessel Gerritszoon’s map of the Pacific Ocean, 1622.
2.
Jeremias Falck
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Jeremias Falck was an engraver of the 17th century Baroque, born and active in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. He signed his works as Falck Polonus or Falck Gedanensis, born probably around 1610 in Danzig, in the province of Polish Prussia, a part of Poland. Falck studied and worked with Wilhelm Hondius, in 1639 he moved to Paris, and in 1649 he became Royal Swedish engraver for Queen Christina in Sweden until 1654, when she became a Catholic. He then went to the Netherlands, where he engraved a portrait of Willem Blaeu, in 1662 in Hamburg he published 16 engravings of flowers and plants. He engraved the royals of the places he worked and he worked in Danzig. Jeremias brother Hans Falck was as Messerschmidt at Neugarten, Danzig, in 1650 Jeremias marriage in Danzig is recorded and later Hans and his Catharine were recorded as witnesses to the birth of Jeremias child. A letter by Jeremias Falck from 1658 stated. ich habe eine geraume Zeit sehr grosse Schmerzen im rechten Arm, many of Falcks engravings are based on portraits by Daniel Schultz and other painters. Falck lies buried in St. Peter and St. Pauls Church, the 1890 book with dedication by the great-grandson Herman Eugen Falk thanks a number of Polish writers who collected works by Falck. Of about three hundred portraits and pictures, which were inspected by J. C. Block for his book, nearly all works show J. Falck. But there are some that identify him as Swedish sculptor, when he was in salaried employment in Sweden, there are also listed about nine copper-etching Portrait Ovals mostly of Polish Bishops by Falck alone or with name, Dankert or Georg Förster. These nine metal ovals are mounted on rectangles and the rectangles are inscribed with Jeremias Falck Polonus,11, S. 213-214 AKL, Band 36,2003, S.339 Block, J. C. Jeremias Falck, sein Leben und seine Werke, mit vollständigem alphabetischen und chronologischen Register sämmtlicher Blätter, sowie Reproductionen nach des Künstlers besten Stichen, C
Jeremias Falck
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Arcus Gratiae et Pacis, triumphal gate with Atlas and Hercules, built in Gdańsk in honour of Queen
Marie Louise Gonzaga.
Jeremias Falck
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Portrait of Jeremias Falck, by Franciszek Orłowski, early 19th century
Jeremias Falck
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Proserpine la nuict, Queen Marie Louise Gonzaga as Proserpina.
Jeremias Falck
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Old woman at the mirror, reproduction of a painting by
Bernardo Strozzi.
3.
Seventeen Provinces
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The Seventeen Provinces was a term applied to the Imperial states of the Habsburg Netherlands in the 15th and 16th century. Also within this area were semi-independent fiefdoms, mainly ecclesiastical ones, such as Liège, Cambrai and Stavelot-Malmedy. The Seventeen Provinces arose from the Burgundian Netherlands, a number of fiefs held by the House of Valois-Burgundy and inherited by the Habsburg dynasty in 1482, since 1512 the Provinces formed the major part of the Burgundian Circle. In 1581 the Seven United Provinces seceded to form the Dutch Republic, sometimes one delegation was included in another. In later years the County of Zutphen became a part of the Duchy of Guelders, the Lordship of Drenthe is sometimes considered as part of the Lordship of Overijssel. On the other hand, the French-speaking cities of Flanders were sometimes recognised as a separate province, the largest of these was the Prince-Bishopric of Liège, the green area on the map, including the County of Horne. The ethnically and culturally Netherlandish duchies of Cleves and Julich did not join either, in the north, there were also a few smaller entities like the island of Ameland that would retain their own lords until the French Revolution. Historians came up with different variations of the list, but always with 17 members and this number could have been chosen because of its Christian connotation. The Seventeen Provinces originated from the Burgundian Netherlands, the dukes of Burgundy systematically became the lord of different provinces. Mary I of Valois, Duchess of Burgundy was the last of the House of Burgundy, most of these provinces were fiefs of the Holy Roman Empire. Two provinces, the County of Flanders and County of Artois, were originally French fiefs, the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 determined that the Provinces should remain united in the future and inherited by the same monarch. Therefore, Charles V introduced the title of Heer der Nederlanden, only he and his son could ever use this title. After Charles Vs abdication in 1555, his realms were divided between his son, Philip II of Habsburg, King of Spain, and his brother, Ferdinand I, the Seventeen Provinces went to his son, the king of Spain. Conflicts between Philip II and his Dutch subjects led to the Eighty Years War, which started in 1568, the seven northern provinces gained their independence as a republic called the Seven United Provinces. Hence, these became known as the Spanish Netherlands or Southern Netherlands. The northern Seven United Provinces kept parts of Limburg, Brabant, and Flanders during the Eighty Years War, Artois and parts of Flanders and Hainaut were ceded to France in the course of the 17th and 18th century. Bruges had already lost its prominent position as economic powerhouse of northern Europe, and Holland was gradually gaining importance in the 15th and 16th centuries. The center of prosperity moved from cities in the such as Bruges, Antwerp, Ghent, and Brussels to cities in the north, mostly Holland, including Amsterdam, The Hague
Seventeen Provinces
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Flag
4.
Amsterdam
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Amsterdam is the capital and most populous municipality of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Its status as the capital is mandated by the Constitution of the Netherlands, although it is not the seat of the government, which is The Hague. Amsterdam has a population of 851,373 within the city proper,1,351,587 in the urban area, the city is located in the province of North Holland in the west of the country. The metropolitan area comprises much of the part of the Randstad, one of the larger conurbations in Europe. Amsterdams name derives from Amstelredamme, indicative of the citys origin around a dam in the river Amstel, during that time, the city was the leading centre for finance and diamonds. In the 19th and 20th centuries the city expanded, and many new neighborhoods and suburbs were planned, the 17th-century canals of Amsterdam and the 19–20th century Defence Line of Amsterdam are on the UNESCO World Heritage List. As the commercial capital of the Netherlands and one of the top financial centres in Europe, Amsterdam is considered a world city by the Globalization. The city is also the capital of the Netherlands. Many large Dutch institutions have their headquarters there, and seven of the worlds 500 largest companies, including Philips and ING, are based in the city. In 2012, Amsterdam was ranked the second best city to live in by the Economist Intelligence Unit and 12th globally on quality of living for environment, the city was ranked 3rd in innovation by Australian innovation agency 2thinknow in their Innovation Cities Index 2009. The Amsterdam seaport to this day remains the second in the country, famous Amsterdam residents include the diarist Anne Frank, artists Rembrandt van Rijn and Vincent van Gogh, and philosopher Baruch Spinoza. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange, the oldest stock exchange in the world, is located in the city center. After the floods of 1170 and 1173, locals near the river Amstel built a bridge over the river, the earliest recorded use of that name is in a document dated October 27,1275, which exempted inhabitants of the village from paying bridge tolls to Count Floris V. This allowed the inhabitants of the village of Aemstelredamme to travel freely through the County of Holland, paying no tolls at bridges, locks, the certificate describes the inhabitants as homines manentes apud Amestelledamme. By 1327, the name had developed into Aemsterdam, Amsterdam is much younger than Dutch cities such as Nijmegen, Rotterdam, and Utrecht. In October 2008, historical geographer Chris de Bont suggested that the land around Amsterdam was being reclaimed as early as the late 10th century. This does not necessarily mean there was already a settlement then, since reclamation of land may not have been for farming—it may have been for peat. Amsterdam was granted city rights in either 1300 or 1306, from the 14th century on, Amsterdam flourished, largely from trade with the Hanseatic League
Amsterdam
Amsterdam
Amsterdam
Amsterdam
5.
Dutch Republic
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It preceded the Batavian Republic, the Kingdom of Holland, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, and ultimately the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands. Alternative names include the United Provinces, Seven Provinces, Federated Dutch Provinces, most of the Low Countries had come under the rule of the House of Burgundy and subsequently the House of Habsburg. In 1549 Holy Roman Emperor Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction, Charles was succeeded by his son, King Philip II of Spain. This was the start of the Eighty Years War, in 1579 a number of the northern provinces of the Low Countries signed the Union of Utrecht, in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. This was followed in 1581 by the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence of the provinces from Philip II. In 1582 the United Provinces invited Francis, Duke of Anjou to lead them, but after an attempt to take Antwerp in 1583. After the assassination of William of Orange, both Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England declined the offer of sovereignty, however, the latter agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England, and sent the Earl of Leicester as governor-general. This was unsuccessful and in 1588 the provinces became a confederacy, the Union of Utrecht is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by the Spanish Empire until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the Anglo-French war, the territory was divided into groups, the Patriots, who were pro-French and pro-American and the Orangists. The Republic of the United Provinces faced a series of revolutions in 1783–1787. During this period, republican forces occupied several major Dutch cities, initially on the defence, the Orangist forces received aid from Prussian troops and retook the Netherlands in 1787. After the French Republic became the French Empire under Napoleon, the Batavian Republic was replaced by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland, the Netherlands regained independence from France in 1813. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 the names United Provinces of the Netherlands, on 16 March 1815, the son of stadtholder William V crowned himself King William I of the Netherlands. Between 1815 and 1890 the King of the Netherlands was also in a union the Grand Duke of the sovereign Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. After Belgium gained its independence in 1830, the state became known as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The County of Holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world, the free trade spirit of the time received a strong augmentation through the development of a modern, effective stock market in the Low Countries. The Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange in the world, founded in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company, while Rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the Netherlands, the worlds first stock exchange, that of the Dutch East-India Company, went public in six different cities. Later, a court ruled that the company had to reside legally in a city so Amsterdam is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern trading principles
Dutch Republic
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Dutch East-India trading ship 1600
Dutch Republic
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Flag
Dutch Republic
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Onrust Island near
Batavia, 1699
Dutch Republic
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Courtyard of the Amsterdam Stock Exchange, 1653
6.
Cartographer
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Cartography is the study and practice of making maps. Combining science, aesthetics, and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively, the fundamental problems of traditional cartography are to, Set the maps agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. This is the concern of map editing, traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as toponyms or political boundaries. Represent the terrain of the object on flat media. This is the concern of map projections, eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the maps purpose. This is the concern of generalization, reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern of generalization, orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is the concern of map design, modern cartography constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of geographic information systems. The earliest known map is a matter of debate, both because the term map isnt well-defined and because some artifacts that might be maps might actually be something else. A wall painting that might depict the ancient Anatolian city of Çatalhöyük has been dated to the late 7th millennium BCE, the oldest surviving world maps are from 9th century BCE Babylonia. One shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by Assyria, Urartu and several cities, all, in turn, another depicts Babylon as being north of the world center. The ancient Greeks and Romans created maps since Anaximander in the 6th century BCE, in the 2nd century AD, Ptolemy wrote his treatise on cartography, Geographia. This contained Ptolemys world map – the world known to Western society. As early as the 8th century, Arab scholars were translating the works of the Greek geographers into Arabic, in ancient China, geographical literature dates to the 5th century BCE. The oldest extant Chinese maps come from the State of Qin, dated back to the 4th century BCE, in the book of the Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, published in 1092 by the Chinese scientist Su Song, a star map on the equidistant cylindrical projection. Early forms of cartography of India included depictions of the pole star and these charts may have been used for navigation. Mappa mundi are the Medieval European maps of the world, approximately 1,100 mappae mundi are known to have survived from the Middle Ages. Of these, some 900 are found illustrating manuscripts and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents, the Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi produced his medieval atlas Tabula Rogeriana in 1154
Cartographer
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A medieval depiction of the
Ecumene (1482, Johannes Schnitzer, engraver), constructed after the coordinates in Ptolemy's
Geography and using his second map projection. The translation into Latin and dissemination of Geography in Europe, in the beginning of the 15th century, marked the rebirth of scientific cartography, after more than a millennium of stagnation.
Cartographer
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Valcamonica rock art (I), Paspardo r. 29, topographic composition, 4th millennium BC
Cartographer
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The
Bedolina Map and its tracing, 6th–4th century BC
Cartographer
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Copy (1472) of
St. Isidore's TO map of the world.
7.
Atlas (cartography)
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An atlas is a collection of maps, it is typically a map of Earth or a region of Earth, but there are atlases of the other planets in the Solar System. Furthermore, atlases of anatomy exist, mapping out the body or other organisms. Atlases have traditionally been bound into book form, but today many atlases are in multimedia formats, in addition to presenting geographic features and political boundaries, many atlases often feature geopolitical, social, religious and economic statistics. They also have information about the map and places in it, the use of the word atlas in a geographical context dates from 1595 when the geographer Gerardus Mercator published Atlas Sive Cosmographicae Meditationes de Fabrica Mundi et Fabricati Figura. This title provides Mercators definition of the word as a description of the creation and form of the whole universe, nonetheless, this distinction is conventionally awarded to the Flemish cartographer Abraham Ortelius who in 1570 published the collection of maps Theatrum Orbis Terrarum. A travel atlas is made for use during travel. It has maps at a large zoom so the maps can be reviewed easily, a travel atlas may also be referred to as a road map. A desk atlas is made similar to a reference book and it may be in hardback or paperback form. With the coming of the market, publishers in different countries can reprint maps from places made elsewhere. This means that the names on the maps often use the designations or abbreviations of the language of the country in which the feature is located. For example, islands near Russia have the abbreviation O. for ostrov and this practice differs from what is standard for any given language, and it reaches its extremity concerning transliterations from other languages. In particular, German mapmakers use the transliterations from Cyrillic developed by the Czechs, national Geographic MapMachine History of atlases Atlases, at the US Library of Congress site - a discussion of many significant atlases, with some illustrations. Part of Geography and Maps, an Illustrated Guide, Historical atlases online Centennia Historical Atlas required reading at the US Naval Academy for over a decade. Manuscript Atlases held by the University of Pennsylvania Libraries - fully digitized with descriptions, Historical Altas in Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection, Cornell University Library Other links Google Earth, a visual 3D interactive atlas. Wikimapia a wikiproject designed to describe the entire world
Atlas (cartography)
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Imperii Orientalis et Circumjacentium Regionum by
Guillaume Delisle (1742)
Atlas (cartography)
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World Atlas published by
Miroslav Krleža Institute of Lexicography, Croatia
8.
Publisher
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Publishing is the dissemination of literature, music, or information—the activity of making information available to the general public. In some cases, authors may be their own publishers, meaning originators and developers of content also provide media to deliver, also, the word publisher can refer to the individual who leads a publishing company or an imprint or to a person who owns/heads a magazine. Traditionally, the term refers to the distribution of printed works such as books, Publishing includes the following stages of development, acquisition, copy editing, production, printing, and marketing and distribution. There are two categories of book publisher, Non-paid publishers, A non-paid publisher is a house that does not charge authors at all to publish their books. Paid publishers, The author has to meet with the expense to get the book published. This is also known as vanity publishing, at a small press, it is possible to survive by relying entirely on commissioned material. But as activity increases, the need for works may outstrip the publishers established circle of writers, for works written independently of the publisher, writers often first submit a query letter or proposal directly to a literary agent or to a publisher. Submissions sent directly to a publisher are referred to as unsolicited submissions, the acquisitions editors send their choices to the editorial staff. Unsolicited submissions have a low rate of acceptance, with some sources estimating that publishers ultimately choose about three out of every ten thousand unsolicited manuscripts they receive. Many book publishers around the world maintain a strict no unsolicited submissions policy and this policy shifts the burden of assessing and developing writers out of the publisher and onto the literary agents. At these publishers, unsolicited manuscripts are thrown out, or sometimes returned, established authors may be represented by a literary agent to market their work to publishers and negotiate contracts. Literary agents take a percentage of earnings to pay for their services. Some writers follow a route to publication. Such books often employ the services of a ghostwriter, for a submission to reach publication, it must be championed by an editor or publisher who must work to convince other staff of the need to publish a particular title. An editor who discovers or champions a book that becomes a best-seller may find their reputation enhanced as a result of their success. Once a work is accepted, commissioning editors negotiate the purchase of property rights. The authors of traditional printed materials typically sell exclusive territorial intellectual property rights that match the list of countries in which distribution is proposed. In the case of books, the publisher and writer must also agree on the formats of publication —mass-market paperback
Publisher
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Printer working an early
Gutenberg letter press from the 15th century. (engraving date unknown)
Publisher
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World Intellectual Property Organization,
Geneva
9.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
Netherlands
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The Netherlands in 5500 BC
Netherlands
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Flag
Netherlands
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The Netherlands in 500 BC
Netherlands
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An oak figurine found in
Willemstad, North Brabant (4500 BC).
10.
Uitgeest
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Uitgeest is a municipality and a town in the Netherlands, in the province of North Holland. The municipality of Uitgeest consists of the cities, towns, villages and/or districts, Assum, Busch en Dam. Uitgeest was the birthplace of Cornelis Corneliszoon, inventor of the wind-powered sawmill, an industrial heritage park, centered on sawmill De Hoop, is under construction. The village has a Reformed church dating back to the early 14th Century, the outdoor kart-racing track of 670m had to make room for development of houses, so one tourist attraction has been lost. Fort along Den Ham was one of the 42 forts of the Stelling van Amsterdam, the fort is now a museum open to the public on Sundays. Railway station, Uitgeest Uitgeest is served by 4 trains per hour and it is recommended not to travel on the Stoptrein via Beverwijk and Haarlem as this journey is slower, and the journey via Zaandam passes through beautiful countryside. Highway Uitgeest is very close to the Highways N8/A8 and A9 and this will take you to Amsterdam in around 15 minutes. Recently the A9 highway has been improved by adding two lanes, improving the traffic to and from the Amsterdam region, peter Smit -childrens writer Media related to Uitgeest at Wikimedia Commons Official website
Uitgeest
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Windmill Tweede Broekermolen in Uitgeest
Uitgeest
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Uitgeest
11.
Alkmaar
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Alkmaar is a municipality and a city in the Netherlands, in the province of North Holland. Alkmaar is well known for its cheese market. For tourists, it is a cultural destination. The earliest mention of the name Alkmaar is in a 10th-century document, as the village grew into a town, it was granted city rights in 1254. The oldest part of Alkmaar lies on an ancient sand bank that afforded protection from inundation during medieval times. Even so, it is only a couple of metres above the surrounding region, in 1573 the city underwent a siege by Spanish forces under the leadership of Don Fadrique, son of the Duke of Alva. Some of his dispatches fell into the hands of Don Fadrique, and, with the beginning to rise. It was a point in the Eighty Years War and gave rise to the expression Bij Alkmaar begint de victorie. The event is celebrated every year in Alkmaar on 8 October. In 1799, during the French revolutionary wars, an Anglo-Russian expeditionary force captured the city but was defeated in the Battle of Castricum. The French victory was commemorated on the Arc de Triomphe in Paris as Alkmaer, the North Holland Canal, opened in 1824, was dug through Alkmaar. In 1865 and 1867 the railways between Alkmaar and Den Helder and between Alkmaar and Haarlem were built respectively, in the second half of the 20th century, Alkmaar expanded quickly with development of new neighbourhoods. On 1 October 1972, the town of Oudorp and the portions of Koedijk. The municipality of Alkmaar consists of the cities, towns, villages and/or districts, Alkmaar, Koedijk, Overdie, Oudorp. These once separate villages are now all linked together by the suburban sprawl of buildings that arose between the late 1970s and early 1990s, during this time, the population of Alkmaar almost doubled. On 1 January 2015 the municipalities of Graft-De Rijp and Schermer were merged into Alkmaar, there are direct trains to Den Helder, Hoorn, Zaandam, Amsterdam, Utrecht, Ede, Arnhem, Nijmegen, s-Hertogenbosch, Eindhoven, Maastricht and Haarlem. For exact details see Alkmaar railway station, Alkmaar has two railway stations, Alkmaar Alkmaar Noord The waterway Noordhollandsch Kanaal, which opened in 1824, runs through Alkmaar. Alkmaar has many buildings that are still intact, most notably the tall tower of the Grote of Sint-Laurenskerk
Alkmaar
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Accijnstoren in Alkmaar
Alkmaar
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Battle of Alkmaar 1573.
Alkmaar
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Canal and bridge
Alkmaar
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Cheese market
12.
Herring
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Herring are forage fish, mostly belonging to the family Clupeidae. Herring often move in schools around fishing banks and near the coast. Three species of Clupea are recognised, and provide about 90% of all captured in fisheries. Most abundant of all is the Atlantic herring, providing half of all herring capture. Fishes called herring are found in India, in the Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean. Herring played a role in the history of marine fisheries in Europe. These oily fish also have a history as an important food fish. A number of different species, most belonging to the family Clupeidae, are referred to as herrings. The origins of the herring is somewhat unclear, though it may derive from the Old High German heri meaning a host, multitude. The type genus of the herring family Clupeidae is Clupea, Clupea contains three species, the Atlantic herring found in the north Atlantic, the Pacific herring found in the north Pacific, and the Araucanian herring found off the coast of Chile. Subspecific divisions have been suggested for both the Atlantic and Pacific herrings, but their biological basis remain unclear, in addition, a number of related species, all in the family Clupeidae, are commonly referred to as herrings. The table immediately below includes those members of the Clupeidae family referred to by FishBase as herrings which have been assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. There are also a number of other species called herrings, which may be related to clupeids or just share some characteristics of herrings. Just which of these species are called herrings can vary with locality, some examples, The species of Clupea belong to the larger family Clupeidae, which comprises some 200 species that share similar features. These silvery-coloured fish have a dorsal fin, which is soft. They have no lateral line and have a lower jaw. At least one stock of Atlantic herring spawns in every month of the year, each spawns at a different time and place. Greenland populations spawn in 0–5 metres of water while North Sea herrings spawn at up to 200 metres in autumn
Herring
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The
Atlantic herring, Clupea harengus
Herring
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Global commercial capture of herrings in million tonnes reported by the
FAO 1950–2010
Herring
Herring
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Clupea pallasii, the Pacific herring
13.
Mathematics
–
Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
Mathematics
–
Euclid (holding
calipers), Greek mathematician, 3rd century BC, as imagined by
Raphael in this detail from
The School of Athens.
Mathematics
–
Greek mathematician
Pythagoras (c. 570 – c. 495 BC), commonly credited with discovering the
Pythagorean theorem
Mathematics
–
Leonardo Fibonacci, the
Italian mathematician who established the Hindu–Arabic numeral system to the Western World
Mathematics
–
Carl Friedrich Gauss, known as the prince of mathematicians
14.
Astronomy
–
Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It applies mathematics, physics, and chemistry, in an effort to explain the origin of those objects and phenomena and their evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, galaxies, and comets, while the phenomena include supernovae explosions, gamma ray bursts, more generally, all astronomical phenomena that originate outside Earths atmosphere are within the purview of astronomy. A related but distinct subject, physical cosmology, is concerned with the study of the Universe as a whole, Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences. The early civilizations in recorded history, such as the Babylonians, Greeks, Indians, Egyptians, Nubians, Iranians, Chinese, during the 20th century, the field of professional astronomy split into observational and theoretical branches. Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects, theoretical astronomy is oriented toward the development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. The two fields complement each other, with theoretical astronomy seeking to explain the results and observations being used to confirm theoretical results. Astronomy is one of the few sciences where amateurs can play an active role, especially in the discovery. Amateur astronomers have made and contributed to many important astronomical discoveries, Astronomy means law of the stars. Astronomy should not be confused with astrology, the system which claims that human affairs are correlated with the positions of celestial objects. Although the two share a common origin, they are now entirely distinct. Generally, either the term astronomy or astrophysics may be used to refer to this subject, however, since most modern astronomical research deals with subjects related to physics, modern astronomy could actually be called astrophysics. Few fields, such as astrometry, are purely astronomy rather than also astrophysics, some titles of the leading scientific journals in this field includeThe Astronomical Journal, The Astrophysical Journal and Astronomy and Astrophysics. In early times, astronomy only comprised the observation and predictions of the motions of objects visible to the naked eye, in some locations, early cultures assembled massive artifacts that possibly had some astronomical purpose. Before tools such as the telescope were invented, early study of the stars was conducted using the naked eye, most of early astronomy actually consisted of mapping the positions of the stars and planets, a science now referred to as astrometry. From these observations, early ideas about the motions of the planets were formed, and the nature of the Sun, Moon, the Earth was believed to be the center of the Universe with the Sun, the Moon and the stars rotating around it. This is known as the model of the Universe, or the Ptolemaic system. The Babylonians discovered that lunar eclipses recurred in a cycle known as a saros
Astronomy
–
A
star -forming region in the
Large Magellanic Cloud, an
irregular galaxy.
Astronomy
–
A giant
Hubble mosaic of the
Crab Nebula, a
supernova remnant
Astronomy
–
19th century
Sydney Observatory,
Australia (1873)
Astronomy
–
19th century
Quito Astronomical Observatory is located 12 minutes south of the
Equator in
Quito,
Ecuador.
15.
Denmark
–
Denmark, officially the Kingdom of Denmark, is a Scandinavian country in Europe and a sovereign state. The southernmost and smallest of the Nordic countries, it is south-west of Sweden and south of Norway, Denmark also comprises two autonomous constituent countries in the North Atlantic Ocean, the Faroe Islands and Greenland. Denmark has an area of 42,924 square kilometres. The country consists of a peninsula, Jutland, and an archipelago of 443 named islands, with the largest being Zealand, the islands are characterised by flat, arable land and sandy coasts, low elevation and a temperate climate. The unified kingdom of Denmark emerged in the 10th century as a proficient seafaring nation in the struggle for control of the Baltic Sea, Denmark, Sweden and Norway were ruled together under the Kalmar Union, established in 1397 and ending with Swedish secession in 1523. Denmark and Norway remained under the monarch until outside forces dissolved the union in 1814. The union with Norway made it possible for Denmark to inherit the Faroe Islands, Iceland, beginning in the 17th century, there were several cessions of territory to Sweden. In the 19th century there was a surge of nationalist movements, Denmark remained neutral during World War I. In April 1940, a German invasion saw brief military skirmishes while the Danish resistance movement was active from 1943 until the German surrender in May 1945, the Constitution of Denmark was signed on 5 June 1849, ending the absolute monarchy which had begun in 1660. It establishes a constitutional monarchy organised as a parliamentary democracy, the government and national parliament are seated in Copenhagen, the nations capital, largest city and main commercial centre. Denmark exercises hegemonic influence in the Danish Realm, devolving powers to handle internal affairs, Home rule was established in the Faroe Islands in 1948, in Greenland home rule was established in 1979 and further autonomy in 2009. Denmark became a member of the European Economic Community in 1973, maintaining certain opt-outs, it retains its own currency, the krone. It is among the members of NATO, the Nordic Council, the OECD, OSCE. The etymology of the word Denmark, and especially the relationship between Danes and Denmark and the unifying of Denmark as a kingdom, is a subject which attracts debate. This is centred primarily on the prefix Dan and whether it refers to the Dani or a historical person Dan and the exact meaning of the -mark ending. Most handbooks derive the first part of the word, and the name of the people, from a word meaning land, related to German Tenne threshing floor. The -mark is believed to mean woodland or borderland, with references to the border forests in south Schleswig. The first recorded use of the word Danmark within Denmark itself is found on the two Jelling stones, which are believed to have been erected by Gorm the Old and Harald Bluetooth
Denmark
–
The gilded side of the
Trundholm sun chariot dating from the Nordic Bronze Age.
Denmark
–
Flag
Denmark
–
The
Ladby ship, the largest ship burial found in Denmark.
Denmark
–
Larger of the two Jelling stones, raised by
Harald Bluetooth.
16.
Astronomer
–
An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who concentrates their studies on a specific question or field outside of the scope of Earth. They look at stars, planets, moons, comets and galaxies, as well as other celestial objects — either in observational astronomy. Examples of topics or fields astronomers work on include, planetary science, solar astronomy, there are also related but distinct subjects like physical cosmology which studies the Universe as a whole. Astronomers usually fit into two types, Observational astronomers make direct observations of planets, stars and galaxies, and analyze the data, theoretical astronomers create and investigate models of things that cannot be observed. They use this data to create models or simulations to theorize how different celestial bodies work, there are further subcategories inside these two main branches of astronomy such as planetary astronomy, galactic astronomy or physical cosmology. Today, that distinction has disappeared and the terms astronomer. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a Ph. D. in physics or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities. They spend the majority of their time working on research, although quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments. The number of astronomers in the United States is actually quite small. The American Astronomical Society, which is the organization of professional astronomers in North America, has approximately 7,000 members. This number includes scientists from other such as physics, geology. The International Astronomical Union comprises almost 10,145 members from 70 different countries who are involved in research at the Ph. D. level. Before CCDs, photographic plates were a method of observation. Modern astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes usually just a few weeks per year, analysis of observed phenomena, along with making predictions as to the causes of what they observe, takes the majority of observational astronomers time. Astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes, most universities also have outreach programs including public telescope time and sometimes planetariums as a public service to encourage interest in the field. Those who become astronomers usually have a background in maths, sciences. Taking courses that teach how to research, write and present papers are also invaluable, in college/university most astronomers get a Ph. D. in astronomy or physics. Keeping in mind how few there are it is understood that graduate schools in this field are very competitive
Astronomer
–
The Astronomer by
Johannes Vermeer
Astronomer
–
Galileo is often referred to as the Father of
modern astronomy
Astronomer
–
Guy Consolmagno (Vatikan observatory), analyzing a meteorite, 2014
Astronomer
–
Emily Lakdawalla at the Planetary Conference 2013
17.
Tycho Brahe
–
Tycho Brahe, born Tyge Ottesen Brahe, was a Danish nobleman known for his accurate and comprehensive astronomical and planetary observations. He was born in the then Danish peninsula of Scania, well known in his lifetime as an astronomer, astrologer and alchemist, he has been described as the first competent mind in modern astronomy to feel ardently the passion for exact empirical facts. His observations were some five times more accurate than the best available observations at the time, an heir to several of Denmarks principal noble families, he received a comprehensive education. He took an interest in astronomy and in the creation of more instruments of measurement. His system correctly saw the Moon as orbiting Earth, and the planets as orbiting the Sun, furthermore, he was the last of the major naked eye astronomers, working without telescopes for his observations. In his De nova stella of 1573, he refuted the Aristotelian belief in a celestial realm. Using similar measurements he showed that comets were also not atmospheric phenomena, as previously thought, on the island he founded manufactories, such as a paper mill, to provide material for printing his results. He built an observatory at Benátky nad Jizerou, there, from 1600 until his death in 1601, he was assisted by Johannes Kepler, who later used Tychos astronomical data to develop his three laws of planetary motion. Tychos body has been exhumed twice, in 1901 and 2010, to examine the circumstances of his death, both of his grandfathers and all of his great grandfathers had served as members of the Danish kings Privy Council. His paternal grandfather and namesake Thyge Brahe was the lord of Tosterup Castle in Scania, Tychos father Otte Brahe, like his father a royal Privy Councilor, married Beate Bille, who was herself a powerful figure at the Danish court holding several royal land titles. Both parents are buried under the floor of Kågeröd Church, four kilometres east of Knutstorp, Tycho was born at his familys ancestral seat of Knutstorp Castle, about eight kilometres north of Svalöv in then Danish Scania. He was the oldest of 12 siblngs,8 of whom lived to adulthood and his twin brother died before being baptized. Tycho later wrote an ode in Latin to his dead twin, an epitaph, originally from Knutstorp, but now on a plaque near the church door, shows the whole family, including Tycho as a boy. When he was two years old Tycho was taken away to be raised by his uncle Jørgen Thygesen Brahe. It is unclear why the Otte Brahe reached this arrangement with his brother, Tycho later wrote that Jørgen Brahe raised me and generously provided for me during his life until my eighteenth year, he always treated me as his own son and made me his heir. From ages 6 to 12, Tycho attended Latin school, probably in Nykøbing, at age 12, on 19 April 1559, Tycho began studies at the University of Copenhagen. There, following his uncles wishes, he studied law, but also studied a variety of other subjects, at the University, Aristotle was a staple of scientific theory, and Tycho likely received a thorough training in Aristotelian physics and cosmology. He experienced the solar eclipse of 21 August 1560, and was impressed by the fact that it had been predicted
Tycho Brahe
–
Brahe wearing the
Order of the Elephant
Tycho Brahe
–
Portrait of Tycho Brahe (1596)
Skokloster Castle
Tycho Brahe
–
An artificial nose of the kind Tycho wore. This particular example did not belong to Tycho.
Tycho Brahe
–
Tycho Brahe's grave in Prague, new tomb stone from 1901
18.
Globe
–
GLOBE is the Global Legislators Organisation for a Balanced Environment, founded in 1989. GLOBEs objective is to political leadership on issues of climate and energy security, land-use change. Internationally, GLOBE is focused on leadership from G20 leaders and the leaders of the economies as well as formal negotiations within the United Nations. GLOBE shadows the formal G8 negotiations and allows legislators to work together outside the international negotiations. Without the burden of formal governmental negotiating positions, legislators have the freedom to push the boundaries of what can be politically achieved, also, GLOBE facilitates regional policy dialogues amongst legislators. GLOBE believes that legislators have a role to play in holding their own governments to account for the commitments that are made during international negotiations. Presidential candidates addressed the GLOBE Forum in Tokyo on 28 June 2008, during COP15 in Copenhagen in December 2009, UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown presented Mexican President Calderon with the GLOBE Award for International Leadership on the Environment. GLOBE has legislative members in all of the 16 major economies that have national GLOBE chapters, at a regional level, they also have members in all European Member states and within several African and Latin American countries. GLOBE International supports two International Commissions on Climate and Energy Security, and Land Use Change and Ecosystems, gLOBE’s International Commission on Climate & Energy Security was launched in the US Congress in Washington DC on 30 March 2009. This Commission comprises senior legislators from each of the major economies, the Commission met for two days under the Chairmanship of US Congressman Ed Markey and Lord Michael Jay of the UK House of Lords. The Commission was launched with the support of the Danish Prime Minister, the UK Prime Minister and the Italian G8 Presidency. The aim of the Commission was to produce a report to the GLOBE Copenhagen Forum in October 2009, and to present its conclusions to the Danish Prime Minister. GLOBE national chapters advanced these recommendations, the commissions report was adopted by the GLOBE Copenhagen Legislators Forum and submitted to the UNFCCC and leaders of the major economies ahead of COP15. GLOBE’s International Commission on Land Use Change and Ecosystems was initially announced in June 2008 by the British Foreign Secretary, hon MP, and the Chief Scientist to the Japanese Cabinet, Dr Kiyoshi Kurokawa, and formally supported by the G8+5 Legislators Forum of one hundred senior legislators. With the support of the Global Environment Facility and the United Nations Environment Program, extensive land use change and ecosystem transformation have contributed considerably to economic development. However, these gains have also created barriers to achieving the Millennium Development Goals, the International Commission on Land Use Change & Ecosystems has three main work streams, Forest policy, Marine environment policy and Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Policy. These policy proposals were endorsed by the GLOBE Copenhagen Forum in October 2009, the International Commission aims to coordinate simultaneous parliamentary debates on the marine environment in the major economies of the world on World Oceans Day,8 June 2010. At this meeting, the International Commission developed a “Marine Ecosystem Recovery Plan”, GLOBE International concludes each Forum with a consensus statement agreed by all the legislators attending, which is submitted to leaders of the major economies
Globe
19.
Variable star
–
For the astronomical object, see Variable star. Variable Star is a 2006 novel written by Spider Robinson based on the seven pages of an eight-page 1955 novel outline by the late Robert A. Heinlein. The book is set in a divergent offshoot of Heinleins Future History and contains references to works by Heinlein. It describes the coming of age of a musician who signs on to the crew of a starship as a way of escaping from a failed romance. Robinson posted a note on his website in 2009 noting that his agent had sold a trilogy of sequels based on the novel, Robinson states in an appendix to the book that he was working from an outline that lacked an ending. He was told by his publisher that they wanted him to write in his own style, not Heinleins, Heinleins original title for Variable Star was The Stars are a Clock. Eighteen-year-old aspiring musician and composer Joel Johnston, a Ganymedean on Earth for his education, both are orphans, and virtually penniless. When Jinny decides their relationship is ready for marriage, she reveals that she is actually Jinnia Conrad, Joel learns that Conrad has already mapped out his future, he is to be groomed for a role in the family business and to produce children to continue the dynasty. Preferring to pursue his own destiny, he flees the Conrad estate with the help of Jinnys cousin, to escape the Conrads and their vast reach, Joel joins the crew of the RSS Charles Sheffield. The ship is headed to a distant star on a 20-year voyage to establish a colony, with experience from his family farm, Joel works as a farmer for the ships crew of 500 and as a part-time musician. He regularly corresponds with Evelyn through the twins on board who maintain contact with Earth via telepathy with their siblings, six relativists are essential to the voyage, controlling the ships quantum ramjet drive with their minds. The drive has to run continuously, at speeds, it is nearly impossible to restart it. Each relativist can only stand the strain reliably for six hours a day, five years into the voyage, one is killed and another mentally incapacitated, leaving only four and no margin for error. The next year, the Sheffield learns through its telepaths that the Sun has gone nova, a wavefront of deadly gamma radiation is expanding at lightspeed, threatening the colonies that are all that is left of humanity. The crew is able to warn one in time, the rest are doomed. The Sun going nova is contrary to all theories, and because over 90% of the suns mass was converted into energy. Unable to bear the catastrophe, one of the relativists commits suicide, despite the other threes efforts, the quantum ramjet drive soon shuts down. The Sheffield will not be able to stop, it will coast by its destination at 97. 6% of the speed of light
Variable star
–
Variable Star
Variable star
20.
P Cygni
–
P Cygni is a variable star in the constellation Cygnus. The designation P was originally assigned by Johann Bayer in Uranometria as a nova, located about 5000 to 6000 light-years from Earth, it is a hypergiant luminous blue variable star of spectral type B1Ia+ that is one of the most luminous stars in the Milky Way. The star is located about 5000 to 6000 light-years from Earth, despite this vast distance, it is visible to the naked eye in suitable dark sky locations. It was unknown until the end of the 16th century, when it brightened to 3rd magnitude. It was first observed on 18 August 1600 by Willem Janszoon Blaeu, bayers atlas of 1603 assigned it the miscellaneous label P and the name has stuck ever since. After six years the star faded slowly, dropping below naked-eye visibility in 1626 and it brightened again in 1655, but had faded by 1662. Another outburst took place in 1665, this was followed by numerous fluctuations, since 1715 P Cygni has been a fifth magnitude star, with only minor fluctuations in brightness. Today it has a magnitude of 4.8, irregularly variable by a few hundredths of a magnitude on a scale of days, the visual brightness is increasing by about 0.15 magnitude per century, attributed to a slow decrease in temperature at constant luminosity. P Cygni is widely considered to be the earliest known example of a luminous blue variable, however it is far from a typical example. P Cygni does show evidence for previous large eruptions around 900,2,100, luminous blue variables like P Cygni are very rare and short lived, and only form in regions of galaxies where intense star formation is happening. LBV stars are so massive and energetic that they exhaust their fuel very quickly. After shining for only a few years they erupt in a supernova. The recent supernova SN 2006gy was likely the end of an LBV star similar to P Cygni, P Cygni is thought to be in the hydrogen shell burning phase immediately after leaving the main sequence. It has been identified as a possible type IIb supernova candidate in modelling of the fate of stars 20 to 25 times the mass of the Sun and these profiles are useful in the study of stellar winds in many types of stars. They are often cited as an indicator of a luminous blue variable star, the size of the stellar wind H-alpha emission region is 5.64 +/-0.21 milli-arcseconds. At the estimated distance of 1,700 parsecs this is a size of approximately 26 stellar radii. Infall of matter into the star would produce the release of gravitational energy. Spectrum AAVSO Variable Star of the Month
P Cygni
–
P Cygni's characteristic and eponymous line profile for
H-α
21.
Holland
–
Holland is a region and former province on the western coast of the Netherlands. The name Holland is also used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. From the 10th to the 16th century, Holland proper was a political region within the Holy Roman Empire as a county ruled by the Counts of Holland. By the 17th century, Holland had risen to become a maritime and economic power, the name Holland first appeared in sources in 866 for the region around Haarlem, and by 1064 was being used as the name of the entire county. By this time, the inhabitants of Holland were referring to themselves as Hollanders, Holland is derived from the Middle Dutch term holtland. This spelling variation remained in use until around the 14th century, a popular folk etymology holds that Holland is derived from hol land and was inspired by the low-lying geography of Holland. The proper name of the area in both Dutch and English is Holland, Holland is a part of the Netherlands. Holland is informally used in English and other languages, including sometimes the Dutch language itself, the people of Holland are referred to as Hollanders in both Dutch and English. Today this refers specifically to people from the current provinces of North Holland, strictly speaking, the term Hollanders does not refer to people from the other provinces in the Netherlands, but colloquially Hollanders is sometimes used in this wider sense. In Dutch, the Dutch word Hollands is the form for Holland. In English, Dutch refers to the Netherlands as a whole, the word Hollandish is no longer in common use. Hollandic is the name give to the dialect spoken in Holland, and is occasionally also used by historians. Initially, Holland was a corner of the Holy Roman Empire. Gradually, its importance increased until it began to have a decisive. Until the start of the 12th century, the inhabitants of the area that became Holland were known as Frisians, the area was initially part of Frisia. At the end of the 9th century, West-Frisia became a county in the Holy Roman Empire. The first Count known about with certainty was Dirk I, who ruled from 896 to 931 and he was succeeded by a long line of counts in the House of Holland. When John I, count of Holland, died childless in 1299, by the time of William V the count of Holland was also the count of Hainaut and Zealand
Holland
–
A map of Holland from 1682.
Holland
–
North and
South Holland (in orange) shown together within the
Netherlands
Holland
–
Benthuizen polder, as seen from a dike.
22.
Atlas Novus
–
It was the largest and most expensive book published in the seventeenth century. Earlier, much smaller versions, titled Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, sive, somewhere around 1604 Willem Blaeu settled down in Amsterdam and opened a shop on the Damrak, where he produced and sold scientific instruments, globes and maps. He was also a publisher, editor and engraver, in 1629, Willem Blaeu bought the copperplates of several dozens of maps from Jodocus Hondius IIs widow. Afterwards, he published an Atlantis Appendix to Mercators atlas in 1630, containing 60 maps, the next year a new edition was published, with 98 maps and descriptive text in Latin. Willem and his son Joan Blaeu made an announcement in an Amsterdam newspaper that they would publish their own full atlas in 1634. After his fathers death in 1638, Joan continued to rework, a three volume edition was published from 1640 onwards. The final version of the atlas was published as the Atlas Maior and contained 594 maps in eleven, twelve and this final version of the Atlas Maior was the largest and most expansive book published in the seventeenth century. The first volumes were published in 1662, the last volume was finished in 1665 and he also started creating a 12 volume Spanish edition, however, only 10 volumes were finished. The second part and third part were never produced, in 1672, fire broke out in the workshop. Joan Blaeu died the next year, no new editions of his atlases were published and the family business went bankrupt within a few years. University of Chicago Press,2003, ISBN 0-226-30071-4, john Goss & Peter Clark, Blaeu – Der große Atlas, die Welt im 17. Wien 1990, ISBN 3-701-40304-X J. Keuning, Willem Jansz, a biography and history of his work as a cartographer and publisher. Rev. and ed. by M. Donkersloot-De Vrij, koeman, Joan Blaeu and his Grand atlas. Ute Schneider, Die Macht der Karten, eine Geschichte der Kartographie vom Mittelalter bis heute. R. Shirley, The mapping of the world, london 1983 F. Wawrik, Berühmte Atlanten. Dortmund 1982 Bibliographical descriptions of the atlases, Peter van der Krogt, Koemans Atlantes Neerlandici II, the third centenary ed. Amsterdam 1967-1968 Taschen editions based on the Atlas Blaeu-Van der Hem of the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, Peter van der Krogt, Joan Blaeu. // Peter van der Krogt, Joan Blaeu, // Peter van der Krogt, Joan Blaeu. // Peter van der Krogt, Joan Blaeu, Peter van der Krogt, Joan Blaeu
Atlas Novus
–
Front page, 1645
Atlas Novus
–
Joan & Willem Blaeu Atlas in 11 volumes with white leather binding with gold leaf and special chest to hold it in, next to a portrait of Willem Blaeu, copy in the
University of Amsterdam Special Collections
23.
Dutch East India Company
–
It is often considered to be the worlds first truly transnational corporation and the first company in history to actually issue bonds and shares of stock to the general public. In other words, the VOC was officially the first publicly traded company of the world, the company was also considered by many to be the very first major and the greatest corporation in history. Statistically, the VOC eclipsed all of its rivals in international trade for almost 200 years of existence. Between 1602 and 1796 the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asia trade on 4,785 ships, the VOC enjoyed huge profits from its spice monopoly through most of the 17th century. Having been set up in 1602, to profit from the Malukan spice trade, in 1619 the VOC established a capital in the city of Jayakarta. Over the next two centuries the Company acquired additional ports as trading bases and safeguarded their interests by taking over surrounding territory and it remained an important trading concern and paid an 18% annual dividend for almost 200 years. Around the world and especially in English-speaking countries, the VOC is widely known as the Dutch East India Company, the name ‘Dutch East India Company’ is used to make a distinction with the East India Company and other East Indian companies. The abbreviation VOC stands for Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie in Dutch, the VOC monogram was possibly the first globally-recognized corporate logo. The logo of the VOC consisted of a large capital V with an O on the left and it appeared on various corporate items, such as cannon and coins. The first letter of the hometown of the conducting the operation was placed on top. An Australian vintner has used the VOC logo since the late 20th century, the flag of the company was orange, white, and blue, with the company logo embroidered on it. Before the Dutch Revolt, Antwerp had played an important role as a centre in northern Europe. At the same time, the Portuguese trade system was unable to supply to satisfy growing demand. Demand for spices was relatively inelastic, and therefore each lag in the supply of pepper caused a rise in pepper prices. These three factors motivated Dutch merchants to enter the spice trade themselves. Further, a number of Dutchmen like Jan Huyghen van Linschoten and Cornelis de Houtman obtained first hand knowledge of the secret Portuguese trade routes and practices, thereby providing opportunity. The stage was set for Houtmans 1595 four-ship exploratory expedition to Banten, the main pepper port of West Java. Houtmans expedition then sailed east along the north coast of Java, losing twelve crew to a Javanese attack at Sidayu, half the crew were lost before the expedition made it back to the Netherlands the following year, but with enough spices to make a considerable profit
Dutch East India Company
–
The shipyard of the Dutch East India Company in Amsterdam. 1726 engraving by
Joseph Mulder.
Dutch East India Company
–
Dutch East India Company
Dutch East India Company
–
A
bond issued by the Dutch East India Company, dating from 7 November 1623, for the amount of 2,400
florins
Dutch East India Company
–
VOC headquarters in Amsterdam
24.
Willebrord Snell
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Willebrord Snellius was a Dutch astronomer and mathematician, known in the English-speaking world as Snell. The same law was also investigated by Ptolemy and in the Middle Ages by Witelo, the lunar crater Snellius is named after Willebrord Snellius. The Royal Netherlands Navy has named three ships after Snellius, including a currently-serving vessel. Willebrord Snellius was born in Leiden, Netherlands, in 1613 he succeeded his father, Rudolph Snel van Royen as professor of mathematics at the University of Leiden. He was helped in his measurements by two of his students, the Austrian barons Erasmus and Casparus Sterrenberg, in several cities he also received support of friends among the city leaders. In his work The terrae Ambitus vera quantitate under the authors name Snellius describes the methods he used and he came up with an estimate of 28,500 Rhineland rods - in modern units 107.37 km for one degree of latitude. 360 times 107.37 then gives a circumference of the Earth of 38,653 km, the actual circumference is 40,075 kilometers, so Snellius underestimated the circumference of the earth by 3. 5%. Snellius came to his result by calculating the distances between a number of points in the plain west and southwest of the Netherlands using triangulation. In order to carry out these measurements accurately Snellius had a large quadrant built and this quadrant can still be seen in the Museum Boerhaave in Leiden. In a network of fourteen cities a total of 53 triangulation measurements were made, in his calculations Snellius made use of a solution for what is now called the Snellius–Pothenot problem. By necessity Snellius his high points were nearly all church spires, there were hardly any other tall buildings in Snellius time in the west of the Netherlands. More or less ordered from north to south and/or in successive order of measuring Snellius used a network of fourteen points, Alkmaar. The difference in latitude between Alkmaar and Breda is 1.0436 degree, assuming Snellius corrected for this he must have calculated a distance of 107.37 *1.0436 =112.05 kilometers between the Sint-Laurenskerk in Alkmaar and the Grote Kerk in Breda. Snellius was also a mathematician, producing a new method for calculating π—the first such improvement since ancient times. He rediscovered the law of refraction in 1621, in addition to the Eratosthenes Batavus, he published Cyclometricus, de circuli dimensione, and Tiphys Batavus. He also edited Coeli et siderum in eo errantium observationes Hassiacae, a work on trigonometry authored by Snellius was published a year after his death. Snellius died at Leiden on October 1626, at the age of 46 from an illness diagnosed as colic, oConnor, John J. Robertson, Edmund F. Willebrord van Royen Snell, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Snell
Willebrord Snell
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Willebrord Snel van Royen (1580–1626)
Willebrord Snell
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An image from Tiphys Batavus.
25.
Metius
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Adriaan Adriaanszoon, called Metius, was a Dutch geometer and astronomer born in Alkmaar. The name Metius comes from the Dutch word meten, and therefore something like measurer or surveyor. Adriaan Metius was born in Alkmaar, North Holland and his father, Adriaan Anthonisz, was a mathematician, land-surveyor, cartographer, and military engineer who from 1582 served also as burgomaster of Alkmaar. Metius brother, Jacob Metius, worked as an instrument-maker and a specialist in grinding lenses, also born in Alkmaar, Jacob died between 1624 and 1631. Adriaan Metius attended a Latin school in Alkmaar and studied philosophy in 1589 at the recently founded University of Franeker and he continued his studies at Leiden in 1594, where he studied under Rudolph Snellius. He worked for a time under Tycho Brahe on the island of Hven. He was permitted to teach in the vernacular instead of Latin and he served as rector of the university in 1603 and 1632. With his father and brother he established an instrument making business which specialised in optical instruments, the family business seems to have manufactured the precision Jacobs staffs used by Tycho Brahe for his star sightings. Though he scoffed at astrology, Metius is said to have spent a lot of time pursuing alchemy, Metius published treatises on the astrolabe and on surveying. His works include Arithmeticæ et geometriæ practica, Institutiones Astronomicae Geographicae, Metius also manufactured astronomical instruments and developed a special form of Jacobs staff. In 1585, his father had estimated the ratio of a circumference to its diameter, later called pi. Metius later published his fathers results, and the value 355/113 is traditionally referred to as Metius number, the lunar crater Metius is named after him. In Vermeers painting The Astronomer, the book lying on the table has been identified as a 1621 second edition of Metiuss Institutiones Astronomicae Geographicae. It is opened to Book III, where inspiration from God is recommended for astronomical research along with knowledge of geometry, galileo Project, Metius Metius Imago Mundi, Metius Metius Family
Metius
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Adriaen Metius: De genuino usu utriusqve globi tractatus. Adjecta est nova Sciatericorum, & artis Navigandi ratio novis Instrumentis, & inventionibus illustrata. Franeker, 1624.
26.
Roemer Visscher
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Roemer Pieterszoon Visscher was a successful Dutch merchant and writer of the Dutch Golden Age. Visscher was born in and lived in Amsterdam and was an important and central figure of the scene there. Other members of this scene were the Dutch writers P. C, vondel called Visschers house het saligh Roemers huys, because artists of all kinds visited his house on the Gelderse Kade in Amsterdam, varying from painters to poets. Roemer was the father of three daughters Maria Tesselschade Visscher, Gertruid, and Anna Visscher, the humanistic and moralistic content of his works belongs to the period of the Renaissance, although the form was more conservative and characteristic to the rederijkers. Visscher was a specialist in the epigram, but he also wrote emblemata, the emblemata is a genre in which pictures are accompanied by one or two rhyming sentences. An example of the emblemata is Visschers Sinnepoppen, one emblema is called Elck wat wils which is still a common expression in Dutch, meaning To each his own
Roemer Visscher
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Drawing of the
coat of arms of Roemer Visscher
Roemer Visscher
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Roemer Visscher
27.
Gerhard Johann Vossius
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Gerrit Janszoon Vos, often known by his Latin name Gerardus Vossius, was a Dutch classical scholar and theologian. In 1600 he was rector of the latin school in Dordrecht. From 1614 to 1619 he was director of the college at Leiden University. In the meantime, he was gaining a reputation as a scholar, not only in the Netherlands. But in spite of the moderation of his views and his abstention from controversy, he came under suspicion of heresy, and escaped expulsion from his office only by resignation. The year before he had published his ‘Historia Pelagiana a history of the Pelagian controversies, in 1622, he was appointed professor of rhetoric and chronology, and subsequently of Greek, in the university. D. He was on terms with Thomas Farnaby, and Farnabys ‘Latin Grammar’ is based to a certain extent upon that which Vossius wrote for the Elzevir press in 1629. He got permission from Charles I to return to the Low Countries, in 1632 he left Leiden to take the post of professor of history in the newly founded Athenaeum Illustre at Amsterdam, which he held till his death. His son Isaac, after a career of scholarship in Sweden and he was the author of De septuaginta interpretibus, De poematum cantu et viribus rhythmi, and Variarum observationum liber. Others, His son Dionysius Vossius died 1633 or 1640 and he made notes on the work of Moses Maimonides. His third son Gerrit Vossius died 1640 and he was an editor of Velleius Paterculus. He made a chronicle of Holland, Francis Vossius was Gerardus Vossiuss brother. A person also called Gerardus Vossius, a Roman Catholic who made annotated Latin translations of Gregory Thaumaturgus and Cicero, Vossius was amongst the first to treat theological dogmas and the non-Christian religions from the historical point of view. His collected works were published at Amsterdam, in rhetoric, his works enjoyed a wide circulation, being used as textbooks. He supported Aristotles definitions, and opposed Ramism, with the major influences being Aristotle and Cicero, he also cited Hermogenes, Menander Rhetor, Bartholomeus Keckermann and Nicolas Caussin. Jean-Pierre Nicéron, Mémoires pour servir de lhistoire des hommes illustres, Vossius Vossius, Gerhard Johannes, Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie,40, Leipzig, Duncker & Humblot,1896, pp. 367–370 C. S. M. Rademaker ss. cc. Life and Works of Gerardus Joannes Vossius, G. J. Vossius, chisholm, Hugh, ed. Vossius, Gerhard Johann. Reynolds, Francis J. ed. Voss, Gerhard Johann, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Vossius, Isaac
Gerhard Johann Vossius
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Gerrit Johan Vossius
28.
Casparus Barlaeus
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Caspar Barlaeus was a Dutch polymath and Renaissance humanist, a theologian, poet, and historian. Born Caspar van Baerle in Antwerp, Barlaeus parents fled the city when it was occupied by Spanish troops shortly after his birth and they settled in Zaltbommel, where his father eventually would become head of the Latin school. Caspar studied theology and philosophy at the University of Leiden, after his study, he preached for 1.5 years in the village of Nieuwe-Tonge, before returning to Leiden in 1612 as an under-regent of a college. From 1617 he also was professor in philosophy at the university, because of his remonstrant sympathies, he was forced out of this job in 1619. He then studied and graduated in medicines, but never practiced professionally, in January 1632, Barlaeus, along with Gerard Vossius, held his inaugural speech at the Amsterdam Atheneum. Barlaeus later encouraged Martinus Hortensius to lecture –and give an inaugural speech- at the same institution, Barlaeus published many volumes of poetry, particularly Latin poetry. He also wrote the eulogy that accompanies the 1622 portrait of cartographer Willem Blaeu, Barlaeus was involved in various aspects of cartography and history. He translated Antonio de Herreras Description of the West Indies in 1622, in 1627, Barlaeus provided the text for the atlas of Italy created by Jodocus Hondius. In 1647, he wrote an account of the Dutch colonial empire in Brazil, the Rerum per octennium in Brasilia et alibi nuper gestarum sub praefectura, as it is called, contains numerous maps and plates of the region. Franciscus Plante wrote a work in the same year called Mauritias. These were maps of Ceará, Pernambuco, Paraíba, and Pernambuco Borealá, Plante also incorporated a portrait of John Maurice that had already been included in Barlaeus work. In 1638, Barlaeus wrote Medicea Hospes, sive descriptio publicae gratulationis, mariam de Medicis, excepit senatus populusque Amstelodamensis. Published by Willem Blaeu, it includes two large folding engraved views of the ceremonies on the occasion of the French queen mother Marie de Medicis triumphal entry into Amsterdam in 1638. Considered an important moment in Dutch history, Maries visit lent de facto recognition of the newly formed Dutch Republic. Marie de Medici actually traveled to the Netherlands as exile, but spectacular displays, there was a procession led by two mounted trumpeters, a large temporary structure erected on an artificial island in the Amstel River was built especially for the festival. This building was designed to display a series of dramatic tableaux in tribute to her once she set foot on the floating island, franciscus Plante wrote Barlaeus obituary and epitaph in 1648. Barlaeus Gymnasium, in Amsterdam, is named after him
Casparus Barlaeus
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Caspar Barlaeus
29.
Grotius
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Hugo Grotius, also known as Huig de Groot or Hugo de Groot, was a Dutch jurist. Along with the works of Francisco de Vitoria and Alberico Gentili, Grotius laid the foundations for international law. A teenage intellectual prodigy, he was imprisoned for his involvement in the intra-Calvinist disputes of the Dutch Republic and he wrote most of his major works in exile in France. Because of his theological underpinning of free trade, he is considered an economic theologist. Born in Delft during the Dutch Revolt, Hugo was the first child of Jan de Groot, a prodigious learner, Hugo entered the University of Leiden when he was just eleven years old. There he studied some of the most acclaimed intellectuals in northern Europe, including Franciscus Junius, Joseph Justus Scaliger. Omnes, & emendati, & Notis, siue Februis Hug, in Holland, Grotius earned an appointment as advocate to The Hague in 1599 and then as official historiographer for the States of Holland in 1601. The Dutch were at war with Spain and Portugal when the merchant ship Santa Catarina. The scandal led to a judicial hearing and a wider campaign to sway public opinion. It was in this context that representatives of the Company called upon Grotius to draft a polemical defence of the seizure. The result of Grotius efforts in 1604/05 was a long, theory-laden treatise that he provisionally entitled De Indis, Grotius sought to ground his defense of the seizure in terms of the natural principles of justice. In this, he had cast a net much wider than the case at hand, his interest was in the source, the treatise was never published in full during Grotius lifetime, perhaps because the court ruling in favor of the Company preempted the need to garner public support. In The Free Sea Grotius formulated the new principle that the sea was international territory, Grotius, by claiming free seas, provided suitable ideological justification for the Dutch breaking up of various trade monopolies through its formidable naval power. In 1608 he married Maria van Reigersbergen, with whom he would have eight children and who would be invaluable in helping him and the family to weather the storm to come. The domestic dissension resulting over Arminius professorship was overshadowed by the war with Spain. The new peace would move the focus to the controversy. The controversy expanded when the Remonstrant theologian Conrad Vorstius was appointed to replace Jacobus Arminius as the chair at Leiden. Vorstius was soon seen by Counter-Remonstrants as moving beyond the teachings of Arminius into Socinianism, leading the call for Vorstius removal was theology professor Sibrandus Lubbertus
Grotius
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Hugo Grotius – Portrait by
Michiel Jansz. van Mierevelt, 1631
Grotius
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Grotius at age 16, by
Jan Antonisz. van Ravesteyn, 1599
Grotius
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Page written in Grotius' hand from the manuscript of De Indis (circa 1604/05)
Grotius
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Portrait of Grotius at age 25 (
Michiel Jansz. van Mierevelt, 1608)
30.
Joost van den Vondel
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Joost van den Vondel was a Dutch poet, writer and playwright. He is considered the most prominent Dutch poet and playwright of the 17th century. His plays are the ones from that period that are still most frequently performed, performances of his theatre pieces occurred regularly until the 1960s. The most visible was the performance, on New Years Day from 1637 to 1968. Vondel remained productive until an old age. Vondel was born on 17 November 1587 on the Große Witschgasse in Cologne and his parents were Mennonites of Antwerpian descent. In 1595, probably because of their religious conviction, they fled to Utrecht, at the age of 23, Vondel married Mayken de Wolff. Together they had four children, of two died in infancy. After the death of his father in 1608, Vondel managed the family shop on the Warmoesstraat in Amsterdam. In the meantime, he began to learn Latin and became acquainted with poets such as Roemer Visscher. Around the year 1641, he converted to Catholicism and this was a great shock to most of his fellow countrymen because the main conviction and de facto state religion in the Republic was Calvinist Protestantism. It is still unclear why he became a Catholic although his love for a Catholic lady may have played a role in this, during his life, he became one of the main advocates for religious tolerance. Public practice of Catholicism, Anabaptism and Arminianism was from then on officially forbidden, Vondel wrote many satires criticising the Calvinists and extolling Oldenbarnevelt. That, together with his new faith, made him a figure in Calvinist circles. He died a man though he was honoured by many fellow poets. Amsterdams biggest park, the Vondelpark, bears his name, there is a statue of Vondel in the northern part of the park. Also, there is a Vondel Street in Cologne, the Vondelstraße in the Neustadt-Süd-district, the Dutch five guilder banknote bore Vondels portrait from 1950 until it was discontinued in 1990. George Borrow called him by far the greatest that Holland ever produced and it has been suggested that John Milton drew inspiration from Lucifer and Adam in Ballingschap for his Paradise Lost
Joost van den Vondel
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Joost van den Vondel by
Philip de Koninck (1665)
Joost van den Vondel
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Joost van den Vondel
Joost van den Vondel
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Joost van den Vondel.
