1.
Rotterdam
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Rotterdam is a city in the Netherlands, located in South Holland, within the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt river delta at the North Sea. Its history goes back to 1270 when a dam was constructed in the Rotte river by people settled around it for safety, in 1340 Rotterdam was granted city rights by the Count of Holland and slowly grew into a major logistic and economic centre. Nowadays it is home to Europes largest port and has a population of 633,471, ranking second in the Netherlands, just behind Amsterdam. The Greater Rijnmond area is home to approximately 1.4 million people, Rotterdam is part of the yet larger Randstad conurbation with a total population of 7,100,000. The city of Rotterdam is known for the Erasmus University, riverside setting, lively cultural life, the near-complete destruction of Rotterdams city centre during World War II has resulted in a varied architectural landscape including sky-scrapers, which are an uncommon sight in other Dutch cities. Rotterdam is home to some world-famous architecture from renowned architects like Rem Koolhaas, Piet Blom, Ben van Berkel and others. Recently Rotterdam was listed eighth in The Rough Guide Top 10 Cities to Visit, the port of Rotterdam is the largest cargo port in Europe and the 10th largest in the world. Rotterdams logistic success is based on its location on the North Sea. The rivers Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt give waterway access into the heart of Western Europe, the extensive distribution system including rail, roads, and waterways have earned Rotterdam the nickname Gateway to Europe, and, conversely, Gateway to the World in Europe. The settlement at the end of the fen stream Rotte dates from at least 900 CE. A dam on the Rotte or Rotterdam was built in the 1260s and was located at the present-day Hoogstraat, on 7 July 1340, Count Willem IV of Holland granted city rights to Rotterdam, which then had approximately 2,000 inhabitants. The port of Rotterdam grew slowly but steadily into a port of importance, becoming the seat of one of the six chambers of the Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, the greatest spurt of growth, both in port activity and population, followed the completion of the Nieuwe Waterweg in 1872. The city and harbor started to expand on the bank of the river. The Witte Huis or White House skyscraper, inspired by American office buildings and built in 1898 in the French Château-style, is evidence of Rotterdams rapid growth, when completed, it was the tallest office building in Europe, with a height of 45 m. During World War I the city was the worlds largest spy centre because of Dutch neutrality, many spies who were arrested and executed in Britain were led by German secret agents operating from Rotterdam. MI6 had its main European office on de Boompjes, from there the British coordinated espionage in Germany and occupied Belgium. In WWI an average of 25,000 Belgian refugees lived in the city, as well as hundreds of German deserters, during World War II, the German army invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. Adolf Hitler had hoped to conquer the country in just one day, the Dutch army was finally forced to capitulate on 15 May 1940, following Hitlers bombing of Rotterdam on 14 May and threatening to bomb other Dutch cities
2.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
3.
East Hampton (town), New York
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The Town of East Hampton is located in southeastern Suffolk County, New York, at the eastern end of the South Shore of Long Island. It is the easternmost town in the state of New York, at the time of the United States 2010 Census, it had a total population of 21,457. The town includes the village of East Hampton, as well as the hamlets of Montauk, Amagansett, Wainscott and it also includes part of the incorporated village of Sag Harbor. East Hampton is located on a peninsula, bordered on the south by the Atlantic Ocean, to the east by Block Island Sound and to the north by Gardiners Bay, Napeague Bay and Fort Pond Bay. To the west is western Long Island, reaching to the East River, the Town has eight state parks, most located at the waters edge. The town consists of 70 square miles and stretches nearly 25 miles and it is about six miles wide at its widest point and less than a mile at its narrowest point. The town has jurisdiction over Gardiners Island, which is one of the largest privately owned islands in the United States, the town has 70 miles of shoreline. East Hampton has a climate slightly above humid continental, since the January mean is slightly below the freezing mark. This area had been inhabited for thousands of years by varying cultures of indigenous peoples and they belong to the large Algonquian-speaking language family. Bands on Long Island were identified by their geographic locations, the historical people known to the colonists as the Montaukett controlled most of the territory at the east end of Long Island. Native Americans inhabiting the western part of Long Island were part of the Lenape nation and their territory extended to lower New York, western Connecticut and the mid-Atlantic coastal areas into New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Their bands were known by the names of their geographic locations. In the late-17th century Chief Wyandanch of the Montaukett negotiated with English colonists for the sale of land in the East Hampton area, the differing concepts held by the Montaukett and English about land and its use contributed to the Montaukett losing most of their lands over the ensuing centuries. Wyandanch sold an island to English colonist Lion Gardiner for a black dog, some powder and shot. The next trade involved the land extending from present-day Southampton to the foot of the bluffs, at what is now Hither Hills State Park, for 24 hatchets,24 coats,20 looking glasses and 100 muxes. The sales provided that the Montaukett were permitted to stay on the land, to hunt and fish at will, Town officials who bought the land filed for reimbursement from the colony for the rum with which they had plied the tribe during negotiations. Gradually, however, colonists pushed the Montaukett off the land and they formed the Brothertown Indians with other refugee Indian people from New England, and gave up some of their traditions. In 1831-1836, the Brothertown Indians migrated to Wisconsin, where they founded the settlement of Brothertown, some Montaukett continued to live on Long Island
4.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
5.
Abstract expressionism
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Action painting, sometimes called gestural abstraction, is a style of painting in which paint is spontaneously dribbled, splashed or smeared onto the canvas, rather than being carefully applied. The resulting work often emphasizes the act of painting itself as an essential aspect of the finished work or concern of its artist. The style was widespread from the 1940s until the early 1960s, a comparison is often drawn between the American action painting and the French tachisme. According to Rosenberg the canvas was an arena in which to act, to Greenberg, it was the physicality of the paintings clotted and oil-caked surfaces that was the key to understanding them. – Clement Greenberg, Post Painterly Abstraction and it is essential for the understanding of action painting to place it in historical context. Action painting took this a further, using both Jung and Freud’s ideas of the subconscious as its underlying foundations. The paintings of the Action painters were not meant to portray objects per se or even specific emotions, instead they were meant to touch the observer deep in the subconscious mind, evoking a sense of the primeval and tapping the collective sense of an archetypal visual language. This was done by the artist painting unconsciously, and spontaneously, creating an arena of raw emotion and action. Action painting was influenced by the surrealist emphasis on automatism which influenced by psychoanalysis claimed a more direct access to the subconscious mind. Important exponents of this concept of art making were the painters Joan Miró, however the action painters took everything the surrealists had done a step further. Action Writing, Jack Kerouacs Wild Form, Carbondale, IL, auction record including a color image of a 1960 action painting by Elaine Hamilton. 9th Street Art Exhibition-abstract expressionist artists reminisce—YouTube video
6.
Praemium Imperiale
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These are areas of achievement not covered by the Nobel Prize. The prizes are awarded for outstanding contributions to the development, promotion, the Praemium Imperiale is awarded in the memory of His Imperial Highness Prince Takamatsu, younger brother of Emperor Shōwa who reigned from 1926 through 1989. Prince Takamatsu was famous for his support of the development, promotion. The laureates are announced each September, the presentation ceremony and related events are held in Tokyo, Japan. The prize presentation ceremony is held in the presence of His Imperial Highness Prince Hitachi, President of the Japan Art Association, Prince Hitachi presents the prizes to the selected laureates. The prize consists of a medal and 15 million Japanese yen, and was created by the Fujisankei Communications Group. The laureates are annually recommended by international advisers, and decided by a committee of the Japan Art Association. The advisers include Yasuhiro Nakasone, William H. Luers, Lamberto Dini, François Pinault, Chris Patten, honorary advisers include Jacques Chirac, David Rockefeller, David Rockefeller, Jr. Helmut Schmidt and Richard von Weizsäcker. Since 1997, a series of grants have been made to organizations which nourish young artists
7.
Elaine de Kooning
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Elaine de Kooning was an Abstract Expressionist and Figurative Expressionist painter in the post-World War II era. She wrote extensively on the art of the period and was an associate for Art News magazine. On December 9,1943, she married painter Willem de Kooning, Elaine de Kooning was born Elaine Marie Catherine Fried in 1918 in the Flatbush, New York. Later in life Elaine told people she was born in 1920 and her parents were Mary Ellen OBrien, an Irish Catholic, and Charles Frank Fried, a Protestant of Jewish descent. Her father Charles was a plant manager for the Bond Bread Company, Elaine was the eldest of four children, Marjorie Luyckx, Conrad and Peter Fried. Her mother, despite being recalled as less loving and attentive than some parents by Elaine’s younger sister, elaines mother started taking Elaine to museums at the age of five and taught her to draw what she saw. Elaine’s childhood room was decorated with painting reproductions, Mary Ellen was committed to the Creedmoor Psychiatric Center for a year during Elaine’s childhood after a neighbor reported her for neglect of her children. In grade school, Elaine began drawing and selling portraits of children attending her school and she was interested in and did well at sports as well as art. Elaine studied at Erasmus Hall High School in Brooklyn, after graduating from High School, she briefly attended Hunter College in New York City, where she befriended a group of abstract and Social Realist painters. In 1937, she attended the Leonardo da Vinci Art School and went on to study at the American Artists School, while attending school, Elaine made money working as an art school model. Elaine had admired Willem’s artwork before meeting him, in 1938 her teacher introduced her to Willem de Kooning at a Manhattan cafeteria when she was 20, after it he began to instruct her in drawing and painting. He even destroyed many of her drawings, but this impelled Elaine to strive for precision and grace in her work. When they married in 1943, she moved into his loft, Elaine and Willem de Kooning had what was later called an open marriage, They both were casual about sex and about each other’s affairs. Elaine had affairs with men who helped further Willem’s career, such as Harold Rosenberg, hess, who was a writer about art and managing editor for Artnews, and Charles Egan, owner of the Charles Egan Gallery. Willem had a daughter, Lisa de Kooning, in 1956, Elaine and Willem both struggled with alcoholism, which eventually led to their separation in 1957. While separated, Elaine remained in New York, struggling with poverty, despite struggling with alcoholism, they both continued painting. Although separated for twenty years, they never divorced. Elaine de Kooning was a landscape and portrait artist active in the Abstract Expressionist movement of the early twentieth century
8.
Action painting
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Action painting, sometimes called gestural abstraction, is a style of painting in which paint is spontaneously dribbled, splashed or smeared onto the canvas, rather than being carefully applied. The resulting work often emphasizes the act of painting itself as an essential aspect of the finished work or concern of its artist. The style was widespread from the 1940s until the early 1960s, a comparison is often drawn between the American action painting and the French tachisme. According to Rosenberg the canvas was an arena in which to act, to Greenberg, it was the physicality of the paintings clotted and oil-caked surfaces that was the key to understanding them. – Clement Greenberg, Post Painterly Abstraction and it is essential for the understanding of action painting to place it in historical context. Action painting took this a further, using both Jung and Freud’s ideas of the subconscious as its underlying foundations. The paintings of the Action painters were not meant to portray objects per se or even specific emotions, instead they were meant to touch the observer deep in the subconscious mind, evoking a sense of the primeval and tapping the collective sense of an archetypal visual language. This was done by the artist painting unconsciously, and spontaneously, creating an arena of raw emotion and action. Action painting was influenced by the surrealist emphasis on automatism which influenced by psychoanalysis claimed a more direct access to the subconscious mind. Important exponents of this concept of art making were the painters Joan Miró, however the action painters took everything the surrealists had done a step further. Action Writing, Jack Kerouacs Wild Form, Carbondale, IL, auction record including a color image of a 1960 action painting by Elaine Hamilton. 9th Street Art Exhibition-abstract expressionist artists reminisce—YouTube video
9.
Jackson Pollock
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Paul Jackson Pollock, known professionally as Jackson Pollock, was an American painter and a major figure in the abstract expressionist movement. He was well known for his style of drip painting. During his lifetime, Pollock enjoyed considerable fame and notoriety, he was a major artist of his generation, regarded as reclusive, he had a volatile personality, and struggled with alcoholism for most of his life. In 1945, he married the artist Lee Krasner, who became an important influence on his career, Pollock died at the age of 44 in an alcohol-related single-car accident when he was driving. In December 1956, four months after his death, Pollock was given a retrospective exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. A larger, more comprehensive exhibition of his work was held there in 1967, in 1998 and 1999, his work was honored with large-scale retrospective exhibitions at MoMA and at The Tate in London. Pollock was born in Cody, Wyoming, in 1912, the youngest of five sons and his parents, Stella May and LeRoy Pollock, were born and grew up in Tingley, Iowa and were educated at Tingley High School. Pollocks mother is interred at Tingley Cemetery, Ringgold County, Iowa and his father had been born with the surname McCoy, but took the surname of his adoptive parents, neighbors who adopted him after his own parents had died within a year of each other. Stella and LeRoy Pollock were Presbyterian, they were of Irish and Scots-Irish descent, LeRoy Pollock was a farmer and later a land surveyor for the government, moving for different jobs. Stella, proud of her familys heritage as weavers, made, in November 1912, Stella took her sons to San Diego, Jackson was just 10 months old and would never return to Cody. He subsequently grew up in Arizona and Chico, California, while living in Echo Park, California, he enrolled at Los Angeles Manual Arts High School, from which he was expelled. He had already been expelled in 1928 from another high school, during his early life, Pollock explored Native American culture while on surveying trips with his father. In 1930, following his older brother Charles Pollock, he moved to New York City, bentons rural American subject matter had little influence on Pollocks work, but his rhythmic use of paint and his fierce independence were more lasting. In the early 1930s, Pollock spent a summer touring the Western United States together with Glen Rounds, an art student. Pollock was introduced to the use of paint in 1936 at an experimental workshop in New York City by the Mexican muralist David Alfaro Siqueiros. He later used paint pouring as one of techniques on canvases of the early 1940s, such as Male and Female. After his move to Springs, he began painting with his canvases laid out on the studio floor, from 1938 to 1942 Pollock worked for the WPA Federal Art Project. Henderson engaged him through his art, encouraging Pollock to make drawings, jungian concepts and archetypes were expressed in his paintings
10.
Lee Krasner
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Lenore Lee Krassner was an American abstract expressionist painter in the second half of the 20th century. She is one of the few artists to have had a retrospective show at the Museum of Modern Art. Krasner was born as Lena Krassner on October 27,1908 in Brooklyn, Krasner was the daughter of Chane and Joseph Krasner. Her parents were Russian-Jewish immigrants, from Shpykiv, a Jewish community in what is now Ukraine and her parents fled to the United States to escape anti-Semitism and the Russo-Japanese War. Her mother Chane changed her name to Anna once she arrived in America, Lee was the fourth of five children, including her sister, Ruth, and the first who was born in America. She was the one of her siblings to be born in the United States. From an early age, Krasner knew she wanted to pursue art as a career, Krasners career as an artist began when she was a teenager. She specifically sought out enrollment at Washington Irving High School for Girls since they offered an art major, after graduating from high school, she attended the Womens Art School of Cooper Union on a scholarship. Here, she completed the work required for a teaching certificate in art. Krasner pursued yet more art education at the illustrious National Academy of Design, by 1928, she enrolled in the National Academy of Design. By attending an art school, Krasner was able to gain an extensive. She also became skilled in portraying anatomically correct figures. There are relatively few works survive from this time period apart from a few self-portraits. One of the images that still exists from time period is her Self Portrait painted in 1930. She submitted it to the National Academy in order to enroll in a certain class, in it, she depicts herself with a defiant expression surrounded by nature. She also briefly enrolled in the Art Students League of New York in 1928, here, she took a class led by George Bridgman who emphasized the human form. Krasner was highly influenced by the opening of the Museum of Modern Art in 1929 and she was very affected by post-impressionism and grew critical of the academic notions of style she had learned at the National Academy. In the 1930s, she began studying art through learning the components of composition, technique
11.
Franz Kline
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Franz Kline was an American painter born in Pennsylvania. He is mainly associated with the Abstract Expressionist movement of the 1940s and 1950s, although he explored the same innovations to painting as the other artists in this group, Klines work is distinct in itself and has been revered since the 1950s. Kline was born in Wilkes-Barre, a small coal-mining community in Eastern Pennsylvania, when he was seven years old, Klines father committed suicide. His mother later remarried and sent him to Girard College, an academy in Philadelphia for fatherless boys, after graduation from high school, Kline studied art at Boston University from 1931 to 1935, then spent a year in England attending the Heatherley School of Fine Art in London. During this time, he met his wife, Elizabeth V. Parsons. She returned to the United States with Kline in 1938, upon his return to the country, Kline worked as a designer for a department store in New York state. He then moved to New York City in 1939 and worked for a scenic designer and it was during this time in New York that Kline developed his artistic techniques and gained recognition as a significant artist. He later taught at a number of institutions including Black Mountain College in North Carolina and he spent summers from 1956 to 1962 painting in Provincetown, Massachusetts, and died in 1962 in New York City of a rheumatic heart disease. Klines artistic training focused on illustrating and drafting. During the late 1930s and early 1940s Kline worked figuratively, painting landscapes and cityscapes in addition to commissioned portraits and his individual style can be first seen in the mural series Hot Jazz, which he painted for a New York bar in 1940. The series revealed his interest in breaking down representative forms into quick, the personal style he developed during this time, using simplified forms, became increasingly more abstract. Many of the figures he depicted are based on the locomotives, stark landscapes and this is sometimes only apparent to viewers because the pieces are named after those places and objects, not because they actually look like the subject. With the influence of the contemporary New York art scene, Kline worked further into abstraction, from the late 1940s onward, Kline began generalizing his figurative subjects into lines and planes which fit together much like the works of Cubism of the time. It is widely believed that Klines most recognizable style derived from a made to him by his friend and creative influence. As Elaine de Kooning suggests, it was then that Kline dedicated himself to large-scale, over the next two years, Klines brushstrokes became completely non-representative, fluid, and dynamic. It was also at this time that Kline began only painting in black and he explains how his monochrome palette is meant to depict negative and positive space by saying, I paint the white as well as the black, and the white is just as important. His use of black and white is similar to paintings made by de Kooning. There also seem to be references to Japanese calligraphy in Klines black and white paintings, Klines first one-man show took place in October 16-November 4,1950, at the Egan Gallery,63 East 57th Street
12.
Arshile Gorky
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Arshile Gorky was an Armenian-American painter, who had a seminal influence on Abstract Expressionism. He spent most his life as a national of the United States, along with Mark Rothko, Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning, Gorky has been hailed as one of the most powerful American painters of the 20th century. As such, his works were often speculated to have been informed by the suffering, Gorky was born on April 15,1904, in the village of Khorgom, situated on the shores of Lake Van in the Ottoman Empire. In later years he was vague about his date of birth, in 1908 his father emigrated to America to avoid the draft, leaving his family behind in the town of Van. In 1915, Gorky fled Lake Van during the Armenian Genocide and escaped with his mother, in the aftermath of the genocide, Gorkys mother died of starvation in Yerevan in 1919. Arriving in America in 1920, the 16-year-old Gorky was reunited with his father, but they never grew close. In the process of reinventing his identity, he changed his name to Arshile Gorky, claiming to be a Georgian noble, in 1922, Gorky enrolled in the New School of Design in Boston, eventually becoming a part-time instructor. During the early 1920s he was influenced by Impressionism, although later in the decade he produced works that were more postimpressionist, during this time he was living in New York and was influenced by Paul Cézanne. In 1925 he was asked by Edmund Greacen of the Grand Central Art Galleries to teach at the Grand Central School of Art, in 1927, Gorky met Ethel Kremer Schwabacher and developed a lifelong friendship. Gorky said, The stuff of thought is the seed of the artist, dreams form the bristles of the artists brush. As the eye functions as the sentry, I communicate my innermost perceptions through the art. In 1931, Gorky sent a group of works ranging in price from $100 to $450 to the Downtown Gallery in New York, the exact nature of their relationship is unknown. Mrs. John D. Rockefeller purchased from the gallery a Cézannesque still life by Gorky titled Fruit, Gorky may have been introduced to the gallery owner by Stuart Davis who regularly exhibited there. In 1933, Arshile Gorky became one of the first artists employed by the Works Progress Administration Federal Art Project and this later came to include such artists as Alice Neel, Lee Krasner, Jackson Pollock, Diego Rivera and Mark Rothko. In 1935, Gorky signed a contract with the Guild Art Gallery. Co-owned by Anna Walinska and Margaret Lefranc, but funded and directed by Lefranc, notable paintings from this time include Landscape in the Manner of Cézanne and Landscape, Staten Island. At the close of the 1920s and into the 1930s he experimented with cubism, the painting illustrated above, The Artist and His Mother, is a memorable, moving and innovative portrait. His The Artist and His Mother paintings are based on a photograph taken in Van in which he is depicted standing beside his mother
13.
Mark Rothko
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Mark Rothko, born Markus Yakovlevich Rothkowitz, was an American painter of Russian Jewish descent. Although Rothko himself refused to adhere to any art movement, he is identified as an abstract expressionist. With Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning, he is one of the most famous postwar American artists, Mark Rothko was born in Dvinsk, Vitebsk Governorate, in the Russian Empire. His father, Jacob Rothkowitz, was a pharmacist and an intellectual who initially provided his children with a secular and political, rather than religious, according to Rothko, his pro-Marxist father was violently anti-religious. In an environment where Jews were often blamed for many of the evils that befell Russia, despite Jacob Rothkowitzs modest income, the family was highly educated, and Rothko was able to speak Russian, Yiddish, and Hebrew. Fearing that his sons were about to be drafted into the Imperial Russian Army. Markus remained in Russia, with his mother and elder sister Sonia and they arrived as immigrants, at Ellis Island, in late 1913. From that point, they crossed the country, to join Jacob, jacobs death, a few months later, from colon cancer, left the family without economic support. Sonia operated a cash register, while Markus worked in one of his uncles warehouses and his fathers death also led Rothko to sever his ties with religion. After he had mourned his fathers death for almost a year at a local synagogue, Markus had started school in the United States in 1913, quickly accelerating from third to fifth grade. In June 1921, he completed the level, with honors, at Lincoln High School in Portland. He learned his fourth language, English, and became a member of the Jewish community center. Like his father, Rothko was passionate about issues such as workers’ rights, at the time, Portland was the epicentre of revolutionary activity in the U. S. and the region where revolutionary syndicalist union Industrial Workers of the World, was strongest. He heard Emma Goldman speak on one of her West Coast activist lecture tours, with the onset of the Russian Revolution, Rothko organised debates about it. Despite the repressive political atmosphere, he wished to become a union organiser. Rothko received a scholarship to Yale, at the end of his freshman year in 1922, the scholarship was not renewed, and he worked as a waiter and delivery boy to support his studies. He found the Yale community to be elitist and racist, Rothko and a friend, Aaron Director, started a satirical magazine, The Yale Saturday Evening Pest, which lampooned the schools stuffy, bourgeois tone. In any event, Rothkos nature was more that of a man than a diligent pupil, One of his fellow students remembers that he hardly seemed to study
14.
Hans Hofmann
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Hans Hofmann was a German-born American abstract expressionist painter. Hans Hofmann was born in Weißenburg, Bavaria on March 21,1880, when he was six he moved with his family to Munich. Here his father took a job with the government, starting at a young age, Hofmann gravitated towards science and mathematics. At age sixteen, he started work with the Bavarian government as assistant to the director of Public Works where he was able to increase his knowledge of mathematics. He went on to develop and patent such devices as the electromagnetic comptometer, a device for ships at sea, a sensitized light bulb. Even with such great abilities in science and mathematics, Hofmann became interested in creative studies, in 1932 he immigrated to the United States, where he resided until the end of his life. Hofmanns art work is distinguished by a concern with pictorial structure, spatial illusion. He was also influenced in his later years by Henri Matisses ideas about color. Hofmann believed that art was a way to get at the important reality. He famously stated that the ability to simplify means to eliminate the unnecessary so that the necessary may speak, Hofmann was renowned not only as an artist but as a teacher of art, both in his native Germany and later in the U. S. In Munich he founded an art school, where Alf Bayrle, Louise Nevelson, Wolfgang Paalen, Worth Ryder and he closed this school in 1932, the year he immigrated to the U. S. In America, he taught a summer session at the University of California, Berkeley in 1930. In 1931 he taught summer session at the University of California, Berkeley. After Hofmann relocated to New York City he began teaching in 1933 at the Art Students League of New York, leaving the League in the mid-1930s Hofmann opened his own schools in New York and later in Provincetown, Massachusetts. Many famous or notable artists, especially some who could generally be classified as abstract expressionists, studied with Hofmann in New York and these distinguished alumni included, Lee Krasner, Sam Provenzano, Israel Levitan, Helen Frankenthaler, I. In 1958, Hofmann closed his schools in order to devote himself exclusively to his own creative work, Hofmann was a painter and theorist of particular appeal to other artists. American painter Walter Darby Bannard and British artist John Hoyland both had involved in curating retrospectives of Hofmanns work. From 1947 through 1966 Hans Hofmann exhibited annually at the Samuel M. Kootz Gallery in New York, Hans Hofmanns recognition increased in the early sixties
15.
Adolph Gottlieb
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Adolph Gottlieb was an American abstract expressionist painter, sculptor and printmaker. Adolph Gottlieb, one of the first generation of Abstract Expressionists, was born in New York in 1903 to Jewish parents and he traveled in France and Germany for a year. He lived in Paris for 6 months during which time he visited the Louvre Museum every day and he spent the next year travelling in Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, and other part of Central Europe, visiting museums and art galleries. When he returned, he was one of the most traveled New York Artists, after his return to New York, he studied at the Art Students League, Parsons School of Design, Cooper Union and the Educational Alliance. Gottlieb had his first solo exhibition at the Dudensing Galleries in New York City in 1930, during the 1920s and early 1930s he formed lifelong friendships with other artists such as Barnett Newman, Mark Rothko, David Smith, Milton Avery, and John Graham. From September 1937 to June 1938, Gottlieb lived in the Arizona desert, in those 9 months, he radically changed his approach to painting. He transitioned from this into more Surrealist works like the Sea Chest which displays mysterious incongruities on a normal landscape. It is then that he conveys to the viewer the expansiveness he must have felt looking at Arizona desert sky, Gottlieb and a small circle of friends valued the work of the Surrealist group that they saw exhibited in New York in the 1930s. They also exchanged copies of the magazine Cahiers d’art and were familiar with current ideas about automatic writing. Gottlieb painted a few works in a Surrealist style in 1940 and 1941, the results of his experiments manifested themselves in his series “Pictographs” which spanned from 1941–1950. In his painting Voyager’s Return, he juxtaposes these images in compartmentalized spaces and his images appear similar to those of indigenous populations of North America and the Ancient Near East. If he found out one of his symbols was not original and he wanted his art to have the same impact on all his viewers, striking a chord not because they had seen it before, but because it was so basic and elemental that it resounded within them. In 1941, disappointed with the art around him, he developed the approach he called Pictographs, Gottliebs Pictographs, which he created from 1941 to 1954, are the first coherent body of mature painting by an American of his generation. Gottlieb spoke of his concerns in a 1947 statement, The role of artist has always been that of image-maker, to my mind certain so-called abstraction is not abstraction at all. On the contrary, it is the realism of our time, to meet this goal Gottlieb presented images inserted into sections of a loosely drawn grid. Each image existed independently of the others, yet their arrangement on the plane, along with relationships of color, texture. Meaning, then, is intensely personal – another innovation of Gottlieb’s paintings Surrealist biomorphism was one source for his Pictographs, for Gottlieb, biomorphism was a way to freely express his unconscious, in which he had become fascinated via Graham, Freud, and Surrealism. These biomorphic shapes were separated by the all over grid pattern, Gottlieb once said, If I made a wriggly line or a serpentine line it was because I wanted a serpentine line
16.
Robert Motherwell
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Robert Motherwell was an American painter, printmaker, and editor. He was one of the youngest of the New York School, which also included Philip Guston, Willem de Kooning, Jackson Pollock, and Mark Rothko. Robert Motherwell was born in Aberdeen, Washington on January 24,1915, the family later moved to San Francisco, where Motherwells father served as president of Wells Fargo Bank. Due to the asthmatic condition, Motherwell was reared largely on the Pacific Coast. There he developed a love for the spaces and bright colours that later emerged as essential characteristics of his abstract paintings. His later concern with themes of mortality can likewise be traced to his health as a child. Between 1932 and 1937, Motherwell briefly studied painting at California School of Fine Arts, San Francisco, at Stanford Motherwell was introduced to modernism through his extensive reading of symbolist and other literature, especially Mallarmé, James Joyce, Edgar Allan Poe, and Octavio Paz. This passion stayed with Motherwell for the rest of his life, at the age of 20 Motherwell traveled to Europe with his father and sister. They made a Grand Tour starting in Paris, then went to Amalfi, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, The Netherlands, and London, so with that agreed on Harvard then—it was actually the last year—Harvard still had the best philosophy school in the world. And since I had taken my degree at Stanford in philosophy, in fact, it was Berger who advised Motherwell to continue his education at Columbia University, under Meyer Shapiro. In 1940, Motherwell moved to New York to study at Columbia University, Shapiro introduced the young artist to a group of exiled Parisian Surrealists and arranged for Motherwell to study with Kurt Seligmann. The time that Motherwell spent with the Surrealists proved to be influential to his artistic process, after a 1941 voyage with Roberto Matta to Mexico—on a boat where he met Maria, an actress and his future wife—Motherwell decided to make painting his primary vocation. The sketches Motherwell made in Mexico later evolved into his first important paintings, such as Little Spanish Prison and it was Matta who introduced Motherwell to the concept of “automatic” drawings. The Surrealists often deployed the process of automatism, or abstract “automatic” doodling to tap into their unconscious and it was also Paalen who introduced Motherwell to André Breton with an introduction letter. In 1991, shortly before he died, Motherwell remembered a conspiracy of silence regarding Paalen´s innovative role in the genesis of Abstract Expressionism, I mean I say this unqualifiedly. I was painting French intimate pictures or whatever and he asked me to find some other American artists that would help start a new movement. It was then that Baziotes and I went to see Pollock and de Kooning and Hofmann and Kamrowski and Busa, and if we could come with something. Peggy Guggenheim who liked us said that she would put on a show of new business
17.
Philip Guston
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Philip Guston, born Phillip Goldstein, was a painter and printmaker in the New York School, an art movement that included many abstract expressionists like Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning. He is known to the world for his paintings of an existential. Born in 1913 in Montreal, Guston moved with his family to Los Angeles as a child and his Ukrainian Jewish parents had escaped persecution when they moved to Canada from Odessa, Ukraine. Guston and his family were aware of the regular Ku Klux Klan activities against Jews, blacks, in 1923, possibly owing to persecution or the difficulty in securing income, his father hanged himself in the shed, and the young Guston found the body. Gustons early art was figurative and representational and his mother supported his artistic inclinations and he often made drawings in an environment of his choosing, a small closet, lit by a hanging bulb. Guston then began painting at the age of 14 when, in 1927, both he and Jackson Pollock studied under Frederick John de St. Vrain Schwankovsky and were introduced to European modern art, Eastern philosophy, theosophy and mystic literature. During high school, Guston and Jackson Pollock published a paper opposing the high schools emphasis on sports over art and their criticism led to both being expelled, but Pollock eventually returned and graduated. Apart from his school education and a one-year scholarship at the Otis Art Institute in Los Angeles. At the Otis Art Institute, Guston felt unfulfilled by the approach which limited him to drawing from plaster casts instead of the live model. Before leaving the school, Guston spent a night in the studio making drawings of the figurative plasters scattered all over the floor and this mural was then defaced by local police forces, known as as Red Squads. The subsequent court ruling found no fault on the part of L. A. police and this marks just one instance of political corruption witnessed by Guston, a theme which he would return to paint in his late style. A two-page review in Time magazine quoted Siqueiross description of them, in Mexico he also met and spent time with Frida Kahlo and husband Diego Rivera. In 1934-35, Guston and Kadish completed a mural that remains to day at City of Hope Medical Center. In September 1935 he moved to New York where he worked as an artist in the WPA program, in 1937 he married artist and poet, Musa McKim, whom he first met at Otis, and they collaborated on several WPA murals. During this period his work included strong references to Renaissance painters such as Piero della Francesca, Paolo Uccello, Masaccio and he was also influenced by American Regionalists and Mexican mural painters. In 1938 he painted a post office mural in the US post office in Commerce, Georgia, entitled Early Mail Service, italian painter Giorgio de Chirico was a powerful and enduring influence, who Guston acknowledged throughout his career. Gustons daughter, Musa Mayer, recalled how the artist kept a De Chirico monograph in his studio in her book Night Studio, A memoir of Philip Guston, and he would often refer to it. Gustons first foray into teaching was as an artist-in-residence at the School of Art and Art History at the University of Iowa from 1941 to 1945 and he completed a mural there for the Social Security building in Washington, D. C. before turning to easel painting
18.
Clyfford Still
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Still was born in 1904 in Grandin, North Dakota and spent his childhood in Spokane, Washington and Bow Island in southern Alberta, Canada. In 1925 he visited New York, briefly studying at the Art Students League and he attended Spokane University from 1926 to 1927 and returned in 1931 with a fellowship, graduating in 1933. That fall, he became a fellow, then faculty member at Washington State College. He spent the summers of 1934 and 1935 at the Trask Foundation in Saratoga Springs, in 1941 Still relocated to the San Francisco Bay area where he worked in various war industries while pursuing painting. He had his first solo exhibition at the San Francisco Museum of Art in 1943 and he taught at the Richmond Professional Institute, now Virginia Commonwealth University, from 1943 to 1945, then went to New York City. Mark Rothko, whom Still had met in California in 1943, introduced him to Peggy Guggenheim, the following year Guggenheim closed her gallery and Still, along with Rothko and other Abstract Expressionists, joined the Betty Parsons gallery. Still returned to San Francisco, where he became an influential professor at the California School of Fine Arts. He lived in New York for most of the 1950s, the height of Abstract Expressionism, in the early 1950s, Still severed ties with commercial galleries. In 1961 he moved to a 22-acre farm near Westminster, Maryland, Still used a barn on the property as a studio during the warm weather months. In 1966, Still and his wife purchased a 4, 300-square-foot house at 312 Church Street in New Windsor, Maryland, about eight miles from their farm. Still married Lillian August Battan in about 1930 and they had two daughters born in 1939 and 1942. The couple separated in the late 1940s and divorced in 1954, in 1957 he married Patricia Alice Garske, who had been one of his students at Washington State and was 16 years his junior. Unlike Mark Rothko or Barnett Newman, who organized their colors in a simple way. His jagged flashes of color give the impression that one layer of color has been torn off the painting, revealing the colors underneath. By 1947, he had begun working in the format that he would intensify, among Stills well known paintings is 1957-D No. 1,1957, which is black and yellow with patches of white. These four colors, and variations on them are predominant in his work, in 1943, Stills first solo show took place at the San Francisco Museum of Art. In 1947, Jermayne MacAgy, Assistant Director of the California Palace of the Legion of Honor, the artist then declined all public exhibitions from 1952 to 1959
19.
Richard Pousette-Dart
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Richard Warren Pousette-Dart was an American artist most recognized as a founder of the New York School of painting. His artistic output also includes drawing, sculpture, and fine-art photography, Richard Pousette-Dart was born in Saint Paul, Minnesota and moved to Valhalla, New York in 1918. His mother, Flora Pousette-Dart, was a poet and musician, his father, Nathaniel J. Pousette-Dart, was a painter, art director, educator and writer about art. Pousette-Dart began painting and drawing by the age of eight, and in 1928 was featured in a New York Times photograph showing Richard and he attended Bard College in 1936, leaving after one semester to pursue an independent track as an artist in New York City. Pousette-Darts first professional positions were as an assistant to sculptor Paul Manship, Pousette-Dart initially concentrated on stone carving, expanding his work to include cast bronze and brass. He held in regard the work of Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, who embraced tribal art and its ability to convey power. Many of his paintings and sculptures from the 1930s, such as Woman Bird Group, in 1942, he completed Symphony No. 1, The Transcendental, a painting of heroic scale too large to show at the Marian Willard Gallery, where it was to be exhibited. This work was the first mural-sized easel painting by the New York School artists, influencing works such as Mural by Jackson Pollock, during the 1940s, Pousette-Darts studio was located at 436 East 56th Street in Manhattan, near the Queensboro Bridge. In 1951, Pousette-Dart relocated to a farmhouse in Sloatsburg, New York, and eventually to nearby Suffern, white Paintings, in contrast, are ethereal compositions of graphite line on variegated white grounds. By the 1960s, he concentrated on large-scale works composed of layers of such gestural marks. Paintings known as Hieroglyphs, Presences and Radiances display dense fields and calligraphic structures that emerge, works of the 1970s and 1980s often exhibit large shapes—orbs and geometric forms— that serve as mandala-like focal points. While Pousette-Dart embraced a range of intense color within paintings and works on paper from the 1960s through the 1990s, he equally explored themes in black. In 1963, The Whitney Museum of American Art staged Pousette-Dart’s first retrospective, during the 1970s Pousette-Dart worked in Europe, including Antibes, France, where he concentrated on watercolor. In 1990 Pousette-Dart’s most complete retrospective was held at the Indianapolis Museum of Art, Pousette-Dart is widely regarded as an Abstract Expressionist. In January 1951, he was included in Nina Leen’s “The Irascibles and this now-iconic photograph has largely come to define the core group of Abstract Expressionists. The work of Pousette-Dart is often noted for its meditative and spiritual orientation, in a talk given at New Yorks Union Theological Seminary on December 2,1952, he noted, My definition of religion amounts to art and my definition of art amounts to religion. I dont believe you can have one significantly without the other, Art and religion are the inseparable structure and living adventure of the creative
20.
Apprenticeship
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An apprenticeship is a system of training a new generation of practitioners of a trade or profession with on-the-job training and often some accompanying study. Apprenticeship also enables practitioners to gain a license to practice in a regulated profession, Apprenticeships typically last 3 to 7 years. People who successfully complete an apprenticeship reach the journeyman or professional level of competence. In early modern usage, the clipped form prentice was common, the system of apprenticeship first developed in the later Middle Ages and came to be supervised by craft guilds and town governments. A master craftsman was entitled to employ young people as a form of labour in exchange for providing food, lodging. Most apprentices were males, but female apprentices were found in such as seamstress, tailor. Apprentices usually began at ten to fifteen years of age, in Coventry those completing seven-year apprenticeships with stuff merchants were entitled to become freemen of the city. Subsequently, governmental regulation and the licensing of technical colleges and vocational education formalized and bureaucratized the details of apprenticeship, Australian Apprenticeships encompass all apprenticeships and traineeships. They cover all sectors in Australia and are used to achieve both entry-level and career upskilling objectives. There were 470,000 Australian Apprentices in-training as at 31 March 2012, Australian Government employer and employee incentives may be applicable, while State and Territory Governments may provide public funding support for the training element of the initiative. Australian Apprenticeships combine time at work with formal training and can be full-time, part-time or school-based, Australian Apprentice and Traineeship services are dedicated to promoting retention, therefore much effort is made to match applicants with the right apprenticeship or traineeship. This is done with the aid of aptitude tests, tips, information and resources on potential apprenticeship and traineeship occupations are available in over sixty industries. The distinction between the terms apprentices and trainees lies mainly around traditional trades and the time it takes to gain a qualification, Australia also has a fairly unusual safety net in place for businesses and Australian Apprentices with its Group Training scheme. It is a safety net, because the Group Training Organisation is the employer and provides continuity of employment and it lasts two to four years – the duration varies among the 250 legally recognized apprenticeship trades. About 40 percent of all Austrian teenagers enter apprenticeship training upon completion of compulsory education and this number has been stable since the 1950s. The five most popular trades are, Retail Salesperson, Clerk, Car Mechanic, Hairdresser, there are many smaller trades with small numbers of apprentices, like EDV-Systemtechniker which is completed by fewer than 100 people a year. The Apprenticeship Leave Certificate provides the apprentice with access to two different vocational careers, the person responsible for overseeing the training inside the company is called Lehrherr or Ausbilder. An Ausbilder must prove he has the qualifications needed to educate another person
21.
Commercial art
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Commercial art is the art of creative services, referring to art created for commercial purposes, primarily advertising. Commercial art traditionally includes designing books, advertisements of different products, signs, posters, most commercial artists have the ability to organize information and knowledge of fine arts, visualization and media. It is commonly used for advertising goods and services, fine art, on the other hand, is for the artist. Commercial artists creatively think of ways to entice the viewer with digital art, communication is often vital in this field. Usually, the art department is relatively small, consisting of art directors, perhaps an assistant director, commercial artists work a variety of situations doing many things in the artistic world such as advertisement, illustration and animation. Commercial artists should have skills in drawing and painting, experience using graphic design and editing software. Commercial Art is usually made for mass exposure and distribution, commercial art creates a way to show people the product or service by using an image that may catch ones eye. This is one way businesses are promoting and advertising their products, commercial art applies artistic principles to a variety of fields. Commercial artists design advertisements, logos, billboards, brochures, book covers, product packaging and their work is often used to sell, promote, explain, narrate and inform. Commercial artists can specialize in design and illustration, among other areas. Illustrators create images for use in books, magazines and stationery, graphic designers create artwork and layouts for books, newspapers, magazines, television, product packaging and the Internet. Graphic design professionals work in advertising, marketing or related fields
22.
Willem de Kooning Academy
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The Willem de Kooning Academy Rotterdam University of Applied Sciences is a Dutch academy of media, art, design, leisure and education based in Rotterdam. It was named one of its most famous alumni, Dutch fine artist Willem de Kooning. The Willem de Kooning Academy is the art school of Rotterdam and it is regarded as one of the most prestigious art schools in the country and no.1 in advertising and copywriting. Previously called the Academie van Beeldende Kunsten, it has since 1998 carried the name of alumnus Willem de Kooning, Willem de Kooning was born in north Rotterdam and graduated in decoration art. He went to New York at the age of 22 and became a frontman of the Abstract Expressionism painting movement of the 1940s and 1950s, the academys postgraduate programmes are housed in the Piet Zwart Institute, named after faculty alumnus Piet Zwart. Zwart designed stamps, print advertising, books, interiors, furniture in the 1920s and he has been officially awarded the title Dutch Designer of the 20th Century. The academy is proud of de Kooning and Zwart, two artists far ahead of their time, who inspire both students and faculty. The roots of the art academy in Rotterdam go back to 1773, in those days drawing societies and academies were founded in many Dutch cities. According to Knolle, these were instances where new ideas about the production and function of art were developed, exchanged, in 1781, the drawing society was turned into a public academy, the Rotterdamse Academie. In addition to programmes, there were now classes in engineering, perspective theory, anatomy. The academy also kept acting as meeting place for discussion with 303 members in 1808, in 1822 the academy was renamed Stadstekenschool voor de Bouwkunde, and in 1832 renamed to Volksindustrieschool. In 1851 the Academie van Beeldende Kunsten en Technische Wetenschappen was founded from the merger of the Rotterdamse Tekengenootschap and it was located in a building at the Coolvest, now Coolsingel, and headed by Jan Hendrik van de Laar. The school had two divisions, namely division A, where the classes were taught, and division B. In 1970 the school was renamed Academie van Beeldende Kunsten, the Willem de Kooning Academy offers 13 full-time majors and 1 part-time major programme, leading to a bachelors degree. On top of a major, students are able to choose from a wide variety elective minors and it will introduce them to the three graduation profiles, Autonomous Practices, Social Practices and Commercial Practices. The Piet Zwart Institute consist of 4 full-time postgraduate programmes leading to degree, Fine Art, Interior Architecture & Retail Design, Media Design. The institute is highly selective with each of the programmes, only admitting 10-12 student annually, the Willem de Kooning Academy is located at Blaak 10 and Wijnhaven 61, two adherent buildings connected with an airbridge. Blaak 10 has always regarded as the home base of the academy
23.
Stowaway
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A stowaway is a person who secretly boards a vehicle, such as a ship, an aircraft, a train, cargo truck or bus, in order to travel without paying and without being detected. Poor perimeter security at a number of airports around the world can make it easier for people to stow away on planes, the landing gear compartment is not equipped with heating, pressure or oxygen, which are vital for survival at a high altitude. According to experts, at 18,000 feet, hypoxia causes lightheadedness, weakness, vision impairment, by 22,000 feet the oxygen level of the blood drops and the person will struggle to stay conscious. Above 33,000 feet their lungs would need artificial pressure to operate normally, the temperature could drop as low as −63 °C which causes severe hypothermia. David Learmount, an expert of Flight International, told BBC about a lot of ignorance in this area. He suggested that no one would be willing to risk such journey, stowaways who survived usually traveled relatively short distances or at a low altitude. Almost all aircraft stowaways are male, in one reported case, in 2003, a young man mailed himself in a large box and had it shipped on UPS planes from New York City to Texas. He survived because the box travelled in a hold of an aircraft. From 1947 until September 2012, there were 96 known stowaway attempts worldwide in wheel wells of 85 separate flights, stowaways may risk being fined or imprisoned, since it is illegal in most jurisdictions to embark on aircraft, boats or trains as stowaways. Airports, sea ports and train stations are marked as no trespassing or private property zones to anyone but customers. Seaports, train stations, and airports often attempt further security by designating restricted areas with signs saying authorized personnel Only, since the September 11 attacks, it has become more difficult to be a stowaway on board transportation arriving to or departing from the United States. Airport security has increased, and among the new security measures is watching over the fences from which stowaways usually gain entrance to an airports runway. Some illegal immigrants travel around Europe in trucks and trains without being detected, a number of them try to get to other European countries, such as France and the United Kingdom. Stowaways on sailing ships and on steamships made this way of illicit travel known throughout the world, throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries impecunious would-be emigrants and travelers seeking adventure for nothing helped to make it seem romantic. Noted stowaways to America by steamship have included Henry Armetta, Bruno Richard Hauptmann, Willem de Kooning, the word takes its origin with the expression stow away. This stow away expression is old and was used for things, such usage is seen for instance in the 1699 book A New Voyage Round the World, Volume 1 or 1647 Journals of the House of Lords, the word was also used for people. This gave names such as stow-aways, when the current name in modern English language is stowaway. Depending on the people were stowed way in order to hide themselves
24.
Newport News, Virginia
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Newport News is an independent city located in the Commonwealth of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 180,719, in 2013, the population was estimated to be 183,412, making it the fifth-most populous city in Virginia. Newport News is included in the Hampton Roads metropolitan area, the area now known as Newport News was once a part of Warwick County. Warwick County was one of the eight original shires of Virginia, formed by the House of Burgesses in the British Colony of Virginia by order of King Charles I, the county was largely composed of farms and undeveloped land until almost 250 years later. In 1881,15 years of development began under the leadership of Collis P. With the new railroad came a terminal and coal piers where the colliers were loaded, within a few years, Huntington and his associates also built a large shipyard. In 1896, the new incorporated town of Newport News, which had briefly replaced Denbigh as the county seat of Warwick County, had a population of 9,000. In 1958, by mutual consent by referendum, Newport News was consolidated with the former Warwick County, the more widely known name of Newport News was selected as they formed what was then Virginias third largest independent city in population. The location on the harbor and along the James River facilitates a large boating industry which can take advantage of its miles of waterfront. Newport News also serves as a junction between the rails and the sea with the Newport News Marine Terminals located at the East End of the city. Served by major east-west Interstate Highway 64, it is linked to others of the cities of Hampton Roads by the circumferential Hampton Roads Beltway, part of the Newport News/Williamsburg International Airport is in the city limits. The original area near the mouth of the James River was first referred to as Newportes Newes as early as 1621, the source of the name Newport News is not known with certainty. Several versions are recorded, and it is the subject of popular speculation locally, the new governor ordered them to turn around, and return to Jamestown. Under this theory, the community was named for Newports good news, another possibility is that the community may have derived its name from an old English word news meaning new town. At least one source claims that the New arose from the settlements being rebuilt after a fire. Another source gave the name as New Port Newce, named for a person with the name Newce. The namesake, Sir William Newce, was an English soldier, there he had established Newcestown near Bandon, County Cork. He sailed to Virginia with Sir Francis Wyatt in October 1621 and was granted 2,500 acres of land and his brother, Capt. Thomas Newce, was given 600 acres at Kequatan, now called Elizabeth Cittie
25.
Hoboken, New Jersey
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Hoboken is a city in Hudson County, New Jersey, United States. Hoboken is part of the New York metropolitan area and is the site of Hoboken Terminal, Hoboken was first settled as part of the Pavonia, New Netherland colony in the 17th century. During the early 19th century the city was developed by Colonel John Stevens, first as a resort and it became a township in 1849 and was incorporated as a city in 1855. Hoboken is the location of the first recorded game of baseball and of the Stevens Institute of Technology, located on the Hudson Waterfront, the city was an integral part of the Port of New York and New Jersey and home to major industries for most of the 20th century. The character of the city has changed from a blue collar town to one of upscale shops, the name Hoboken was chosen by Colonel John Stevens when he bought land, on a part of which the city still sits. Like Weehawken, its neighbor to the north, Communipaw and Harsimus to the south, Hoebuck, old Dutch for high bluff and likely referring to Castle Point, was used during the colonial era and later spelled as Hobuck, Hobock, Hobuk and Hoboocken. The origin of Hobokens name was not related to the Hoboken district of Antwerp, however, in the nineteenth century, a folk etymology had emerged linking the town of to the similarly-named Flemish town. Hoboken was originally an island, surrounded by the Hudson River on the east and it was a seasonal campsite in the territory of the Hackensack, a phratry of the Lenni Lenape, who used the serpentine rock found there to carve pipes. Soon after it part of the province of New Netherland. Three Lenape sold the land that was to become Hoboken for 80 fathoms of wampum,20 fathoms of cloth,12 kettles, six guns and these transactions, variously dated as July 12,1630 and November 22,1630, represent the earliest known conveyance for the area. Pauw failed to settle the land, and he was obliged to sell his holdings back to the Company in 1633 and it was later acquired by Hendrick Van Vorst, who leased part of the land to Aert Van Putten, a farmer. In 1643, north of what would be known as Castle Point, Van Putten built a house. In series of Indian and Dutch raids and reprisals, Van Putten was killed and his buildings destroyed, deteriorating relations with the Lenape, its isolation as an island, or relatively long distance from New Amsterdam may have discouraged more settlement. In 1664, the English took possession of New Amsterdam with little or no resistance, english-speaking settlers interspersed with the Dutch, but it remained scarcely populated and agrarian. At the end of the Revolutionary War, Bayards property was confiscated by the Revolutionary Government of New Jersey, in 1784, the land described as William Bayards farm at Hoebuck was bought at auction by Colonel John Stevens for £18,360. In the early 19th century, Colonel John Stevens developed the waterfront as a resort for Manhattanites, on October 11,1811, Stevens ship the Juliana, began to operate as a ferry between Manhattan and Hoboken, making it the worlds first commercial steam ferry. In 1825, he designed and built a locomotive capable of hauling several passenger cars at his estate. Sybils Cave, a cave with a spring, was opened in 1832
26.
Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough and it is historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 for 60 guilders which equals US$1062 today. New York County is the United States second-smallest county by land area, on business days, the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3.9 million, or more than 170,000 people per square mile. Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York Citys five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, the City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan, and the borough houses New York City Hall, the seat of the citys government. The name Manhattan derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, a 1610 map depicts the name as Manna-hata, twice, on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River. The word Manhattan has been translated as island of hills from the Lenape language. The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use New York, NY rather than Manhattan, the area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City. It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company, a permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam, the 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony, New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it New York after the English Duke of York and Albany, the Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of battles in the early American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776. The city, greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the campaign, became the British political, British occupation lasted until November 25,1783, when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city
27.
Art colony
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An art colony or artists colony is a place where creative practitioners live and interact with one another. Artists are often invited or selected through a process, for a residency from a few weeks to over a year. Worldwide, the two organizations serving artist colonies and residential centres are Res Artis, based in Amsterdam. The Intra Asia Network, based in Taiwan, is a formal body working to advance creative communities and exchanges throughout Asia. These consortia comprise most of the worlds active artists colonies, Art colonies initially emerged as village movements in the 19th and early 20th century. While artist colonies appeared across Europe, as well as in America and Australia, Lübbren has found that the majority of colonies were clustered in the Netherlands, Central Germany, and France. Overall artists of 35 different nationalities were represented throughout these colonies, with Americans, Germans, villages can also be classified according to the nationalities they attracted. Barbizon, Pont-Aven, Giverny, Katwijk, Newlyn and Dachau drew artists from around the world and had an international flavour. On the other hand, foreigners were rare at Sint-Martens-Latem, Tervuren, Nagybanya, Kronberg, Staithes, Worpswede and Willingshausen while Skagen hosted mainly Danes and they were not necessarily leaders, although these artists were respected and held a certain moral authority in their respective colonies. There were also regular colony hoppers who moved about the art colonies of Europe in a nomadic fashion, the greater number of early European art colonies were to be casualties of the First World War. Europe was no longer the same place socially, politically, economically and culturally, however, a small proportion did endure in one or another form, and owe their continuing existence to cultural tourism. If they have not fared as well, several formerly major colonies such as Concarneau and its well-funded, well-organized campus, and extensive program of fellowships, were soon replicated by early 20th-century artist colonies and their wealthy benefactors. The Provincetown art colony came into being when Charles Webster Hawthorne opened his Cape Cod School of Art there in the summer of 1899, other noted artists arrived and expanded the colony. In 1914 the Provincetown Art Association was founded, Provincetown claims to be the oldest continuously operating artists colony in the United States. The town of Woodstock remains a center of art galleries, music. The high desert town of Sedona, Arizona, became a Southwest artists colony from the mid-20th century. Among the Wild West setting, Ernst built a cottage by hand in Brewer Road. Sedona proved an inspiration for the artists, and for Ernst—who compiled his book Beyond Painting, the environment also inspired Egyptian sculptor Nassan Gobran to move there from Boston and become head of the art department at Verde Valley School
28.
Woodstock, New York
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Woodstock is a town in Ulster County, New York, United States. The population was 5,884 at the 2010 census, down from 6,241 at the 2000 census, Woodstock is in the northern part of the county, northwest of Kingston, and lies within the borders of the Catskill Park. The first non-indigenous settler arrived around 1770, the Town of Woodstock was established in 1787. Later, Woodstock contributed some of its territory to form the towns of Middletown, Windham, Shandaken, Woodstock played host to numerous Hudson River School painters during the late 1800s. The Arts and Crafts Movement came to Woodstock in 1902, with the arrival of Ralph Radcliffe Whitehead, Bolton Brown and Hervey White, who formed the Byrdcliffe Colony. In 1906, L. Birge Harrison and others founded the Summer School of the Art Students League of New York in the area, ever since, Woodstock has been considered an active artists colony. From 1915 through 1931, Hervey Whites Maverick Art Colony held the Maverick Festivals, in hundreds of free spirits gathered each summer for music, art, theater. A series of Woodstock Sound-Outs were staged at Pan Copelands Farm just over the line in Saugerties from 1967 to 1970. These featured folk and rock acts like Richie Havens, Paul Butterfield, Dave van Ronk, Woodstock is also home to the Karma Triyana Dharmachakra Buddhist monastery, situated at the top of Meads Mountain Road. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 67.8 square miles, of which 67.3 square miles is land and 0.54 square miles. The north town line is the border of Greene County, as of the census of 2000, there were 6,241 people,2,946 households, and 1,626 families residing in the town. The population density was 92.5 people per square mile, there were 3,847 housing units at an average density of 57.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 94. 25% White,1. 30% Black or African American,0. 21% Native American,1. 57% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,0. 79% from other races, and 1. 87% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 56% of the population,35. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.10 and the family size was 2.71. In the town, the population was out with 18. 0% under the age of 18,3. 7% from 18 to 24,23. 0% from 25 to 44,38. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 48 years, for every 100 females there were 94.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.1 males, the median income for a household in the town was $49,217, and the median income for a family was $65,938
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Modernism
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Among the factors that shaped modernism were the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by reactions of horror to World War I. Modernism also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and many modernists rejected religious belief, the poet Ezra Pounds 1934 injunction to Make it new. Was the touchstone of the approach towards what it saw as the now obsolete culture of the past. In this spirit, its innovations, like the novel, atonal and twelve-tone music, divisionist painting and abstract art. Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism and makes use of the works of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision, others focus on modernism as an aesthetic introspection. While J. M. W. Art critic Clement Greenberg describes the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as proto-Modernists, There the proto-Modernists were, of all people, the Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed Manet, with whom Modernist painting most definitely begins. They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as practiced in their time, rationalism has also had opponents in the philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and later Friedrich Nietzsche, both of whom had significant influence on existentialism. A major 19th-century engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron, Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station and Kings Cross Station. These technological advances led to the building of structures like the Brooklyn Bridge. The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be and these engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. Arguments arose that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antithetical to Progress, the philosopher Schopenhauer called into question the previous optimism, and his ideas had an important influence on later thinkers, including Nietzsche. Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness, in particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as lower animals proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality. Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. Everdell also thinks modernism in painting began in 1885–86 with Seurats Divisionism, the poet Baudelaires Les Fleurs du mal, and Flauberts novel Madame Bovary were both published in 1857. In the arts and letters, two important approaches developed separately in France, the first was Impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors. Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, the school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention
30.
Stuart Davis (painter)
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Stuart Davis, was an early American modernist painter. He was well known for his jazz-influenced, proto pop art paintings of the 1940s and 1950s, bold, brash, and colorful, as well as his Ashcan School pictures in the early years of the 20th century. With the belief that his work could influence the environment of America. Contrary to most modernist artists, Davis was aware of his objectives and allegiances. Under the project, Davis created some seemingly Marxist works, however, he was too independent to fully support Marxist ideals, despite several works that appear to be nondemocratic or push Marxist views, Davis roots in American optimism is apparent throughout his lifetime. Stuart Davis was born on December 7,1892, in Philadelphia to Edward Wyatt Davis, art editor of The Philadelphia Press, and Helen Stuart Davis, sculptor. Starting in 1909, Davis began his art training under Robert Henri. During this time, Davis befriended painters John Sloan, Glenn Coleman, in 1913, Davis was one of the youngest painters to exhibit in the Armory Show, where he displayed five watercolor paintings in the Ashcan school style. In the show, Davis was exposed to the works of a number of artists including Vincent van Gogh, Henri Matisse, Davis became a committed modern artist and a major exponent of cubism and modernism in America. He spent summers painting in Gloucester, Massachusetts, and made painting trips to Havana in 1918, in the 1920s he began his development into his mature style, painting abstract still lifes and landscapes. His use of subject matter such as cigarette packages and spark plug advertisements suggests a proto-pop art element to his work. In 1928, he visited Paris, France for a year, in 1929, while in Paris, he married his American girlfriend, Bessie Chosak. In the 1930s, he became politically engaged, according to Cécile Whiting, Davis goal was to reconcile abstract art with Marxism. In 1934 he joined the Artists Union, he was elected its President. In 1936 the American Artists Congress elected him National Secretary and he painted murals for Federal Art Project of the Works Progress Administration that are influenced by his love of jazz. In 1932 Davis was devastated by the loss of his wife, in 1938 Davis married Roselle Springer and spent his late life teaching at the New York School for Social Research and at Yale University. He was represented by Edith Gregor Halpert at the Downtown Gallery in New York City, Davis died of a stroke in New York on June 24,1964, aged 71. Davis’ interactions with European modernist works in 1913 had a significant impact on his growth as an artist, the realist Robert Henri had trained Davis to paint in a realist fashion since Davis’ youth, however Davis’ excursion with European modernists caused him to raise the modernist flag instead
31.
Balcomb Greene
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Balcomb Greene and his wife, artist Gertrude Glass Greene, were heavily involved in political activism to promote mainstream acceptance of abstract art. They were founding members of the American Abstract Artists organization and his early style was completely non-objective. Juan Gris and Piet Mondrian as well as Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse influenced his early style, from the 1940s his work opened out to the light and space of natural form. He discerned the pain of a man, and hewed to it integrally from beginning to end…, in his study of the figure he did not stress anatomical shape but rather its intuitive, often conflicting spirit. Balcomb Greene contributed to modernist cause through his writings, It is actually the artist, and only he, Balcomb Greene was born on May 22,1904, Millville, New York. He studied from 1922 to 1926 at Syracuse University, where he received his BA degree, in 1927 he studied English literature at Columbia University. Greene taught English literature at Dartmouth College from 1928 to 1931, in 1931 he went to Paris and studied art at the Académie de la Grande Chaumière. Soon after his return to New York in 1933 he realized that his true interest was painting, in 1935 he became the first president of the Artists Union and in 1936 the first chairman of the American Abstract Artists. Also in 1939 and 1941 he was reelected as chairman of American Abstract Artists, but resigned from that organization in 1942, when he began a career as a professor of art history and aesthetics. After receiving his masters degree in art history, Greene taught at Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, Gertrude Greene stayed in New York, and the couple shared a studio on Montauk, Long Island, during summer breaks. Greene worked alone to pursue his solitary style but at the time he was familiar with the Abstract Expressionist movement. He wrote in Art News, The Fourth Illusions, or Hunger for Genius A picture is painted of modern art that arranges all participants into movements, like well-behaved Englishmen in clubs. In spite of his conviction he agreed to participate in the invitational New York Painting, in 1972 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member. Greene granted interviews to Jacqueline Moss, who was researching his wife for her masters thesis, Balcomb Greene died November 12,1990, in Montauk Point, New York. His first solo shows were in Paris in 1937, and at J. B, newmanns New Art Circle, in New York, in 1947. From 1950 to 1961 he exhibited annually at Bertha Schaefer Gallery, New York, where his 1950,1955 and he exhibited at the American University, Washington, D. C. In 1961 Balcomb Greene had an exhibition at the Whitney Museum of American Art. He continued to have one man shows at the Saidenberg Gallery in New York from 1962 to 1968 and he had several other solo exhibitions, Feingarten Gallery, Los Angeles, in 1963 and 1964
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Artists Union
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The Artists Union or Artists Union was a short-lived union of artists in New York in the years of the Great Depression. It was influential in the establishment of both the Public Works of Art Project in December 1933 and the Federal Art Project of the Works Progress Administration in August 1935. It functioned as the principal meeting-place for artists in the city in the 1930s, the Artists Union started in September 1933 as a group of about twenty-five artists who worked for the Emergency Work Bureau, which was soon to be shut down. The group met informally at the John Reed Club and was at first called the Emergency Work Bureau Artists Group, the secretary of the new group was Bernarda Bryson, who had been involved with the Unemployed Councils of the American Communist Party. In December 1933 the group petitioned Harry L. Hopkins, the administrator of the Civil Works Administration, the Public Works of Art Project was established later in the same month. The administrator of the PWAP for New York was Juliana Force and she asked major artists associations to provide lists of their unemployed, but did not contact the Unemployed Artists Group. On 9 January 1934 the group picketed the Whitney with placards targeting the director, the administration responded with offers of jobs, and it became accepted that artists should be included in the governments work-relief plan. The group no longer consisted only of unemployed artists, and changed its name to the Artists Union, a second-floor loft was found at 60 West Fifteenth Street, and meetings were held there on Wednesday nights. Attendance was usually two or three hundred people, but could be much higher, the Union had become the principal social and cultural meeting-place for artists in New York. Members of the Union were often ready to participate in protests and demonstrations of workers unions or of politically left-wing organizations. The WPA was conceived as a response to an emergency. At another sit-in in June 1937, more than 600 artists and others took hostage officials of the projects. These and other tactics delayed but did not prevent the reduction of the WPA. It attempted to negotiate affiliation with the American Federation of Labor, in January 1938 it changed its name to the United American Artists and became Local 60 of the recently formed Congress of Industrial Organizations. It left the CIO in May 1942 and merged with the American Artists Congress, according to art historian Andrew Hemingway, drawing on the research of Gerard Monroe, The Artists Union began as the Unemployed Artists Group within the John Reed Club in the summer of 1933
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Federal Art Project
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The Federal Art Project was a New Deal program to fund the visual arts in the United States. Under national director Holger Cahill, it was one of five Federal Project Number One projects sponsored by the Works Progress Administration, the Federal Art Project was the visual arts arm of the Great Depression-era Works Progress Administration, a Federal One program. Funded under the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935, it operated from August 29,1935, the Federal Art Project operated community art centers throughout the country where craft workers and artists worked, exhibited and educated others. The project created more than 200,000 separate works, some of them remaining among the most significant pieces of art in the country. The Federal Art Projects primary goals were to employ out-of-work artists and to art for non-federal municipal buildings. Artists were paid $23.60 a week, tax-supported institutions such as schools, hospitals, the work was divided into art production, art instruction and art research. The primary output of the group was the Index of American Design. As many as 10,000 artists were commissioned to work for the WPA Federal Art Project. The WPA program made no distinction between representational and nonrepresentational art, abstraction had not yet gained favor in the 1930s and 1940s and, thus, was virtually unsalable. As a result, the Federal Art Project supported such artists as Jackson Pollock before their work could earn them income. One particular success was the Milwaukee Handicraft Project, which started in 1935 as an experiment that employed 900 people who were classified as unemployable due to their age or disability. The project came to employ approximately 5,000 unskilled workers, many of them women, historian John Gurda observed that the citys unemployment hovered at 40 percent in 1933. In that year, he said,53 percent of Milwaukees property taxes went unpaid because people just could not afford to make the tax payments, workers were taught bookbinding, block printing and design, which they used to create handmade art books and childrens books. They produced toys, dolls, theatre costumes, quilts, rugs, draperies, wall hangings and furniture that were purchased by schools, hospitals and municipal organizations for the cost of materials only. In 2014, when the Museum of Wisconsin Art mounted an exhibition of items created by the Milwaukee Handicraft Project, Holger Cahill was national director of the Federal Art Project. Other administrators included Audrey McMahon, director of the New York Region, haupers, director for Minnesota, and Robert Bruce Inverarity, director for Washington state. Some 10,000 artists were commissioned to work for the Federal Art Project, notable artists include the following, The first federally sponsored community art center opened in December 1936 in Raleigh, North Carolina. The Index of American Design program of the Federal Art Project produced a survey of the crafts
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Works Progress Administration
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In a much smaller but more famous project, Federal Project Number One, the WPA employed musicians, artists, writers, actors and directors in large arts, drama, media, and literacy projects. Almost every community in the United States had a new park, the WPAs initial appropriation in 1935 was for $4.9 billion. Headed by Harry Hopkins, the WPA provided jobs and income to the unemployed during the Great Depression in the United States. At its peak in 1938, it provided jobs for three million unemployed men and women, as well as youth in a separate division, the National Youth Administration. Between 1935 and 1943, when the agency was disbanded, the WPA employed 8.5 million people, most people who needed a job were eligible for employment in some capacity. Hourly wages were set to the prevailing wages in each area. The stated goal of building programs was to end the depression or, at least, alleviate its worst effects. Millions of people needed subsistence incomes, Work relief was preferred over public assistance because it maintained self-respect, reinforced the work ethic, and kept skills sharp. The WPA was a program that operated its own projects in cooperation with state and local governments. Usually the local sponsor provided land and often trucks and supplies, WPA sometimes took over state and local relief programs that had originated in the Reconstruction Finance Corporation or Federal Emergency Relief Administration programs. It was liquidated on June 30,1943, as a result of low unemployment due to the shortage of World War II. The WPA had provided millions of Americans with jobs for eight years, on May 6,1935, FDR issued Executive Order 7034, establishing the Works Progress Administration. The WPA superseded the work of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, direct relief assistance was permanently replaced by a national work relief program—a major public works program directed by the WPA. The WPA was largely shaped by Harry Hopkins, supervisor of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, both Roosevelt and Hopkins believed that the route to economic recovery and the lessened importance of the dole would be in employment programs such as the WPA. The Division of Professional and Service Projects, which was responsible for projects including education programs, recreation programs. It was later named the Division of Community Service Programs and the Service Division, the Division of Investigation, which succeeded a comparable division at FERA and investigated fraud, misappropriation of funds and disloyalty. The Division of Statistics, also known as the Division of Social Research, the Project Control Division, which processed project applications. Other divisions including the Employment, Management, Safety, Supply, the goal of the WPA was to employ most of the unemployed people on relief until the economy recovered
35.
Williamsburg Houses
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The Williamsburg Houses, originally called the Ten Eyck Houses, is a New York City Housing Authority development in the Williamsburg, Brooklyn neighborhood, New York City, New York. New York City Council politician Rosie Méndez grew up in the development, the Williamsburg Houses were designated a New York City Landmark in 2003. The Williamsburg Houses were built in 1936–1938 under the auspices of the Housing Division of the Public Works Administration, standing between Maujer and Scholes Streets, and Leonard Street and Bushwick Avenue, its 20 four-story residential buildings occupy twelve city blocks. It was one of the first and most costly of New York City housing projects, New York City Mayor Fiorello La Guardia poured the first shovel of concrete for the project and was a strong supporter of the project despite its cost. The site is the home of Williamsburg Continuation School and the Finco Dye. The houses are oriented towards the sun at a 15-degree angle, the housing project was conveyed by the federal government to the NYCHA in 1957. A $70-million-dollar renovation was done in 1999 by the NYCHAs architect David J. Burney, because of its innovative International Style design, the housing project designs called for the inclusion of modern art. Working with Lescaze, the NYC Federal Arts Project mural division, headed by abstract artist Burgoyne Diller, five abstract murals by Ilya Bolotowsky, Balcomb Greene, Paul Kelpe, and Albert Swinden were installed in basement meeting rooms in the late 1930s. Three of them long-covered over with paint, these murals were rediscovered in the late 1980s, after careful removal and restoration, the Williamsburg murals were installed at the Brooklyn Museum in 1990, where they remain on long-term loan from the NYCHA. Other artists received commissions for the project but their murals were not used. Francis Criss completed a 1938 oil-on-canvas mural called Sixth Avenue El, the subject was timely, given that the elevated line was closed in late 1938 and razed in 1939. However, Crisss mural was never installed, according to Time magazine, it was rejected because the color scheme didnt match the prescribed colors for the project. Other artists engaged for the commissions were Jan Matulka, Byron Browne, George McNeil, Willem de Kooning, Harry Bowden. Abstract sculptures, including work by Martin Craig and Jose de Rivera, were part of the initial plans. The status of the murals and sculptures has not been fully established. New York City Housing Authority List of New York City Housing Authority properties photos and description of the development Restoration of WPA-FAP Murals at the Williamsburg Houses]
36.
Brooklyn
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Brooklyn is the most populous borough of New York City, with a Census-estimated 2,636,735 residents in 2015. It borders the borough of Queens at the end of Long Island. Today, if New York City dissolved, Brooklyn would rank as the third-most populous city in the U. S. behind Los Angeles, the borough continues, however, to maintain a distinct culture. Many Brooklyn neighborhoods are ethnic enclaves, Brooklyns official motto, displayed on the Borough seal and flag, is Eendraght Maeckt Maght which translates from early modern Dutch as Unity makes strength. Since 2010, Brooklyn has evolved into a hub of entrepreneurship and high technology startup firms. The history of European settlement in Brooklyn spans more than 350 years, the neighborhood of Marine Park was home to North Americas first tidal mill. It was built by the Dutch, and the foundation can be seen today, however, the area was not formally settled as a town. Many incidents and documents relating to this period are in Gabriel Furmans early compilation, what is today Brooklyn left Dutch hands after the final English conquest of New Netherland in 1664, a prelude to the Second Anglo–Dutch War. The English reorganized the six old Dutch towns on southwestern Long Island as Kings County on November 1,1683 and this tract of land was recognized as a political entity for the first time, and the municipal groundwork was laid for a later expansive idea of Brooklyn identity. On August 27,1776 was fought the Battle of Long Island, the first major engagement fought in the American Revolutionary War after independence was declared, and the largest of the entire conflict. British troops forced Continental Army troops under George Washington off the heights near the sites of Green-Wood Cemetery, Prospect Park. The fortified American positions at Brooklyn Heights consequently became untenable and were evacuated a few days later, One result of the Treaty of Paris in 1783 was the evacuation of the British from New York City, celebrated by residents into the 20th century. The New York Navy Yard operated in Wallabout Bay for the entire 19th century, the first center of urbanization sprang up in the Town of Brooklyn, directly across from Lower Manhattan, which saw the incorporation of the Village of Brooklyn in 1817. Reliable steam ferry service across the East River to Fulton Landing converted Brooklyn Heights into a town for Wall Street. Ferry Road to Jamaica Pass became Fulton Street to East New York, Town and Village were combined to form the first, kernel incarnation of the City of Brooklyn in 1834. Industrial deconcentration in mid-century was bringing shipbuilding and other manufacturing to the part of the county. Each of the two cities and six towns in Kings County remained independent municipalities, and purposely created non-aligning street grids with different naming systems and it later became the most popular and highest circulation afternoon paper in America. The publisher changed to L. Van Anden on April 19,1842, on May 14,1849 the name was shortened to The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, on September 5,1938 it was further shortened to Brooklyn Eagle
37.
Museum of Modern Art
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The Museum of Modern Art is an art museum located in Midtown Manhattan in New York City, on 53rd Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues. MoMA has been important in developing and collecting modernist art, and is identified as one of the largest and most influential museums of modern art in the world. The MoMA Library includes approximately 300,000 books and exhibition catalogs, over 1,000 periodical titles, the archives holds primary source material related to the history of modern and contemporary art. The idea for The Museum of Modern Art was developed in 1929 primarily by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller and they became known variously as the Ladies, the daring ladies and the adamantine ladies. They rented modest quarters for the new museum in the Heckscher Building at 730 Fifth Avenue in Manhattan, and it opened to the public on November 7,1929, nine days after the Wall Street Crash. Abby had invited A. Conger Goodyear, the president of the board of trustees of the Albright Art Gallery in Buffalo, New York. At the time, it was Americas premier museum devoted exclusively to art. One of Abbys early recruits for the staff was the noted Japanese-American photographer Soichi Sunami. Goodyear enlisted Paul J. Sachs and Frank Crowninshield to join him as founding trustees, Sachs, the associate director and curator of prints and drawings at the Fogg Museum at Harvard University, was referred to in those days as a collector of curators. Goodyear asked him to recommend a director and Sachs suggested Alfred H. Barr, under Barrs guidance, the museums holdings quickly expanded from an initial gift of eight prints and one drawing. Its first successful exhibition was in November 1929, displaying paintings by Van Gogh, Gauguin, Cézanne. Abbys husband was opposed to the museum and refused to release funds for the venture. Nevertheless, he donated the land for the current site of the museum, plus other gifts over time. During that time it initiated many more exhibitions of noted artists, the museum also gained international prominence with the hugely successful and now famous Picasso retrospective of 1939–40, held in conjunction with the Art Institute of Chicago. In its range of presented works, it represented a significant reinterpretation of Picasso for future art scholars, Boy Leading a Horse was briefly contested over ownership with the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. In 1941, MoMA hosted the exhibition, Indian Art of the United States. His brother, David Rockefeller, also joined the board of trustees in 1948. David subsequently employed the noted architect Philip Johnson to redesign the garden and name it in honor of his mother
38.
1939 New York World's Fair
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Many countries around the world participated in it, and over 44 million people attended its exhibits in two seasons. The NYWF of 1939–1940 was the first exposition to be based on the future, with a slogan of Dawn of a New Day. To its visitors the Fair will say, Here are the materials, ideas and these are the tools with which the World of Tomorrow must be made. They are all interesting and much effort has been expended to lay them before you in an interesting way, familiarity with today is the best preparation for the future. Within six months of the Fairs opening, the Second World War would begin, in 1935, at the height of the Great Depression, a group of New York City businessmen decided to create an international exposition to lift the city and the country out of depression. Not long after, these men formed the New York Worlds Fair Corporation, the NYWFC elected former chief of police Grover Whalen as the president of their committee. This event turned the area into a City park after the exposition closed, edward Bernays directed public relations of the fair in 1939, which he called democricity. Promotion of this event took many forms. Howard Hughes flew a special Worlds Fair flight around the world to promote the fair in 1938, on April 30,1939, a very hot Sunday, the fair had its grand opening, with 206,000 people in attendance. The April 30 date coincided with the 150th anniversary of George Washingtons inauguration, in Lower Manhattan, although many of the pavilions and other facilities were not quite ready for this opening, it was put on with pomp and great celebration. David Sarnoff, then president of RCA and an advocate of television. On April 30,1939, the ceremony and President Roosevelts speech were seen on black. NBC used the event to inaugurate regularly scheduled broadcasts in New York City over their station W2XBS. An estimated 1,000 people viewed the Roosevelt telecast on about 200 television sets scattered throughout the New York metropolitan area. In order to convince visitors that the television sets were not a trick. As part of the exhibit at the RCA pavilion, visitors could see themselves on television, there were also television demonstrations at the General Electric and Westinghouse pavilions. During this formal introduction at the fair, television became available for public purchase at various stores in the New York City area. After Albert Einstein gave a speech that discussed cosmic rays, the lights were ceremonially lit
39.
American Realism
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American Realism was a style in art, music and literature that depicted contemporary social realities and the lives and everyday activities of ordinary people. The movement began in literature in the century, and became an important tendency in visual art in the early 20th century. Whether a cultural portrayal or a view of downtown New York City. In America at the beginning of the 20th century a new generation of painters, writers, however they were interested in creating new and more urbane works that reflected city life and a population that was more urban than rural in America as it entered the new century. From the late 19th to the early 20th centuries, the United States experienced enormous industrial, economic, a continuous wave of European immigration and the rising potential for international trade brought increasing growth and prosperity to America. Through art and artistic expression, American Realism attempted to portray the exhaustion and cultural exuberance of the figurative American landscape, artists used the feelings, textures and sounds of the city to influence the color, texture and look of their creative projects. Musicians noticed the quick and fast paced nature of the early 20th century and responded with a fresh, writers and authors told a new story about Americans, boys and girls real Americans could have grown up with. Pulling away from fantasy and focusing on the now, American Realism presented a new gateway and a breakthrough—introducing modernism, the Ashcan School also known as The Eight and the group called Ten American Painters created the core of the new American Modernism in the visual arts. The Ashcan School was a group of New York City artists who sought to capture the feel of early-20th-century New York City and these artists preferred to depict the richly and culturally textured lower class immigrants, rather than the rich and promising Fifth Avenue socialites. One critic of the time did not like their choice of subjects, which included alleys, tenements, slum dwellers and they became known as the revolutionary black gang and apostles of ugliness. George Bellows, painted city life in New York City and his paintings had an expressionist boldness and a willingness to take risks. He had a fascination with violence as seen in his painting, Both Members of this Club, in his painting titled Cliff Dwellers, we find a city-scape that is not one particular view but a composite of many views. Robert Henri was an important American Realist and a member of The Ashcan School, Henri was interested in the spectacle of common life. He focused on individuals, strangers, quickly passing in the streets in towns and his was a sympathetic rather than a comic portrayal of people, often using a dark background to add to the warmth of the person depicted. Henris works were characterized by vigorous brushstrokes and bold impasto which stressed the materiality of the paint, Henri influenced Glackens, Luks, Shinn and Sloan. He would later refer to the Academy as a cemetery of art and he painted theater scenes from London, Paris and New York. He found interest in the spectacle of life, drawing parallels between the theater and crowded seats and life. Unlike Degas, Shinn depicted interaction between the audience and performer, Luks was an Ashcan school artist who lived on the Lower East Side of Manhattan
40.
Portrait painting
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See Portrait for more about the general topic of portraits. Portrait painting is a genre in painting, where the intent is to depict a human subject, the term portrait painting can also describe the actual painted portrait. Portraitists may create their work by commission, for public and private persons, portraits are often important state and family records, as well as remembrances. Historically, portrait paintings have primarily memorialized the rich and powerful, over time, however, it became more common for middle-class patrons to commission portraits of their families and colleagues. Today, portrait paintings are commissioned by governments, corporations, groups, clubs. In addition to painting, portraits can also be made in other such as etching, lithography, photography, video. A well-executed portrait is expected to show the essence of the subject or a flattering representation. As Aristotle stated, The aim of Art is to present not the appearance of things. In most cases, this results in a serious, closed lip stare, or as Charles Dickens put it, there are only two styles of portrait painting, the serious and the smirk. Even given these limitations, a range of subtle emotions is possible from quiet menace to gentle contentment. However, with the mouth relatively neutral, much of the facial expression needs to be created through the eyes, as author and artist Gordon C. Aymar states, the eyes are the place one looks for the most complete, reliable, and the eyebrows can register, almost single-handedly, wonder, pity, fright, pain, cynicism, concentration, wistfulness, displeasure, and expectation, in infinite variations and combinations. Portrait painting can depict the full length, half length, head and shoulders, or ‘head’, as well as in profile, three-quarter view, or full face, with varying directions of light. Occasionally, artists have created portraits with multiple views, as with Anthony van Dycks Triple Portrait of Charles I, there are even a few portraits where the front of the subject is not visible at all. Another example of the view in portraiture, in this case photography, can be found here. Among the other variables, the subject can be clothed or nude, indoors or out, standing, seated, reclining. Portrait paintings can be of individuals, couples, parents and children, families and they can be created in various media including oils, watercolor, pen and ink, pencil, charcoal, pastel, and mixed media. Artists may employ a wide-ranging palette of colors, as with Pierre-Auguste Renoirs Mme, charpentier and her children,1878 or restrict themselves to mostly white or black, as with Gilbert Stuarts Portrait of George Washington
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Self-portrait
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A self-portrait is a representation of an artist that is drawn, painted, photographed, or sculpted by that artist. With better and cheaper mirrors, and the advent of the panel portrait, Portrait of a Man in a Turban by Jan van Eyck of 1433 may well be the earliest known panel self-portrait. He painted a portrait of his wife, and he belonged to the social group that had begun to commission portraits. The genre is venerable, but not until the Renaissance, with increased wealth and interest in the individual as a subject, a self-portrait may be a portrait of the artist, or a portrait included in a larger work, including a group portrait. Many painters are said to have included depictions of specific individuals, including themselves, in these works, the artist usually appears as a face in the crowd or group, often towards the edges or corner of the work and behind the main participants. Rubenss The Four Philosophers is a good example and this culminated in the 17th century with the work of Jan de Bray. Many artistic media have used, apart from paintings, drawings. In the famous Arnolfini Portrait, Jan van Eyck is probably one of two figures glimpsed in a mirror – a surprisingly modern conceit. The Van Eyck painting may have inspired Diego Velázquez to depict himself in view as the painter creating Las Meninas, as the Van Eyck hung in the palace in Madrid where he worked. This was another modern flourish, given that he appears as the painter, in what may be one of the earliest childhood self-portraits now surviving, Albrecht Dürer depicts himself as in naturalistic style as a 13-year-old boy in 1484. In later years he appears variously as a merchant in the background of Biblical scenes, leonardo da Vinci may have drawn a picture of himself at the age of 60, in around 1512. The picture is often reproduced as Da Vincis appearance, although this is not certain. In the 17th century, Rembrandt painted a range of self-portraits, family and professional group paintings, including the artists depiction, became increasingly common from the 17th century on. From the later 20th century on, video plays a part in self-portraiture. Vigée-Lebrun painted a total of 37 self-portraits, many of which were copies of earlier ones, Women artists have historically embodied a number of roles within their self-portraiture. Most common is the artist at work, showing themselves in the act of painting, or at least holding a brush and palette. Often, the viewer if the clothes worn were those they normally painted in. Images of artists at work are encountered in Ancient Egyptian painting, one of the first self-portraits was made by the Pharaoh Akhenatens chief sculptor Bak in 1365 BC
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