1.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
2.
Louis Brandeis
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Louis Dembitz Brandeis was an American lawyer and associate justice on the Supreme Court of the United States from 1916 to 1939. He was born in Louisville, Kentucky, to Jewish immigrant parents from Bohemia and he attended Harvard Law School, graduating at the age of twenty with the highest grade average in the law schools history. Brandeis settled in Boston, where he founded a law firm and he later published a book titled Other Peoples Money And How the Bankers Use It, suggesting ways of curbing the power of large banks and money trusts. He fought against powerful corporations, monopolies, public corruption, and mass consumerism, all of which he felt were detrimental to American values and culture. He also became active in the Zionist movement, seeing it as a solution to antisemitism in Europe and Russia, when his familys finances became secure, he began devoting most of his time to public causes and was later dubbed the Peoples Lawyer. He insisted on serving on cases without pay so that he would be free to address the issues involved. The Economist magazine calls him A Robin Hood of the law, in 1916, President Woodrow Wilson nominated Brandeis to become a member of the Supreme Court. His nomination was contested, partly because, as Justice William O. Douglas wrote. He was dangerous not only because of his brilliance, his arithmetic and he was dangerous because he was incorruptible. The fears of the Establishment were greater because Brandeis was the first Jew to be named to the Court. On June 1,1916 he was confirmed by the Senate by a vote of 47 to 22, to one of the most famous. His opinions were, according to scholars, some of the greatest defenses of freedom of speech. Louis Dembitz Brandeis was born on November 13,1856, in Louisville, Kentucky and his parents, Adolph Brandeis and Frederika Dembitz, both of whom were Ashkenazi Jews, emigrated to the United States from their childhood homes in Prague, Bohemia. They emigrated as part of their families for both economic and political reasons. In addition, the Habsburg Empire had imposed taxes on Jews. Family elders sent Adolph Brandeis to America to observe and prepare for his familys possible emigration and he spent a few months in the Midwest and was impressed by the nations institutions and by the tolerance among the people he met. He wrote home to his wife, Americas progress is the triumph of the rights of man, the Brandeis family chose to settle in Louisville partly because it was a prosperous river port. His earliest childhood was shaped by the American Civil War, which forced the family to seek safety temporarily in Indiana, the Brandeis family held abolitionist beliefs that angered their Louisville neighbors
3.
John Paul Stevens
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John Paul Stevens is a retired associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, who served from December 19,1975, until his retirement on June 29,2010. At the time of his retirement, he was the oldest justice then serving, the second-oldest serving justice in the history of the Court, and he was nominated by President Gerald Ford to replace the Courts longest-serving justice, William O. Douglas. Stevens is widely considered to have been on the side of the Court at the time of his retirement. Stevens served with three Chief Justices, Stevens was born on April 20,1920, in Hyde Park, Chicago, Illinois, to a wealthy family. His paternal grandfather had formed a company and held real estate in Chicago. His father, Ernest James Stevens, was a lawyer who became a hotelier. He lost ownership of the hotels during the Great Depression and was convicted of embezzlement and his mother, Elizabeth Maude Stevens, was a high-school English teacher. Two of his three brothers also became lawyers. As a boy, Stevens attended the 1932 World Series baseball game in Chicagos Wrigley Field in which Babe Ruth called his shot, Stevens later recalled, Ruth did point to the center-field scoreboard. And he did hit the ball out of the park after he pointed with his bat, so it really happened. He also had the opportunity to meet several people of the era, including the famed aviators Amelia Earhart and Charles Lindbergh. The family lived in Hyde Park, and John Paul Stevens attended the University of Chicago Laboratory School. He subsequently obtained a bachelor of arts in English from the University of Chicago in 1941, while in college and he began work on his masters degree in English at the university in 1941, but soon decided to join the United States Navy. He enlisted on December 6,1941, one day before the attack on Pearl Harbor, Stevens was awarded a Bronze Star for his service in the codebreaking team whose work led to the downing of Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamotos plane in 1943. Stevens married Elizabeth Jane Shereen in June 1942, divorcing her in 1979, he married Maryan Mulholland Simon that December. He has four children, John Joseph, Kathryn, Elizabeth, with the end of World War II, Stevens returned to Illinois, intending to return to his studies in English, but was persuaded by his brother Richard, who was a lawyer, to attend law school. Stevens enrolled in the Northwestern University School of Law in 1945 and he was a brilliant student, earning the highest GPA in the history of the law school. He received his J. D. in 1947, graduating cum laude
4.
U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
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The U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission is an independent agency of the United States federal government. The SEC was created by Section 4 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, the SEC has a three-part mission, to protect investors, maintain fair, orderly, and efficient markets, and facilitate capital formation. To achieve its mandate, the SEC enforces the requirement that public companies submit quarterly and annual reports. MD&A will usually touch on the upcoming year, outlining future goals. In an attempt to level the field for all investors. Quarterly and semiannual reports from companies are crucial for investors to make sound decisions when investing in the capital markets. Unlike banking, investment in the markets is not guaranteed by the federal government. The potential for big gains needs to be weighed against that of sizable losses, the SEC makes reports available to the public through the EDGAR system. The SEC also offers publications on investment-related topics for public education, the same online system also takes tips and complaints from investors to help the SEC track down violators of the securities laws. The SEC adheres to a policy of never commenting on the existence or status of an ongoing investigation. Prior to the enactment of the securities laws and the creation of the SEC. They were enacted and enforced at the level, and regulated the offering. Though the specific provisions of these laws varied among states, they all required the registration of all offerings and sales, as well as of every U. S. stockbroker. However, these blue sky laws were found to be ineffective. For example, the Investment Bankers Association told its members as early as 1915 that they could ignore blue sky laws by making securities offerings across state lines through the mail. After holding hearings on abuses on interstate frauds, Congress passed the Securities Act of 1933, the subsequent Securities Exchange Act of 1934 regulates sales of securities in the secondary market. The Securities Act of 1933 is also known as the Truth in Securities Act and its goal was to increase public trust in the capital markets by requiring uniform disclosure of information about public securities offerings. For the first year of the enactment, the enforcement of the statute rested with the Federal Trade Commission
5.
James M. Landis
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James McCauley Landis was an American academic, government official and legal adviser. He served as Chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission from 1934 to 1937, Landis was born in Tokyo, Japan, where his parents were teachers at a missionary school. He graduated from Princeton University and in 1924 received a LL. B from the Harvard Law School, in 1925, Landis was a law clerk to Justice Louis Brandeis of the U. S. Supreme Court. He then became a professor at the Harvard Law School, until called into government service during the New Deal, Landis served as a member of the Federal Trade Commission, as a member of the Securities and Exchange Commission, and as chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission. While dean of the Harvard Law School from 1938 to 1946, Landis served as director of the U. S. Office of Civilian Defense. President Franklin D. Roosevelt then sent him to Egypt as American Director of Economic Operations in the Middle East, in 1946, Roosevelts successor, Harry S. Truman, later appointed him chairman of the Civil Aeronautics Board, a position he served until the next year. A friend of the Kennedy family for years, he served as an advisor to Joseph P. Kennedy. Landis failed to pay his taxes from 1956 to 1960. After this came to light in 1963, he pleaded guilty and was sentenced to one month in jail, because of illness, he spent the month in hospital facilities. Less than a year after he returned home, he suffered a heart attack, the Business of the Supreme Court, by James M. Landis and Felix Frankfurter. The Administrative Process, by James M. Landis, prophets of Regulation, Charles Francis Adams, Louis D. Brandeis, James M. Landis, and Alfred Kahn. The Triumph, Tragedy and Lost Legacy of James M. Landis, ritchie, Donald A. James M. Landis, Dean of the Regulators. The Rise and Fall of SEC Pioneer James Landis Finding aid for James McCauley Landis, Papers, www. law. harvard. edu/news/spotlight/classroom/related/hls-deans. html Instant Sentence, Time, Friday, Sept.06,1963
6.
Jerome Frank
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Born in New York City, Franks parents were Herman Frank and Clara New Frank, descendants of mid-19th-century German Jewish immigrants. Franks father, also an attorney, relocated the family to Chicago in 1896, Frank worked as a lawyer in private practice in Chicago from 1912 to 1930, specializing in corporate reorganizations, and becoming a partner in the firm in 1919. Drawing on psychologists such as Sigmund Freud and Jean Piaget, Frank proposed that decisions were motivated primarily by the influence of psychological factors on the individual judge. The book dropped like a bombshell on the legal and academic world, llewellyn defended Frank, but Pound would not relent. Pound would continue to attack Franks legal philosophy throughout his life, during the New Deal administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Frank sought the assistance of Felix Frankfurter to secure a position with the administration. Peek resigned in December 1933, and Frank continued to serve until February 1935, Roosevelt approved the purge, but made Frank a special counsel to the Reconstruction Finance Association in 1935. Frank returned to practice in New York from 1936 to 1938, with the firm of Greenbaum, Wolff. In 1937, William O. Douglas recommended that Roosevelt appoint Frank to be a commissioner of the Securities and Exchange Commission, which Douglas then chaired. Roosevelt agreed, and Frank served as an SEC commissioner from December 1937 until 1941, and was elevated to Chairman from 1939 to 1941, while serving in the SEC, Frank also served on the Temporary National Economic Committee. However, Frank recanted those views after the attack on Pearl Harbor, on February 13,1941, Roosevelt named Frank as a judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, to a seat vacated by Robert Porter Patterson. Frank was confirmed by the Senate in March 1941, and received commission on March 27,1941, Frank was considered a highly competent judge, often taking what was perceived as the more liberal position on civil liberties issues. In addition to his reputation for expertise on civil matters, he was also considered to be an outstanding judge in the fields of procedure, finance. For a time, he was sharply and vocally at odds with a colleague on the bench, Charles Clark, Franks scholarly tendency bled over into his judicial opinions, some of which were notoriously lengthy. One anecdote relayed about this aspect of Franks work tells of a law clerk who had objected to the length of one of Franks opinions, according to the story, He spent all of a week and finally cut it down from sixty-five pages to one-half page. He left both on Judge Franks desk without comment, the following morning Judge Frank rushed into his clerks office and shouted, Bully for you, displaying the clerks work, well add it to the end. Frank served as a judge on the court until his death. As a judge, Frank wrote the opinion in February 1952 affirming the convictions of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, in reviewing the case as part of a three-judge panel, Frank rejected each of the Rosenbergs arguments on appeal. Frank denied that the penalty imposed on the Rosenbergs was cruel and unusual punishment
7.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
8.
Bethesda, Maryland
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Bethesda is a census-designated place in southern Montgomery County, Maryland, United States, located just northwest of the U. S. capital of Washington, D. C. It takes its name from a church, the Bethesda Meeting House. In Aramaic, ܒܝܬ ܚܣܕܐ beth ḥesda means House of Mercy and in Hebrew, the National Institutes of Health main campus and the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center are in Bethesda, as are a number of corporate and government headquarters. In 2014 it placed first in Forbes list of Americas most educated small towns, as an unincorporated area, Bethesda has no official boundaries. The United States Census Bureau defines a place named Bethesda whose center is located at 38°59′N 77°7′W. The United States Geological Survey has defined Bethesda as an area whose center is at 38°58′50″N 77°6′2″W, other definitions are used by the Bethesda Urban Planning District, the United States Postal Service, and other organizations. According to estimates released by the U. S. Census Bureau in 2013, Most of Bethesdas residents are in Maryland Legislative District 16. Bethesda is situated along a thoroughfare that was originally the route of an ancient Native American trail. Henry Fleet, an English fur trader, was the first European to travel to the area, Most early settlers in Maryland were tenant farmers who paid their rent in tobacco. A small settlement grew around a store and tollhouse along the turnpike, by 1862, the community was known as Darcys Store after the owner of a local establishment, William E. Darcy. The church burned in 1849 and was rebuilt the same year about 100 yards south at its present site. Throughout most of the 19th century, Bethesda never developed beyond a small village, consisting of a post office, a blacksmith shop, a church and school. It was not until the installation of a line in 1890. Until that time, dependence on proximity to rail lines insulated Bethesda from growth, the arrival of the personal automobile ended this dependency, and Bethesda planners grew the community with the newest transportation revolution in mind. Subdivisions began to appear on old farmland, becoming the neighborhoods of Drummond, Woodmont, Edgemoor, further north, several wealthy men made Rockville Pike famous for its mansions. These included Brainard W. Parker, James Oyster, George E. Hamilton, wilson, Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor, and George Freeland Peter. In 1930, Dr Armistead Peters pioneering manor house Winona became the clubhouse of the original Woodmont Country Club, merle Thorpes mansion, Pooks Hill —on the site of the current neighborhood of the same name—became the home-in-exile of the Norwegian Royal Family during World War II. That war, and the expansion of government that it created, both the National Naval Medical Center and the NIH complex were built just to the north of the developing downtown
9.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
10.
Whitman College
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Whitman College is a private liberal arts college located in Walla Walla, Washington. Initially founded as a seminary by a legislative charter in 1859. Whitman College is accredited by the Northwest Association of Schools and Colleges and competes athletically in the NCAA Division III Northwest Conference, the school offers 46 majors and 32 minors in the liberal arts and sciences, and has a student to faculty ratio of 9,1. Whitman was the first college in the Pacific Northwest to install a Phi Beta Kappa chapter, Whitman was ranked tied for 41st in the nation in the 2017 U. S. News & World Report list of Best Liberal Arts Colleges. Whitmans acceptance rate for 2015 was 41%, Marcus Whitman and Narcissa Whitman, along with 12 others were killed by a group of Cayuse Indians during the Whitman Massacre. While at the site, Eells became determined to establish a monument to his missionary colleagues in the form of a school for pioneer boys. Eells obtained a charter for Whitman Seminary, a pre-collegiate school, from the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, he acquired the Whitman mission site. Eells soon moved to the site with his family and began working to establish Whitman Seminary, despite Eellss desire to locate Whitman Seminary at the Whitman mission site, local pressure and resources provided a way for the school to open in the burgeoning town of Walla Walla. In 1866, Walla Wallas wealthiest citizen, Dorsey Baker, donated land near his house to the east of downtown, a two-story wood-frame building was quickly erected and classes began later that year. The schools first principal, local Congregational minister Peasly B, chamberlin, resigned within a year and Cushing Eells was called upon to serve as principal, which he did until 1869. After Eellss resignation in 1869, the school struggled—and often failed—to attract students, pay teachers, Whitmans trustees decided in 1882 that while their institution could not continue as a prep school, it might survive as the areas only college. Alexander Jay Anderson, the president of the Territorial University, came to turn the institution into a college. After modeling the institution after New England liberal arts colleges, Anderson opened the school on September 4,1882 with an enrollment of 60 students, in 1883, the school received a collegiate charter and began expanding with aid from the Congregational American College and Education Society. Despite local support for Whitman College and help from the Congregational community, after losing favor with some of the schools supporters, Anderson left Whitman in 1891 to be replaced by Reverend James Francis Eaton. The continuing recession of the 1890s increased the institutions financial worries, by popularizing Marcus Whitmans life and accomplishments, Penrose was able to gain support and resources for the college. Under his leadership, the faculty was strengthened and the first masonry buildings, Billings Hall, in 1907, Penrose began a plan called Greater Whitman which sought to transform the college into an advanced technical and science center. To aid fundraising, Penrose abandoned affiliation with the Congregational Church, the prep school was closed and fraternities and sororities were introduced to the campus. Penrose iterated the schools purpose to be a college, with a limited number of students to whom it will give the finest quality of education
11.
Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
12.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
13.
Bachelor of Laws
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The Bachelor of Laws is an undergraduate degree in law originating in England and offered in most common law jurisdictions. The LL. of the abbreviation for the degree is from the genitive plural legum, creating an abbreviation for a plural, especially from Latin, is often done by doubling the first letter, thus LL. B. Stands for Legum Baccalaureus in Latin, today in Canada the predominant first degree in common law is the Juris Doctor degree having replaced the LL. B. Bachelor of Laws is also the name of the first degree in Scots law and South African law awarded by a number of universities in Scotland and South Africa, the first academic degrees were all law degrees in medieval universities, and the first law degrees were doctorates. The foundations of the first universities were the glossators of the 11th century, the first university, that of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 12th century who were students of the glossator school in that city. The University of Bologna served as the model for law schools of the medieval age. The bachelors degree originated at the University of Paris, whose system was implemented at Oxford, the arts designation of the degree traditionally signifies that the student has undertaken a certain amount of study of the classics. On continental Europe the bachelors degree was phased out in the 18th or early 19th century but it continued at Oxford, the teaching of law at Oxford University was for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practise law. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, as well as court proceedings observation. By the seventeenth century, the Inns obtained a status as a kind of university akin to the University of Oxford, with the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously, and the demand for lawyers grew. The apprenticeship programme for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programmes for the trades. The training of solicitors by apprenticeship was formally established by an act of parliament in 1729, therefore, formal schools of law were called for, but not finally established until later in the century, and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions. When law degrees were required by the English bar and bar associations in other common law countries, historically, law students studied both canon law and civil law. Today, this is less common. In most common law countries, the Bachelor of Laws programme is generally entered directly after completion of secondary school, Masters courses are also offered to university graduates, those who graduate from such courses are entitled to use the initials LL. M. Additionally, of the thirty-six Law Schools thirteen of those universities have started offering the Juris Doctor as a Graduate entry degree. Bangladesh is a common law country, like other Common Law countries, Bachelor of Laws degree is a condition precedent to practise as an Advocate in the Courts of Law of Bangladesh. Both LL. B. and LL. B. degrees are offered in different Public, only seven Public Universities offer LL. B. degree
14.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
15.
Time (magazine)
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Time is an American weekly news magazine published in New York City. It was founded in 1923 and for decades was dominated by Henry Luce, a European edition is published in London and also covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition is based in Hong Kong, the South Pacific edition, which covers Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, is based in Sydney, Australia. In December 2008, Time discontinued publishing a Canadian advertiser edition, Time has the worlds largest circulation for a weekly news magazine, and has a readership of 26 million,20 million of which are based in the United States. As of 2012, it had a circulation of 3.3 million making it the eleventh most circulated magazine in the United States reception room circuit, as of 2015, its circulation was 3,036,602. Richard Stengel was the editor from May 2006 to October 2013. Nancy Gibbs has been the editor since October 2013. Time magazine was created in 1923 by Briton Hadden and Henry Luce, the two had previously worked together as chairman and managing editor respectively of the Yale Daily News. They first called the proposed magazine Facts and they wanted to emphasize brevity, so that a busy man could read it in an hour. They changed the name to Time and used the slogan Take Time–Its Brief and it set out to tell the news through people, and for many decades the magazines cover depicted a single person. More recently, Time has incorporated People of the Year issues which grew in popularity over the years, notable mentions of them were Barack Obama, Steve Jobs, Matej Turk, etc. The first issue of Time was published on March 3,1923, featuring Joseph G. Cannon, the retired Speaker of the House of Representatives, on its cover, a facsimile reprint of Issue No. 1, including all of the articles and advertisements contained in the original, was included with copies of the February 28,1938 issue as a commemoration of the magazines 15th anniversary. The cover price was 15¢ On Haddens death in 1929, Luce became the dominant man at Time, the Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise 1923–1941. In 1929, Roy Larsen was also named a Time Inc. director, J. P. Morgan retained a certain control through two directorates and a share of stocks, both over Time and Fortune. Other shareholders were Brown Brothers W. A. Harriman & Co. the Intimate History of a Changing Enterprise 1957–1983. According to the September 10,1979 issue of The New York Times, after Time magazine began publishing its weekly issues in March 1923, Roy Larsen was able to increase its circulation by utilizing U. S. radio and movie theaters around the world. It often promoted both Time magazine and U. S. political and corporate interests, Larsen next arranged for a 30-minute radio program, The March of Time, to be broadcast over CBS, beginning on March 6,1931
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Civil liberties
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Civil liberties or personal freedoms are personal guarantees and freedoms that the government cannot abridge, either by law or by judicial interpretation, without due process. Other civil liberties include the right to own property, the right to defend oneself, within the distinctions between civil liberties and other types of liberty, distinctions exist between positive liberty/positive rights and negative liberty/negative rights. Many contemporary states have a constitution, a bill of rights, or similar constitutional documents that enumerate, the existence of some claimed civil liberties is a matter of dispute, as are the extent of most civil rights. Controversial examples include property rights, reproductive rights, and civil marriage, whether the existence of victimless crimes infringes upon civil liberties is a matter of dispute. Another matter of debate is the suspension or alteration of certain civil liberties in times of war or state of emergency, including whether and to what extent this should occur. The formal concept of civil liberties is often dated back to Magna Carta, the Constitution of Peoples Republic of China, especially its Fundamental Rights and Duties of Citizens, claims to protect many civil liberties. Taiwan, which is separated from China, has its own Constitution, the Fundamental Rights—embodied in Part III of the constitution—guarantee liberties such that all Indians can lead their lives in peace as citizens of India. The six fundamental rights are right to equality, right to freedom, right against exploitation, right to freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights and right to constitutional remedies. These include individual rights common to most liberal democracies, incorporated in the law of the land and are enforceable in a court of law. Violations of these result in punishments as prescribed in the Indian Penal Code. These rights are neither absolute nor immune from constitutional amendments and they have been aimed at overturning the inequalities of pre-independence social practices. Specifically, they resulted in abolishment of un-touchability and prohibit discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex and they forbid human trafficking and unfree labour. They protect cultural and educational rights of ethnic and religious minorities by allowing them to preserve their languages, all people, irrespective of race, religion, caste or sex, have the right to approach the High Courts or the Supreme Court for the enforcement of their fundamental rights. It is not necessary that the party has to be the one to do so. In public interest, anyone can initiate litigation in the court on their behalf and this is known as Public interest litigation. High Court and Supreme Court judges can also act on their own on the basis of media reports, the Fundamental Rights emphasize equality by guaranteeing to all citizens the access and use of public institutions and protections, irrespective of their background. The rights to life and personal liberty apply for persons of any nationality, while others, such as the freedom of speech, the right to equality in matters of public employment cannot be conferred to overseas citizens of India. Fundamental Rights primarily protect individuals from any arbitrary State actions, for instance, the constitution abolishes untouchability and prohibits begar
17.
Columbia Law School
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Columbia Law School is a professional graduate school of Columbia University, a member of the Ivy League. It is widely regarded as one of the most prestigious law schools in the world and has always ranked in the top five by U. S. News. Columbia is especially known for its strength in corporate law. Columbia Law School was founded in 1858 as the Columbia College Law School and was known for its legal scholarship dating back to the 18th century. Cabinet members and Presidential advisers, U. S. Senators, Representatives, and Governors, according to Columbia Law Schools 2013 ABA-required disclosures, 95% of the Class of 2013 obtained full-time, long-term, JD-required employment nine months after graduation. The law school was ranked #1 of all law schools nation-wide by the National Law Journal in terms of sending the highest percentage of 2015 graduates to the largest 100 law firms in the US, the teaching of law at Columbia reaches back to the 18th century. Columbia College appointed its first professor of law, James Kent, the lectures of Chancellor Kent in the course of four years had developed into the first two volumes of his Commentaries, the second volume being published November 1827. Kent did not, however, succeed in establishing a law school or department in the College, thus, the formal instruction of law as a course of study did not commence until the middle of the 19th century. The Columbia College Law School, as it was officially called, was founded in 1858. The first law school building was a Gothic Revival structure located on Columbias Madison Avenue campus, thereafter, the college became Columbia University and moved north to the neighborhood of Morningside Heights. As Columbia Law Professor Theodore Dwight observed, at its founding the demand for a course of study in law was still speculative. No institution resembling a law school had existed in New York. Legal education was, however, at a low ebb. The clerks in the law offices were left almost wholly to themselves, frequently they were not even acquainted with the lawyers with whom, by a convenient fiction, they were supposed to be studying. In general, the examinations were purely perfunctory, a politician of influence was not readily turned away. Few studied law as a science, many followed it as a trade or as a convenient ladder whereby to rise in a political career, indeed, Columbia Law School was one of the few law schools established in the United States before the Civil War. Jay was fortunate to have attentive supervision because the quality and time of learning the law varied greatly within the profession, the original course of study to obtain a degree consisted of just two years, rather than the modern standard of three. The first lecture in the Law School was delivered on Monday, Nov 1,1858, by Mr. Dwight and it was an introductory lecture, afterwards printed
18.
Yale Law School
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Yale Law School is the law school of Yale University, located in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. The schools small size and prestige make its admissions process the most selective of any law school in the United States, Yale has the lowest acceptance rate among all law schools. Roughly 8 in 10 admits ultimately matriculate, which marks the best yield rate among the top U. S. law schools, established in 1824, Yale Law offers the J. D. LL. M. M. S. L. and Ph. D. degrees in law, Yale Law has been ranked the number one law school in the country by U. S. News and World Report every year since the magazine began publishing law school rankings, through 2017. Yale Law School is widely considered to be the preeminent law school in the nation and is one of the most prestigious law schools in the world, Yale Law has produced a significant number of luminaries in law and politics, including United States presidents Gerald Ford and Bill Clinton. Former president William Howard Taft was a professor of law at Yale Law School from 1913 until he resigned to become chief justice of the United States in 1921. Each class in Yale Laws three-year J. D. program enrolls approximately 200 students, Yales flagship law review is the Yale Law Journal. Another feature of Yale Laws culture since the 1930s, among both faculty and student graduates, has been an emphasis on the importance of spending at least a few years in government service, a similar emphasis has long been placed on service as a judicial law clerk upon graduation. Its 7.6,1 student-to-faculty ratio is the third lowest among U. S. law schools, Yale Law does not have a traditional grading system, a consequence of student unrest in the late 1960s. Instead, it grades first-semester first-year students on a simple Credit/No Credit system, for their remaining two-and-a-half years, students are graded on an Honors/Pass/Low Pass/Fail system. Similarly, the school does not rank its students and it is also notable for having only a single semester of required classes, instead of the full year most U. S. schools require. Students publish nine law journals that, unlike those at most other schools, although the Journal identifies a target maximum number of members to accept each year, it is not a firm number. Other leading student-edited publications include the Yale Law and Policy Review, the Yale Journal on Regulation, the Yale Journal of Law and Technology, and the Yale Journal of International Law. In November 2013, it was announced that a $25 million donation would bring student dormitory living back onto campus, with renovations to begin in 2018. Yale Law has been ranked the number one law school in the country by U. S. News and it is currently ranked as the second best law school in U. S and fourth in the world by the 2016 QS Rankings. Additionally, a 2010 survey of scholarly impact, measured by per capita citations to faculty scholarship, the School began in the New Haven law office of Seth P. Staples in the 1800s, who began training lawyers, by 1810 he was operating a law school. He took on a student, Samuel J. Hitchcock as a law partner
19.
United States presidential election, 1948
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The United States presidential election of 1948 was the 41st quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 2,1948. Trumans victory is considered to be one of the greatest election upsets in American history, virtually every prediction indicated that he would be defeated by Dewey. The Democratic Party had a severe three-way ideological split, with both the far left and far right of the Party running third-party campaigns, with simultaneous success in the 1948 congressional elections, the Democrats regained control of both houses of Congress, which they had lost in 1946. Thus, Trumans election confirmed the Democratic Partys status as the majority party. As would be experienced by the Democrats, there was a boom for General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the most popular general of World War II, unlike the latter movement within the Democratic party, however, the Republican draft movement came largely from the grassroots of the party. With the first state primary approaching, Eisenhower was forced to make a quick decision, stating that soldiers should keep out of politics, Eisenhower declined to run and requested that the grassroots draft movement cease its activities. Dewey, who had been the Republican nominee in 1944, was regarded as the frontrunner when the primaries began, Dewey was the acknowledged leader of the Republican Partys Eastern Establishment. In 1946 he had been re-elected governor of New York by the largest margin in state history, Deweys handicap was that many Republicans disliked him on a personal level, he often struck observers as cold, stiff, and calculating. Taft was the leader of the Republican Partys conservative wing, which was strongest in the Midwest, Taft had two major weaknesses, He was a plodding, dull campaigner, and he was viewed by most party leaders as being too conservative and controversial to win a presidential election. Both Vandenberg and Warren were highly popular in their states, but each refused to campaign in the primaries. Their supporters, however, hoped that in the event of a Dewey-Taft-Stassen deadlock, General MacArthur, the famous war hero, was especially popular among conservatives. Since he was serving in Japan as the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers occupying that nation and they chose to enter his name in the Wisconsin primary. The surprise candidate of 1948 was Stassen, a liberal from Minnesota, in 1938, Stassen had been elected governor of Minnesota at the age of 31, he resigned as governor in 1943 to serve in the wartime Navy. In 1945 he served on the committee created the United Nations. Stassen was widely regarded as the most liberal of the Republican candidates, Stassen stunned Dewey and MacArthur in the Wisconsin primary, Stassens surprise victory virtually eliminated General MacArthur, whose supporters had made a major effort on his behalf. Stassen defeated Dewey again in the Nebraska primary, thus making him the new frontrunner and he then made the strategic mistake of trying to beat Taft in Ohio, Tafts home state. Stassen believed that if he could defeat Taft in his state, Taft would be forced to quit the race. Taft defeated Stassen in his native Ohio, however, and Stassen earned the hostility of the partys conservatives, even so, Stassen was still leading Dewey in the polls for the upcoming Oregon primary
20.
Griswold v. Connecticut
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The case involved a Connecticut Comstock law that prohibited any person from using any drug, medicinal article or instrument for the purpose of preventing conception. This and other cases view the right to privacy as a right to protect from governmental intrusion, Justice Arthur Goldberg wrote a concurring opinion in which he used the Ninth Amendment in support of the Supreme Courts ruling. Justice Arthur Goldberg and Justice John Marshall Harlan II wrote concurring opinions in which argued that privacy is protected by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Justice Byron White also wrote a concurrence based on the due process clause, Griswold v. Connecticut originated as a prosecution under the Connecticut Comstock Act of 1879. The law made it illegal to use any drug, medicinal article, violators could be “ fined not less than fifty dollars or imprisoned not less than sixty days nor more than one year or be both fined and imprisoned. By the 1950s, Massachusetts and Connecticut were the two states that still had such statutes, although they were almost never enforced. Then in 1914, Margaret Sanger openly challenged the public consensus against contraception and she influenced the Connecticut Birth Control League and helped to develop the eventual concept of the Planned Parenthood clinics. The first Planned Parenthood clinic in Connecticut opened in 1935 in Hartford and it provided services to women who had no access to a gynecologist, including information about artificial contraception and other methods to plan the growth of their families. Several clinics were opened in Connecticut over the years, including the Waterbury clinic that led to the legal dispute. In 1939, this clinic was compelled to enforce the 1879 anti-contraception law on poor women patients and this caught the attention of the CBCL leaders, who remarked on the importance of birth control for cases in which the lives of the patients depended upon it. In Tileston v. Ullman, a doctor and mother challenged the law on the grounds that a ban on contraception could, in sexual situations, threaten the lives. The U. S. Supreme Court dismissed the appeal on the grounds that the plaintiff lacked standing to sue on behalf of his patients, yale School of Medicine gynecologist C. Lee Buxton and his patients brought a second challenge to the law in Poe v. Ullman. The polemic around Poe led to the appeal in Griswold v. Connecticut, primarily based on the dissent of Justice John Marshall Harlan II in Poe, one of the most cited dissents in Supreme Court history. He full scope of the liberty guaranteed by the Due Process Clause cannot be found in or limited by the terms of the specific guarantees elsewhere provided in the Constitution. It is a continuum which, broadly speaking, includes a freedom from all substantial arbitrary impositions. – Justice John Marshall Harlan II, dissent in Poe v. Ullman and he argued, foremost, that the Supreme Court should have heard the case rather than dismissing it. Thereafter, he indicated his support for an interpretation of the due process clause. On the basis of this interpretation, Harlan concluded that the Connecticut statute violated the Constitution, after Poe was handed down on June 1961, the Planned Parenthood League of Connecticut decided to challenge the law again
21.
United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc.
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United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc. It would also change the way Hollywood movies were produced, distributed, the Court held in this case that the existing distribution scheme was in violation of the antitrust laws of the United States, which prohibit certain exclusive dealing arrangements. The case is important both in U. S. antitrust law and film history, in the former, it remains a landmark decision in vertical integration cases, in the latter, it is seen as the first nail in the coffin of the old Hollywood studio system. The legal issues originated in the silent era, when the Federal Trade Commission began investigating film companies for potential violations under the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, the major film studios owned the theaters where their motion pictures were shown, either in partnerships or outright and complete. Thus specific theater chains showed only the films produced by the studio that owned them, by 1945, the studios owned either partially or outright 17% of the theaters in the country, accounting for 45% of the film-rental revenue. Ultimately, this issue of the studios allegedly illegal trade practices led to all the movie studios being sued in 1938 by the U. S. Department of Justice. As the largest studio, Paramount was the defendant, but all of the other Big Five and Little Three were named. Separate cases were filed against large independent chains, including the 148-theater Schine. The federal governments case was settled with a consent decree in 1940, the studios did not fully implement the consent decree, and in 1942 with Allied Theatre Owners proposed an alternate Unity Plan. They proposed booking larger blocks of theatres with the caveat of allowing theaters to reject films, the government declined the Unity proposal and reinstated the 1943 lawsuit. The case went to trial on October 8,1945, one month, the case was decided in favor of the studios, and the government immediately appealed. The case reached the U. S. Supreme Court in 1948, their verdict went against the movie studios, forcing all of them to divest themselves of their movie theater chains. The Paramount decision is a bedrock of corporate antitrust law, the Court ruled 7-1 in the governments favor, affirming much of the consent decree. William O. Douglas delivered the Courts opinion, with Felix Frankfurter dissenting in part, arguing the Court should have all of the decree intact. Douglass opinion reiterated the facts and history of the case and reviewed the District Courts opinion, Douglas let stand the District Courts sevenfold test for when a clearance agreement was a restraint of trade, as he agreed they had a legitimate purpose. Pooling agreements and joint ownership, he agreed, were efforts to substitute monopoly for competition. Clearer restraints of trade we cannot imagine and he allowed, however, that courts could consider how an interest in an exhibitor was acquired and sent some other issues back to the District Court for further inquiry and resolution. He set aside the lower court findings on franchises so that they might be reconsidered from the perspective of allowing competitive bidding, the prohibitions on discrimination he let stand entirely
22.
Brady v. Maryland
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Brady v. Maryland,373 U. S.83 was a landmark United States Supreme Court case that established that the prosecution must turn over all evidence that might exonerate the defendant to the defense. The prosecution failed to do so for Brady and he was convicted, Brady challenged his conviction, arguing it had been contrary to the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Maryland prosecuted John Leo Brady and a companion, Donald Boblit, Brady admitted being involved in the murder, but claimed Boblit had done the actual killing. The prosecution had withheld a written statement by Boblit confessing that he had committed the act of killing by himself, the Maryland Court of Appeals had affirmed the conviction and remanded the case for a retrial only on the question of punishment. Hence the Maryland Court of Appeals ruling was affirmed, exculpatory evidence is “material” if “there is a reasonable probability that his conviction or sentence would have been different had these materials been disclosed. Police officers who have been dishonest are sometimes referred to as Brady cops, Brady has become not only a matter of defendants’ due process trial rights, but also of police officers’ due process employment rights. Officers and their unions have used litigation, legislation, and informal political pressure to back on Brady’s application to their personnel files. This conflict over Brady’s application has split the team, pitting prosecutors against police officers. Brady evidence also includes evidence material to credibility of a civilian witness, list of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 373 Brady material Connick v. Thompson Giglio v. United States Jencks Act Jencks v. United States Pitchess motion Testilying Clark, Garry. The Grand Jury, Phase, I — The Murder of Marsa Gipson, archived from the original on 2011-02-02. Gershman, Bennett L. Reflections on Brady v. Maryland, Brady v Maryland and the Search for Truth in Criminal Trials. The University of Chicago Law Review, the University of Chicago Law Review, Vol.63, No.4. Hooper, Laural L. Marsh, Jennifer E. and Yeh, treatment of Brady v. Levenson, Laurie L. Discovery From the Trenches, The Future of Brady, sundby, Scott E. Fallen Superheroes and Constitutional Mirages, The Tale of Brady v. Maryland. ^373 U. S.83 Full text of the courtesy of Findlaw. com
23.
Terminiello v. City of Chicago
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Terminiello v. City of Chicago,337 U. S. There were approximately 800 people present in the auditorium where he was giving the speech, the Chicago Police Department was present, but was unable to maintain order completely. Terminiello was later assessed a fine of 100 dollars for violation of Chicagos breach of peace ordinance, both the Illinois Appellate Court and Illinois Supreme Court affirmed the conviction. The US Supreme Court granted certiorari, the right to speak freely and to promote diversity of ideas and programs is therefore one of the chief distinctions that sets us apart from totalitarian regimes. Accordingly a function of speech under our system of government is to invite dispute. It may indeed best serve its purpose when it induces a condition of unrest, creates dissatisfaction with conditions as they are. Speech is often provocative and challenging and it may strike at prejudices and preconceptions and have profound unsettling effects as it presses for acceptance of an idea. That is why freedom of speech, though not absolute, Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire, see Bridges v. California,314 U. S.252,262,193,159 A. L. R. 1346, Craig v. Harney,331 U. S.367,373,1253, there is no room under our Constitution for a more restrictive view. For the alternative would lead to standardization of ideas either by legislatures, courts,337 U. S. at 4-5 Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson dissented on the ground that the jury instruction which the majority objected to had been affirmed by both appellate courts. Justice Jacksons dissent was longer and more elaborate than Vinsons or Frankfurters. Jackson framed Terminiellos speech and the violent fracas which surrounded it in the context of the struggle between fascism and communism in the post-World War II world. The choice is not between order and liberty and it is between liberty with order and anarchy without either. There is danger that, if the Court does not temper its doctrinaire logic with a practical wisdom
24.
Dennis v. United States
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Dennis v. United States,341 U. S.494, was a United States Supreme Court case relating to Eugene Dennis, General Secretary of the Communist Party USA. In 1948, eleven Communist Party leaders were convicted of advocating the violent overthrow of the US government, the eleven petitioners were, Benjamin J. Although later trials surpassed it, in 1949 it was the longest federal trial in US history, to prove this, the prosecution proffered articles, pamphlets and books written by authors such as Karl Marx and Joseph Stalin. The five attorneys who volunteered to defend the communists were familiar with leftist causes and they were Abraham Isserman, George W. Crockett, Jr. Richard Gladstein, Harry Sacher, and Louis F. McCabe. The ACLU was dominated by anti-communist leaders during the 1940s, however, the ACLU did provide an amicus brief for the Foley Square defendants, endorsing a motion for dismissal. The defense deliberately antagonized the judge by making a number of objections and motions. Out of the chaos, an atmosphere of mutual hostility arose between the judge and attorneys, Medina came to believe that the defense attorneys were using the trial as an opportunity to publicize communist propaganda, and that they deliberately disrupted the trial using any means they could. Judge Medina attempted to order by removing defendants who were out of order. In the course of the trial, Medina sent five of the defendants to jail for outbursts, several times in July and August, the judge held defense attorneys in contempt of court, and told them their punishment would be meted out upon conclusion of the trial. On October 14,1949, after the defense rested their case, after deliberating for seven and a half hours, the jury returned guilty verdicts against all eleven defendants. The judge sentenced ten defendants to five years imprisonment and a $10,000 fine each, petitioners were found guilty by the trial court and the decision was affirmed by the Second Circuit Court of Appeals. George W. Crockett, Jr. Abraham J. Isserman, with them on the brief was Richard Gladstein. Solicitor General Philip B. Perlman and Irving S. Shapiro argued the cause for the United States. With them on the brief were U. S. Attorney General James Howard McGrath, U. S. Assistant Attorney General McInerney, Irving H. Saypol, Robert W. Ginnane, Frank H. Gordon, Edward C. Separate concurring opinions were delivered by Justices Felix Frankfurter and Robert H. Jackson, Justices Hugo Black and William O. Douglas wrote separate dissenting opinions. Justice Tom C. Clark did not participate in this case, the Court rule affirmed the conviction of the petitioner, a leader of the Communist Party in the United States. Dennis had been convicted of conspiring and organizing for the overthrow, in his dissent, Black wrote, These petitioners were not charged with an attempt to overthrow the Government. They were not charged with acts of any kind designed to overthrow the Government
25.
Brandenburg v. Ohio
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Brandenburg v. Ohio,395 U. S.444, was a landmark United States Supreme Court case based on the First Amendment to the U. S. Constitution. The Court held that government cannot punish inflammatory speech unless that speech is directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action and is likely to incite or produce such action, specifically, it struck down Ohios criminal syndicalism statute, because that statute broadly prohibited the mere advocacy of violence. In the process, Whitney v. California was explicitly overruled, and doubt was cast on Schenck v. United States, Abrams v. United States, Gitlow v. New York, and Dennis v. United States. Portions of the rally were filmed, showing several men in robes and hoods, some carrying firearms, first burning a cross, one of the speeches made reference to the possibility of revengeance against niggers, Jews, and those who supported them. Brandenburg was charged with advocating violence under Ohios criminal syndicalism statute for his participation in the rally, in relevant part, the statute – enacted in 1919 during the First Red Scare – proscribed advocat. Convicted in the Court of Common Pleas of Hamilton County, Brandenburg was fined $1,000, the Supreme Court of Ohio dismissed his appeal without opinion. The rather cursory way in which the Ohio courts dismissed Brandenburgs constitutional arguments is unsurprising in light of the state of First Amendment law in the pre-Brandenburg era, although Yates v. United States, all Yates purported to do was construe a federal statute, the Smith Act. Thus, Denniss reading of the First Amendment remained in force, advocacy of law violation, even as an abstract doctrine, the U. S. Supreme Court reversed Brandenburgs conviction, holding that government cannot constitutionally punish abstract advocacy of force or law violation. The majority opinion was per curiam, in finalizing the draft, Justice Brennan eliminated all references to it, substituting instead the imminent lawless action language. Justices Black and Douglas concurred separately, the per curiam majority opinion overturned the Ohio Criminal Syndicalism statute, overruled Whitney v. See Dennis v. United States,341 U. S.494, at 507. Dennis v. Interestingly, the per curiam opinion cited Dennis v. United States as though it were good law, the three distinct elements of this test have distinct precedential lineages. Judge Learned Hand was possibly the first judge to advocate the intent standard, the Brandenburg intent standard is more speech-protective than Hands formulation, which contained no temporal element. The imminence element was a departure from earlier rulings, Brandenburg did not explicitly overrule the bad tendency test, but it appears that after Brandenburg, the test is de facto overruled. The Brandenburg test effectively made the time element of the clear and present danger test more defined, oBrien, which had allowed for the prosecution of a man for burning his draft card. In all these situations, Douglas argued, an action was a way of conveying a certain message. Finally, Douglas dealt with the example of a man falsely shouting fire in a theater. In order to explain why someone could be prosecuted for this. In the view of Douglas and Black, this was probably the sort of case in which a person could be prosecuted for speech
26.
Terry v. Ohio
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This reasonable suspicion must be based on specific and articulable facts and not merely upon an officers hunch. This permitted police action has subsequently referred to in short as a stop and frisk. The Terry standard was extended to temporary detentions of persons in vehicles, known as traffic stops. The rationale behind the Supreme Court decision revolves around the understanding that, as the opinion notes, the meaning of the rule is to protect persons from unreasonable searches and seizures aimed at gathering evidence, not searches and seizures for other purposes. Each completion of the route was followed by a conference between the two on a corner, the two men repeated this ritual alternately between five and six times apiece—in all, roughly a dozen trips. After one of these trips, they were joined by a man who left swiftly after a brief conversation. Suspecting the two men of casing a job, a stick-up, detective McFadden followed them and saw them rejoin the third man a couple of blocks away in front of a store. The plainclothes officer approached the three, identified himself as an officer, and asked their names. The men mumbled something, whereupon McFadden spun Terry around, patted down his outside clothing and he reached inside the overcoat pocket, but was unable to remove the gun. The officer ordered the three into the store and he removed Terrys overcoat, took out a revolver, and ordered the three to face the wall with their hands raised. He patted down the clothing of Chilton and Katz and seized a revolver from Chiltons outside overcoat pocket. He did not put his hands under the outer garments of Katz, the three were taken to the police station. Terry and Chilton were subsequently charged with carrying concealed weapons, the trial court made a distinction between an investigatory stop and an arrest, and between a frisk of the outer clothing for weapons and a full-blown search for evidence of crime. Chief Justice Warrens opinion for the Court began by reciting first principles, the Fourth Amendment protects people, not places, against unreasonable searches and seizures. The question the Court confronted was whether in all the circumstances of this on-the-street encounter, the procedure called stop and frisk was controversial. Police argue that they require a certain flexibility in dealing with quickly evolving, for the Court, however, the question was not the propriety of the police actions in the abstract but the admissibility of the evidence obtained through that police action. For this purpose the exclusionary rule of Mapp v. Ohio,367 U. S.643, had evolved, thus the question was not whether the stop-and-frisk procedure was proper by itself, but whether the exclusionary rule was an appropriate deterrent of police misconduct during such encounters. Proper adjudication of cases in which the rule is invoked demands a constant awareness of these limitations
27.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
28.
Environmentalism
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While environmentalism focuses more on the environmental and nature-related aspects of green ideology and politics, ecologism combines the ideology of social ecology and environmentalism. ‘Ecologism’ is more used in continental European languages while ‘environmentalism’ is more commonly used in English. For this reason, concepts such as an ethic, environmental ethics, biodiversity, ecology. The exact measures and outcomes of this balance is controversial and there are different ways for environmental concerns to be expressed in practice. Environmentalism and environmental concerns are represented by the color green. Environmentalism denotes a movement that seeks to influence the political process by lobbying, activism. The word was first coined in 1922, an environmentalist is a person who may speak out about our natural environment and the sustainable management of its resources through changes in public policy or individual behavior. In various ways, environmentalists and environmental organizations seek to give the world a stronger voice in human affairs. In general terms, environmentalists advocate the sustainable management of resources, in its recognition of humanity as a participant in ecosystems, the movement is centered around ecology, health, and human rights. A concern for environmental protection has recurred in diverse forms, in different parts of the world, for example, in Europe, King Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke had become a problem. The fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow. Earlier in the Middle East, the Caliph Abu Bakr in the 630s commanded his army to Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire, at the advent of steam and electricity the muse of history holds her nose and shuts her eyes. The origins of the movement lay in the response to increasing levels of smoke pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution. An Alkali inspector and four sub-inspectors were appointed to curb this pollution, typically the highest priority went to water and air pollution. The Coal Smoke Abatement Society was formed in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs and it was founded by artist Sir William Blake Richmond, frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke. Although there were pieces of legislation, the Public Health Act 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke. It also provided for sanctions against factories that emitted large amounts of black smoke, financial incentives were offered to householders to replace open coal fires with alternatives, or for those who preferred, to burn coke instead which produces minimal smoke. Smoke control areas were introduced in some towns and cities in which only smokeless fuels could be burnt, the act formed an important impetus to modern environmentalism, and caused a rethinking of the dangers of environmental degradation to peoples quality of life
29.
Scottish people
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The Scottish people, or Scots, are a nation and ethnic group native to Scotland. Historically, they emerged from an amalgamation of the Picts and Gaels, who founded the Kingdom of Scotland in the 9th century, and are thought to have been ethnolinguistically Celts. Later, the neighbouring Cumbrian Britons, who spoke a Celtic language, as well as Germanic-speaking Anglo-Saxons. In modern usage, Scottish people or Scots is used to refer to anyone whose linguistic, cultural, the Latin word Scotti, originally the word referred specifically to the Gaels, but came to describe all inhabitants of Scotland. Considered archaic or pejorative, the term Scotch has also used for Scottish people. John Kenneth Galbraith in his book The Scotch documents the descendants of 19th-century Scottish pioneers who settled in Southwestern Ontario and he states the book was meant to give a true picture of life in the community in the early decades of the 20th century. People of Scottish descent live in countries other than Scotland. Scottish emigrants took with them their Scottish languages and culture, large populations of Scottish people settled the new-world lands of North and South America, Australia and New Zealand. Canada has the highest level of Scottish descendants per capita in the world, Scotland has seen migration and settlement of many peoples at different periods in its history. The Gaels, the Picts and the Britons have their origin myths. The Venerable Bede tells of the Scotti coming from Spain via Ireland, Germanic peoples, such as the Anglo-Saxons, arrived beginning in the 7th century, while the Norse invaded and colonized parts of Scotland from the 8th century onwards. In the High Middle Ages, from the reign of David I of Scotland, there was emigration from France, England. Some famous Scottish family names, including bearing the names which became Bruce, Balliol, Murray. Today Scotland is one of the countries of the United Kingdom, culturally, these peoples are grouped according to language. Most of Scotland until the 13th century spoke Celtic languages and these included, at least initially, the Britons, as well as the Gaels and the Picts. Germanic peoples included the Angles of Northumbria, who settled in south-eastern Scotland in the region between the Firth of Forth to the north and the River Tweed to the south. They also occupied the south-west of Scotland up to and including the Plain of Kyle and their language, south-east of the Firth of Forth, then in Lothian and the Borders, a northern variety of Old English, also known as Early Scots, was spoken. The Northern Isles and some parts of Caithness were Norn-speaking, from 1500 on, Scotland was commonly divided by language into two groups of people, Gaelic-speaking Highlanders and the Inglis-speaking Lowlanders
30.
Presbyterian
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Presbyterianism is a part of the Reformed tradition within Protestantism which traces its origins to the British Isles, particularly Scotland. Presbyterian churches derive their name from the form of church government. Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the authority of the Scriptures, Presbyterian church government was ensured in Scotland by the Acts of Union in 1707 which created the Kingdom of Great Britain. In fact, most Presbyterians found in England can trace a Scottish connection, the Presbyterian denominations in Scotland hold to the theology of John Calvin and his immediate successors, although there are a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism. The roots of Presbyterianism lie in the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, most Reformed churches which trace their history back to Scotland are either presbyterian or congregationalist in government. In the twentieth century, some Presbyterians played an important role in the ecumenical movement, many Presbyterian denominations have found ways of working together with other Reformed denominations and Christians of other traditions, especially in the World Communion of Reformed Churches. Some Presbyterian churches have entered into unions with other churches, such as Congregationalists, Lutherans, Anglicans, Presbyterian history is part of the history of Christianity, but the beginning of Presbyterianism as a distinct movement occurred during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. As the Catholic Church resisted the reformers, several different theological movements splintered from the Church, the Presbyterian church traces its ancestry back primarily to England and Scotland. In August 1560 the Parliament of Scotland adopted the Scots Confession as the creed of the Scottish Kingdom, Presbyterians distinguish themselves from other denominations by doctrine, institutional organization and worship, often using a Book of Order to regulate common practice and order. The origins of the Presbyterian churches are in Calvinism, many branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of previous splits from larger groups. Presbyterians place great importance upon education and lifelong learning, Presbyterian government is by councils of elders. Teaching and ruling elders are ordained and convene in the lowest council known as a session or consistory responsible for the discipline, nurture, teaching elders have responsibility for teaching, worship, and performing sacraments. Pastors are called by individual congregations, a congregation issues a call for the pastors service, but this call must be ratified by the local presbytery. Ruling elders are usually laymen who are elected by the congregation and ordained to serve with the elders, assuming responsibility for nurture. Often, especially in larger congregations, the elders delegate the practicalities of buildings, finance and this group may variously be known as a Deacon Board, Board of Deacons Diaconate, or Deacons Court. These are sometimes known as presbyters to the full congregation, above the sessions exist presbyteries, which have area responsibilities. These are composed of teaching elders and ruling elders from each of the constituent congregations, the presbytery sends representatives to a broader regional or national assembly, generally known as the General Assembly, although an intermediate level of a synod sometimes exists. The Church of Scotland abolished the Synod in 1993, Presbyterian governance is practised by Presbyterian denominations and also by many other Reformed churches
31.
Pictou County, Nova Scotia
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Pictou County is a county in the province of Nova Scotia, Canada. It was established in 1835, and was formerly a part of Halifax County from 1759 to 1835 and it had a population of 45,643 people in 2011, which represents a decline of 1.9 percent from 2006. Furthermore, its 2011 population is only 91. 93% of the population in 1991. It is the sixth most populous county in Nova Scotia, the origin of the name Pictou is obscure. Possible Mikmaq derivations include Piktook meaning an explosion of gas, and Bucto meaning fire and it might also be a corruption of Poictou, an old province in France. Nicolas Denys named the harbour La rivière de Pictou in the 1660s, consequently, the towns slogan is The Birthplace of New Scotland, the first wave of immigrants is acknowledged to have arrived on September 15,1773, on the Hector. Pictou County includes the towns of New Glasgow, Stellarton, Pictou, Westville, with a land area of 2,846.28 km2, it had a population density of 15. 4/km2 in 2016. 8% from its 2011 population of 21,278. With a land area of 2,797.25 km2, Pictou County is wholly within the federal electoral district of Central Nova. The county has been represented federally by Conservative MPs since 1957, Pictou County is divided into three provincial electoral districts, namely Pictou Centre, Pictou East and Pictou West. All three are held by PC MLAs in the Nova Scotia Legislature. The towns of New Glasgow, Stellarton, Pictou, Westville, the Municipality of Pictou County serves the remaining rural areas, including Pictou Island. Amalgamation of these six units is occasionally considered. Pictou County District Planning Commission provides planning, development and waste services to all the communities in the county. Pictou Landing First Nation has reserves at Pictou Landing, Fishers Grant, resource based industries include coal mining, forestry, fishing and agriculture. Manufacturing industries include Michelin Tire, Northern Pulp and Scotsburn Dairy, convergys Inc operate a call center in New Glasgow. Tourism is an important part of the economy during the summer, Rail car manufacturer Trenton Works was closed in 2007 when owners Greenbrier moved production to Mexico. There are 2,400 small and medium-sized businesses that generate more than 15,000 jobs. The Pictou County Chamber of Commerce is an advocacy group that speaks as a united voice on behalf of the business community
32.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
33.
Portland, Oregon
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Portland is a port and the largest city in the U. S. state of Oregon and the seat of Multnomah County. It is in the Willamette Valley region of the Pacific Northwest, at the confluence of the Willamette, the city covers 145 square miles and had an estimated population of 632,309 in 2015, making it the 26th most populous city in the United States. Approximately 2,389,228 people live in the Portland metropolitan statistical area and its Combined Statistical Area ranks 17th with a population of 3,022,178. Roughly 60% of Oregons population resides within the Portland metropolitan area, named after Portland, Maine, the Oregon settlement began to be populated in the 1830s near the end of the Oregon Trail. Its water access provided convenient transportation of goods, and the industry was a major force in the citys early economy. At the turn of the 20th century, the city had a reputation as one of the most dangerous cities in the world. After the citys economy experienced a boom during World War II. Beginning in the 1960s, Portland became noted for its liberal political values, and the city has earned a reputation as a bastion of counterculture. According to a 2009 Pew Research Center study, Portland ranks as the eighth most popular American city, the city operates with a commission-based government guided by a mayor and four commissioners as well as Metro, the only directly elected metropolitan planning organization in the United States. The city government is notable for its planning and investment in public transportation. Its climate is marked by warm, dry summers and cool and this climate is ideal for growing roses, and Portland has been called the City of Roses for over a century. Keep Portland Weird is a slogan for the city. During the prehistoric period, the land that would become Portland was flooded after the collapse of glacial dams from Lake Missoula and these massive floods occurred during the last ice age and filled the Willamette Valley with 300 to 400 feet of water. The Chinook people occupying the land which would become Portland were first documented by Meriwether Lewis, before its European settlement, the Portland Basin of the lower Columbia River and Willamette River valleys had been one of the most densely populated regions on the Pacific Coast. Large numbers of settlers began arriving in the Willamette Valley in the 1830s via the Oregon Trail. In the early 1840s a new settlement began emerging ten miles from the mouth of the Willamette River and this community was initially referred to as Stumptown and The Clearing because of the many trees cut down to allow for its growth. In 1843 William Overton saw potential in the new settlement but lacked the funds to file a land claim. For 25 cents Overton agreed to half of the 640-acre site with Asa Lovejoy of Boston
34.
Yakima, Washington
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Yakima is a U. S. city located about 60 miles southeast of Mount Rainier in Washington. Yakima is the county seat of Yakima County, Washington, as of the 2010 census, the city had a total population of 91,067 and a metropolitan population of 243,231. The unincorporated suburban areas of West Valley and Terrace Heights are considered a part of greater Yakima, Yakima is situated in the Yakima Valley, an extremely productive agricultural region noted for apple, wine and hop production. As of 2011, the Yakima Valley produces 77% of all hops grown in the United States, the name Yakima originates from the Yakama Nation, located south of the city. The Yakama people were the first known inhabitants of the Yakima Valley, in 1805, the Lewis and Clark Expedition came to the area and discovered abundant wildlife and rich soil, prompting the settlement of homesteaders. A Catholic Mission was established in Ahtanum, southwest of present-day Yakima, the arrival of settlers and their conflicts with the natives resulted in the Yakima War. The U. S. Army established Fort Simcoe in 1856 near present-day White Swan as a response to the uprising, the Yakamas were defeated and forced to relocate to the Yakama Indian Reservation. Yakima County was created in 1865, when bypassed by the Northern Pacific Railroad in December 1884, over 100 buildings were moved with rollers and horse teams to the nearby site of the depot. The new city was dubbed North Yakima and was incorporated and named the county seat on January 27,1886. The name was changed to Yakima in 1918, Union Gap was the new name given to the original site of Yakima. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 27.69 square miles. Yakima is 1095 feet above sea level. The city of Yakima is located in the Upper Valley of Yakima County, the county is geographically divided by Ahtanum Ridge and Rattlesnake Ridge into two regions, the Upper and Lower valleys. Yakima is located in the more urbanized Upper Valley, and is the city of the Yakima Metropolitan Statistical Area. The cities of Selah and Union Gap lie immediately to the north and south of Yakima, in addition, the unincorporated suburban areas of West Valley and Terrace Heights are considered a part of greater Yakima. With these cities included in the area, population within 20 miles of the city is over 123,000. As of the 2013, the population of the metropolitan area is 247,044. The primary irrigation source for the Yakima Valley, the Yakima River, in Yakima, the river is used for both fishing and recreation
35.
A.C. Davis High School (Washington)
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Davis High School is a high school in Yakima, Washington, USA, serving students in grades 9-12. It is part of the Yakima School District and has approximately 2,000 students, north Yakima High School began classes in 1884, and was housed in the Columbia Building. By 1896, the enrollment reached 40 students and classes were relocated to the Central School Building. With an ever-increasing student body, in 1900, the school was relocated to the Lincoln School. In 1905, land was procured on South 7th Avenue and Walnut, with plans to build a new, as it turned out, that foresight was well thought out, because after the Lincoln School burned on Jan. 6,1907, the school took up temporary residence at the Methodist Church on Fourth Street. The new school building, which began construction in 1905, was completed in 1908, the new building cost $84,980, had 23 classrooms and increased capacity to 690 students. Angus Charles Davis served as principal from 1908 through 1913, and was superintendent until 1947. One of the speakers at the schools re-dedication was Cathy Douglas Stone, wife of U. S. Supreme Court Justice, William O. Douglas who is, perhaps. In May 2009, a $114 million bond was approved by Yakima voters to remodel, Davis was allocated $42 million of that bond money, to refurbish the school. Angus Charles Davis Alan Hickman Frances Wesley Jones Clarence Klise Forest J, the program is nationally and internationally recognized by both secondary schools and universities such as Oxford and Harvard. It is generally considered by universities to exceed the rigor of the College Board Advanced Placement Program in secondary schools, every year over one hundred students participate in the International Baccalaureate program at the school. The most involved students take 6 to 7 IB classes their junior and senior years to earn the IB diploma, strengthen their educational background, however, students can take any number of IB classes related to their educational and personal interests. Each of these courses lasts for 2 years with the exceptions of Theory of knowledge, Davis IB alumni have a very strong track record of gaining admission to and experiencing success upon matriculation to the most nationally prestigious colleges and universities. Every year some students go further afield to attend top-ranked institutions including Ivy League, study abroad and foreign exchange programs are also popular options for graduating seniors. Students who opt not to participate in the IB program have a myriad of other educational opportunities, Davis students often participate in the Running Start program at Yakima Valley Community College to earn their high school diploma as well as their Associates degree prior to graduation. The ESL program assists Spanish speaking students adjust to an English learning environment, Library programs are considered some of Davis greatest assets. Students and teachers provide general tutoring in a variety of subjects, several computer labs with internet access are provided to Davis students and to the public
36.
Walla Walla, Washington
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Walla Walla is the largest city in and the county seat of Walla Walla County, Washington, United States. The population of the city itself was 31,731 at the 2010 census, the population of Walla Walla and its two suburbs, the town of College Place and unincorporated East Walla Walla, is about 45,000. Walla Walla is in the region of Washington, approximately four and a half hours away by car from Portland, Oregon, and Seattle, Washington. Recorded history in this begins with the establishment of Fort Nez Perce in 1818 by the North West Company to trade with the Walla Walla people. At the time, the term Nez Perce was used more broadly than today, Fort Nez Perce had its name shift to Fort Walla Walla. It was located significantly west of the present city, on September 1,1836, Marcus Whitman arrived with his wife Narcissa Whitman. Here they established the Whitman Mission in an attempt to convert the local Walla Walla tribe to Christianity. Following a disease epidemic, both were killed by the Cayuse who believed that the missionaries were poisoning the native peoples, Whitman College was established in their honor. The original North West Company and later Hudsons Bay Company Fort Nez Percés fur trading outpost, the fort has been restored with many of the original buildings preserved. The current Fort Walla Walla contains these buildings, albeit in a different location from the original, the origins of Walla Walla at its present site begin with the establishment of Fort Walla Walla by the United States Army here in 1856. The Walla Walla River, where it adjoins the Columbia River, was the point for the Mullan Road. John Mullan, connecting the head of navigation on the Columbia at Walla Walla with the head of navigation on the Missouri-Mississippi at Fort Benton, Walla Walla was incorporated on January 11,1862. As a result of a rush in Idaho, during this decade the city became the largest community in the territory of Washington. Following this period of growth, agriculture became the citys primary industry. In 1846, the Catholic Church established the Diocese of Walla Walla, in 1850, the see of Walla Walla was abandoned and its territory assigned to the new Diocese of Nesqually, with Blanchet as its bishop and its episcopal see in Vancouver. Walla Walla is a Native American name that means Place of Many Waters, the original name of the town was Steptoeville named after Colonel Edward Steptoe. In 1855 the name was changed to Waiilatpu, and then by 1859 had been changed again, Walla Walla is located at 46°3′54″N 118°19′49″W. Walla Walla is also located in the Walla Walla Valley, with the rolling Palouse hills, various creeks meander through town before combining to become the Walla Walla River, which drains into the Columbia River about 30 miles west of town
37.
Beta Theta Pi
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Beta Theta Pi is a North American social fraternity that was founded in 1839 at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio. One of North Americas oldest, the fraternity currently consists of 110 active chapters and 26 colonies in the United States, more than 300,000 members have been initiated worldwide and there are currently around 10,000 undergraduate members. Beta Theta Pi is the oldest of the three fraternities that formed the Miami Triad along with Phi Delta Theta and Sigma Chi, students at Miami University at the time of Betas founding had previously formed two rival literary societies, The Erodelphian and Union Literary Society. A student of the school, John Reily Knox began to members of both the Erodelphian and Union Literary Societies with the goal of creating a new fraternity. Beta Theta Pi was founded at 9,00 pm on Thursday, August 8,1839, the group held its first regular meeting in the Hall of the Union Literary Society, an upper room of the campus building known as Old Main. These are the underpinnings for their statement to develop men of principle for a principled life. In 1879, Beta Theta Pi became the first college fraternity to publish its constitution, the fraternity continues to guard certain secrets about membership. Similar to other fraternities, Beta Theta Pis code emphasizes international fellowship, cultural development, in August 1996, St. Lawrence University Chairman and Beta Theta Pi alumnus E. B. In response to Wilson and a number of difficulties, the Men of Principle initiative was started during the 1998–99 academic year. Three chapters, Nebraska, Georgia and Pennsylvania, were used as pilot chapters for the new program, after this first year of piloting, the Men of Principle initiative was officially introduced at the 160th General Convention in Oxford, in 1999. Before Men of Principle, the Fraternitys average chapter GPA was just above a 2.8, in 2016, the fraternitys GPA had risen to a 3.22. The average chapter size in 2016 was 77.2 men, in 1997, there was an average of two advisors per chapter, while as of 2016 there was an average of eight advisors working with each one of the chapters. Beta received some backlash for the initiative, between the beginning of the program in 1998 and 2013, its international headquarters closed 85 chapters for failing to comply with the Men of Principle initiative. As part of the Men of Principle initiative, Beta runs several programs for undergraduate members. In the 1996-97 academic year, before the initiative, Beta sent seven undergraduates to a development program — equivalent to 0.1 percent of the total undergraduate membership. In the 2015-16 academic year, nearly 2,000 Betas attended one of the fraternitys programs — or 20 percent of the undergraduate membership. All told, in the years since the introduction of Men of Principle, as part of a multi-year dispute over co-ed student housing issues, the Beta Theta Pi chapter at Wesleyan University had been refusing access to campus security personnel. In March 2010, Wesleyan issued a warning to students to avoid the chapter house, in October of that year a freshman was raped by a non-member, non-student at a Beta Theta Pi Halloween party
38.
Migrant labor
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The term migrant worker has different official meanings and connotations in different parts of the world. The United Nations definition is broad, many people were working outside of their home country, some of these are called expatriates. Several countries have millions of foreign workers, some have millions of illegal immigrants, most of them being workers also. According to the Panos Network, it is never appropriate to refer to asylum-seekers or refugees as “illegal migrants”, the term can also be used to describe someone who migrates with in a country, possibly their own, in order to pursue work such as seasonal work. The program is run jointly with the governments of Mexico and the participating Caribbean states, in Canada, non-agricultural companies are beginning to recruit temporary foreign workers under Service Canadas 2002 expansion of an immigration program for migrant workers. As of 2002, the government introduced the Low Skill Pilot Project. This project allows companies to apply to bring in foreign workers to fill low skill jobs. The classification of low skill means that workers require no more high school or two years of job-specific training to qualify. In 2006, the federal Conservatives expanded the list of occupations that qualified for the Low Skill Pilot Project, some inland cities have started providing migrants with social security, including pensions and other insurance. In 2012, there were a reported 167 million migrant workers in China, with trends of working closer to home (within their own or a neighbouring province but with a wage drop of 21%. Because so many migrant works are moving to the city from rural areas, Migrant workers in China are notoriously marginalized, especially due to the hukou system of residency permits, which tie one stated residence to all social welfare benefits. The recent expansions of the European Union have provided opportunities for people to migrate to other EU countries for work. For both the 2004 and 2007 enlargements, existing states were given the rights to impose various transitional arrangements to limit access to their labour markets, the 1st of March has become a symbolic day for transnational migrants strike. This day unites all migrants to them a common voice to speak up against racism. The transnational protests on 1 March were originally initiated in the US in 2006 and have encouraged migrants in other countries to organise and take action on that day. In Austria the first transnational migrants strike took place in March 2011, in the form of actions, e. g. a manifestation. Bulgarians, Kosovars and Estonians were the most likely victimised in the building trade, there has been a substantial flow of people from Bangladesh and Nepal to India over recent decades in search of better work. Bangladeshi women appear to be particularly vulnerable and these findings highlight the need to promote migrants rights with, amongst others, health staff, police and employers at destination
39.
Chicano
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Chicano or Chicana is a chosen identity of some Mexican Americans in the United States. The term Chicano is sometimes used interchangeably with Mexican-American, both names are chosen identities within the Mexican-American community in the United States. However, these terms have a range of meanings in various parts of the Southwest. The term became widely used during the Chicano Movement by Mexican Americans to express pride in a cultural, ethnic. Ultimately it was the experience of Mexican Americans in the United States which culminated in the creation of a Chicano identity. Linguists Edward R. Simmen and Richard F. Bauerle report the use of the term in an essay by Mexican-American writer, Mario Suárez, however, a gunboat, the Chicana, was sold in 1857 to Jose Maria Carvajal to ship arms on the Rio Grande. The King and Kenedy firm submitted a voucher to the Joint Claims Commission of the United States in 1870 to cover the costs of this conversion from a passenger steamer. No particular explanation of the name is known. The origin of the word chicano is disputed, some claim it is a shortened form of Mexicano. In most cases the sh sound has been replaced with the h sound, the word Chicano would have also been affected by this change. Many Chicanos replace the ch with the x, forming Xicano. In the United States, some Mexican Americans choose the Xicano spelling to emphasize their indigenous ancestry, thus, a newly emigrated Nahuatl speaker in an urban center might referred to his cultural relatives in this country, different from himself, as mexicanos, shortened to chicanos. The Indians later referred to themselves as Meshicanos and even as Shicanos, however, Chicanos generally do not agree that chicamo was ever a word used within the culture, as its assertion is thus far entirely unsubstantiated. Therefore, most self-identifying Chicanos do not agree that Chicano was ever derived from the word chicamo, another hypothesis is that chicano derives from the indigenous population of Guanajuato, the Chichimecas, combined with the word Mexicano. An alternative idea is that it is a form of Chilango. A similar notion is that the word derives from Chichen Itza, Chicano would thus be a Hispanized word for Chichen and Mayans, rather than the Aztec or Nahua people. This seems dubious, as the term is not frequently used other than in reference to Mexican Americans, is not primarily used for Chilean-Americans. Thus far, explanations of the origins of the word remain inconclusive and this is an indication that the term originated as a self-identification
40.
Industrial Workers of the World
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The Industrial Workers of the World, members of which are commonly termed Wobblies, is an international labor union that was founded in 1905 in Chicago, Illinois in the United States of America. The union combines general unionism with industrial unionism, as it is a union whose members are further organized within the industry of their employment. The philosophy and tactics of the IWW are described as industrial unionism. At their peak in August 1917, IWW membership was more than 150,000, Membership declined dramatically in the 1920s due to several factors. Membership also declined due to government crackdowns on radical, anarchist and socialist groups during the First Red Scare after WWI. The most decisive factor in the decline in IWW membership and influence, however, was a 1924 schism in the organization, from which the IWW never fully recovered. The IWW promotes the concept of One Big Union, and contends that all workers should be united as a class to supplant capitalism. They are known for the Wobbly Shop model of democracy, in which workers elect their managers. IWW membership does not require that one work in a represented workplace, in 2012, the IWW moved its General Headquarters offices to 2036 West Montrose, Chicago. The origin of the nickname Wobblies is uncertain, the convention, which took place on June 24,1905, was referred to as the Industrial Congress or the Industrial Union Convention—it would later be known as the First Annual Convention of the IWW. In its time, it was considered one of the most important events in the history of industrial unionism. There can be no peace so long as hunger and want are found among millions of the people and the few. We find that the centering of the management of industries into fewer and fewer hands makes the trade unions unable to cope with the growing power of the employing class. The trade unions foster a state of affairs which allows one set of workers to be pitted against another set of workers in the same industry, thereby helping defeat one another in wage wars. Moreover, the trade unions aid the employing class to mislead the workers into the belief that the class have interests in common with their employers. Instead of the motto, A fair days wage for a fair days work, we must inscribe on our banner the revolutionary watchword. It is the mission of the working class to do away with capitalism. The army of production must be organized, not only for everyday struggle with capitalists, by organizing industrially we are forming the structure of the new society within the shell of the old
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Phi Beta Kappa
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The Phi Beta Kappa Society - the oldest honor society for the liberal arts and sciences in the United States - is widely recognized and considered as the nations most prestigious honor society. Phi Beta Kappa aims to promote and advocate excellence in the arts and sciences and to induct the most outstanding students of arts. Phi Beta Kappa stands for Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης or in Latin letters Philosophia Biou Cybernētēs, according to Phi Beta Kappa, they have chapters in about 10% of American higher learning institutions, and about 10% of these schools Arts and Sciences graduates are invited to join the society. Although most students are elected their senior year, many colleges elect a limited number of extremely select students in their junior year. There is an initiation fee, which is sometimes covered by the inductees university. There had been earlier fraternal societies at the College, but these, Society, founded in 1750, were Latin-letter societies, their names were taken from initial letters of a secret Latin motto. William and Mary alumnus and third U. S. President Thomas Jefferson was perhaps the most famous member of the F. H. C, other notable members of the original Society included Col. James Innes, St. George Tucker, and George Wythe. Jefferson noted that When I was a student of Wm. & Mary college of this state, Society, confined to the number of six students only, of which I was a member, but it had no useful object, nor do I know whether it now exists. The best opinion is that the society did not survive the invasion by British forces during the Revolution, a second Latin-letter fraternity at William and Mary was the P. D. A. John Heath, chief organizer of Phi Beta Kappa, according to tradition earlier sought but was refused admission to the P. D. A, though he may instead have disdained to join it. The new society was intended to be purely of domestic manufacture, without any connexion whatever with anything European, either English or German. The founders of Phi Beta Kappa declared that the society was formed for congeniality and to good fellowship, with friendship as its basis and benevolence. Like the older, Latin-letter fraternities, the Phi Beta Kappa was a secret society, the new society was given the motto, Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης or in Latin letters Philosophia Biou Kybernētēs, which means in English The Love for Knowledge be the Guide of Life. Greek was chosen, because Greek was in Roman times the language of science like Latin in medieval times, one official historian of the society, William T. The heading on the original list of states, A List of the members. This new complex of gestures was created to allow the recognition of members in any foreign country or place. A second chapter was founded at Yale College in late 1780, a third, at Harvard College in 1781, from these new chapters, the Phi Beta Kappa evolved from a fraternity with principally academic and some social purposes to an entirely honorary organization recognizing scholastic achievement. Further chapters appeared at Union College in 1817, Bowdoin College in 1825, the original chapter at William and Mary was re-established
