1.
Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
2.
University of Illinois at Chicago
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The University of Illinois at Chicago or UIC is a state-funded public research-intensive university located in Chicago, Illinois, United States. Its campus is in the Near West Side community area, adjacent to the Chicago Loop, the second campus established under the University of Illinois system, UIC is also the largest university in the Chicago area, having approximately 29,000 students enrolled in 15 colleges. UICs medical school has research expenditures exceeding $412 million and consistently ranks in the top 50 U. S. institutions for research expenditures. In the 2015 U. S. News & World Reports ranking of colleges and universities, the 2015 Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranked UIC as the 18th best in the world among universities less than 50 years old. UIC competes in NCAA Division I Horizon League as the UIC Flames in sports, the UIC Pavilion is home to all UIC basketball games. It also serves as a venue for concerts, the University of Illinois was chartered in 1867 in Champaign-Urbana, as the states land-grant university. In exchange for agreeing to the Champaign-Urbana location, Chicago-area legislators were promised that a branch would open in Chicago. The Chicago-based health colleges affiliated with the University in 1896–97, becoming incorporated into the University of Illinois in 1913, as the Colleges of Medicine, Dentistry. In 1945, as the war ended, Daley introduced four bills calling for a university in Chicago, following World War II, the University of Illinois increased its presence in Chicago by creating a temporary, two-year branch campus, the Chicago Undergraduate Division. Housed on Navy Pier, the campus accommodated primarily student veterans on the G. I, classes at the CUD campus began in October 1946, and approximately 4,000 students enrolled each semester. As Chicago had no comprehensive public university at that time, most students were first generation college students from working families, in 1951, Daley succeeded in getting the state senate to pass a bill calling for a Chicago campus. Daley became mayor of Chicago in 1955 and pressed the University of Illinois to upgrade the Chicago Undergraduate Center to a full-fledged four-year institution, after a long and controversial site decision process, in 1961, Mayor Daley offered the Harrison and Halsted Streets site for the new campus. In December 1961, the decision to establish a four-year university in Chicago was made. In that same year, the Chicago Professional Colleges became the University of Illinois at the Medical Center, in 1963, construction began on the Universitys new Chicago campus at Harrison and Halsted Streets. In February 1965, the new Chicago campus opened and was named the University of Illinois at Congress Circle referencing the Circle Interchange of I-290, shortly before opening, the expressway was renamed the Eisenhower Expressway and the campus was renamed to University of Illinois at Chicago Circle. UICC was designed in the brutalist style by Walter Netsch of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, unlike the CUD campus, Circle was a degree-granting institution. Within five years of the opening, virtually every department offered graduate degrees. In September 1982, the University of Illinois system consolidated UICC, in 2000, UIC began developing the South Campus
3.
University of Chicago
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The University of Chicago is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois. It holds top-ten positions in national and international rankings and measures. The university currently enrolls approximately 5,700 students in the College, Chicagos physics department helped develop the worlds first man-made, self-sustaining nuclear reaction beneath the viewing stands of universitys Stagg Field. The university is home to the University of Chicago Press. With an estimated date of 2020, the Barack Obama Presidential Center will be housed at the university. Both Harper and future president Robert Maynard Hutchins advocated for Chicagos curriculum to be based upon theoretical and perennial issues rather than on applied sciences, the University of Chicago has many prominent alumni. 92 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with the university as professors, students, faculty, or staff, similarly,34 faculty members and 16 alumni have been awarded the MacArthur “Genius Grant”. Rockefeller on land donated by Marshall Field, while the Rockefeller donation provided money for academic operations and long-term endowment, it was stipulated that such money could not be used for buildings. The original physical campus was financed by donations from wealthy Chicagoans like Silas B, Cobb who provided the funds for the campus first building, Cobb Lecture Hall, and matched Marshall Fields pledge of $100,000. Organized as an independent institution legally, it replaced the first Baptist university of the same name, william Rainey Harper became the modern universitys first president on July 1,1891, and the university opened for classes on October 1,1892. The business school was founded thereafter in 1898, and the law school was founded in 1902, Harper died in 1906, and was replaced by a succession of three presidents whose tenures lasted until 1929. During this period, the Oriental Institute was founded to support, in 1896, the university affiliated with Shimer College in Mount Carroll, Illinois. The agreement provided that either party could terminate the affiliation on proper notice, several University of Chicago professors disliked the program, as it involved uncompensated additional labor on their part, and they believed it cheapened the academic reputation of the university. The program passed into history by 1910, in 1929, the universitys fifth president, Robert Maynard Hutchins, took office, the university underwent many changes during his 24-year tenure. In 1933, Hutchins proposed a plan to merge the University of Chicago. During his term, the University of Chicago Hospitals finished construction, also, the Committee on Social Thought, an institution distinctive of the university, was created. Money that had been raised during the 1920s and financial backing from the Rockefeller Foundation helped the school to survive through the Great Depression, during World War II, the university made important contributions to the Manhattan Project. The university was the site of the first isolation of plutonium and of the creation of the first artificial, in the early 1950s, student applications declined as a result of increasing crime and poverty in the Hyde Park neighborhood
4.
Princeton Theological Seminary
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Princeton Theological Seminary is an independent school of theology in Princeton, New Jersey and the largest of ten seminaries associated with the Presbyterian Church. Princeton Seminary has long been influential in theological scholarship, with many leading scholars, theologians. It houses one of the largest theological seminaries in the world and hosts a number of special collections, Today, the seminary enrolls approximately 500 students. The institution also has a relationship with the Center of Theological Inquiry. The plan to establish a seminary in Princeton was in the interests of advancing and extending the theological curriculum. The educational intention was to go beyond the arts course by setting up a postgraduate. The Seminary remains an institution of the Presbyterian Church, being the largest of the ten theological seminaries affiliated with the 1. 6-million-member denomination, in 1812, the Seminary boasted three students and the Reverend Dr. Archibald Alexander as its first professor. By 1815 the number of students had increased and work began on a building, Alexander Hall was designed by John McComb, Jr. a New York architect. The original cupola was added in 1827, but it burned in 1913 and was replaced in 1926, the building was simply called Seminary until 1893, when it was officially named Alexander Hall. Some of the institutions active in this movement included Charles Hodge, B. B. Warfield, J. Gresham Machen. The college was later the center of the Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy of the 1920s and 1930s, the library has over 1,252,503 bound volumes, pamphlets, and microfilms. It currently receives about 2,100 journals, annual reports of bodies and learned societies, bulletins, transactions, and periodically issued indices, abstracts. The Libraries are, Princeton Theological Seminary Library was opened in 2013, ashbel Green, Dr. William Buell Sprague, Prof. Joseph Addison Alexander, Dr. Alexander Balloch Grosart, Prof. William Henry Green, Prof. Samuel Miller, and Prof. B. B. Speer Library, opened in 1957 and named in honor of the missionary statesman Robert E. Speer. It was closed in late 2010 and was replaced by the new library, Henry Luce III Library, dedicated in 1994 and named in honor of a distinguished trustee, Henry Luce III,350,000 volumes and 250 readers. This library was closed for renovation in 2013, in 2015, the U. S. News & World Report placed Princeton Seminary among the top 50 graduate programs for the field of history in the United States. Built in 1834, Princetons chapel was named to honor Samuel Miller and it was designed in the Greek Revival style by Charles Steadman, who also designed the nearby Nassau Presbyterian Church. Originally located beside Alexander Hall, it was moved in 1933 toward the center of the campus, Miller Chapel underwent a complete renovation in 2000, with the addition of the Joe R. Engle Organ
5.
Intelligent design
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Intelligent design is a creationist religious argument for the existence of God, presented by its proponents as an evidence-based scientific theory about lifes origins but found to be pseudoscience. Proponents claim that certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, the leading proponents of ID are associated with the Discovery Institute, a politically conservative think tank based in the United States. Although they state that ID is not creationism and deliberately avoid assigning a personality to the designer, both irreducible complexity and specified complexity present detailed negative assertions that certain features are too complex to be the result of natural processes. Proponents then conclude by analogy that these features are evidence of design, from the mid-1990s, the intelligent design movement, supported by the Discovery Institute, advocated inclusion of intelligent design in public school biology curricula. This led to the 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial in which U. S. District Judge John E. Teaching of evolution was effectively suspended in U. S. Young Earth creationists promoted creation science as a scientific explanation of the world in which we live. This frequently invoked the argument from design to explain complexity in nature as demonstrating the existence of God, the argument from design, the teleological argument or argument from intelligent design, has been advanced in theology for centuries. It can be summarised briefly as Wherever complex design exists, there must have been a designer, nature is complex, Thomas Aquinas presented it in his fifth proof of Gods existence as a syllogism. In 1802, William Paleys Natural Theology presented examples of intricate purpose in organisms, Creation science prefigured the intelligent design arguments of irreducible complexity, even featuring the bacterial flagellum. In the United States, attempts to introduce creation science in schools led to court rulings that it is religious in nature, and thus cannot be taught in public school science classrooms. Barbara Forrest writes that the intelligent design movement began in 1984 with the book The Mystery of Lifes Origin, Reassessing Current Theories, Thaxton, a chemist, with two other authors, and published by Jon A. Buells Foundation for Thought and Ethics. Thaxton held a conference in 1988, Sources of Information Content in DNA, in November of that year, Thaxton described his reasoning as a more sophisticated form of Paleys argument from design. At the Sources of Information Content in DNA conference in 1988, Intelligent design avoids identifying or naming the intelligent designer—it merely states that one must exist—but leaders of the movement have said the designer is the Christian God. The Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District court ruling held the latter to be the case, variations on the phrase appeared in YEC publications, a 1967 book co-written by Percival Davis referred to design according to which basic organisms were created. The first systematic use of the term, defined in a glossary and claimed to be other than creationism, was in Of Pandas and People, co-authored by Davis, a Discovery Institute report says that Charles B. Thaxton, editor of Pandas, had picked the phrase up from a NASA scientist, Stephen C. Meyer was at the conference, and later recalled that The term intelligent design came up. It thus represents the start of the intelligent design movement. Intelligent design was the most prominent of around fifteen new terms it introduced as a new lexicon of creationist terminology to oppose evolution without using religious language, although presented as a scientific textbook, philosopher of science Michael Ruse considers the contents worthless and dishonest
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Specified complexity
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Specified complexity is a concept proposed by William Dembski and used by him and others to promote the pseudoscientific arguments of intelligent design. According to Dembski, the concept can formalize a property that singles out patterns that are specified and complex, in specific senses defined by Dembski. Proponents of intelligent design use specified complexity as one of their two main arguments, alongside irreducible complexity, in Dembskis terminology, a specified pattern is one that admits short descriptions, whereas a complex pattern is one that is unlikely to occur by chance. Dembski argues that it is impossible for specified complexity to exist in patterns displayed by configurations formed by unguided processes. Therefore, Dembski argues, the fact that specified complex patterns can be found in living things indicates some kind of guidance in their formation, which is indicative of intelligence. Dembski further argues that one can rigorously show by applying no-free-lunch theorems the inability of evolutionary algorithms to select or generate configurations of high specified complexity. In intelligent-design literature, an intelligent agent is one that chooses between different possibilities and has, by means and methods, caused life to arise. Specified complexity is what Dembski terms an explanatory filter which can recognize design by detecting complex specified information, the filter relies on the premise that the categories of regularity, chance, and design are, according to Dembski, mutually exclusive and exhaustive. Complex specified information detects design because it detects what characterizes intelligent agency, another objection concerns Dembskis calculation of probabilities. According to Martin Nowak, a Harvard professor of mathematics and evolutionary biology and we dont have the information to make the calculation. Critics also reject applying specified complexity to infer design, characterizing this approach as an argument from ignorance, Orgel used the phrase in discussing the differences between life and non-living structures, In brief, living organisms are distinguished by their specified complexity. Crystals are usually taken as the prototypes of simple well-specified structures, lumps of granite or random mixtures of polymers are examples of structures that are complex but not specified. The crystals fail to qualify as living because they lack complexity, another contribution to the book was written by William A. Dembski, who took this up as the basis of his subsequent work. While Orgel employed the concept in a way, Dembskis use is intended to be quantitative. Dembskis use of the dates to his 1998 monograph The Design Inference. Specified complexity is fundamental to his approach to intelligent design, and he has stated that, in his opinion, if there is a way to detect design, specified complexity is it. He provides the examples to demonstrate the concept, A single letter of the alphabet is specified without being complex. A long sentence of random letters is complex without being specified, a Shakespearean sonnet is both complex and specified
7.
Mathematician
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A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics in his or her work, typically to solve mathematical problems. Mathematics is concerned with numbers, data, quantity, structure, space, models, one of the earliest known mathematicians was Thales of Miletus, he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed. He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, the number of known mathematicians grew when Pythagoras of Samos established the Pythagorean School, whose doctrine it was that mathematics ruled the universe and whose motto was All is number. It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term mathematics, and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins, the first woman mathematician recorded by history was Hypatia of Alexandria. She succeeded her father as Librarian at the Great Library and wrote works on applied mathematics. Because of a dispute, the Christian community in Alexandria punished her, presuming she was involved, by stripping her naked. Science and mathematics in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages followed various models and it was extensive patronage and strong intellectual policies implemented by specific rulers that allowed scientific knowledge to develop in many areas. As these sciences received wider attention from the elite, more scholars were invited and funded to study particular sciences, an example of a translator and mathematician who benefited from this type of support was al-Khawarizmi. A notable feature of many working under Muslim rule in medieval times is that they were often polymaths. Examples include the work on optics, maths and astronomy of Ibn al-Haytham, the Renaissance brought an increased emphasis on mathematics and science to Europe. As time passed, many gravitated towards universities. Moving into the 19th century, the objective of universities all across Europe evolved from teaching the “regurgitation of knowledge” to “encourag productive thinking. ”Thus, seminars, overall, science became the focus of universities in the 19th and 20th centuries. Students could conduct research in seminars or laboratories and began to produce doctoral theses with more scientific content. According to Humboldt, the mission of the University of Berlin was to pursue scientific knowledge. ”Mathematicians usually cover a breadth of topics within mathematics in their undergraduate education, and then proceed to specialize in topics of their own choice at the graduate level. In some universities, a qualifying exam serves to test both the breadth and depth of an understanding of mathematics, the students, who pass, are permitted to work on a doctoral dissertation. Mathematicians involved with solving problems with applications in life are called applied mathematicians. Applied mathematicians are mathematical scientists who, with their knowledge and professional methodology. With professional focus on a variety of problems, theoretical systems
8.
Philosopher
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A philosopher is someone who practices philosophy, which involves rational inquiry into areas that are outside of either theology or science. The term philosopher comes from the Ancient Greek φιλόσοφος meaning lover of wisdom, the coining of the term has been attributed to the Greek thinker Pythagoras. Typically, these brands of philosophy are Hellenistic ones and those who most arduously commit themselves to this lifestyle may be considered philosophers. The separation of philosophy and science from theology began in Greece during the 6th century BC, thales, an astronomer and mathematician, was considered by Aristotle to be the first philosopher of the Greek tradition. While Pythagoras coined the word, the first known elaboration on the topic was conducted by Plato, in his Symposium, he concludes that Love is that which lacks the object it seeks. Therefore, the philosopher is one who seeks wisdom, if he attains wisdom, therefore, the philosopher in antiquity was one who lives in the constant pursuit of wisdom, and living in accordance to that wisdom. Disagreements arose as to what living philosophically entailed and these disagreements gave rise to different Hellenistic schools of philosophy. In consequence, the ancient philosopher thought in a tradition, as the ancient world became schism by philosophical debate, the competition lay in living in manner that would transform his whole way of living in the world. Philosophy is a discipline which can easily carry away the individual in analyzing the universe. The second is the change through the Medieval era. With the rise of Christianity, the way of life was adopted by its theology. Thus, philosophy was divided between a way of life and the conceptual, logical, physical and metaphysical materials to justify that way of life, philosophy was then the servant to theology. The third is the sociological need with the development of the university, the modern university requires professionals to teach. Maintaining itself requires teaching future professionals to replace the current faculty, therefore, the discipline degrades into a technical language reserved for specialists, completely eschewing its original conception as a way of life. In the fourth century, the word began to designate a man or woman who led a monastic life. Gregory of Nyssa, for example, describes how his sister Macrina persuaded their mother to forsake the distractions of life for a life of philosophy. Later during the Middle Ages, persons who engaged with alchemy was called a philosopher - thus, many philosophers still emerged from the Classical tradition, as saw their philosophy as a way of life. Among the most notable are René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Nicolas Malebranche, with the rise of the university, the modern conception of philosophy became more prominent
9.
Theologian
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Theology is the critical study of the nature of the divine. It is taught as a discipline, typically in universities, seminaries. Augustine of Hippo defined the Latin equivalent, theologia, as reasoning or discussion concerning the Deity, the term can, however, be used for a variety of different disciplines or fields of study. Theologians use various forms of analysis and argument to help understand, explain, test, critique, the English equivalent theology had evolved by 1362. Greek theologia was used with the discourse on god in the fourth century BC by Plato in The Republic, Book ii. Drawing on Greek Stoic sources, the Latin writer Varro distinguished three forms of discourse, mythical, rational and civil. Theologos, closely related to theologia, appears once in some manuscripts, in the heading to the book of Revelation, apokalypsis ioannoy toy theologoy. The Latin author Boethius, writing in the early 6th century, used theologia to denote a subdivision of philosophy as a subject of study, dealing with the motionless. Boethius definition influenced medieval Latin usage, Theology can also now be used in a derived sense to mean a system of theoretical principles, an ideology. They suggest the term is appropriate in religious contexts that are organized differently. Kalam. does not hold the place in Muslim thought that theology does in Christianity. To find an equivalent for theology in the Christian sense it is necessary to have recourse to several disciplines, and to the usul al-fiqh as much as to kalam. Jose Ignacio Cabezon, who argues that the use of theology is appropriate, can only do so, he says, I take theology not to be restricted to its etymological meaning. In that latter sense, Buddhism is of course atheological, rejecting as it does the notion of God, within Hindu philosophy, there is a solid and ancient tradition of philosophical speculation on the nature of the universe, of God and of the Atman. The Sanskrit word for the schools of Hindu philosophy is Darshana. Nevertheless, Jewish theology historically has been active and highly significant for Christian. It is sometimes claimed, however, that the Jewish analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be Rabbinical discussion of Jewish law, the history of the study of theology in institutions of higher education is as old as the history of such institutions themselves. Modern Western universities evolved from the institutions and cathedral schools of Western Europe during the High Middle Ages
10.
Discovery Institute
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The Discovery Institute is a non-profit public policy think tank based in Seattle, Washington, best known for its advocacy of the pseudoscientific principle of intelligent design. In making this determination, we have addressed the question of whether ID is science. We have concluded that it is not, and moreover that ID cannot uncouple itself from its creationist and it was the courts opinion that intelligent design was merely a redressing of creationism and that, as such, it was not a scientific proposition. The Institute was founded in 1990 as an educational foundation. Following their graduation, Chapman and Gilder advanced their progressive Republican campaign in their 1966 polemic book The Party That Lost Its Head, the Party That Lost Its Head denounced Goldwaters conservative backers for their rampant and paranoid distrust of intellectuals. Chapman moved to the right in the Reagan administration, where he served as director of the United States Census Bureau. Chapman left the Census Bureau to work in the White House under Reagan adviser Edwin Meese III and was appointed United States Ambassador to the United Nations Organizations in Vienna and his next work, Wealth and Poverty, was cited by President Reagan. Gilders later books have dealt more with developments in technology, such as Microcosm, Chapman had built a political platform, but lacked funding and a defining issue. Kenyon had co-authored Of Pandas and People, and in 1993 Meyer had contributed to the notes for the second edition of Pandas. Meyer was an old friend of Gilder, and over dinner about a later they formed the idea of a think tank opposed to materialism. In 2002, the name was changed to the Center for Science, the Center for Science and Culture, formerly known as the Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture, is a subsidiary of the Discovery Institute. It was established in 1996 with the assistance of Phillip E. Johnson to advance the wedge strategy, Bruce Chapman calls the CRSC our No.1 project. Since its founding in 1996, the Institutes CSC has spent 39 percent of its $9, the CSC lobbies aggressively to policymakers for wider acceptance of intelligent design and against the theory of evolution and what it terms scientific materialism. To that end, the CSC works to advance a policy it terms the Wedge strategy, the Teach the Controversy strategy was announced by Meyer in 2002. In 2005, the Discovery Institute provided the funding to set up the Biologic Institute in Redmond, according to Axe, the labs main objective is to show that the design perspective can lead to better science, and will contribute substantially to the scientific case for intelligent design. Previously serving as a director of the Biologic Institute was George Weber, PZ Myers likens the Biologic Institutes design research program to cargo cults, with Intelligent Design creationists pretend that theyre doing science. Its economics and legal programs advocate tort reform, lower taxation, the Discovery Institute also maintains a foreign policy program currently focused on Russia and East Asia. The Institutes primary thrust in terms of funding and resources dedicated are those political and cultural campaigns centering on intelligent design and it has employed a number of specific political strategies and tactics in the furtherance of its goals
11.
Center for Science and Culture
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The Center for Science and Culture, formerly known as the Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture, is part of the Discovery Institute, a conservative Christian think tank in the United States. The Center for Science and Culture serves as the hub of the intelligent design movement, nearly all of the luminaries of intelligent design are either CSC advisors, officers, or fellows. Meyer, a vice president of the Discovery Institute and founder of the CSC, serves as a Senior Fellow. Johnson is commonly presented as the father and architect of the Centers Wedge strategy and Teach the Controversy campaign. In 1987, the US Supreme Court ruled in Edwards v. Aguillard against creation science being taught in United States public school science classes, the Edwards v. Aguillard ruling also inspired Phillip E. Johnson to begin anti-evolution campaigning. Kenyon had co-authored Of Pandas and People, and in 1993 Meyer had contributed to the notes for the second edition of Pandas. Meyer was an old friend of Discovery Institute co-founder George Gilder and it was founded in 1996 by the Discovery Institute with funding provided by Fieldstead & Company, the Stewardship Foundation, Howard Ahmanson, Jr. and the Maclellan Foundation. The evolution of the Centers name in 2002 reflects its attempt to present itself as less religiously motivated in the publics eye. The renewal in its name referred to its goal of renewing American culture by grounding societys major institutions, especially education. The Center maintains that the exclusion of supernatural explanations introduces a bias that is driven by materialism rather than being scientifically based, Program Director Stephen C. Meyer Associate Director John G. West Program Advisor Phillip E. Johnson Senior Fellows Fellows Former Fellows Casey Luskin, Research Coordinator. Luskin has helped promote the Academic Freedom bills in Florida alongside Ben Stein, Luskin also writes for the Discovery Institutes blog, offering critiques of evolution, which have been met with stiff criticism and rebuttal from the scientific community. Robert L. Crowther, II, Director of Communications An internal CSC report dating from 1998 which outlined a plan for fostering broader acceptance of ID was leaked to the public in 1999. This plan became known as the Wedge strategy, if the CSCs strategy is successful, within twenty years the goals are To see intelligent design theory as the dominant perspective in science. And To see design theory permeate our religious, cultural, moral and political life, the CSC has responded to controversy regarding the Wedge Document, saying Conspiracy theorists in the media continue to recycle the urban legend of the Wedge document. The CSCs Teach the Controversy campaign seeks to promote the teaching of the range of scientific views on evolution on unresolved issues. Critics of the CSCs campaign say that they have manufactured the controversy, the CSC is the primary organizer and promoter of the Teach the Controversy campaign. The CSC believe that the program and curricula they advocate presents evidence both for and against evolution and then encourages students to evaluate the arguments themselves, in its early years, the CSC offered science curriculum that assured teachers that its Web curriculum can be appropriated without textbook adoption wars. This had the net effect of encouraging ID sympathetic teachers to side-step standard textbook adoption procedures, the cultivation of support for ID and its social and political agenda in higher education is a very active part of CSCs strategy
12.
Matthews, North Carolina
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Matthews is a large suburban town of Charlotte located in southeastern Mecklenburg County, North Carolina. The population was 27,198 according to the 2010 Census, the town was named for an early settler. Matthews is located at 35°7′1″N 80°42′59″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 17.2 square miles, all of it land. As of the 2006-2008 American Community Survey, there were 26,901 people,11,349 households, according to the Census Bureau of 2000, The population density was 1,557.1 people per square mile. There were 138 housing units at a density of 572.7 per square mile. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4. 3% of the population,22. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the family size was 3.08. In the town, the population was out with 29. 9% under the age of 19,3. 2% from 20 to 24,25. 6% from 25 to 44,30. 3% from 45 to 64. The median age was 40.3 years, the median income for a household in the town was $77,981, and the median income for a family was $88,600. Males had an income of $65,909 versus $44,665 for females. The per capita income for the town was $35,250, about 2. 8% of families and 3. 8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3. 6% of those under age 18 and 4. 9% of those age 65 or over. Matthews is in the Charlotte-Mecklenburg School system, schools include Matthews Elementary, Crown Point Elementary, and Elizabeth Lane Elementary, Crestdale Middle, David W. Butler High School. Public charter schools include Matthews Charter Academy and Socrates Academy, religious schools nearby include Covenant Day School, Charlotte Christian School, Carmel Christian, Blessed Sacrament Academy, and Greyfriars Classical Academy. Matthews is served by a branch of the Charlotte Mecklenburg Library, the library is located on the first floor of the Matthews Town Hall and is one of the most active in the system. One Fortune 500 company, Family Dollar Stores, has its headquarters in Matthews, brooklyn Decker Jarrett Boykin, Buffalo Bills wide receiver, was born in Matthews
13.
Charlotte, North Carolina
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Charlotte /ˈʃɑːrlət/ is the largest city in the state of North Carolina. It is the county seat of Mecklenburg County and the second-largest city in the southeastern United States, just behind Jacksonville, Charlotte is the third-fastest growing major city in the United States. In 2014 the estimated population of Charlotte according to the U. S. Census Bureau was 809,958, the Charlotte metropolitan area ranks 22nd-largest in the U. S. and had a 2014 population of 2,380,314. The Charlotte metropolitan area is part of a sixteen-county market region or combined statistical area with a 2014 U. S. Census population estimate of 2,537,990, residents of Charlotte are referred to as Charlotteans. It is listed as a global city by the Globalization. Charlotte Douglas International Airport is an international hub, and was ranked the 23rd-busiest airport in the world by passenger traffic in 2013. Charlotte has a subtropical climate. The city is located several miles east of the Catawba River and southeast of Lake Norman, Lake Wylie and Mountain Island Lake are two smaller man-made lakes located near the city. The Catawba Native Americans were the first to settle Mecklenburg County and were first recorded in European records around 1567, by 1759 half the Catawba tribe had been killed by smallpox. At the time of their largest population, Catawba people numbered 10,000, Mecklenburg County was initially part of Bath County of New Hanover Precinct, which became New Hanover County in 1729. The western portion of New Hanover split into Bladen County in 1734, Mecklenburg County formed from Anson County in 1762. Further apportionment was made in 1792, with Cabarrus County formed from Mecklenburg and these areas were all part of one of the original six judicial/military districts of North Carolina known as the Salisbury District. The area that is now Charlotte was settled by people of European descent around 1755, Thomas Polk, who later married Thomas Spratts daughter, built his house by the intersection of two Native American trading paths between the Yadkin and Catawba rivers. One path ran north–south and was part of the Great Wagon Road, within decades of Polks settling, the area grew to become Charlotte Town, incorporating in 1768. The crossroads, perched atop the Piedmont landscape, became the heart of Uptown Charlotte, in 1770, surveyors marked the streets in a grid pattern for future development. The east–west trading path became Trade Street, and the Great Wagon Road became Tryon Street, in honor of William Tryon, the intersection of Trade and Tryon—commonly known today as Trade & Tryon, or simply The Square—is more properly called Independence Square. While surveying the boundary between the Carolinas in 1772, William Moultrie stopped in Charlotte Town, whose five or six houses were very ordinary built of logs, local leaders came together in 1775 and signed the Mecklenburg Resolves, more popularly known as the Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence. While not a declaration of independence from British rule, it is among the first such declarations that eventually led to the American Revolution
14.
The Design Inference
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In the book he distinguishes between 3 general modes of competing explanations in order of priority, regularity, chance, and design. The processes in which regularity, chance, and design are ruled out one by one until one remains as a reasonable and this pattern is Dembskis concept of specified complexity. Described by the Discovery Institute as offering an alternative, the book is touted as being published by major secular university publishers. Pigliucci wrote Unfortunately, Cambridge University Press has offered a platform for Dembski to mount his attack on materialist science--which, of course. My hope is that scientists will not dismiss this book as just another craze originating in the backwaters of America. Neocreationism should be a call to arms for the science community, the battle is already raging, and scientists and educators are still not sure if they should even bother paying attention. Marine biologist Wesley R. Elsberry and critic of creationism reviewed the book in 1999, Elsberry described the book as. a slim and scholarly volume, as one expects from a distinguished academic press clear writing, illustrative examples, and cogent argumentation. The work, though, is motivated and informed by an anti-evolutionary impulse, the anti-evolutionary bent is not as overt here, though, as it is in other works by Dembski. Elsberry concludes, The Design Inference is a work with significance for the group of anti-evolutionists who have embraced intelligent design as their organizing principle. TDI is supposed to establish the foundation for all the rest of the movement. My judgment is that it fails to lay a solid foundation, there are flaws and cracks that can admit the entry of naturalistic causes into the pool of designed events. The Design Inference Dembskis website How Not to Detect Design by Branden Fitelson, Christopher Stephens, Dembskis reply to Fitelson The advantages of theft over toil, the design inference and arguing from ignorance by John S. Wilkins and Wesley R. Elsberry. Claim CI110, Complex Specified information indicates design
15.
Intelligent Design (book)
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Intelligent Design, The Bridge Between Science and Theology is a 1999 book by William A. Dembski which presents an argument in support of intelligent design. Dembski defines the term specified complexity, and argues that instances of it in nature cannot be explained by Darwinian evolution and he also derives an instance of his self-declared law of conservation of information and uses it to argue against Darwinian evolution. The book is a treatment of the mathematical theory he presents in The Design Inference. Dembski also provides a Christian theological commentary, and analysis of, Dembski begins by analyzing signs from God in the Bible, and notes that such signs have specificity and complexity, which enables them to be clearly discernible. He considers this to be a general insight regarding recognition of the Divine Finger, a review of naturalistic criticisms of miracles, particularly those by Benedict Spinoza and Friedrich Schleiermacher, follows. Dembski critiques the critiques, and derides the methodological naturalism that, Intelligent design, the central idea of the book, is then introduced. He distinguishes it from theistic evolution and, especially, purely naturalistic evolution, explaining a motivation for it, he states, Darwinism is the totalizing claim that accounts for all the diversity and complexity of life. The evidence simply does not support this claim, is always a temptation in science think that ones theory encompasses a far bigger domain than it actually does. He lists numerous phenomena that he claims have proven to be intractable for natural selection, including the origin of life, the origin of the genetic code. He introduces his complexity-specification criterion, which states that in order to infer design, according to Dembski, the first rules out necessity, the latter two rule out chance. Combined with his universal probability bound of 10−150, he claims that this criterion is completely accurate when applied to objects with known underlying causal story. Dembski derives what he purports to be an instance of what Peter Medawar identified as the law of conservation of information, Dembski then introduces the term complex specified information, and claims that CSI is indicative of design. He considers whether the known natural mechanisms of physical law and chance, alone or in combination, can generate such information. Moreover, Dembski claims that CSI is holistic (with the whole being greater than the sum of the parts, and he then enumerates the possible sources of CSI in biological organisms, inheritance, selection, and infusion. He states that the first two sources are unable to account for the CSI in biological systems, and therefore concludes that CSI must come from infusion and he further argues that biotic infusion cannot ultimately account for CSI, and so abiotic infusion must be the source. Dembski maintains that by process of elimination, CSI is best explained as being due to intelligence and he implies that his theory can be useful in several fields, including forensic science, intellectual property law, archaeology, and the search for extraterrestrial intelligence. Dembski concludes the book with comments on what he sees as the implications of intelligent design. In an appendix, he answers to various objections to intelligent design
16.
The Design Revolution
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The Design Revolution, Answering the Toughest Questions about Intelligent Design is a 2004 book by William A. The book is written in format from Dembskis point of view as one of the conceptual leaders in the movement. Each chapter is about 4 pages long and addresses one specific question, the foreword was written by Charles W. Colson. Mathematician Jeffrey Shallit criticises the book for evasion and dissembling, Mark Perakh mentions this book in his criticisms of Dembski, criticizing that the index does not contain the names of prominent critics. Publishers info page on the book Book info from ARN Jeffrey Shallit article, Desperately Evading the Toughest Questions Mark Perakh article, how William Dembski Is Dodging Questions About Intelligent Design
17.
Empiricism
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Empiricism is a theory that states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience. It is one of several views of epistemology, the study of human knowledge, Empiricism in the philosophy of science emphasizes evidence, especially as discovered in experiments. Empiricism, often used by scientists, says that knowledge is based on experience. One of the epistemological tenets is that sensory experience creates knowledge, empirical research, including experiments and validated measurement tools, guides the scientific method. The term was used by the Empiric school of ancient Greek medical practitioners, a central concept in science and the scientific method is that it must be empirically based on the evidence of the senses. Both natural and social sciences use working hypotheses that are testable by observation, philosophical empiricists hold no knowledge to be properly inferred or deduced unless it is derived from ones sense-based experience. This view is contrasted with rationalism, which states that knowledge may be derived from reason independently of the senses. For example, John Locke held that knowledge could be arrived at through intuition. Similarly Robert Boyle, a prominent advocate of the experimental method, the main continental rationalists were also advocates of the empirical scientific method. Vaisheshika darshana, founded by the ancient Indian philosopher Kanada, accepted perception and this is enumerated in his work Vaiśeṣika Sūtra. The notion of tabula rasa connotes a view of mind as a blank or empty recorder on which experience leaves marks. This denies that humans have innate ideas, the image dates back to Aristotle, What the mind thinks must be in it in the same sense as letters are on a tablet which bears no actual writing, this is just what happens in the case of the mind. These notions contrasted with Platonic notions of the mind as an entity that pre-existed somewhere in the heavens. This idea was developed in ancient philosophy by the Stoic school. Stoic epistemology generally emphasized that the mind starts blank, but acquires knowledge as the world is impressed upon it. The doxographer Aetius summarizes this view as When a man is born, later stoics, such as Sextus of Chaeronea, would continue this idea of empiricism in later Stoic writings as well. As Sextus contends For every thought comes from sense-perception or not without sense-perception, so the immaterial active intellect, separate from any individual person, is still essential for understanding to occur. A similar Islamic theological novel, Theologus Autodidactus, was written by the Arab theologian and physician Ibn al-Nafis in the 13th century, during the 13th century Thomas Aquinas adopted the Aristotelian position that the senses are essential to mind into scholasticism
18.
Probability theory
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Probability theory is the branch of mathematics concerned with probability, the analysis of random phenomena. It is not possible to predict precisely results of random events, two representative mathematical results describing such patterns are the law of large numbers and the central limit theorem. As a mathematical foundation for statistics, probability theory is essential to human activities that involve quantitative analysis of large sets of data. Methods of probability theory also apply to descriptions of complex systems given only partial knowledge of their state, a great discovery of twentieth century physics was the probabilistic nature of physical phenomena at atomic scales, described in quantum mechanics. Christiaan Huygens published a book on the subject in 1657 and in the 19th century, initially, probability theory mainly considered discrete events, and its methods were mainly combinatorial. Eventually, analytical considerations compelled the incorporation of continuous variables into the theory and this culminated in modern probability theory, on foundations laid by Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov. Kolmogorov combined the notion of space, introduced by Richard von Mises. This became the mostly undisputed axiomatic basis for modern probability theory, most introductions to probability theory treat discrete probability distributions and continuous probability distributions separately. The more mathematically advanced measure theory-based treatment of probability covers the discrete, continuous, consider an experiment that can produce a number of outcomes. The set of all outcomes is called the space of the experiment. The power set of the space is formed by considering all different collections of possible results. For example, rolling an honest die produces one of six possible results, one collection of possible results corresponds to getting an odd number. Thus, the subset is an element of the set of the sample space of die rolls. In this case, is the event that the die falls on some odd number, If the results that actually occur fall in a given event, that event is said to have occurred. Probability is a way of assigning every event a value between zero and one, with the requirement that the event made up of all possible results be assigned a value of one, the probability that any one of the events, or will occur is 5/6. This is the same as saying that the probability of event is 5/6 and this event encompasses the possibility of any number except five being rolled. The mutually exclusive event has a probability of 1/6, and the event has a probability of 1, discrete probability theory deals with events that occur in countable sample spaces. Modern definition, The modern definition starts with a finite or countable set called the sample space, which relates to the set of all possible outcomes in classical sense, denoted by Ω
19.
Irreducible complexity
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Irreducible complexity is the argument that certain biological systems cannot evolve by successive small modifications to pre-existing functional systems through natural selection. Irreducible complexity is central to the creationist concept of intelligent design, but it is rejected by the scientific community, Irreducible complexity is one of two main arguments used by intelligent design proponents, the other being specified complexity. Michael Behe, a professor of biochemistry at Lehigh University, first argued that irreducible complexity makes evolution through natural selection of random mutations impossible, however, evolutionary biologists have demonstrated how such systems can evolve. In the 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial, the court found that Professor Behes claim for irreducible complexity has been refuted in peer-reviewed research papers and has been rejected by the scientific community at large. A second definition given by Behe is as follows, An irreducibly complex evolutionary pathway is one that one or more unselected steps. The degree of complexity is the number of unselected steps in the pathway. The set of these parts is known as the irreducible core of the system. The argument from irreducible complexity is a descendant of the argument for God. This states that certain things in nature appear very complicated. William Paley famously argued, in his 1802 watchmaker analogy, that complexity in nature implies a God for the reason that the existence of a watch implies the existence of a watchmaker. This argument has a history, and one can trace it back at least as far as Ciceros De Natura Deorum ii.34. Galen wrote about the number of parts of the body and their relationships. In the late 17th-century, Thomas Burnet referred to a multitude of pieces aptly joynd to argue against the eternity of life, chapter XV of Paleys Natural Theology discusses at length what he called relations of parts of living things as an indication of their design. Georges Cuvier applied his principle of the correlation of parts to describe an animal from fragmentary remains, for Cuvier, this related to another principle of his, the conditions of existence, which excluded the possibility of transmutation of species. While he did not originate the term, Charles Darwin identified the argument as a way to falsify a prediction of the theory of evolution at the outset. But I can find out no such case, Darwins theory of evolution challenges the teleological argument by postulating an alternative explanation to that of an intelligent designer—namely, evolution by natural selection. The argument from irreducible complexity attempts to demonstrate that biological features cannot be purely the product of Darwinian evolution. It is thirty years since this was set forth in The Principles of Biology, Darwin responded to Spencers objections in chapter XXV of The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication
20.
Creationism
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Creationism is the religious belief that the universe and life originated from specific acts of divine creation, as opposed to the scientific conclusion that they came about through natural processes. Creationists base their beliefs on a fundamentalist reading of texts, including the creation myths found in Genesis. For young Earth creationists, these beliefs are based on a literalist interpretation of the Genesis creation narrative, literalist creationists believe that evolution cannot adequately account for the history, diversity, and complexity of life on Earth. Pseudoscientific branches of creationism include creation science, flood geology, and intelligent design, as well as subsets of pseudoarchaeology, pseudohistory and this story is the basis of Creationist cosmology and biology. The Genesis flood narrative tells how God destroys the world and all life through a great flood and this forms the basis of Creationist geology, better known as flood geology. Several attempts have been made to categorize the different types of creationism, Creationism covers a spectrum of beliefs which have been categorized into the general types listed below. Most young Earth creationists believe that the universe has an age as the Earth. A few assign a much older age to the universe than to Earth, Creationist cosmologies give the universe an age consistent with the Ussher chronology and other young Earth time frames. The Christian organizations Institute for Creation Research and the Creation Research Society both promote young Earth creationism in the US. Another organization with similar views, Answers in Genesis —based in both the US and the United Kingdom—has opened the Creation Museum in Petersburg, Kentucky, to promote young Earth creationism. Creation Ministries International promotes young Earth views in Australia, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, the US, among Roman Catholics, the Kolbe Center for the Study of Creation promotes similar ideas. Old Earth creationism holds that the universe was created by God. This group generally believes that the age of the universe and the age of the Earth are as described by astronomers and geologists, but that details of modern evolutionary theory are questionable. Old Earth creationism itself comes in at least three types, Gap creationism, also called restoration creationism, holds that life was created on a pre-existing old Earth. This version of creationism relies on an interpretation of Genesis 1. It is considered that the words formless and void in fact denote waste and ruin, taking account the original Hebrew. Genesis 1, 1–2 is consequently translated, In the beginning God created the heaven, and the earth was without form, and void, and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters, thus, the six days of creation start sometime after the Earth was without form and void
21.
Art dealer
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An art dealer is a person or company that buys and sells works of art. Art dealers professional associations serve to set standards for accreditation or membership and to support art exhibitions. An art dealer typically seeks out various artists to represent, and builds relationships with collectors, some dealers are able to anticipate market trends, while some prominent dealers may be able to influence the taste of the market. Many dealers specialize in a style, period, or region. They often travel internationally, frequenting exhibitions, auctions, and artists studios looking for good buys, little-known treasures, when dealers buy works of art, they resell them either in their galleries or directly to collectors. Those who deal in art usually exhibit artists works in their galleries. Art dealers often study the history of art before entering on their careers, related careers that often cross-over include curators of museums and art auction firms are industry-related careers. Gallery owners who do not succeed may seek to work for more successful galleries, others pursue careers as art critics, academics, curators of museums or auction houses, or practicing artists. Dealers have to understand the business side of the art world and they keep up with trends in the market and are knowledgeable about the style of art people want to buy. They figure out how much they should pay for a piece and they are also often passionate and knowledgeable about art. Those who deal with contemporary art promote new artists, creating a market for the artists works, the art world is subject to economic booms and bust just like any other market. Art dealers must be economically conscious in order to maintain their livelihoods, the mark ups of art work must be carefully monitored. If prices and profits are too large, then investments may be devalued should an overstock or economic downturn occur, to determine an artworks value, dealers inspect the objects or paintings closely, and compare the fine details with similar pieces. Some dealers with many years of experience learn to identify unsigned works by examining stylistic features such as strokes, color. They recognize the styles of different periods and individual artists, often art dealers are able to distinguish authentic works from forgeries. Guillam Forchondt the Elder A 17th century Flemish Baroque painter and art based in Antwerp. He established an important art dealing business with international connections in Europe maintained by his extended family and he originally trained as a painter and cabinet maker but built a reputation through his international art business. At one point, the Brothers Forchondt had 60 painters in service for export to France, Austria, Spain, matthijs Musson A painter and art dealer based in Antwerp, who helped popularize artists of the 17th century Antwerp school by marketing them throughout Europe
22.
Biology
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Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain unifying concepts within it that consolidate it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable, the term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, life and the suffix -λογία, -logia, study of. The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica, the first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the biology or the doctrine of life. Although modern biology is a recent development, sciences related to. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, however, the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece. While the formal study of medicine back to Hippocrates, it was Aristotle who contributed most extensively to the development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life. Aristotles successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz, Al-Dīnawarī, who wrote on botany, biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoeks dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria, investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining. Advances in microscopy also had a impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the importance of the cell. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians
23.
University of Erlangen-Nuremberg
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Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg is a public research university in the cities of Erlangen and Nuremberg in Bavaria, Germany. In Germany, traditional liberal arts universities do not usually have a school or department. However, FAU does have an engineering faculty. FAU is the second largest state university in the state Bavaria and it has 5 faculties,23 departments/schools,30 clinical departments,19 autonomous departments,656 professors,3,404 members of academic staff and roughly 13,000 employees. In winter semester 2014/15 around 39,085 students enrolled in the university in 239 fields of study, with about 2/3 studying at the Erlangen campus and these statistics put FAU in the list of top 10 largest universities in Germany. In 2013,5251 students graduated from the university and 663 doctorates and 50 post-doctoral theses were registered, moreover, FAU received 171 million Euro external funding in the same year, making it one of the strongest third-party funded universities in Germany. In 2006 and 2007, as part of the national excellence initiative, FAU is also a member of DFG and the Top Industrial Managers for Europe network. The university was founded in 1742, in Bayreuth by Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth, Christian Frederick Charles Alexander, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach provided significant support to the early university. From the beginning, the university was a Protestant institution, during the Nazi era, the university was one of the first that had a majority of Nazi supporters in the student council. In 1961, the college in Nuremberg was merged with the university in Erlangen. An engineering school was inaugurated in 1966, in 1972, the school of education in Nuremberg became part of the university. Below is a timeline of FAU from its inception to its present form, 1700–1704. 1743, Friedrich, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth, issues an edict whereby the university founded in Bayreuth is transferred to Erlangen. It has the four faculties of Protestant Theology, Jurisprudence, Medicine,1769, The University at Erlangen is given the new name of Friedrich-Alexander-Universität in honour of Alexander, Margrave of Ansbach and Bayreuth. 1818, The library of the University of Altdorf, dissolved in 1809, is moved to Erlangen,1824, The first hospital is built. 1825, The University moves into the Schloss,1927, Science is taken out of the Faculty of Arts thus creating the new Faculty of Science. 1961, The FAU acquires a further faculty through merger with the Nuremberg College of Economics, the Universitys name is now Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg. 1966, Faculty of Engineering is established,1972, The Teacher Training College in Nuremberg is incorporated into the Faculty of Education
24.
Evolutionary biology
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Evolutionary biology is the subfield of biology that studies the evolutionary processes that produced the diversity of life on Earth, starting from a single origin of life. These processes include natural selection, common descent, and speciation, the study of evolution is the central unifying concept in biology. Biology can be divided in various ways, one way is by the level of biological organisation, from molecular to cell, organism to population. Another way is by taxonomic group, with such as zoology, ornithology. A third way is by approach, such as biology, theoretical biology, experimental evolution. These alternative ways of dividing up the subject can be combined with evolutionary biology to create subfields like evolutionary ecology, Evolutionary biology, as an academic discipline in its own right, emerged during the period of the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s. It was not until the 1980s that many universities had departments of evolutionary biology, in the United States, many universities have created departments of molecular and cell biology or ecology and evolutionary biology, in place of the older departments of botany and zoology. Palaeontology is often grouped with earth science, microbiology too is becoming an evolutionary discipline, now that microbial physiology and genomics are better understood. The quick generation time of bacteria and viruses such as makes it possible to explore evolutionary questions. Many biologists have contributed to our current understanding of evolution, ford established an empirical research programme. Ronald Fisher, Sewall Wright and J. S. Haldane created a theoretical framework. Ernst Mayr in systematics, George Gaylord Simpson in palaeontology and G. Ledyard Stebbins in botany helped to form the modern synthesis, james Crow, Richard Lewontin, Dan Hartl, Marcus Feldman, and Brian Charlesworth trained a generation of evolutionary biologists. Current research in evolutionary biology covers diverse topics and incorporates ideas from diverse areas, such as molecular genetics, first, some fields of evolutionary research try to explain phenomena that were poorly accounted for in the modern evolutionary synthesis. These include speciation, the evolution of reproduction, the evolution of cooperation, the evolution of ageing. Second, biologists ask the most straightforward evolutionary question, what happened and this includes fields such as palaeobiology, as well as systematics and phylogenetics. Third, the evolutionary synthesis was devised at a time when nobody understood the molecular basis of genes. Today, evolutionary biologists try to determine the architecture of interesting evolutionary phenomena such as adaptation and speciation. They try to reconcile the high heritability seen in studies with the difficulty in finding which genes are responsible for this heritability using genome-wide association studies
25.
Evolution
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Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. Evolutionary processes give rise to biodiversity at every level of organisation, including the levels of species, individual organisms. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the LUCA of all living on Earth. The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite, to microbial mat fossils, existing patterns of biodiversity have been shaped both by speciation and by extinction. More than 99 percent of all species that lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates of Earths current species range from 10 to 14 million, more recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described. In the mid-19th century, Charles Darwin formulated the theory of evolution by natural selection. This teleonomy is the quality whereby the process of natural selection creates and preserves traits that are fitted for the functional roles they perform. The processes by which the changes occur, from one generation to another, are called evolutionary processes or mechanisms, the four most widely recognized evolutionary processes are natural selection, genetic drift, mutation and gene migration. Natural selection and genetic drift sort variation, mutation and gene migration create variation, consequences of selection can include meiotic drive, nonrandom mating and genetic hitchhiking. In the early 20th century the modern evolutionary synthesis integrated classical genetics with Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection through the discipline of population genetics, the importance of natural selection as a cause of evolution was accepted into other branches of biology. Moreover, previously held notions about evolution, such as orthogenesis, evolutionism, evolutionary computation, a sub-field of artificial intelligence, involves the application of Darwinian principles to problems in computer science. The proposal that one type of organism could descend from another type goes back to some of the first pre-Socratic Greek philosophers, such as Anaximander, such proposals survived into Roman times. The poet and philosopher Lucretius followed Empedocles in his masterwork De rerum natura, in contrast to these materialistic views, Aristotelianism considered all natural things as actualisations of fixed natural possibilities, known as forms. This was part of a teleological understanding of nature in which all things have an intended role to play in a divine cosmic order. In the 17th century, the new method of modern science rejected the Aristotelian approach, however, this new approach was slow to take root in the biological sciences, the last bastion of the concept of fixed natural types. The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 explicitly recognized the nature of species relationships. Other naturalists of this time speculated on the change of species over time according to natural laws
26.
Calculus
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Calculus is the mathematical study of continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the study of shape and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic operations. It has two branches, differential calculus, and integral calculus, these two branches are related to each other by the fundamental theorem of calculus. Both branches make use of the notions of convergence of infinite sequences. Generally, modern calculus is considered to have developed in the 17th century by Isaac Newton. Today, calculus has widespread uses in science, engineering and economics, Calculus is a part of modern mathematics education. A course in calculus is a gateway to other, more advanced courses in mathematics devoted to the study of functions and limits, Calculus has historically been called the calculus of infinitesimals, or infinitesimal calculus. Calculus is also used for naming some methods of calculation or theories of computation, such as calculus, calculus of variations, lambda calculus. The ancient period introduced some of the ideas that led to integral calculus, the method of exhaustion was later discovered independently in China by Liu Hui in the 3rd century AD in order to find the area of a circle. In the 5th century AD, Zu Gengzhi, son of Zu Chongzhi, indian mathematicians gave a non-rigorous method of a sort of differentiation of some trigonometric functions. In the Middle East, Alhazen derived a formula for the sum of fourth powers. He used the results to carry out what would now be called an integration, Cavalieris work was not well respected since his methods could lead to erroneous results, and the infinitesimal quantities he introduced were disreputable at first. The formal study of calculus brought together Cavalieris infinitesimals with the calculus of finite differences developed in Europe at around the same time, pierre de Fermat, claiming that he borrowed from Diophantus, introduced the concept of adequality, which represented equality up to an infinitesimal error term. The combination was achieved by John Wallis, Isaac Barrow, and James Gregory, in other work, he developed series expansions for functions, including fractional and irrational powers, and it was clear that he understood the principles of the Taylor series. He did not publish all these discoveries, and at this time infinitesimal methods were considered disreputable. These ideas were arranged into a calculus of infinitesimals by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. He is now regarded as an independent inventor of and contributor to calculus, unlike Newton, Leibniz paid a lot of attention to the formalism, often spending days determining appropriate symbols for concepts. Leibniz and Newton are usually credited with the invention of calculus. Newton was the first to apply calculus to general physics and Leibniz developed much of the used in calculus today
27.
Bible
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The Bible is a collection of sacred texts or scriptures that Jews and Christians consider to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between God and humans. Many different authors contributed to the Bible, what is regarded as canonical text differs depending on traditions and groups, a number of Bible canons have evolved, with overlapping and diverging contents. The Christian Old Testament overlaps with the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint, the New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians, believed to be mostly Jewish disciples of Christ, written in first-century Koine Greek. These early Christian Greek writings consist of narratives, letters, among Christian denominations there is some disagreement about the contents of the canon, primarily the Apocrypha, a list of works that are regarded with varying levels of respect. Attitudes towards the Bible also differ amongst Christian groups and this concept arose during the Protestant Reformation, and many denominations today support the use of the Bible as the only source of Christian teaching. With estimated total sales of over 5 billion copies, the Bible is widely considered to be the book of all time. It has estimated sales of 100 million copies, and has been a major influence on literature and history, especially in the West. The English word Bible is from the Latin biblia, from the word in Medieval Latin and Late Latin. Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra holy book, while biblia in Greek and it gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun in medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as a singular into the vernaculars of Western Europe. Latin biblia sacra holy books translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια ta biblia ta hagia, the word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of paper or scroll and came to be used as the ordinary word for book. It is the diminutive of βύβλος byblos, Egyptian papyrus, possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician sea port Byblos from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece, the Greek ta biblia was an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books. Christian use of the term can be traced to c.223 CE, bruce notes that Chrysostom appears to be the first writer to use the Greek phrase ta biblia to describe both the Old and New Testaments together. The division of the Hebrew Bible into verses is based on the sof passuk cantillation mark used by the 10th-century Masoretes to record the verse divisions used in oral traditions. The oldest extant copy of a complete Bible is an early 4th-century parchment book preserved in the Vatican Library, the oldest copy of the Tanakh in Hebrew and Aramaic dates from the 10th century CE. The oldest copy of a complete Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus and he states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind. In Christian Bibles, the New Testament Gospels were derived from traditions in the second half of the first century CE. Riches says that, Scholars have attempted to reconstruct something of the history of the oral traditions behind the Gospels, the period of transmission is short, less than 40 years passed between the death of Jesus and the writing of Marks Gospel. This means that there was time for oral traditions to assume fixed form
28.
Statistics
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Statistics is a branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation, presentation, and organization of data. In applying statistics to, e. g. a scientific, industrial, or social problem, populations can be diverse topics such as all people living in a country or every atom composing a crystal. Statistics deals with all aspects of data including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys, statistician Sir Arthur Lyon Bowley defines statistics as Numerical statements of facts in any department of inquiry placed in relation to each other. When census data cannot be collected, statisticians collect data by developing specific experiment designs, representative sampling assures that inferences and conclusions can safely extend from the sample to the population as a whole. In contrast, an observational study does not involve experimental manipulation, inferences on mathematical statistics are made under the framework of probability theory, which deals with the analysis of random phenomena. A standard statistical procedure involves the test of the relationship between two data sets, or a data set and a synthetic data drawn from idealized model. A hypothesis is proposed for the relationship between the two data sets, and this is compared as an alternative to an idealized null hypothesis of no relationship between two data sets. Rejecting or disproving the hypothesis is done using statistical tests that quantify the sense in which the null can be proven false. Working from a hypothesis, two basic forms of error are recognized, Type I errors and Type II errors. Multiple problems have come to be associated with this framework, ranging from obtaining a sufficient sample size to specifying an adequate null hypothesis, measurement processes that generate statistical data are also subject to error. Many of these errors are classified as random or systematic, the presence of missing data or censoring may result in biased estimates and specific techniques have been developed to address these problems. Statistics continues to be an area of research, for example on the problem of how to analyze Big data. Statistics is a body of science that pertains to the collection, analysis, interpretation or explanation. Some consider statistics to be a mathematical science rather than a branch of mathematics. While many scientific investigations make use of data, statistics is concerned with the use of data in the context of uncertainty, mathematical techniques used for this include mathematical analysis, linear algebra, stochastic analysis, differential equations, and measure-theoretic probability theory. In applying statistics to a problem, it is practice to start with a population or process to be studied. Populations can be diverse topics such as all living in a country or every atom composing a crystal. Ideally, statisticians compile data about the entire population and this may be organized by governmental statistical institutes
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Academic conference
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An academic conference or symposium is a conference for researchers to present and discuss their work. Together with academic or scientific journals, conferences provide an important channel for exchange of information between researchers, conferences are usually composed of various presentations. They tend to be short and concise, with a span of about 10 to 30 minutes. The work may be bundled in written form as academic papers, usually a conference will include keynote speakers. The keynote lecture is often longer, lasting sometimes up to an hour, in addition to presentations, conferences also feature panel discussions, round tables on various issues, poster sessions and workshops. Prospective presenters are usually asked to submit an abstract of their presentation. Some disciplines require presenters to submit a paper of about 6–15 pages, in some disciplines, such as English and other languages, it is common for presenters to read from a prepared script. In other disciplines such as the sciences, presenters usually base their talk around a visual presentation that displays key figures, a large meeting will usually be called a conference, while a smaller is termed a workshop. The larger the conference, the more likely it is that academic publishing houses may set up displays, large conferences also may have a career and job search and interview activities. At some conferences, social or entertainment activities such as tours, business meetings for learned societies or interest groups can also be part of the conference activities. These conferences are organized by regional, national, or international learned societies. The professional conference, large conferences not limited to academics but with academically related issues, advanced technology for meeting with any yet unknown person in a conference is performed by active RFID that may indicate wilfully identified and relatively located upon approach via electronic tags. Conferences are usually organized either by a society or by a group of researchers with a common interest. Larger meetings may be handled on behalf of the society by a Professional Conference Organiser or PCO. The meeting is announced by way of a Call For Papers or a Call For Abstracts and it describes the broad theme and lists the meetings topics and formalities such as what kind of abstract or paper has to be submitted, to whom, and by what deadline. A CFP is usually distributed using a mailing list or on specialized online services, contributions are usually submitted using an online abstract or paper management service. There have been accusations for fake, scam, or fraudulent conferences, see also BIT Life Sciences and SCIgen § In conferences
30.
Randomness
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Randomness is the lack of pattern or predictability in events. A random sequence of events, symbols or steps has no order, individual random events are by definition unpredictable, but in many cases the frequency of different outcomes over a large number of events is predictable. For example, when throwing two dice, the outcome of any particular roll is unpredictable, but a sum of 7 will occur twice as often as 4. In this view, randomness is a measure of uncertainty of an outcome, rather than haphazardness, and applies to concepts of chance, probability, the fields of mathematics, probability, and statistics use formal definitions of randomness. In statistics, a variable is an assignment of a numerical value to each possible outcome of an event space. This association facilitates the identification and the calculation of probabilities of the events, Random variables can appear in random sequences. A random process is a sequence of variables whose outcomes do not follow a deterministic pattern. These and other constructs are extremely useful in probability theory and the applications of randomness. Randomness is most often used in statistics to signify well-defined statistical properties, Monte Carlo methods, which rely on random input, are important techniques in science, as, for instance, in computational science. By analogy, quasi-Monte Carlo methods use quasirandom number generators, Random selection is a method of selecting items from a population where the probability of choosing a specific item is the proportion of those items in the population. For example, with a bowl containing just 10 red marbles and 90 blue marbles, note that a random selection mechanism that selected 10 marbles from this bowl would not necessarily result in 1 red and 9 blue. In situations where a population consists of items that are distinguishable and that is, if the selection process is such that each member of a population, of say research subjects, has the same probability of being chosen then we can say the selection process is random. In ancient history, the concepts of chance and randomness were intertwined with that of fate, many ancient peoples threw dice to determine fate, and this later evolved into games of chance. Most ancient cultures used various methods of divination to attempt to circumvent randomness, the Chinese of 3000 years ago were perhaps the earliest people to formalize odds and chance. The Greek philosophers discussed randomness at length, but only in non-quantitative forms and it was only in the 16th century that Italian mathematicians began to formalize the odds associated with various games of chance. The invention of the calculus had a impact on the formal study of randomness. The early part of the 20th century saw a growth in the formal analysis of randomness. In the mid- to late-20th century, ideas of information theory introduced new dimensions to the field via the concept of algorithmic randomness
31.
God
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In monotheism, God is conceived of as the Supreme Being and principal object of faith. The concept of God as described by most theologians includes the attributes of omniscience, omnipotence, omnipresence, divine simplicity, many theologians also describe God as being omnibenevolent and all loving. Furthermore, some religions attribute only a purely grammatical gender to God, incorporeity and corporeity of God are related to conceptions of transcendence and immanence of God, with positions of synthesis such as the immanent transcendence of Chinese theology. God has been conceived as personal or impersonal. In theism, God is the creator and sustainer of the universe, while in deism, God is the creator, in pantheism, God is the universe itself. In atheism, God is not believed to exist, while God is deemed unknown or unknowable within the context of agnosticism, God has also been conceived as the source of all moral obligation, and the greatest conceivable existent. Many notable philosophers have developed arguments for and against the existence of God, there are many names for God, and different names are attached to different cultural ideas about Gods identity and attributes. In the ancient Egyptian era of Atenism, possibly the earliest recorded monotheistic religion, this deity was called Aten, premised on being the one true Supreme Being and creator of the universe. In the Hebrew Bible and Judaism, He Who Is, I Am that I Am, in the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, God, consubstantial in three persons, is called the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. In Judaism, it is common to refer to God by the titular names Elohim or Adonai, in Islam, the name Allah is used, while Muslims also have a multitude of titular names for God. In Hinduism, Brahman is often considered a concept of God. In Chinese religion, God is conceived as the progenitor of the universe, intrinsic to it, other religions have names for God, for instance, Baha in the Baháí Faith, Waheguru in Sikhism, and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism. The earliest written form of the Germanic word God comes from the 6th-century Christian Codex Argenteus, the English word itself is derived from the Proto-Germanic * ǥuđan. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European form * ǵhu-tó-m was likely based on the root * ǵhau-, in the English language, the capitalized form of God continues to represent a distinction between monotheistic God and gods in polytheism. The same holds for Hebrew El, but in Judaism, God is also given a proper name, in many translations of the Bible, when the word LORD is in all capitals, it signifies that the word represents the tetragrammaton. Allāh is the Arabic term with no plural used by Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and Jews meaning The God, Ahura Mazda is the name for God used in Zoroastrianism. Mazda, or rather the Avestan stem-form Mazdā-, nominative Mazdå and it is generally taken to be the proper name of the spirit, and like its Sanskrit cognate medhā, means intelligence or wisdom. Both the Avestan and Sanskrit words reflect Proto-Indo-Iranian *mazdhā-, from Proto-Indo-European mn̩sdʰeh1, literally meaning placing ones mind, Waheguru is a term most often used in Sikhism to refer to God
32.
Psychology
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Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal
33.
Doctor of Philosophy
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A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
34.
Theology
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Theology is the critical study of the nature of the divine. It is taught as a discipline, typically in universities, seminaries. Augustine of Hippo defined the Latin equivalent, theologia, as reasoning or discussion concerning the Deity, the term can, however, be used for a variety of different disciplines or fields of study. Theologians use various forms of analysis and argument to help understand, explain, test, critique, the English equivalent theology had evolved by 1362. Greek theologia was used with the discourse on god in the fourth century BC by Plato in The Republic, Book ii. Drawing on Greek Stoic sources, the Latin writer Varro distinguished three forms of discourse, mythical, rational and civil. Theologos, closely related to theologia, appears once in some manuscripts, in the heading to the book of Revelation, apokalypsis ioannoy toy theologoy. The Latin author Boethius, writing in the early 6th century, used theologia to denote a subdivision of philosophy as a subject of study, dealing with the motionless. Boethius definition influenced medieval Latin usage, Theology can also now be used in a derived sense to mean a system of theoretical principles, an ideology. They suggest the term is appropriate in religious contexts that are organized differently. Kalam. does not hold the place in Muslim thought that theology does in Christianity. To find an equivalent for theology in the Christian sense it is necessary to have recourse to several disciplines, and to the usul al-fiqh as much as to kalam. Jose Ignacio Cabezon, who argues that the use of theology is appropriate, can only do so, he says, I take theology not to be restricted to its etymological meaning. In that latter sense, Buddhism is of course atheological, rejecting as it does the notion of God, within Hindu philosophy, there is a solid and ancient tradition of philosophical speculation on the nature of the universe, of God and of the Atman. The Sanskrit word for the schools of Hindu philosophy is Darshana. Nevertheless, Jewish theology historically has been active and highly significant for Christian. It is sometimes claimed, however, that the Jewish analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be Rabbinical discussion of Jewish law, the history of the study of theology in institutions of higher education is as old as the history of such institutions themselves. Modern Western universities evolved from the institutions and cathedral schools of Western Europe during the High Middle Ages
35.
Charles Hodge
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Charles Hodge was a Presbyterian theologian and principal of Princeton Theological Seminary between 1851 and 1878. He was an exponent of the Princeton Theology, an orthodox Calvinist theological tradition in America during the 19th century. He argued strongly for the authority of the Bible as the Word of God, many of his ideas were adopted in the 20th century by Fundamentalists and Evangelicals. Charles Hodges father, Hugh, was the son of a Scotsman who emigrated from Northern Ireland early in the eighteenth century, Hugh graduated from Princeton College in 1773 and served as a military surgeon in the Revolutionary War, after which he practiced medicine in Philadelphia. He married well-born Bostonian orphan Mary Blanchard in 1790, the Hodges first three sons died in the Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793 and another yellow fever epidemic in 1795. Their first son to survive childhood, Hugh Lenox, was born in 1796, Hugh Lenox would become an authority in obstetrics, and he would remain especially close with Charles, often assisting him financially. Charles was born on December 27,1797 and his father died seven months later of complications from the yellow fever he had contracted in the epidemic of 1795. They were brought up by relatives, many of whom were wealthy, Mary Hodge made sacrifices and took in boarders in order to put the boys through school. She, with the help of the familys minister Ashbel Green, also in 1812, Ashbel Green, the Hodges old minister, became president of the college. At Princeton, the first president of the new seminary, Archibald Alexander, took a special interest in Hodge, assisting him in Greek, Hodge would name his first son after Alexander. Hodge became close friends with future Episcopalian bishops John Johns and Charles McIlvaine, in 1815, during a time of intense religious fervor among the students encouraged by Green and Alexander, Hodge joined the local Presbyterian church and decided to enter the ministry. Shortly after completing his studies he entered the seminary in 1816. Professors Alexander and Samuel Miller also inculcated an intense piety in their students, following graduation from Princeton Seminary in 1819, Hodge received additional instruction privately from Hebrew scholar Rev. Joseph Bates in Philadelphia. In 1820 he accepted an appointment as assistant professor at Princeton Seminary to teach biblical languages. In October of that year he traveled throughout New England to speak with professors and ministers including Moses Stuart at Andover Seminary, financially stable, Hodge married Sarah Bache, Benjamin Franklins great-granddaughter in the same year. In 1824, Hodge helped to found the Chi Phi Society along with Robert Baird and he founded the quarterly Biblical Repertory in 1825 to translate the current scholarly literature on the Bible from Europe. Hodges study of European scholarship lead him to question the adequacy of his training, the seminary agreed to continue to pay him for two years while he traveled in Europe to round out his education. He supplied a substitute, John Nevin on his own expense, there he also became personally acquainted with Friedrich Schleiermacher, the leading modern theologian
36.
Vaccine
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A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe. Vaccines can be prophylactic, or therapeutic, the administration of vaccines is called vaccination. The effectiveness of vaccination has been studied and verified, for example, the influenza vaccine, the HPV vaccine. The World Health Organization reports that licensed vaccines are available to prevent or contribute to the prevention. The terms vaccine and vaccination are derived from Variolae vaccinae, the term devised by Edward Jenner to denote cowpox. He used it in 1798 in the title of his Inquiry into the. Variolae vaccinae. known. the Cow Pox. In 1881, to honor Jenner, Louis Pasteur proposed that the terms should be extended to cover the new protective inoculations then being developed, vaccines have historically been the most effective means to fight and eradicate infectious diseases. Limitations to their effectiveness, nevertheless, exist, sometimes, protection fails because the hosts immune system simply does not respond adequately or at all. Lack of response commonly results from factors such as diabetes, steroid use. Adjuvants commonly are used to boost immune response, particularly for older people, the efficacy or performance of the vaccine is dependent on a number of factors, the disease itself the strain of vaccine whether the vaccination schedule has been properly observed. Idiosyncratic response to vaccination, some individuals are non-responders to certain vaccines, assorted factors such as ethnicity, age, or genetic predisposition. If a vaccinated individual does develop the disease vaccinated against, the disease is likely to be less virulent than in unvaccinated victims, in 1958, there were 763,094 cases of measles in the United States,552 deaths resulted. After the introduction of new vaccines, the number of cases dropped to fewer than 150 per year, in early 2008, there were 64 suspected cases of measles. Vaccines have contributed to the eradication of smallpox, one of the most contagious, other diseases such as rubella, polio, measles, mumps, chickenpox, and typhoid are nowhere near as common as they were a hundred years ago. As long as the vast majority of people are vaccinated, it is more difficult for an outbreak of disease to occur. This effect is called herd immunity, polio, which is transmitted only between humans, is targeted by an extensive eradication campaign that has seen endemic polio restricted to only parts of three countries. However, the difficulty of reaching all children as well as cultural misunderstandings have caused the anticipated eradication date to be missed several times, vaccination given during childhood is generally safe
37.
Natural selection
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Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype. It is a key mechanism of evolution, the change in heritable traits of a population over time, Charles Darwin popularised the term natural selection, and compared it with artificial selection. Variation exists within all populations of organisms and this occurs partly because random mutations arise in the genome of an individual organism, and offspring can inherit such mutations. Throughout the lives of the individuals, their genomes interact with their environments to cause variations in traits, the environment of a genome includes the molecular biology in the cell, other cells, other individuals, populations, species, as well as the abiotic environment. Individuals with certain variants of the trait may survive and reproduce more than individuals with other, less successful, variants, therefore, factors that affect reproductive success are also important, including sexual selection and fecundity selection. Over time, this process can result in populations that specialise for particular ecological niches, in other words, natural selection is a key process in the evolution of a population. Natural selection can be contrasted with artificial selection, in which humans intentionally choose specific traits, Natural selection is one of the cornerstones of modern biology. The concept of natural selection originally developed in the absence of a theory of heredity, at the time of Darwins writing. The union of traditional Darwinian evolution with subsequent discoveries in classical genetics formed the synthesis of the mid-20th century. The addition of molecular genetics has led to developmental biology. While genotypes can slowly change by random genetic drift, natural selection remains the primary explanation for adaptive evolution, empedocles idea that organisms arose entirely by the incidental workings of causes such as heat and cold was criticised by Aristotle in Book II of Physics. He posited natural teleology in its place, and believed that form was achieved for a purpose, nevertheless, he accepted in his biology that new types of animals, monstrosities, can occur in very rare instances. And in like manner as to the parts in which there appears to exist an adaptation to an end. Yet it is impossible that this should be the true view, for teeth and all other natural things either invariably or normally come about in a given way, but of not one of the results of chance or spontaneity is this true. We do not ascribe to chance or mere coincidence the frequency of rain in winter, but frequent rain in summer we do, nor heat in the dog-days, therefore action for an end is present in things which come to be and are by nature. The struggle for existence was later described by the Islamic writer Al-Jahiz in the 9th century, the classical arguments were reintroduced in the 18th century by Pierre Louis Maupertuis and others, including Darwins grandfather, Erasmus Darwin. Until the early 19th century, the view in Western societies was that differences between individuals of a species were uninteresting departures from their Platonic ideals of created kinds. However, the theory of uniformitarianism in geology promoted the idea that simple and this theory, Lamarckism, was an influence on the Soviet biologist Trofim Lysenkos antagonism to mainstream genetic theory as late as the mid 20th century
38.
Phillip E. Johnson
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Phillip E. Johnson is a retired UC Berkeley law professor and author who is considered the father of the intelligent design movement. He became a Christian while a tenured professor and he is a critic of what he calls Darwinism. By Darwinism, he means fully naturalistic evolution, involving chance mechanisms, as a Christian, Johnson believes that a God exists who could create out of nothing if He wanted to do so, but who also might have chosen to work through a natural evolutionary process instead. Johnson rejects that evolution is a fact and favors neo-creationary views known as intelligent design, Johnson eventually abandoned that position in 1996. The consensus of the community considers Johnsons opinions on evolution to be pseudoscience. Johnson was born in Aurora, Illinois, in 1940 and he received a Bachelor of Arts degree in English literature, from Harvard University in 1961. He studied law at the University of Chicago, graduating top of his class and he served as a law clerk for the Chief Justice of the U. S. Supreme Court Earl Warren and Chief Justice of the California Supreme Court Roger J. Traynor. Johnson became a member of the California Bar in January 1966 and he is an emeritus professor of law at Boalt School of Law at the University of California, Berkeley, where he served on the active faculty from 1967 to 2000. Johnson has served as deputy district attorney and has held visiting professorships at Emory University, Johnson became a Christian following a divorce, and later became an elder in the Presbyterian Church. Johnson later said, Something about the Darwinists rhetorical style made me think they had something to hide, despite having no formal background in biology, he felt that could add insight into the premises and arguments. He noted that people think about evolutionism depends very heavily on the kind of logic they employ. Since the publication of the first edition of Darwin on Trial in 1991, Johnson popularized the term intelligent design in his book, Darwin on Trial. He remains one of the best known advocates for intelligent design and he is the author of several books on intelligent design, science, philosophy, and religion, as well as textbooks on criminal law. He has appeared on programs such as PBSs Firing Line. Since 2001, Johnson has suffered a series of right brain strokes. In 2004, he was awarded the inaugural Phillip E. Johnson Award for Liberty and Truth by Biola University, Johnson has two children and lives with his wife in Berkeley, California. Johnson has stated in an interview that he believed the strength of America is not in its towers or in its battleships, of course, I said that, but I wasnt sure it was really true anymore. This isnt the same country we were in the previous decades, Johnson said the U. S. was cringing in fear of Muslim terrorists after September 11 attacks and that professors were afraid to discuss it because theyre afraid of what the Muslim students will do
39.
Darwin on Trial
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Darwin on Trial is a 1991 book about the theory of evolution and the creation-evolution debate by Harvard graduate and University of California, Berkeley law professor emeritus Phillip E. Johnson. Darwin on Trial became a text of the intelligent design movement principally fathered by Johnson. Eugenie Scott wrote that, in her opinion, the book teaches little that is accurate about either the nature of science and it is recommended neither by scientists nor educators. Scott pointed out in a review that the criticisms of evolution offers are immediately recognizable as originating with the scientific creationists. He states that he has no interest in discussing the Biblical account of creation in Genesis, Darwin on Trial has sold over 250,000 copies. Causing an uproar in some scientific and literary circles, Darwin on Trial alerted national media to the creationist movement, in the year after Darwin on Trial was released, many articles about the controversy were published in popular newspapers and magazines across the country. Johnson said in an interview in California Monthly that he expected to be labeled a kook by the academy. Stephen Jay Gould gave a review in Scientific American. Johnson has since added an epilogue to the book titled The Book and Its Critics, goulds writings are quoted frequently in the book, but Gould complained that it does not fully cite sources. Johnson also replied in a posting, essentially repeating the assertions he made in the book. Eugenie Scott has pointed out that the book repeats many arguments by creationists that were previously discredited, Scott further criticizes Johnsons approach, which assumes science and evolution can be treated the same way as a criminal trial. Scott points out that the uses of three terms in both science and law are completely divergent. Within science, a law is a generalization, while a theory is the explanation of the law. In a second review, Scott again points out that Johnsons arguments are recycled from scientific creationism, in his case studies, for example, with the Velikovsky affair, there is much more rhetoric than substance. Bauer noted that when archaeopteryx cannot be explained away. Johnson calls it a point for the Darwinists, - as though science were suggesting something else. Darwin on Trial, Read Free PDF Now - by Phillip E. Johnson
40.
Supernatural
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One complicating factor is that there is disagreement about the definition of natural and the limits of naturalism. Concepts in the domain are closely related to concepts in religious spirituality. Sometimes we understand by nature the established course of things, as when we say that nature makes the night succeed the day, nature hath made respiration necessary to the life of men. Sometimes we take nature for the universe, or system of the works of God, as when it is said of a phoenix, or a chimera. And sometimes too, and that most commonly, we would express by nature a semi-deity or other kind of being. Parapsychologists use the term psi to refer to a unitary force underlying the phenomena they study. Views on the supernatural vary, for example it may be seen as, from this perspective, some events occur according to the laws of nature, and others occur according to a separate set of principles external to known nature. For example, in Scholasticism, it was believed that God was capable of performing any miracle so long as it didnt lead to a logical contradiction, others believe that all events have natural and only natural causes. They believe that human beings ascribe supernatural attributes to purely natural events, such as lightning, rainbows, floods, the supernatural is a feature of the philosophical traditions of Neoplatonism and Scholasticism. In contrast, the philosophy of Metaphysical naturalism argues for the conclusion that there are no supernatural entities, objects, most religions include elements of belief in the supernatural while also often featuring prominently in the study of the paranormal and occultism. Process theology is a school of thought influenced by the process philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead. It is not possible, in process metaphysics, to conceive divine activity as an intervention into the “natural” order of events. Process theists usually regard the distinction between the supernatural and the natural as a by-product of the doctrine of creation ex nihilo, in process thought, there is no such thing as a realm of the natural in contrast to that which is supernatural. On the other hand, if “the natural” is defined more neutrally as “what is in the nature of things, in Whiteheads words, “It lies in the nature of things that the many enter into complex unity”. It is tempting to emphasize process theisms denial of the supernatural, dreams as a Source of Supernatural Agent Concepts. Riekki T, Lindeman M, Raij T. T, Supernatural Believers Attribute More Intentions to Random Movement than Skeptics, An fMRI Study. CS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Purzycki Benjamin G, the Minds of Gods, A Comparative Study of Supernatural Agency. Unresolved Mourning, Supernatural Beliefs and Dissociation, A Mediation Analysis, vail K. E, Arndt J, Addollahi A
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Scientific method
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The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry is commonly based on empirical or measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning, experiments need to be designed to test hypotheses. The most important part of the method is the experiment. The scientific method is a process, which usually begins with observations about the natural world. Human beings are naturally inquisitive, so often come up with questions about things they see or hear. The best hypotheses lead to predictions that can be tested in various ways, in general, the strongest tests of hypotheses come from carefully controlled and replicated experiments that gather empirical data. Depending on how well the tests match the predictions, the hypothesis may require refinement. If a particular hypothesis becomes very well supported a theory may be developed. Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, identifiable features are shared in common between them. The overall process of the method involves making conjectures, deriving predictions from them as logical consequences. A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while formulating the question, the hypothesis might be very specific or it might be broad. Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments, the purpose of an experiment is to determine whether observations agree with or conflict with the predictions derived from a hypothesis. Experiments can take anywhere from a college lab to CERNs Large Hadron Collider. There are difficulties in a statement of method, however. Though the scientific method is presented as a fixed sequence of steps. Not all steps take place in scientific inquiry, and are not always in the same order. Some philosophers and scientists have argued there is no scientific method, such as Lee Smolin. Nola and Sankey remark that For some, the idea of a theory of scientific method is yester-years debate
42.
Edwards v. Aguillard
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Edwards v. Aguillard,482 U. S.578, was a United States Supreme Court case concerning the constitutionality of teaching creationism. Several states passed legislation to ban or restrict the teaching of evolution, the Tennessee Butler Act was tested in the Scopes Trial of 1925, and continued in effect with the result that evolution was not taught in many schools. The Act did not require teaching either creationism or evolution, but did require that, if science was taught. Creationists lobbied aggressively for the law, the stated purpose of the Act was to protect academic freedom. Counsel for the state later admitted at the Supreme Court oral argument that the legislature may not used the academic freedom in the correct legal sense. They might have in mind, instead, a concept of fairness. Treen signed the bill into law in 1981, the District Court and Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled against Louisiana, finding that its actual purpose in enacting the statute was to promote the religious doctrine of creation science. An Arkansas District Court previously held in a 1982 decision in McLean v. Arkansas that a similar balanced treatment statute violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment, Arkansas did not appeal the loss. Because it was unconvinced by the states proffered secular purpose, the Court went on to find that the legislature had a preeminent religious purpose in enacting this statute. Justice Antonin Scalia, joined by Chief Justice William Rehnquist, dissented, accepting the Acts stated purpose of protecting academic freedom as a sincere and legitimate secular purpose. However, they criticized the first prong of the Lemon test. The ruling was one in a series of developments addressing issues related to the American creationist movement, the scope of the ruling affected state schools and did not include independent schools, home schools, Sunday schools and Christian schools, which remained free to teach creationism. During the case, creationists worked on a creationist biology textbook, drafts were given various titles, including Biology and Creation. This supplementary textbook for school use attacked evolutionary biology without mentioning the identity of the intelligent designer. Promotion of intelligent design creationism by the intelligent design movement eventually led to the use in a school district being challenged in another court case. Because the Dover school board not to appeal, the case never reached a circuit court or the U. S. Supreme Court. Bird later authored books promoting creationism and teaching it in public schools, blewett, Paul F. Edwards v. Aguillard, The Supreme Courts Deconstruction of Louisianas Creationism Statute. Notre Dame Journal of Law, Ethics, & Public Policy, mcClellan, V. F. Edwards v. Aguillard, The Creationist-Evolutionist Battle Continues
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Creation science
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The overwhelming consensus of the scientific community is that creation science is a religious, not a scientific view. Creation science is a attempt to map the Bible into scientific facts. It is viewed by scientists as unscholarly, and even as a dishonest and misguided sham. Creation science began in the 1960s, as a fundamentalist Christian effort in the United States to prove Biblical inerrancy and it has since developed a sizable religious following in the United States, with creation science ministries branching worldwide. Creation science proponents often refer to the theory of evolution as Darwinism or as Darwinian evolution, many school boards and lawmakers were persuaded to include the teaching of creation science alongside evolution in the science curriculum. The 1982 ruling in McLean v. Arkansas found that creation science fails to meet the essential characteristics of science, the teaching of creation science in public schools in the United States effectively ended in 1987 following the United States Supreme Court decision in Edwards v. Aguillard. In response to this ruling, drafts of the science school textbook Of Pandas. Creation science is based largely upon chapters 1–11 of the Book of Genesis, however, there are also examples of Islamic and Jewish scientific creationism that conform to the accounts of creation as recorded in their religious doctrines. The Seventh-day Adventist Church has a history of support for creation science and this dates back to George McCready Price, an active Seventh-day Adventist who developed views of flood geology, which formed the basis of creation science. This work was continued by the Geoscience Research Institute, an institute of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. Creation science is generally rejected by the Church of England as well as the Roman Catholic Church, the Pontifical Gregorian University has officially discussed intelligent design as a cultural phenomenon without scientific elements. The Church of Englands official website cites Charles Darwins local work assisting people in his religious parish, Creation science rejects evolutions theory of the common descent of all living things on the Earth. Instead, it asserts that the field of biology is itself pseudoscientific or even a religion. Creationists argue instead for a system called baraminology, which considers the world to be descended from uniquely created kinds or baramins. Sometimes creationists attack other scientific concepts, like the Big Bang cosmological model or methods of dating based upon radioactive decay. The scientific community has rejected the ideas put forth in creation science as lying outside the boundaries of a legitimate science. Scientists also deem creation sciences attacks against biological evolution to be without scientific merit, legislation prohibiting the teaching of evolution was passed in certain regions, most notably Tennessees Butler Act of 1925. The Soviet Unions successful launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957 sparked national concern that the education in public schools was outdated
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State school
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State schools generally refer to primary or secondary schools mandated for or offered to all children without charge, funded in whole or in part by taxation. The term may refer to public institutions of post-secondary education. State education is inclusive, both in its treatment of students and in that enfranchisement for the government of public education is as broad as for government generally and it is often organized and operated to be a deliberate model of the civil community in which it functions. Although typically provided to groups of students in classrooms in a school, it may be provided in-home, employing visiting teachers. It can also be provided in non-school, non-home settings, such as shopping mall space, State education is generally available to all. In most countries, it is compulsory for children to school up to a certain age. In the case of private schooling, schools operate independently of the state, the funding for state schools, on the other hand, is provided by tax revenues, so that even individuals who do not attend school help to ensure that society is educated. In poverty stricken societies, authorities are often lax on compulsory school attendance because child labour is exploited and it is these same children whose income-securing labor cannot be forfeited to allow for school attendance. The term public education when applied to schools is not synonymous with the term publicly funded education. Government may make a policy decision that it wants to have some financial resources distributed in support of, and it may want to have some control over. Grants-in-aid of private schools and vouchers systems provide examples of publicly funded private education, conversely, a state school may rely heavily on private funding such as high fees or private donations and still be considered state by virtue of governmental ownership and control. In some countries, private associations or churches can operate schools according to their own principles, when these specific requirements are met, especially in the area of the school curriculum, the schools will qualify to receive state funding. Proponents of state education assert it to be necessary because of the need in society for people who are capable of reading, writing. In most industrialized countries, these views are distinctly in the minority, Government schools are free to attend for Australian citizens and permanent residents, whereas independent schools usually charge attendance fees. They can be divided into two categories, open and selective schools, the open schools accept all students from their government-defined catchment areas. Government schools educate approximately 65% of Australian students, with approximately 34% in Catholic, regardless of whether a school is part of the Government or independent systems, they are required to adhere to the same curriculum frameworks of their state or territory. The curriculum framework however provides for flexibility in the syllabus. Public or Government funded schools are found throughout Bangladesh and these schools mostly teach students from Year 1 to 10, with examinations for students in years 5,8, and 10
