1.
Site of Special Scientific Interest
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The acronym SSSI is often pronounced triple-S I. Sites notified for their biological interest are known as Biological SSSI/ASSIs, SSSI/ASSIs may be divided into management units, with some areas including units that are noted for both biological and geological interest. Biological SSSI/ASSIs may be selected for reasons, which for Great Britain is governed by published SSSI Selection Guidelines. Within each area, a series of the best examples of each significant natural habitat may be notified. Sites of particular significance for various groups may be selected —each of these groups has its own set of selection guidelines. In Scotland, the authority is Scottish Natural Heritage, the role in Wales is performed by Natural Resources Wales. In the Isle of Man the role is performed by the Department of Environment, Food, Geological SSSI/ASSIs are selected by a different mechanism to biological ones, with a minimalistic system selecting one site for each geological feature in Great Britain. Each of these sites is described, with most published in the Geological Conservation Review series, almost all GCR sites are subsequently notified as geological SSSIs, except some that coincide with designated biological SSSI management units. If the exposure becomes obscured, the feature could in principle be re-exposed elsewhere, Conservation of these sites usually concentrates on maintenance of access for future study. These are features which are limited in extent or physically delicate—for example, they include small lenses of sediment, mine tailings, caves, if such features become damaged they cannot be recreated, and conservation usually involves protecting the feature from erosion or other damage. Following devolution, legal arrangements for SSSIs and ASSIs differ between the countries of the UK, the Isle of Man ASSI system is a separate entity. Scottish Natural Heritage publishes a summary of the SSSI arrangements for SSSI owners and occupiers which can be downloaded from the SNH website, legal documents for all SSSIs in Scotland are available on the SSSI Register, hosted by The Registers of Scotland. Further information about SSSIs in Scotland is available on the SNH website, SSSIs are also covered under the Water Resources Act 1991 and related legislation. An SSSI may be made on any area of land which is considered to be of special interest by virtue of its fauna, flora, SSSI notification can cover any land within the area of the relevant nature conservation body, including dry land, land covered by freshwater. The extent to which an SSSI/ASSI may extend seawards differs between countries, in England, Natural England may notify an SSSI over estuarial waters and further adjacent waters in certain circumstances. Access on to SSSIs is the same as for the rest of the countryside of the relevant country, most SSSIs/ASSIs are in private ownership and form parts of working farms, forests and estates. In Scotland, people may use their rights of access to visit SSSIs. When creating a new SSSI/ASSI the designation hs legal effect from the date of notification. g, in Scotland, Scottish Natural Heritage must also notify the relevant community councils and community group having registered an interest in the land. )
2.
Greater London
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London, or Greater London, is a region of England which forms the administrative boundaries of London. It is organised into 33 local government districts, the 32 London boroughs, the Greater London Authority, based in Southwark, is responsible for strategic local government across the region and consists of the Mayor of London and the London Assembly. The county of Greater London was created on 1 April 1965 through the London Government Act 1963, administratively, Greater London was first established as a sui generis council area under the Greater London Council between 1963 and 1986. The area was re-established as a region in 1994, and the Greater London Authority formed in 2000, the region covers 1,572 km2 and had a population of 8,174,000 at the 2011 census. In 2012, it had the highest GVA per capita in the United Kingdom at £37,232, the Greater London Built-up Area—used in some national statistics—is a measure of the continuous urban area of London, and therefore includes areas outside of the administrative region. The term Greater London has been and still is used to different areas in governance, statistics, history. In terms of ceremonial counties, London is divided into the small City of London, outside the limited boundaries of the City, a variety of arrangements has governed the wider area since 1855, culminating in the creation of the Greater London administrative area in 1965. The Greater London Arterial Road Programme was devised between 1913 and 1916, one of the larger early forms was the Greater London Planning Region, devised in 1927, which occupied 1,856 square miles and included 9 million people. The LCC pressed for an alteration in its boundaries soon after the end of the First World War, noting that within the Metropolitan, a Royal Commission on London Government was set up to consider the issue. The LCC proposed a vast new area for Greater London, with a boundary somewhere between the Metropolitan Police District and the home counties, protests were made at the possibility of including Windsor, Slough and Eton in the authority. The Commission made its report in 1923, rejecting the LCCs scheme, two minority reports favoured change beyond the amalgamation of smaller urban districts, including both smaller borough councils and a central authority for strategic functions. The London Traffic Act 1924 was a result of the Commission, Greater London originally had a two-tier system of local government, with the Greater London Council sharing power with the City of London Corporation and the 32 London Borough councils. The GLC was abolished in 1986 by the Local Government Act 1985 and its functions were devolved to the City Corporation and the London Boroughs, with some functions transferred to central government and joint boards. Greater London was used to form the London region of England in 1994, a referendum held in 1998 established a public will to recreate an upper tier of government to cover the region. The Greater London Authority, London Assembly and the directly elected Mayor of London were created in 2000 by the Greater London Authority Act 1999, in 2000, the outer boundary of the Metropolitan Police District was re-aligned to the Greater London boundary. The 2000 and 2004 mayoral elections were won by Ken Livingstone, the 2008 and 2012 elections were won by Boris Johnson. The 2016 election was won by Sadiq Khan, Greater London continues to include the most closely associated parts of the Greater London Urban Area and their historic buffers. Thus it includes, in five boroughs, significant parts of the Metropolitan Green Belt which protects designated greenfield land in a way to the citys parks
3.
Grid reference
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Grid references define locations on maps using Cartesian coordinates. Grid lines on maps define the system, and are numbered to provide a unique reference to features. Grid systems vary, but the most common is a grid with grid lines intersecting each other at right angles. The grid numbers on the east-west axis are called Eastings, numerical grid references consist of an even number of digits. Thus in a 6 digit grid reference 123456, the Easting component is 123, grids may be arbitrary, or can be based on specific distances, for example some maps use a one-kilometre square grid spacing. A grid reference locates a unique square region on the map, the precision of location varies, for example a simple town plan may use a simple grid system with single letters for Eastings and single numbers for Northings. A grid reference in this system, such as H3, locates a particular square rather than a single point and these points can then be located by someone else using grid references, even if using maps of a different scale. In the Universal Transverse Mercator system, grid reference is given by three numbers, zone, easting and northing, in the UTM system, the earth is divided into 60 zones. Northing values are given by the north, or south of the equator. Easting values are established as the distance from the meridian of a zone. The central meridian is arbitrarily set at 500,000 metres, a position 100 kilometres west of a central meridian would have an easting of 400,000 metres. Due to its popularity, and worldwide cover, the UTM system is used worldwide by NATO as well as countries, including Australia. In the United Kingdom, a grid system is used. Since the Eastings and Northings are one kilometre apart, a combination of a Northing, the convention is the grid reference numbers call out the lower-left corner of the desired square. In the example map below, the town Little Plumpton lies in the square 6901, even though the writing which labels the town is in 6802 and 6902, the more digits added to a grid reference, the more precise the reference becomes. To locate a specific building in Little Plumpton, a further two digits are added to the reference to create a six-digit reference. The extra two digits describe a position within the 1-kilometre square, imagine a further 10x10 grid within the current grid square. Any of the 100 squares in the superimposed 10×10 grid can be described using a digit from 0 to 9
4.
SSSI notification
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The acronym SSSI is often pronounced triple-S I. Sites notified for their biological interest are known as Biological SSSI/ASSIs, SSSI/ASSIs may be divided into management units, with some areas including units that are noted for both biological and geological interest. Biological SSSI/ASSIs may be selected for reasons, which for Great Britain is governed by published SSSI Selection Guidelines. Within each area, a series of the best examples of each significant natural habitat may be notified. Sites of particular significance for various groups may be selected —each of these groups has its own set of selection guidelines. In Scotland, the authority is Scottish Natural Heritage, the role in Wales is performed by Natural Resources Wales. In the Isle of Man the role is performed by the Department of Environment, Food, Geological SSSI/ASSIs are selected by a different mechanism to biological ones, with a minimalistic system selecting one site for each geological feature in Great Britain. Each of these sites is described, with most published in the Geological Conservation Review series, almost all GCR sites are subsequently notified as geological SSSIs, except some that coincide with designated biological SSSI management units. If the exposure becomes obscured, the feature could in principle be re-exposed elsewhere, Conservation of these sites usually concentrates on maintenance of access for future study. These are features which are limited in extent or physically delicate—for example, they include small lenses of sediment, mine tailings, caves, if such features become damaged they cannot be recreated, and conservation usually involves protecting the feature from erosion or other damage. Following devolution, legal arrangements for SSSIs and ASSIs differ between the countries of the UK, the Isle of Man ASSI system is a separate entity. Scottish Natural Heritage publishes a summary of the SSSI arrangements for SSSI owners and occupiers which can be downloaded from the SNH website, legal documents for all SSSIs in Scotland are available on the SSSI Register, hosted by The Registers of Scotland. Further information about SSSIs in Scotland is available on the SNH website, SSSIs are also covered under the Water Resources Act 1991 and related legislation. An SSSI may be made on any area of land which is considered to be of special interest by virtue of its fauna, flora, SSSI notification can cover any land within the area of the relevant nature conservation body, including dry land, land covered by freshwater. The extent to which an SSSI/ASSI may extend seawards differs between countries, in England, Natural England may notify an SSSI over estuarial waters and further adjacent waters in certain circumstances. Access on to SSSIs is the same as for the rest of the countryside of the relevant country, most SSSIs/ASSIs are in private ownership and form parts of working farms, forests and estates. In Scotland, people may use their rights of access to visit SSSIs. When creating a new SSSI/ASSI the designation hs legal effect from the date of notification. g, in Scotland, Scottish Natural Heritage must also notify the relevant community councils and community group having registered an interest in the land. )
5.
Wimbledon Windmill
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Wimbledon Windmill is a Grade II* listed windmill situated on Wimbledon Common in the London Borough of Merton, in the west of South London, and is preserved as a museum. An application to build a windmill on the Common was denied in 1799 when the applicant, one John Watney, in 1816, Charles March, a carpenter of Roehampton applied for permission to build a windmill. The request was granted the year and the mill was built. The mill stopped working in 1864, when the miller was evicted by the Lord of the Manor, Earl Spencer, the miller insisted on removing most of the machinery so that the mill could not be operated in competition with his other mills at Kingston. The main mill building was rebuilt with brickwork to provide living accommodation, in 1892, tenders for the repair of the mill were sought by the Commons Conservators, and Messrs. Sanderson & Sons tender of £240 was accepted. Royal Wimbledon Golf Club contributed £50 towards the cost of the repairs, during repairs, it was discovered that the main Post and Crosstrees were rotten and Sandersons proposed converting the mill to a smock mill, at a total cost of £350. The work was reported as being complete in November 1893, the original Patent sails were replaced by a shorter set of sails with fixed shutters. After the loss of a sail in the 1920s another set of sails with fewer shutters was placed on the mill. During World War II, the mill was camouflaged with a green scheme to reduce its visibility. The mill was repainted after the war ended, but the sails were stopped in 1946 due to wear in the gearing. In 1952, the mill was inspected and a list of repairs drawn up, after a public appeal in 1954 to raise funds, the mill was restored and the sails turned again on 25 May 1957. The mill was restored again in 1975 and turned into a museum, in 1999 a grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund enabled the Patent sails to be restored to working order. A room from one of the apartments is preserved to illustrate how the building was used as accommodation. It is no longer a mill, but a finely detailed model shows the machinery as it was in its working days. On 2 August 2015, a sail fell from the mill, Wimbledon Windmill was built as a hollow post mill, with the drive to the stones passing through the centre of the main post. It was a hollow post mill for its working life. The mill has double Patent sails and is winded by a fantail, the windmill has an octagonal brick base of two stories, above which is a conical tower formerly housing the main post. A Spur Wheel at the end of the upright shaft would have driven the millstones on the upper floor of the mill
6.
Wimbledon, London
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Wimbledon had a population of 68,187 in 2011 which includes the electoral wards of Abbey, Dundonald, Hillside, Trinity, Village, Raynes Park and Wimbledon Park. It is home to the Wimbledon Tennis Championships and New Wimbledon Theatre, Wimbledon has been inhabited since at least the Iron Age when the hill fort on Wimbledon Common is thought to have been constructed. In 1087 when the Domesday Book was compiled, Wimbledon was part of the manor of Mortlake, the village developed with a stable rural population coexisting alongside nobility and wealthy merchants from the city. The location of the station shifted the focus of the subsequent growth away from the original village centre. Since 2005, the north and west of the Borough has been represented in Westminster by Stephen Hammond, the eastern and southern of the Borough are represented by Siobhain McDonagh, a Labour MP. It has established minority groups, among the most prominent are British Asians, British Ghanaians, Wimbledon has been inhabited since at least the Iron Age when the hill fort on Wimbledon Common, the second-largest in London, is thought to have been constructed. The original nucleus of Wimbledon was at the top of the close to the common – the area now known locally as the village. The village is referred to as Wimbedounyng in a signed by King Edgar the Peaceful in 967. The name Wimbledon means Wynnmans hill, with the element of the name being the Old English dun. At the time the Domesday Book was compiled, Wimbledon was part of the manor of Mortlake, the ownership of the manor of Wimbledon changed hands many times during its history. The manor was held by the church until 1398 when Thomas Arundel, the manor was confiscated and became crown property. The manor remained crown property until the reign of Henry VIII when it was granted briefly to Thomas Cromwell, Earl of Essex, until Cromwell was executed in 1540 and the land was again confiscated. The manor was held by Henry VIIIs last wife and widow Catherine Parr until her death in 1548 when it again reverted to the monarch. In the 1550s, Henrys daughter, Mary I, granted the manor to Cardinal Reginald Pole who held it until his death in 1558 when it again become royal property. Marys sister, Elizabeth I held the property until 1574 when she gave the house to Christopher Hatton who sold it in the same year to Sir Thomas Cecil. The lands of the manor were given to the Cecil family in 1588, the Cecil family retained the manor for fifty years before it was bought by Charles I in 1638 for his Queen, Henrietta Maria. On his death in 1677 the manor was sold on again to the Lord High Treasurer, Thomas Osborne, the Osborne family sold the manor to Sir Theodore Janssen in 1712. Janssen, a director of the South Sea Company, began a new house to replace the Cecil-built manor house but, due to the collapse of the company
7.
Putney Lower Common
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Putney Lower Common is a part of Wimbledon and Putney Commons, lying about 1.5 miles north of the rest, between the Lower Richmond Road and the River Thames. Putney was probably settled during the Roman occupation, Lower Richmond Road was probably a Roman Road, and the Lower Common was probably an open pasture and farmland. Land was apparently lost in the 19th century when Elm Lodge was built, funded by legacies from Sir Henry Chester and Sir William Lancaster, Elm Lodge was rebuilt in 1912 as Putney Hospital. Putney Hospital, was closed to services to patients in 1998 and it has remained vacant ever since. Wandsworth council has now purchased the Hospital and its Childrens Services department is proposing to build a new school on the site since July 2010. 24 flats will be built at the end of the site to help fund the project. Planning permission for the development of the school and flats was quashed by the High Court in early 2013. The resident lost his case but has appealed, following the grant of the easement, a strip of common land is to be tarmacked with a new private road to provide access to the school and the luxury flats. In addition, new footpaths, bollards, a remotely controlled barrier and street lighting will be installed, as part of the same development, a more substantial portion of common land, currently tarmacked to provide parking for the old hospital, will be returned to grass. The dates for the Judicial Review are now set by the High Court, Wandsworth Council have confirmed to the Commons Conservators that they intend to Compulsorily Purchase the Common in the event that the Conservators lose the case. The community group, Friends of Putney Common http, //www. friendsofputneycommon. org/ continue to oppose the actions of Wandsworth Council, which are opposed by some local residents. On April 3,2014 Lord Justice Rimer granted an application for the case to proceed to the Court of Appeal, the common also includes Putney Lower Common Cemetery which was established in 1858. In 1871 the Wimbledon and Putney Commons Act was passed which prevented further building, in the south-east corner lies All Saints Church, built in 1874. The number 22 bus route begins at the Spencer Arms, at the North East corner of the common
8.
Putney
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Putney is a district in south-west London, England in the London Borough of Wandsworth. It is centred 5.1 miles south-west of Charing Cross, the area is identified in the London Plan as one of 35 major centres in Greater London. And thus we take leave of Putney, one of the pleasantest of the London suburbs, Putney is an ancient parish which covered 9.11 square kilometres and was until 1889 in the Hundred of Brixton in the county of Surrey. Its area has reduced by the loss of Roehampton to the south-west. In 1855 the parish was included in the area of responsibility of the Metropolitan Board of Works and was grouped into the Wandsworth District, in 1889 the area was removed from Surrey and became part of the County of London. The Wandsworth District became the Metropolitan Borough of Wandsworth in 1900, since 1965 Putney has formed part of the London Borough of Wandsworth in Greater London. The benefice of the remains a perpetual curacy whose patron is the Dean. It has a small chantry chapel removed from the east end of the south aisle, a charitable almshouse for 12 men and women, dedicated to the Holy Trinity, was erected by Sir Abraham Dawes, who provided it with an endowment. Putney was also birthplace of Thomas Cromwell, made Earl of Essex by Henry VIII and of Edward Gibbon, author of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, died at a house on Putney Heath. At that time Putney took on Londons premier role in civil engineering, Putney had a second place of worship, for Independents and Roehampton was in the process of achieving separate parish status. The proprietors of the bridge distributed £31 per annum to watermen, and watermens widows and children, Putney in 1887 covered 9 square kilometres. Putney appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Putelei and it was noted that it did not fall into the category of local jurisdictions known as a manor, but obtained 20 shillings from the ferry or market toll at Putney belonging to the manor of Mortlake. One famous crossing at Putney was that of Cardinal Wolsey in 1529 upon his disgrace in falling out of favour with Henry VIII and on ceasing to be the holder of the Great Seal of England. As he was riding up Putney Hill he was overtaken by one of the royal chamberlains who presented him with a ring as a token of the continuance of his majestys favour. The first permanent bridge between Fulham and Putney was completed in 1729, and was the bridge to be built across the Thames in London. The ferry boat was on the side, however and the waterman. Walpole vowed that a bridge would replace the ferry, the Prince of Wales apparently was often inconvenienced by the ferry when returning from hunting in Richmond park and asked Walpole to use his influence by supporting the bridge. The bridge was a structure and lasted for 150 years
9.
Enclosure
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Enclosure was the legal process in England during the 18th century of enclosing a number of small landholdings to create one larger farm. Once enclosed, use of the land became restricted to the owner, in England and Wales the term is also used for the process that ended the ancient system of arable farming in open fields. Under enclosure, such land is fenced and deeded or entitled to one or more owners, the process of enclosure began to be a widespread feature of the English agricultural landscape during the 16th century. By the 19th century, unenclosed commons had become restricted to rough pasture in mountainous areas. Enclosure could be accomplished by buying the rights and all common rights to accomplish exclusive rights of use. The other method was by passing laws causing or forcing enclosure, the latter process of enclosure was sometimes accompanied by force, resistance, and bloodshed, and remains among the most controversial areas of agricultural and economic history in England. Marxist and neo-Marxist historians argue that rich landowners used their control of processes to appropriate public land for their private benefit. The process of created a landless working class that provided the labour required in the new industries developing in the north of England. For example, In agriculture the years between 1760 and 1820 are the years of wholesale enclosure in which, in village after village, thompson argues that Enclosure was a plain enough case of class robbery. We should be not to ascribe to developments that were the consequence of a much broader. He impact of eighteenth and nineteenth century enclosure has been grossly exaggerated, Enclosure is considered one of the causes of the British Agricultural Revolution. Enclosed land was under control of the farmer who was free to adopt better farming practices, there was widespread agreement in contemporary accounts that profit making opportunities were better with enclosed land. Following enclosure, crop yields increased while at the same time productivity increased enough to create a surplus of labour. The increased labour supply is considered one of the causes of the Industrial Revolution, Enclosure of manorial common land was authorized by the Statute of Merton and the Statute of Westminster. Throughout the medieval and modern periods, piecemeal enclosure took place in which adjacent strips were fenced off from the common field and this was sometimes undertaken by small landowners, but more often by large landowners and lords of the manor. Significant enclosures took place to establish deer parks, some of these enclosures took place with local agreement. Most if not all emparkments were of already fenced land, there was a significant rise in enclosure during the Tudor period. These enclosures largely resulted in conversion of land use from arable to pasture – usually sheep farming and these enclosures were often undertaken unilaterally by the landowner
10.
Heath
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A heath is a shrubland habitat found mainly on free-draining infertile, acidic soils and is characterised by open, low-growing woody vegetation. Moorland is generally related to high-ground heaths with—especially in Great Britain—a cooler, heaths are widespread worldwide, but are fast disappearing and considered a rare habitat in Europe. They form extensive and highly diverse communities across Australia in humid and sub-humid areas where fire regimes with recurring burning are required for the maintenance of the heathlands, even more diverse though less widespread heath communities occur in Southern Africa. Extensive heath communities can also be found in the California chaparral, New Caledonia, central Chile, in addition to these extensive heath areas, the vegetation type is also found in scattered locations across all continents, except Antarctica. Heaths are dominated by low shrubs,20 centimetres to 2 metres tall, heath vegetation can be extremely plant-species rich, and heathlands of Australia are home to some 3,700 endemic or typical species in addition to numerous less restricted species. The fynbos heathlands of South Africa are second only to tropical rainforests in plant biodiversity with over 7,000 species, in marked contrast, the tiny pockets of heathland in Europe are extremely depauperate with a flora consisting primarily of heather, heath and gorse. The bird fauna of heathlands are usually species of the region. In the depauperate heathlands of Europe bird species tend to be characteristic of the community and include Montagus harrier. Australian heathlands are also home to the worlds only nectar-feeding terrestrial mammal, the bird fauna of the South African fynbos includes sunbirds, warblers and siskins. Heathlands are also an excellent habitat for insects including ants, moths, butterflies and these heaths were originally created or expanded by centuries of human clearance of the natural forest and woodland vegetation, by grazing and burning. Referring to heathland in England, Rackham says, “Heaths are clearly the product of human activities and need to be managed as heathland, in recent years the conservation value of even these man-made heaths has become much more appreciated, and consequently most heathlands are protected. However they are threatened by tree incursion because of the discontinuation of traditional management techniques such as grazing and burning that mediated the landscapes. Some are also threatened by urban sprawl, anthropogenic heathlands are maintained artificially by a combination of grazing and periodic burning, or mowing, if not so maintained, they are rapidly re-colonised by forest or woodland. The re-colonising tree species will depend on what is available as the seed source. Bolster heath Chalk heath Garrigue Maquis shrubland Matorral Scrubland The Countryside Agency information on types of open land Origin of the word heath
11.
Bog
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A bog is a wetland that accumulates peat, a deposit of dead plant material—often mosses, and in a majority of cases, sphagnum moss. It is one of the four types of wetlands. Other names for bogs include mire, quagmire, and muskeg and they are frequently covered in ericaceous shrubs rooted in the sphagnum moss and peat. The gradual accumulation of decayed plant material in a bog functions as a carbon sink, Bogs occur where the water at the ground surface is acidic and low in nutrients. In some cases, the water is derived entirely from precipitation, water flowing out of bogs has a characteristic brown colour, which comes from dissolved peat tannins. In general, the low fertility and cool climate results in relatively slow plant growth, large areas of landscape can be covered many metres deep in peat. Bogs have distinctive assemblages of animal, fungal and plant species, Bogs are widely distributed in cold, temperate climes, mostly in boreal ecosystems in the Northern Hemisphere. The worlds largest wetland is the bogs of the Western Siberian Lowlands in Russia. Large peat bogs also occur in North America, particularly the Hudson Bay Lowland and they are less common in the Southern Hemisphere, with the largest being the Magellanic moorland, comprising some 44,000 square kilometres. Sphagnum bogs were widespread in northern Europe but have often been cleared and drained for agriculture, a 2014 expedition leaving from Itanga village, Republic of the Congo discovered a peat bog as big as England which stretches into neighboring Democratic Republic of Congo. There are many highly specialised animals, fungi and plants associated with bog habitat, most are capable of tolerating the combination of low nutrient levels and waterlogging. Sphagnum moss is generally abundant, along with ericaceous shrubs, the shrubs are often evergreen, which is understood to assist in conservation of nutrients. In drier locations, evergreen trees can occur, in case the bog blends into the surrounding expanses of boreal evergreen forest. Sedges are one of the more common herbaceous species, carnivorous plants such as sundews and pitcher plants have adapted to the low-nutrient conditions by using invertebrates as a nutrient source. Orchids have adapted to these conditions through the use of fungi to extract nutrients. Some shrubs such as Myrica gale have root nodules in which nitrogen fixation occurs, Bogs are recognized as a significant/specific habitat type by a number of governmental and conservation agencies. They can provide habitat for mammals, such as caribou, moose, the United Kingdom in its Biodiversity Action Plan establishes bog habitats as a priority for conservation. Russia has a reserve system in the West Siberian Lowland
12.
Clay
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Clay is a fine-grained natural rock or soil material that combines one or more clay minerals with traces of metal oxides and organic matter. Geologic clay deposits are composed of phyllosilicate minerals containing variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure. Clays are plastic due to water content and become hard, brittle. Depending on the content in which it is found, clay can appear in various colours from white to dull grey or brown to deep orange-red. Although many naturally occurring deposits include both silts and clay, clays are distinguished from other fine-grained soils by differences in size, silts, which are fine-grained soils that do not include clay minerals, tend to have larger particle sizes than clays. There is, however, some overlap in size and other physical properties. The distinction between silt and clay varies by discipline, geologists and soil scientists usually consider the separation to occur at a particle size of 2 µm, sedimentologists often use 4–5 μm, and colloid chemists use 1 μm. Geotechnical engineers distinguish between silts and clays based on the plasticity properties of the soil, as measured by the soils Atterberg limits, ISO14688 grades clay particles as being smaller than 2 μm and silt particles as being larger. These solvents, usually acidic, migrate through the rock after leaching through upper weathered layers. In addition to the process, some clay minerals are formed through hydrothermal activity. There are two types of deposits, primary and secondary. Primary clays form as residual deposits in soil and remain at the site of formation, secondary clays are clays that have been transported from their original location by water erosion and deposited in a new sedimentary deposit. Clay deposits are associated with very low energy depositional environments such as large lakes. Depending on the source, there are three or four main groups of clays, kaolinite, montmorillonite-smectite, illite, and chlorite. Chlorites are not always considered to be a clay, sometimes being classified as a group within the phyllosilicates. There are approximately 30 different types of clays in these categories. Varve is clay with visible annual layers, which are formed by deposition of those layers and are marked by differences in erosion. This type of deposit is common in glacial lakes
13.
Woodland
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Woodland /ˈwʊdlənd/ is a low-density forest forming open habitats with plenty of sunlight and limited shade. Woodlands may support an understory of shrubs and herbaceous plants including grasses, woodland may form a transition to shrubland under drier conditions or during early stages of primary or secondary succession. Higher density areas of trees with a closed canopy that provides extensive. Conservationists have worked hard to preserve woodlands, because people are destroying animals habitats when building homes, for example, the woodlands in Northwest Indiana have been preserved as part of the Indiana Dunes. The term ancient woodland is used in British nature conservation to refer to any wooded land that has existed since 1600, woodlot is a closely related American term, which refers to a stand of trees generally used for firewood. While woodlots often technically have closed canopies, they are so small that light penetration from the edge makes them ecologically closer to woodland than forest, in Australia, a woodland is defined as an area with sparse cover of trees, and an open woodland has very sparse cover. Woodlands are also subdivided into tall woodlands, or low woodlands and this contrasts with forests, which have greater than 30% cover by trees
14.
Stag beetle
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Stag beetles are a group of about 1,200 species of beetles in the family Lucanidae, presently classified in four subfamilies. Some species grow up to over 12 cm, but most are about 5 cm, the English name is derived from the large and distinctive mandibles found on the males of most species, which resemble the antlers of stags. A well-known species in much of Europe is Lucanus cervus, referred to in some European countries as the stag beetle, pliny the Elder noted that Nigidius called the stag beetle lucanus after the Italian region of Lucania where they were used as amulets. The scientific name of Lucanus cervus is this word, plus cervus, male stag beetles use their jaws to wrestle each other for favoured mating sites in a manner that parallels the way stags fight over females. Fights may also be food, such as tree sap. Despite their often fearsome appearance, they are not normally aggressive to humans, female stag beetles are usually smaller than the males, with smaller mandibles. The mandibles, though smaller, are more powerful than the males. As larvae, females can be distinguished from males by the presence of cream-coloured, in the final larval stage, L3, the grubs of larger species, such as Prosopocoilus giraffa, may be the size of a human finger. The Lucanidae express male-specific weapon traits that often show size variations among individual males, environmental conditions during development affect absolute weapon size, but genetic factors are active. Currently, the means of identification of world species is the illustrated text by Mizunuma. The Lucanid Beetles of the World,337 pp. based on the work Catalogue illustré des lucanides du globe in Encyclopédie Entomologique by Robert Didier and Eugene Seguy. Annotated Checklist of the New World Lucanidae, Checklist of New World stag beetles with links to pages with additional information and images. Biodiversity, section on Lucanidae with a catalogue and a world bibliography. Asahinet Stag beetles on postage stamps and species illustrations
15.
Special Area of Conservation
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A Special Area of Conservation is defined in the European Unions Habitats Directive, also known as the Directive on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora. They must be chosen from the Sites of Community Importance by the State Members, sACs complement Special Protection Areas and together form a network of protected sites across the European Union called Natura 2000. This, in turn, is part of the Emerald network of Areas of Special Conservation Interest under the Berne Convention, prior to being designated as a Special Area of Conservation, sites are assessed under a two-stage process set out by the Joint Nature Conservation Committee. The value of the site is considered in relation to the whole national resource of each habitat type. Firstly, assessment of the importance of sites containing examples of the individual habitat types. This stage is often referred to as moderation. The criteria used in Stage 2 are intended to be used to assess the sites at the level of the nine biogeographical regions and the EU as a whole
16.
Secretary of State for the Environment
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The Secretary of State for the Environment was a UK cabinet position, responsible for the Department of the Environment. This was created by Edward Heath as a combination of the Ministry of Housing and Local Government, the Ministry of Transport and it has been asserted that during the Thatcher government the DoE led the drive towards centralism, and the undermining of local government. The titular mention of the Regions referred to the pledge to create regional government. Meanwhile, the transport, housing and planning, and local and regional government aspects went to a new Department for Transport, Local Government and the Regions. A year later the DTLR also split, with transport getting its own department and the rest going to the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister
17.
Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)
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The Ministry of Defence is the British government department responsible for implementing the defence policy set by Her Majestys Government and is the headquarters of the British Armed Forces. The MoD states that its objectives are to defend the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and its interests and to strengthen international peace. The MoD also manages day-to-day running of the forces, contingency planning. As rearmament became a concern during the 1930s, Stanley Baldwin created the position of Minister for Coordination of Defence. Winston Churchill, on forming his government in 1940, created the office of Minister of Defence to exercise control over the Chiefs of Staff Committee. The post was held by the Prime Minister of the day until Clement Attlees government introduced the Ministry of Defence Act of 1946, the new ministry was headed by a Minister of Defence who possessed a seat in the Cabinet. These departments merged in 1964, the functions of the Ministry of Aviation Supply merged into the Ministry of Defence in 1971. The Ministers in the Ministry of Defence are as follows, The Ministers and Chiefs of the Defence Staff are supported by a number of civilian, scientific, the Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Defence is the senior civil servant at the MoD. His or her role is to ensure the MoD operates effectively as a department of the government, Permanent Under-Secretary of State, Stephen Lovegrove—commencing April 2016 Defence Equipment & Support CEO - Tony Douglas — commencing 2016 Chief Scientific Adviser, Professor Vernon C. He is supported by the Vice Chief of the Defence Staff, vice-Chief of the Defence Staff, General Sir Gordon Messenger, Royal Marines. First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff, Admiral Sir Philip Jones, Royal Navy Chief of the General Staff, General Sir Nick Carter, the Surgeon General, represents the Defence Medical Services on the Defence Staff, and is the clinical head of that service. These forces must be capable of representing Britain as lead nation in any coalition operations, the ability, at longer notice, to deploy forces in a large-scale operation while running a concurrent small-scale operation. The MoD has since been regarded as a leader in elaborating the post-Cold War organising concept of defence diplomacy, the UK is establishing air and naval bases in the Persian Gulf, located in the UAE and Bahrain. A presence in Oman is also being considered, the Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 included £178 billion investment in new equipment and capabilities. The review set a policy with four primary missions for the Armed Forces, Defend and contribute to the security and resilience of the UK. Contribute to improved understanding of the world through strategic intelligence and the defence network. Reinforce international security and the capacity of our allies, partners. Conduct operations to restore peace and stability, conduct major combat operations if required, including under NATO Article 5
18.
Home Office
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The Home Office is a ministerial department of the Her Majestys Government of the United Kingdom, responsible for immigration, security and law and order. As such it is responsible for the police, fire and rescue services, visas and immigration and it is also in charge of government policy on security-related issues such as drugs, counter-terrorism and ID cards. It was formerly responsible for Her Majestys Prison Service and the National Probation Service, the Cabinet minister responsible for the department is the Home Secretary. The Home Office continues to be known, especially in official papers, the Home Office is headed by the Home Secretary, a Cabinet minister supported by the departments senior civil servant, the Permanent Secretary. The plan said the department will,1, simplify national institutional structures and establish a National Crime Agency to strengthen the fight against organised crime 3. Create a more integrated criminal justice system Help the police and other public services work together across the criminal justice system 4, secure our borders and reduce immigration Deliver an improved migration system that commands public confidence and serves our economic interests. Limit non-EU economic migrants, and introduce new measures to reduce inflow and minimise abuse of all migration routes, process asylum applications more quickly, and end the detention of children for immigration purposes 5. Protect peoples freedoms and civil liberties Reverse state interference to ensure there is not disproportionate intrusion into people‟s lives 6, protect our citizens from terrorism Keep people safe through the Government‟s approach to counter-terrorism 7. Build a fairer and more equal society Help create a fair, on 27 March 1782, the Home Office was formed by renaming the existing Southern Department, with all existing staff transferring. On the same day, the Northern Department was renamed the Foreign Office, to match the new names, there was a transferring of responsibilities between the two Departments of State. All domestic responsibilities were moved to the Home Office, and all foreign matters became the concern of the Foreign Office, most subsequently created domestic departments have been formed by splitting responsibilities away from the Home Office. On 7 April 2012, hacktivist group Anonymous temporarily took down the UK Home Office website, the group took responsibility for the attack, which was part of ongoing Anonymous activity in protest against the deportation of hackers as part of Operation TrialAtHome. One Anonymous source claimed in their tweet it was launched in retaliation for draconian surveillance proposals. On 18 July 2012, the Public and Commercial Services Union announced that thousands of Home Office employees would go on strike over jobs, pay and other issues. However, the PCSU called off the strike before it was planned it claimed the department had, subsequent to the threat of actions, announced 1,100 new border jobs. From 1978 to 2004, the Home Office was located at 50 Queen Annes Gate, many functions, however, were devolved to offices in other parts of London and the country, notably the headquarters of the Immigration and Nationality Directorate in Croydon. g. Wales Under the Welsh devolution settlement, specific areas are transferred to the National Assembly for Wales rather than reserved to Westminster
19.
London Borough of Merton
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The London Borough of Merton /ˈmɜːrtən/ is a borough in south-west London, England. The main commercial centres in Merton are Mitcham, Morden and Wimbledon, other smaller centres include Raynes Park, Colliers Wood, South Wimbledon, Wimbledon Park and Pollards Hill. The borough is the host of the Wimbledon tournament, one of tenniss Grand Slam competitions, the borough derives its name from the historic parish of Merton which was centred on the area now known as South Wimbledon. Merton was chosen as a compromise, following a dispute between Wimbledon and Mitcham over the new boroughs name. The local authority is Merton London Borough Council, Colliers Wood Lower Morden Merton Park Mitcham Mitcham Common Morden Morden Park Motspur Park New Malden Norbury Pollards Hill Raynes Park St. This followed four years as a minority administration, at the same time, it elects a deputy mayor to serve alongside the mayor. Since 1978, each Mayor must also be an elected councillor, a lot of filming for former ITV police drama The Bill took place in Merton, particularly in the districts of Mitcham and Colliers Wood. The set of Sun Hill police station was located in the Borough. The main local newspaper in Merton is the Wimbledon Guardian with two editions, Wimbledon along with Mitcham and Morden, the main difference between the papers is the front page. The Wimbledon Post is another newspaper published weekly. Both newspapers are available free, though there is a charge if bought from a newsagent, Square Enix Europe has its head office in Wimbledon Bridge House in Wimbledon. Eidos Interactive, a subsidiary of Square Enix, also shares the same head office, Merton is served by a wide range of National Rail stations across the borough, as well as the southern tip of London Undergrounds Northern line and the District line on the Wimbledon branch. The borough is served by several London Tramlink stops from Wimbledon. In 2001, the census recorded that 25% of the population of the borough was from an ethnic minority, the highest ethnic populations were recorded in wards in the east of the borough. The percentage of population from ethnic minorities is predicted to rise across the borough within the next decade, the most affluent wards were in the north and west of the borough. Comparative crime rates appear to be unrelated to the ranking of wards. Merton currently operates a Police Cadet scheme under the Metropolitan Police Service, the borough gained a football team in 1889 when Wimbledon Old Centrals were founded, and were soon a member of the local football leagues. The club later adopted the title Wimbledon FC and moved into a new stadium at Plough Lane in 1912, as the 20th century wore on, the club enjoyed considerable success in non league football
20.
London Borough of Wandsworth
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The London Borough of Wandsworth /ˈwɒndzwɜːrθ/ is a London borough in England, and forms part of Inner London. The local authority is Wandsworth London Borough Council, until 1889, the current area of Wandsworth was part of the county of Surrey. In 1855 the Wandsworth District of the Metropolis was formed comprising the parishes of Battersea, Clapham, Putney, Streatham, Tooting Graveney, Battersea was removed from the district in 1888. In 1900 the remaining became the Metropolitan Borough of Wandsworth. According to the 2011 census Wandsworth has a population of 306,995, in 2001 78% of the population was White,9. 6% Black and 6. 9% South Asian. Clapham Junction railway station is in Battersea, rather than Clapham in the borough, there are many new or refurbished buildings along the boroughs prosperous riverside including the large Chelsea Bridge Wharf. The Peace Pagoda, one of such international Pagodas is in Battersea Park. The London Heliport, Londons main and busiest heliport is just beyond Battersea Park, in terms of size South Thames College, Southside Shopping Centre, Wandsworth and The Exchange Shopping Centre, Putney are among the largest secular structures. In Old Battersea two fine masonry mansions survived The Blitz, Old Battersea House and Downshire House — both hold rare Grade II* status, the first Mayor of Wandsworth was John Lidiard, elected by the first Wandsworth Borough Council in November 1900. Lidiards initials are highlighted in the diamonds in the centre of the Mayors chain of office, the second Mayor was Sir William Lancaster. The current Mayor is Cllr Richard Field, the Armorial bearings retain many of the features of the arms of the former Metropolitan Borough of Battersea and Metropolitan Borough of Wandsworth. The fess, or crossing, of the shield is chequered blue and gold representing the arms of William de Warren, each gold square bears a teardrop representing the tears of the French Huguenots, many of whom settled in Wandsworth from 1685. The ship at the top may refer to the Wendels, a tribe of sea-raiders from the Continent who supposedly gave their name to the district, the four shields and oars on the ship represent the four parishes of Battersea, Putney, Tooting and Wandsworth. Wandsworth is administered by 60 councillors,3 apiece from 20 wards, since the 2014 election,41 of these councillors are Conservative and 19 are Labour. The Conservatives have had a majority on the council since 1978 and provide all nine members of the Cabinet. This last station is served from London Victoria by Southern as are Balham, Battersea Park. The western terminus for the East London Line also is at Clapham Junction that has services to Highbury, there is also a limited 1 train a day parliamentary train service that instead of terminating at Clapham Junction, it instead terminates at Battersea Park. London Underground services are provided on the District line to East Putney and Southfields and on the Northern line to Balham, Clapham South, Tooting Bec, Wandsworth has the notable Elliott School, a specialist Language College, and former school of Pierce Brosnan
21.
London Borough of Kingston upon Thames
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The Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames is a borough in southwest London, England. The main town is Kingston upon Thames and it includes Surbiton, Chessington, New Malden, Tolworth and it is the oldest of the four Royal Boroughs in England. The others are Kensington and Chelsea and Greenwich also in London, the local authority is Kingston upon Thames London Borough Council. Many Roman relics have been found in the surrounding areas, a church has stood on the site of All Saints Church, in the centre of Kingston, for more than a thousand years. An earlier church was sacked by the Vikings in 1009 AD, a coin from the reign of each of those kings is set into the base of the stone. The borough was formed in 1965 by the merger and the transfer from Surrey to Greater London of the Municipal boroughs of Kingston-upon-Thames, Malden and Coombe, the current name of the borough omits hyphens to distinguish it from the similarly named former municipal borough. The borough includes the whole of the Kingston and Surbiton Westminster Parliamentary Constituency and part of the Richmond Park Constituency, the previous constituencies re-arranged to form these two had been essentially Conservative. In 1997 the Liberal Democrats won both seats, goldsmith retained his seat at the 2015 general election, with a greatly increased majority of 23,015. Edward Davey overturned the previous Conservative majority of more than 10,000 in Kingston and Surbiton and he retained the seat in 2001 with a majority of 15,676 over the Conservative candidate David Shaw. In 2005 Daveys majority was 8,961 and in the May 2010 general election he retained the seat with a slightly reduced majority. In the 2015 general election, Daveys seat was taken by Conservative James Berry with a majority of 2,834, Daveys was one of six Liberal Democrat losses in London and 49 overall as the party suffered its worst election results since its formation in 1988. The Borough Council was controlled by the Conservative Party from 1965 to 1986 and it lost several by-elections due to its attempt to abolish the Boroughs grammar school system. The Conservatives regained control in 1987, the 1990 election gave no party a majority but the Conservatives kept power with the casting vote of the Mayor. In 1994 the Liberal Democrats took the Council for the first time, in 1998 the Liberal Democrats lost their majority on the Council and a minority Conservative Party administration was formed. This minority administration was weakened in 1999 by the expulsion of Tim Brown for expressing concerns about the leadership of the local Kingston & Surbiton Conservative Association, marks ward Councillors Dennis de Lord and Jan Jenner resigned in protest at hypocrisy within the Conservative group on the Council. With Tim Brown they formed a new Independent Group of Councillors with Dennis de Lord as leader and Tim Brown as deputy leader, to put People Before Politics. This was the first time that four parties were represented on the council, the group did not stand for re-election following the continuing ill-health of Dennis de Lord. At the 2002 elections, the Liberal Democrats took control of the Council with a majority of twelve seats and this was the first time any party had retained control of the Council since 1986
22.
Lord of the manor
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In Anglo-Irish history, the lordship of a manor is a lordship emanating from the feudal system of manorialism. The origins of the lordship of manors arose in the Anglo-Saxon system of manorialism, following the Norman conquest, land at the manorial level was recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086. The title cannot nowadays be subdivided, Lord Denning, in Corpus Christi College Oxford v Gloucestershire County Council QB360, described the manor thus, In medieval times the manor was the nucleus of English rural life. It was a unit of an extensive area of land. The whole of it was owned originally by the lord of the manor and he lived in the big house called the manor house. Attached to it were many acres of grassland and woodlands called the park and these were the “demesne lands” which were for the personal use of the lord of the manor. Dotted all round were the homes and land occupied by the “tenants of the manor”. The owner of a lordship of the manor can be described as, Lord/Lady of the Manor of, in modern times any person may choose to use a name that is not the property of another. Under English common law a person may choose to be known by any name he sees fit as long as it is not done to commit fraud or evade an obligation, a manorial lordship is not a noble title, but a semi-extinct form of landed property. Lordship in this sense is a synonym for ownership, although this ownership involved a legal jurisdiction in the form of the court baron. Technically, lords of manors are barons, or freemen, however, the style Lord of the Manor of X or Lord of X is, in this sense, more of a description than a title, somewhat similar to the term Laird in Scotland. Fellows of Kings College, Cambridge have given the view that the term indicated wealth and privilege, since 1965 Lords of the Manor have been entitled to compensation in the event of compulsory purchase. Before the Land Registration Act 2002 it was possible for manors to be registered with HM Land Registry. Manorial incidents, which are the rights that a lord of the manor may exercise over other peoples land and this is a separate issue to the registration of lordships of manors, since both registered and unregistered lordships will continue to exist after that date. This issue does not affect the existence of the title of lord of the manor, there have been cases where manors have been sold and the seller has unknowingly parted with rights to unregistered land in England and Wales. In England in the Middle Ages, land was held of the English monarch or ruler by a local supporter. The people who had sworn homage to the lord were known as vassals, vassals were nobles who served loyalty for the king, in return for being given the use of land. The person who held feudal land directly from the king was known as a tenant-in-chief, military service was based upon units of ten knights
23.
John Spencer, 5th Earl Spencer
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He was twice Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. Spencer was the son of Frederick Spencer, 4th Earl Spencer, by his first wife Georgiana, the prominent Whig politician John Spencer, 3rd Earl Spencer, was his uncle and Charles Spencer, 6th Earl Spencer, his half-brother. He was educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge, from which he graduated in 1857, almost immediately after leaving Cambridge Spencer was elected to parliament for South Northamptonshire as a Liberal, before departing for a tour of North America. He returned in December 1857, and within a few days his father died and he was sworn of the Privy Council in 1859 and made a Knight of the Garter in 1864. Ireland came to be a preoccupation of the remainder of Spencers long political career. Spencer, in fact, went further than most of his colleagues, including Gladstone himself. Spencer also had to deal during his tenure with Gladstones Irish Universities Bill, in spite of Spencers efforts to secure the support of the Catholic hierarchy for the bill, they opposed it, and it went down to defeat in the commons in March 1873. The government lingered on for a year, until the election defeat of February 1874. The increasingly tense situation in Ireland, however, commanded a portion of Spencers time. In May 1882, Gladstones decision to release the Irish Nationalist leader Charles Stewart Parnell from prison led to the resignation of the hardline Chief Secretary for Ireland, W. E. Forster. As a result, Spencer, while retaining his seat in the cabinet, Spencer, assisted by George Trevelyan, his new secretary, was now faced with the difficult task of pacifying Ireland. Spencer acted quickly to reform the Irish police forces and destroy the secret societies which had been responsible for the murders, the issue remained up in the air when Gladstones government fell in early June. Spencer would serve as Lord President in Gladstones third government, and was instrumental in the formulation of Gladstones home rule legislation, after the defeat of the bill, Spencer joined his chief in opposition. When the Liberals returned to power in August 1892, Spencer was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty, Gladstones opposition to Spencers policy, following the recommendations of the Sea Lords, of naval expansion, led to Gladstones final resignation in March 1894. Gladstone himself nonetheless hoped that Spencer would be his successor, but the Queen did not seek his advice, Spencer continued to serve under Rosebery, and went out when the Liberal government fell in June 1895. In his later years, Spencer remained active in politics, following Lord Kimberleys death in 1902, Spencer was elected Liberal leader in the House of Lords. However, on 11 October of that year he suffered a stroke which ended his political career. An invasion scare in 1859 led to huge enthusiasm for joining local Rifle Volunteer Corps, the War Office issued a Circular Letter on 12 May inviting volunteers, and within three days Spencer had offered to raise a company from his tenants at Althorp
24.
Wimbledon Manor House
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Wimbledon manor house, the residence of the lord of the manor, was an English country house at Wimbledon, Surrey, now part of Greater London. The manor house having exploded, burnt and several times demolished, the first known manor house, The Old Rectory, built around 1500 and which is now a private home, still stands despite very nearly falling into a state beyond repair, in the 19th century. The later, prominent and ambitious Elizabethan manor house, Wimbledon Palace, was a house of the first importance according to Sir John Summerson, the manor house passed through several further iterations, being entirely rebuilt three times. From the 18th Century onwards the lands began to reduce in size as various owners sold off parts. Once including what was known as the Old Park, an area of around 300 acres stretching westwards from the present Cannizaro House, most of the present day Wimbledon Common was also once part of the manor, with grazing rights given to tenants of the lord of the manor. The Common was saved from enclosure and development in 1871 by an early act of conservation. 42 acres, previously part of the parklands, are now occupied by the All England Lawn Tennis. Until 1328, Wimbledon manor formed part of the manor of Mortlake, in 1364, Simon Islip, the Archbishop of Canterbury, gave the demesne lands to Merton Priory. Wimbledon was among the possessions of the church forfeited by Thomas Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1540, Wimbledon manor was taken back from Cromwell on his death by the crown and annexed to Hampton Court. Henry VIII gave it to his queen, Catherine Parr, in 1543, after her death in 1548 the manor remained in the Crown until 1556, when Queen Mary granted it to Cardinal Pole as part of the Counter Reformation. Queen Elizabeth I seized it back and gave it to Sir Christopher Hatton in 1576 who sold it to Sir Thomas Cecil the same year. The Old Rectory, Wimbledons first known house and its oldest surviving residence. Once moated, it is located close to St Marys Church, in 1550, the house became a grace and favour home for Sir William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley. A spiral staircase to the first floor with ten chambers and five closets, by 1720, it was known as The Old Laundry House, presumably for the Cecil house built in 1588, next door. The house was uninhabited when Sir Theodore Janssen bought the manor in 1717, by 1861, the house was a near ruin when it was sold as part of Wimbledon Park, by Earl Spencer, to the developer, John Beaumont. Beaumont restored and extended The Old Rectory, repaired the exterior, transformed the interior, laid out the grounds, in 1923, Thomas Lethaby purchased the house and he concentrated on embellishing the interior. The drawing room was fitted with oak panelling from the Chantry House, Newark, a plaster ceiling based on one at Knole House. The Lethabys sold the house in 1947, in 1953, Russell Brock, later Baron Brock of Wimbledon, an eminent cardiologist, bought the house for £13,750
25.
Private bill
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A private bill is a proposal for a law that would apply to a particular individual or group of individuals, or corporate entity. This is unlike public bills which apply to everyone within their jurisdiction, private law can afford relief from another law, grant a unique benefit or powers not available under the general law, or relieve someone from legal responsibility for some allegedly wrongful act. There are many examples of private law in democratic countries. A private bill is not to be confused with a members bill. In Canada, private bills today are used to deal with older organizations, private bills can also be used to give official government tribute to some person or group. Unlike with most other legislation, it is common for bills to originate in the Senate rather than the House. For the first hundred years after Confederation, private bills were more common, for example, prior to the passage of the Divorce Act in 1968, there was no uniform federal divorce law. In some provinces, the way to obtain a divorce was by a legislative divorce. This required an application to the Canadian Senate which reviewed and investigated petitions for divorce, the final report of the committee handling the case would then be voted upon by the Senate and subsequently enacted as an Act of Parliament. There are two types of private Act in the United Kingdom, the second type are Acts for the benefit of organisations, or authorising major projects such as railways or canals, or granting extra powers to local authorities. In the United States, private bills were common between 1817 and 1971, by making the terms of the law apply to only one organization it has the effect of a private law without actually naming the party to be granted relief. In 2012, a Nigerian student, Sopuruchi Victor Chukwueke, became the first person in two years to be the beneficiary of a private bill, private laws are published individually as slip laws and included chronologically in United States Statutes at Large. Statutes at Large are available in most academic libraries and Federal Depository Library Program institutions, in the United States Constitution, the concept of a private law, when applied punitively, is covered by the term bill of attainder. Such punitive private laws are therefore unconstitutional, private Bills, Procedure in the House. Archived from the original on 2008-05-21
26.
Common land
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A person who has a right in, or over, common land jointly with another or others is called a commoner. This article deals mainly with land in England, Wales. Common land or former common land is referred to as a common, for instance. This manorial system, founded on feudalism, granted rights of use to different classes. These would be appurtenant rights, that is the ownership of rights belonged to tenancies of particular plots of land held within a manor, a commoner would be the person who, for the time being, was the occupier of a particular plot of land. Some rights of common were said to be in gross, that is and this was more usual in regions where commons are more extensive, such as in the high ground of Northern England or on the Fens, but also included many village greens across England and Wales. Most land with appurtenant commons rights is adjacent to the common or even surrounded by it, example rights of common are, Pasture. Right to pasture cattle, horses, sheep or other animals on the common land, right to take sods of turf for fuel. Common in the Soil This is a term used for rights to extract minerals such as sands, gravels, marl, walling stone. Right to turn out pigs for a period in autumn to eat mast, right to take sufficient wood for the commoners house or holding, usually limited to smaller trees, bushes and fallen branches. On most commons, rights of pasture and pannage for each commoner are tightly defined by number and type of animal, on some commons, the rights are not limited by numbers, and instead a marking fee is paid each year for each animal turned out. However, if excessive use was made of the common, for example, in overgrazing, a common would be stinted, that is and these regulations were responsive to demographic and economic pressure. Thus rather than let a common become degraded, access was restricted even further, Pasture commons are those where the primary right is to pasture livestock. These habitats are often of high nature conservation value, because of their very long continuity of management extending in some cases over many hundreds of years. In the past, most pasture commons would have been grazed by mixtures of cattle, sheep, the modern survival of grazing on pasture commons over the past century is uneven. When not in use for those purposes, such commons were grazed, examples include the common arable fields around the village of Laxton in Nottinghamshire, and a common meadow at North Meadow, Cricklade. Lammas rights entitled commoners to pasture following the harvest, between Lammas day,12 August, to 6 April, even if they did not have rights to the land. Such rights sometimes had the effect of preventing enclosure and building development on agricultural land, most of the medieval common land of England was lost due to enclosure
27.
Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell
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After having been educated at Charterhouse School in Surrey, Baden-Powell served in the British Army from 1876 until 1910 in India and Africa. In 1899, during the Second Boer War in South Africa, several of his military books, written for military reconnaissance and scout training in his African years, were also read by boys. In 1907, he held a camp, the Brownsea Island Scout camp. Based on his books, he wrote Scouting for Boys, published in 1908 by Sir Arthur Pearson. In 1910 Baden-Powell retired from the army and formed The Boy Scouts Association, in 1912 he married Olave St Clair Soames. He gave guidance to the Scouting and Girl Guiding Movements until retiring in 1937, Baden-Powell lived his last years in Nyeri, Kenya, where he died and was buried in 1941. Baden-Powell was born as Robert Stephenson Smyth Powell at 6 Stanhope Street and he was called Stephe by his family, He was named after his godfather, Robert Stephenson, the railway and civil engineer, his third name was his mothers maiden name. Baden-Powells father died when Baden-Powell was three, subsequently, Baden-Powell was raised by his mother, a strong woman who was determined that her children would succeed. Baden-Powell would say of her in 1933 The whole secret of my getting on, Baden-Powell attended Rose Hill School, Tunbridge Wells. He was given a scholarship to Charterhouse, a public school. He played the piano and violin, was an ambidextrous artist, holidays were spent on yachting or canoeing expeditions with his brothers. His first introduction to Scouting skills was through stalking and cooking game while avoiding teachers in the nearby woods, in 1876 Baden-Powell joined the 13th Hussars in India with the rank of lieutenant. During one of his travels, he came across a string of wooden beads. The beads were later incorporated into the Wood Badge training programme he started after he founded the Scouting Movement and he was posted in Malta for three years, also working as intelligence officer for the Mediterranean for the Director of Military Intelligence. He frequently travelled disguised as a collector, incorporating plans of military installations into his drawings of butterfly wings. In 1884 he published Reconnaissance and Scouting, Baden-Powell returned to Africa in 1896, and served in the Second Matabele War, in the expedition to relieve British South Africa Company personnel under siege in Bulawayo. This was an experience for him not only because he commanded reconnaissance missions into enemy territory in the Matopos Hills. Baden-Powell was accused of executing a prisoner of war in 1896, the Matabele chief Uwini
28.
Scouting for Boys
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Scouting for Boys, A handbook for instruction in good citizenship is a book on Boy Scout training, published in various editions since 1908. Early editions were written and illustrated by Robert Baden-Powell with later editions being extensively rewritten by others and it is pervaded by a degree of moral proselytizing and references to the authors own exploits. It is based on his experiences, his experience with the Mafeking Cadet Corps during the Second Boer War at the Siege of Mafeking. Upon his return to England, following the Second Boer War, in 1906, Seton discussed youth training ideas with Baden-Powell and shared with him a copy of The Birch Bark Roll of the Woodcraft Indians. Soon after, Baden-Powell decided to revise Aids to Scouting into a book for boys, several friends supported Baden-Powell, including Sir William Alexander Smith, founder of the Boys Brigade, and Cyril Arthur Pearson, who owned newspapers and printing presses. Scouting for Boys was published in six instalments of approximately 70 pages each. They were produced by Pearsons printer, Horace Cox and these six publications were a success and, as planned, were issued in book form on 1 May 1908. The book was revised and a variety of editions were published. Many of these editions were edited by others and, far beyond mere editing, the book was a best seller upon release, and, in its various editions, is claimed to have become one of the best-selling books in history. Scouting for Boys has been translated into many languages, in 1948, editions of the book were still selling 50,000 copies annually. Only in 1967 was a decline noted by the publisher and in the last decades of the 20th century the book came to be seen as a curiosity even by the Scout Movement. It is claimed to be the bestselling book of the 20th century. A realistic estimate is that approximately 4 million copies of the UK edition have been sold, extrapolating this to 87 different language editions worldwide, historic world sales of Scouting for Boys can be estimated at 100 to 150 million copies since 1908. Scouting for Boys has been published in over thirty consecutive editions by London based C. Arthur Pearson Ltd. estimatedly, over 100 million books have been printed, making it rank high in the list of best-selling books. London, Windsor House, Breams Buildings, E. C, pp. six instalments of approx 70 pages each. London, Henrietta Street, C. Arthur Pearson Ltd.1 May 1908, London, Tower House, C. Arthur Pearson Ltd.1924. London, C. Arthur Pearson Ltd.1926, London, C. Arthur Pearson Ltd.1932. Sgowtio i Fechgyn gan Arglwydd Baden-Powell o Gilwel, London, C. Arthur Pearson Ltd.1944
29.
National Rifle Association of the United Kingdom
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The National Rifle Association of the United Kingdom is the governing body of full bore rifle and pistol shooting sports in the United Kingdom. The National Rifle Association was founded in 1859, based on Putney Heath & Wimbledon Common,12 years before its better known American cousin, the Association has recently added the suffix of the United Kingdom to its website tagline. In 1890, Queen Victoria granted the NRA a Royal Charter of Incorporation, the project was shelved in July 2009. 2009 marked the 150th Anniversary of the National Rifle Association of the United Kingdom and these days the Association is primarily concerned with civilian full-bore target rifle shooting, although retaining its military heritage and close links with the British Armed Forces. The original centre was at Wimbledon, but in the late 1880s the National Rifle Association began searching for a new site, in early 1888 it seemed that Cannock Chase was to be selected from several locations under consideration. The principal ranges used at Bisley today are as laid out in 1890 to accommodate modern full-bore rifle shooting. Century Range provides 108 points at distances up to 600 yards, stickledown Range is the largest long range in the UK with 50 targets and firing points from 800 to 1200 yards. There is also the Short Siberia Range with points at 100 and 200 yards, there used to be a Long Siberia Range which was originally a 600-yard range. This is now used by Bisley Shooting Ground as a sporting clay Range, BSG also operate Cottesloe Heath, which lies in the danger area for Century Range and thus is subject to time limitations. The Running Deer Range has facilities for moving targets at up to 100 metres, pistol shooting is and was also well accommodated with Melville, Cheylesmore and the recently refurbished Winans ranges. The original Cheylesmore Range was opened for the 1948 Summer Olympics, recently relocated, Clay pigeon shooting has taken place at Bisley since the early 1920s. The facilities were expanded to accommodate the 2002 Commonwealth Games shooting. The NCSC offers world class facilities for DTL, Skeet, ABT, Double Trap, Bisley Shooting Ground, a commercial clay shooting operator, runs extensive sporting clay facilities on the Cottesloe Heath and Long Siberia ranges. The National Shooting Centre was one of three considered to host the shooting events for the 2012 London Olympics. Facilities for those events would have been mothballed anyway following the Games, although renovated clay pigeon, airgun, Gun safety Gun politics in the United Kingdom BASC National Rifle Association MacDonnell, R. J. The National Rifle Association, A Sketch of Its History and Progress, 1859-1876 Official website
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Bisley, Surrey
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Bisley /ˈbɪzliː/ is a village and civil parish in the borough of Surrey Heath in Surrey, England. It is centred 3.4 miles west of Woking, of medieval creation, Bisley neighbours 19th century West End, centred 900 metres north, across the Windle Brook. Much of the west of the parish is covered by higher acidic heath, the National Shooting Centre, the headquarters of the National Rifle Association of the United Kingdom, is within the historic bounds. Other large buildings are Coldingley mens prison and the factory of Bisley Office Furniture. The name Bisley was first recorded in the 10th century as Busseleghe and its manor was from earliest written records under the feudal lordship of Chertsey Abbey as part of Godley Hundred. It is derived from the old English words Bysc, meaning bushes, and Leah, therefore, it means clearing where bushes grow or in the bushes. The versions recorded in the 13th century were Busheley and Bussley, from such Westminster, in medieval times, the village continued to be the southern holding of the Chertsey Abbey estate. The late 12th century church, St John the Baptist, was invested as a church in the village by the Abbey monks in the 15th century. The church features a bell and a 15th-century porch which is said to have been built from a single oak tree. A nearby spring was known as the Holy Well of St John the Baptist. Its waters were used for baptisms until the early 20th century. The building is Grade II* listed, a late Tudor monarch granted the manorial lands and revenues of Woking, Chobham, and Bagshot, having dissolved Chertsey Abbey, to Sir Edward Zouch. Actor Barry Evans attended Bisley boys school which was a run by The Shaftesbury Homes. The factory and offices of Bisley Office Furniture formed a local landmark, Bisley became the largest domestic brand of office cabinets, expanded the brand to other mass-produced office furniture and developed a significant export market. The company was granted two prestigious Queens Award for Export Achievement, in 1992 and 1997, still headquartered in Bisley at the time. Bisley Office Furniture was founded in 1931 by Freddy Brown, a sheet metal worker. In 1941 the company moved to its Queens Road site, Bisley when a 400-square-metre manufacturing facility was built and it was responsible for designing and manufacturing the first containers to be dropped by parachute, which were widely used by airborne forces throughout the war. The company decided in 2012 to consolidate all manufacturing on a 60, 000-square-metre manufacturing base in Newport, the last staff vacated the site in July 2015 and moved to offices in nearby Bagshot
31.
Beverley Brook
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Beverley Brook is a minor English river 14.3 kilometres long in southwest London. Its basin has a catchment area of 64 square kilometres, Beverley Brook creates a water feature used by deer, smaller animals and water grasses and some water lilies in Richmond Park. For the first 5 km south of Richmond Park, the six lane A3 trunk road from London to Portsmouth runs always within 300 m of the stream, crossing it three times. Except for the fields, the whole of the common. Towards the south end of the common, Fishpond Wood and Beverley Meads nature reserve lies a few metres east of the stream, south of Wimbledon Common the stretch of the A3 running near the stream is named Beverley Way after it. The name is derived from the presence in the river of the European beaver. The Middle English word for beaver was bever, the word for meadow was ley and brook meant stream, Beverley Brook was thus the Beaver-Meadow Stream. Beverley Brooks longest tributary is Pyl Brook,5.3 kilometres long and it flows from Sutton through Lower Morden to join it at Beverley Park in New Malden. Both brooks are on the Environment Agencys watch list of rivers susceptible to flooding, for much of the twentieth century Beverley Brook was joined by poorly treated sewage from a sewage works in Green Lane, Worcester Park. Since some pipe redirection enabling the removing of the works and the introduction of improved treatment methods in 1998, there remains scope for further improvements as, for example, at Wimbledon Common, Beverley Brook has banks reinforced with wooden ‘toe-boarding’, which prevents use by water voles. Beverley Brook is a character in the Ben Aaronovitch series of urban fantasy police procedurals Rivers of London. Literally, The spirit of a place, in case a River Goddess or River Spirit of the eponymous river
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London Wildlife Trust
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London Wildlife Trust, founded in 1981, is the local nature conservation charity for Greater London. It is one of 47 members of the Royal Society of Wildlife Trusts, the Trust aims to protect Londons wildlife and wild spaces, and it manages over 40 nature reserves in Greater London. One of its campaigns is to turn Londons gardens into mini-nature reserves, Local groups work on reserves and organise walks. The Trusts oldest reserves include Sydenham Hill Wood, which was managed by Southwark Wildlife Group before 1982, the campaign to save Gunnersbury Triangle began that same year, succeeding in 1983 when a public inquiry ruled that the site could not be developed because of its value for nature. The small Centre for Wildlife Gardening in East Dulwich has won an award for its work, the Trust pioneered the systematic recording of data on wildlife and the environment in the capital. Its Biological Recording Project became the semi-independent Greenspace Information for Greater London, the Trusts reserves receive over 230,000 visitors per year. The trust is supported by over 14,000 members, in its strategy document, For a Wilder City. London Wildlife Trust 2015–20, the Trust sets out its vision and mission, the trust states its vision as, A London alive with nature, where everyone can experience and enjoy wildlife. Among its aims for protecting and restoring, the Trust intends to bring 30 of its reserves to Favourable Condition by 2020. It plans to restore the Sydenham and Norwood woodlands, and the Living Landscape of the Great North Wood, recent projects have helped to support pollinators and to conserve the Welsh Harp reservoir. Bennetts Hole Pyl Brook Rowley Green Common The Wood, Surbiton List of Local Nature Reserves in Greater London List of Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Greater London London Wildlife Trust, Wildlife in Trust, A Hundred Years of Nature Conservation
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Fishpond Wood and Beverley Meads
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Fishpond Wood and Beverley Meads is a 5.8 hectare local nature reserve adjacent to Wimbledon Common in the London Borough of Merton. It is owned by Merton Council and managed by the London Wildlife Trust, in the Middle Ages Beverley Meads was owned by Merton Abbey, and it was later part of Warren Farm until it was acquired by Wimbledon Council in the 1950s. Fishpond Wood has two ponds which may date from medieval times and wetlands surrounded by oak and hazel woodlands. Beverley Meads is a mosaic of woodlands and acid grassland, which is a habitat in London. There is access to the site by footpaths from Wimbledon Common, from Barham Road, and from Robin Hood Way opposite Coombe Hill Road
34.
Iron Age
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The Iron Age is an archaeological era, referring to a period of time in the prehistory and protohistory of the Old World when the dominant toolmaking material was iron. It is commonly preceded by the Bronze Age in Europe and Asia with exceptions, meteoric iron has been used by humans since at least 3200 BC. Ancient iron production did not become widespread until the ability to smelt ore, remove impurities. The start of the Iron Age proper is considered by many to fall between around 1200 BC and 600 BC, depending on the region, the earliest known iron artifacts are nine small beads dated to 3200 BC, which were found in burials at Gerzeh, Lower Egypt. They have been identified as meteoric iron shaped by careful hammering, meteoric iron, a characteristic iron–nickel alloy, was used by various ancient peoples thousands of years before the Iron Age. Such iron, being in its metallic state, required no smelting of ores. Smelted iron appears sporadically in the record from the middle Bronze Age. While terrestrial iron is abundant, its high melting point of 1,538 °C placed it out of reach of common use until the end of the second millennium BC. Tins low melting point of 231, similarly, recent archaeological remains of iron working in the Ganges Valley in India have been tentatively dated to 1800 BC. By the Middle Bronze Age, increasing numbers of smelted iron objects appeared in the Middle East, Southeast Asia, African sites are turning up dates as early as 1200 BC. Modern archaeological evidence identifies the start of iron production in around 1200 BC. Between 1200 BC and 1000 BC, diffusion in the understanding of iron metallurgy and use of objects was fast. As evidence, many bronze implements were recycled into weapons during this time, more widespread use of iron led to improved steel-making technology at lower cost. Thus, even when tin became available again, iron was cheaper, stronger, and lighter, and forged iron implements superseded cast bronze tools permanently. Increasingly, the Iron Age in Europe is being seen as a part of the Bronze Age collapse in the ancient Near East, in ancient India, ancient Iran, and ancient Greece. In other regions of Europe, the Iron Age began in the 8th century BC in Central Europe, the Near Eastern Iron Age is divided into two subsections, Iron I and Iron II. Iron I illustrates both continuity and discontinuity with the previous Late Bronze Age, during the Iron Age, the best tools and weapons were made from steel, particularly alloys which were produced with a carbon content between approximately 0. 30% and 1. 2% by weight. Steel weapons and tools were nearly the same weight as those of bronze, however, steel was difficult to produce with the methods available, and alloys that were easier to make, such as wrought iron, were more common in lower-priced goods
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Oppidum
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An oppidum is a large fortified Iron Age settlement. They continued in use until the Romans began conquering Europe, north of the River Danube, where the population remained independent from Rome, oppida continued to be used into the 1st century AD. Oppidum is a Latin word meaning the settlement in any administrative area of ancient Rome. The word is derived from the earlier Latin ob-pedum, enclosed space, possibly from the Proto-Indo-European *pedóm-, in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico, Julius Caesar described the larger Celtic Iron Age settlements he encountered in Gaul during the Gallic Wars in 58 to 52 BC as oppida. Although he did not explicitly define what features qualified a settlement to be called an oppidum and they were important economic sites, places where goods were produced, stored and traded, and sometimes Roman merchants had settled and the Roman legions could obtain supplies. They were also political centres, the seat of authorities taking decisions that affected large numbers of people, Most of the places that Caesar called oppida were city-sized fortified settlements. However, Geneva, for example, was referred to as an oppidum, Caesar also refers to 20 oppida of the Bituriges and 12 of the Helvetii, twice the number of fortified settlements of these groups known today. That implies that Caesar likely counted some unfortified settlements as oppida, a similar ambiguity is in evidence in writing by the Roman historian Livy, who also used the word for both fortified and unfortified settlements. In his work Geographia, Ptolemy listed the coordinates of many Celtic settlements, however, research has shown many of the localisations of Ptolemy to be erroneous, making the identification of any modern location with the names he listed highly uncertain and speculative. An exception to that is the oppidum of Brenodurum at Bern, in particular, Dehn suggested defining an oppidum by four criteria, Size, The settlement has to have a minimum size, defined by Dehn as 30 hectares. Topography, Most oppida are situated on heights, but some are located on areas of land. Fortification, The settlement is surrounded by a wall, usually consisting of three elements, a facade of stone, a construction and an earthen rampart at the back. Chronology, The settlement dates from the late Iron Age, the last two centuries BC and they could be referred to as the first cities north of the Alps. The period of 2nd and 1st centuries BC places them in the known as La Tène. A notional minimum size of 15 to 25 hectares has often been suggested, however, the term is not always rigorously used, and it has been used to refer to any hill fort or circular rampart dating from the La Tène period. One of the effects of the inconsistency in definitions is that it is uncertain how many oppida were built, in European archaeology, the term oppida is also used more widely to characterize any fortified prehistoric settlement. For example, significantly older hill-top structures like the one at Glauberg have been called oppida, the Spanish word castro, also used in English, means a walled settlement or hill fort, and this word is often used interchangeably with oppidum by archaeologists. According to prehistorian John Collis oppida extend as far east as the Hungarian plain where other settlement types take over, central Spain has sites similar to oppida, but while they share features such as size and defensive ramparts the interior was arranged differently
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Roman conquest of Britain
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The Roman conquest of Britain was a gradual process, beginning effectively in AD43 under Emperor Claudius, whose general Aulus Plautius served as first governor of Roman Britain. Great Britain had already frequently been the target of invasions, planned and actual, by forces of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire. Between 55 BC and the 40s AD, the status quo of tribute, hostages, augustus prepared invasions in 34 BC,27 BC and 25 BC. The first and third were called off due to revolts elsewhere in the empire, by the 40s AD, the political situation within Britain was apparently in ferment. Modern historians are unsure if that was meant to be a punishment for the soldiers mutiny or due to Caligulas derangement. Certainly this invasion attempt readied the troops and facilities that would make Claudius invasion possible three years later, for example, Caligula built a lighthouse at Bononia that provided a model for the one built soon after at Dubris. Three years later, in 43, possibly by re-collecting Caligulas troops, Claudius mounted a force to re-instate Verica. Aulus Plautius, a senator, was given overall charge of four legions, totalling about 20,000 men. The legions were, Legio II Augusta Legio IX Hispana Legio XIV Gemina Legio XX Valeria Victrix The II Augusta is known to have been commanded by the future emperor Vespasian. Three other men of rank to command legions are known from the sources to have been involved in the invasion. Cassius Dio mentions Gnaeus Hosidius Geta, who led the IX Hispana. He wrote that Sabinus was Vespasians lieutenant, but as Sabinus was the brother and preceded Vespasian into public life. Eutropius mentions Gnaeus Sentius Saturninus, although as a former consul he may have been too senior, the main invasion force under Aulus Plautius crossed in three divisions. The port of departure is usually taken to have been Boulogne, neither of these locations is certain. Richborough has a natural harbour which would have been suitable. However, Dio says the Romans sailed east to west, some historians suggest a sailing from Boulogne to the Solent, landing in the vicinity of Noviomagus or Southampton, in territory formerly ruled by Verica. An alternative explanation might be a sailing from the mouth of the Rhine to Richborough, British resistance was led by Togodumnus and Caratacus, sons of the late king of the Catuvellauni, Cunobeline. A substantial British force met the Romans at a river crossing thought to be near Rochester on the River Medway, the battle raged for two days
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Legio II Augusta
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Legio secunda Augusta was a legion of the Imperial Roman army that was founded during the late Roman republic. Its emblems were the Capricornus, Pegasus, Mars, and the banner from the top left. Enlisted to fight against Pompey, they part in the subsequent battle of Munda of 45 BC. Alternatively it could be the Legio II, formed by the consul, Gaio Vibio Pansa in 43 BC and recruited in Sabina and it might have participated in the subsequent battle of Philippi of 42 BC on the side of the triumvirate, Octavian and Marc Antony. With the annihilation of Legio XVII, XVIII and XIX in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, II Augusta moved to Germania, after 17, it was at Argentoratum. The legion participated in the Roman conquest of Britain in 43, future emperor Vespasian was the legions commander at the time, and led the campaign against the Durotriges and Dumnonii tribes. The legion also had connections with the camp at Alchester in Oxfordshire, in 122, II Augusta helped to build Hadrians Wall. In 142, II Augusta helped to build the Antonine Wall and are recorded on The Bridgeness Slab, in 196, II Augusta supported the claim for the purple of the governor of Britannia, Clodius Albinus, who was defeated by Septimius Severus. On the occasion of Severus Scottish campaign, the Second moved to Carpow, in his fantasy novel Grail, the author Stephen R. Lawhead states that the legion was ensnared by the black magic of the witch Morgan le Fay, doomed to perpetually wander the mists of Lyonesse. Lindsey Davis character Marcus Didius Falco and his sidekick Lucius Petronius Longus both served in the legion during the Boudicca uprising in 60/61, while they were more than boys. Marcus or Petronius have only referred to their service in asides, due to the bad memories of the uprising, the scenes of carnage and destruction in Londinium left a deep impression on both of them, with neither keen to return to Roman Britain. Novels that most directly refer to their service in Britain are The Silver Pigs, The Iron Hand of Mars, A Body in the Bath House and The Jupiter Myth. It is also the Legion in which Optio Quintus Licinius Cato, the books also cover Vespasians career as commander of the legion and the invasion of Britain. The story of the role in Boudicas Rebellion and the subsequent suicide of its acting commander features in Imperial Governor. List of Roman legions Roman legion livius. org account Field, N. Dorset, the Origins and Early History of the Second Augustan Legion. Legions and Veterans, Roman Army Papers 1971-2000
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Vespasian
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Vespasian was Roman emperor from AD69 to AD79. Vespasian founded the Flavian dynasty that ruled the Empire for twenty-seven years, Vespasian was from an equestrian family that rose into the senatorial rank under the Julio–Claudian emperors. While Vespasian besieged Jerusalem during the Jewish rebellion, emperor Nero committed suicide, after Galba and Otho perished in quick succession, Vitellius became the third emperor in April 69. The Roman legions of Roman Egypt and Judaea reacted by declaring Vespasian, their commander, emperor on 1 July 69. In his bid for power, Vespasian joined forces with Mucianus, the governor of Syria, and Primus. Primus and Mucianus led the Flavian forces against Vitellius, while Vespasian took control of Egypt, on 20 December 69, Vitellius was defeated, and the following day Vespasian was declared Emperor by the Senate. Little information survives about the government during Vespasians ten-year rule and he reformed the financial system at Rome after the campaign against Judaea ended successfully, and initiated several ambitious construction projects. He began the building of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known today as the Roman Colosseum, in reaction to the events of 68–69, Vespasian forced through an improvement in army discipline. Through his general Agricola, Vespasian increased imperial expansion in Britain, after his death in 79, he was succeeded by his eldest son Titus, thus becoming the first Roman Emperor to be directly succeeded by his own natural son and establishing the Flavian dynasty. Vespasian was born in a village north-east of Rome called Falacrinae and his family was relatively undistinguished and lacking in pedigree. His paternal grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro, became the first to himself, rising to the rank of centurion. Subsequently he became a debt collector, petros son, Titus Flavius Sabinus, worked as a customs official in the province of Asia and became a money-lender on a small scale among the Helvetii. He gained a reputation as a scrupulous and honest tax-farmer, Sabinus married up in status, to Vespasia Polla, whose father had risen to the rank of prefect of the camp and whose brother became a Senator. Sabinus and Vespasia had three children, the eldest of whom, a girl, died in infancy, the elder boy, Titus Flavius Sabinus entered public life and pursued the cursus honorum. He served in the army as a tribune in Thrace in 36. The following year he was elected quaestor and served in Crete, the younger boy, Vespasian, seemed far less likely to be successful, initially not wishing to pursue high public office. He followed in his brothers footsteps when driven to it by his mothers taunting, during this period he married Flavia Domitilla, the daughter of Flavius Liberalis from Ferentium and formerly the mistress of Statilius Capella, a Roman equestrian from Sabrata in Africa. They had two sons, Titus Flavius Vespasianus and Titus Flavius Domitianus, and a daughter, Domitilla and his wife Domitilla and his daughter Domitilla both died before Vespasian became Emperor in 69
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Bronze Age
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The Bronze Age is a historical period characterized by the use of bronze, proto-writing, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the principal period of the three-age Stone-Bronze-Iron system, as proposed in modern times by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen. An ancient civilization is defined to be in the Bronze Age either by smelting its own copper and alloying with tin, arsenic, or other metals, or by trading for bronze from production areas elsewhere. Copper-tin ores are rare, as reflected in the fact there were no tin bronzes in Western Asia before trading in bronze began in the third millennium BC. Worldwide, the Bronze Age generally followed the Neolithic period, with the Chalcolithic serving as a transition, although the Iron Age generally followed the Bronze Age, in some areas, the Iron Age intruded directly on the Neolithic. Bronze Age cultures differed in their development of the first writing, according to archaeological evidence, cultures in Mesopotamia and Egypt developed the earliest viable writing systems. The overall period is characterized by use of bronze, though the place and time of the introduction. Human-made tin bronze technology requires set production techniques, tin must be mined and smelted separately, then added to molten copper to make bronze alloy. The Bronze Age was a time of use of metals. The dating of the foil has been disputed, the Bronze Age in the ancient Near East began with the rise of Sumer in the 4th millennium BC. Societies in the region laid the foundations for astronomy and mathematics, the usual tripartite division into an Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age is not used. Instead, a division based on art-historical and historical characteristics is more common. The cities of the Ancient Near East housed several tens of thousands of people, ur in the Middle Bronze Age and Babylon in the Late Bronze Age similarly had large populations. The earliest mention of Babylonia appears on a tablet from the reign of Sargon of Akkad in the 23rd century BC, the Amorite dynasty established the city-state of Babylon in the 19th century BC. Over 100 years later, it took over the other city-states. Babylonia adopted the written Semitic Akkadian language for official use, by that time, the Sumerian language was no longer spoken, but was still in religious use. Elam was an ancient civilization located to the east of Mesopotamia, in the Old Elamite period, Elam consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau, centered in Anshan, and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered in Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands. Its culture played a role in the Gutian Empire and especially during the Achaemenid dynasty that succeeded it
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Charles II of England
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Charles II was king of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was king of Scotland from 1649 until his deposition in 1651, Charles IIs father, Charles I, was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, Cromwell became virtual dictator of England, Scotland and Ireland, and Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands. A political crisis followed the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim, after 1660, all legal documents were dated as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649. Charless English parliament enacted laws known as the Clarendon Code, designed to shore up the position of the re-established Church of England, Charles acquiesced to the Clarendon Code even though he favoured a policy of religious tolerance. The major foreign policy issue of his reign was the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In 1670, he entered into the treaty of Dover. Louis agreed to aid him in the Third Anglo-Dutch War and pay him a pension, Charles attempted to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his 1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence, but the English Parliament forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, Titus Oatess revelations of a supposed Popish Plot sparked the Exclusion Crisis when it was revealed that Charless brother, the crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion Whig and anti-exclusion Tory parties. Charles sided with the Tories, and, following the discovery of the Rye House Plot to murder Charles and James in 1683, Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681, and ruled alone until his death on 6 February 1685. He was received into the Roman Catholic Church on his deathbed, Charless wife, Catherine of Braganza, bore no live children, but Charles acknowledged at least twelve illegitimate children by various mistresses. He was succeeded by his brother James, Charles II was born in St Jamess Palace on 29 May 1630. His parents were Charles I and Henrietta Maria, Charles was their second son and child. Their first son was born about a year before Charles but died within a day, England, Scotland and Ireland were respectively predominantly Anglican, Presbyterian and Roman Catholic. At birth, Charles automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay, at or around his eighth birthday, he was designated Prince of Wales, though he was never formally invested. During the 1640s, when Charles was still young, his father fought Parliamentary, by spring 1646, his father was losing the war, and Charles left England due to fears for his safety. Charles I surrendered into captivity in May 1646, at The Hague, Charles had a brief affair with Lucy Walter, who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married
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George III of the United Kingdom
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He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Holy Roman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of Britains American colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence, further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. In the later part of his life, George III had recurrent, although it has since been suggested that he had the blood disease porphyria, the cause of his illness remains unknown. After a final relapse in 1810, a regency was established, on George IIIs death, the Prince Regent succeeded his father as George IV. Historical analysis of George IIIs life has gone through a kaleidoscope of changing views that have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them. Until it was reassessed in the half of the 20th century, his reputation in the United States was one of a tyrant. George was born in London at Norfolk House and he was the grandson of King George II, and the eldest son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. As Prince George was born two months prematurely and he was unlikely to survive, he was baptised the same day by Thomas Secker. One month later, he was baptised at Norfolk House. His godparents were the King of Sweden, his uncle the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, George grew into a healthy but reserved and shy child. The family moved to Leicester Square, where George and his younger brother Prince Edward, Duke of York, Family letters show that he could read and write in both English and German, as well as comment on political events of the time, by the age of eight. He was the first British monarch to study science systematically and his religious education was wholly Anglican. At age 10 George took part in a production of Joseph Addisons play Cato and said in the new prologue, What. It may with truth be said, A boy in England born, historian Romney Sedgwick argued that these lines appear to be the source of the only historical phrase with which he is associated. Georges grandfather, King George II, disliked the Prince of Wales, however, in 1751 the Prince of Wales died unexpectedly from a lung injury, and George became heir apparent to the throne. He inherited one of his fathers titles and became the Duke of Edinburgh, now more interested in his grandson, three weeks later the King created George Prince of Wales. Georges mother, now the Dowager Princess of Wales, preferred to keep George at home where she could imbue him with her moral values
42.
Queen's Royal Surrey Regiment
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The Queens Royal Surrey Regiment was a line infantry regiment of the British Army which existed from 1959 to 1966. As a consequence of defence cuts in the late 1950s, the Queens Royal Regiment, in 1961 the 1st Queens Surreys was sent to Aden. In 1962 the regiment joined the Hong Kong garrison, remaining there on a 2-year posting before heading for Münster, when the regiment was formed, the Territorial Army battalions of the merging regiments continued to use their former titles. 4th Battalion was formed from former battalions of the East Surrey Regiment, the 6th East Surreys, the battalion headquarters were in Kingston upon Thames. The Queens Royal Surrey Regiment archives were put in storage when Regimental Headquarters, colonel JW Sewell reached agreement with the National Trust to re-establish the regiments museum at Clandon Park, West Clandon. The regiments archives and library are located at the Surrey History Centre in Woking, the Queens Royal Surrey Regiment Museum opened in 1981 with exhibits including uniforms, medals, weapons, regalia, photographs and memorabilia. The museum was upgraded in 2001, on Wednesday 29th April 2015, a blaze ripped through Clandon Park House with the remains of the roof and upper floors of the house collapsing into the basement area where the museum was based. It is not yet known what, if any, artefacts survived the inferno, the Colonels of the Regiment were, 1959–1964, Maj-Gen. John Francis Metcalfe, CB, CBE 1964–1966, Maj-Gen, the Queens Royal Surrey Regimental Association
43.
Samuel Pepys
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Samuel Pepys FRS was an administrator of the navy of England and Member of Parliament who is most famous for the diary that he kept for a decade while still a relatively young man. Pepys had no experience, but he rose to be the Chief Secretary to the Admiralty under both King Charles II and King James II through patronage, hard work, and his talent for administration. His influence and reforms at the Admiralty were important in the early professionalisation of the Royal Navy, the detailed private diary that Pepys kept from 1660 until 1669 was first published in the 19th century and is one of the most important primary sources for the English Restoration period. It provides a combination of personal revelation and eyewitness accounts of events, such as the Great Plague of London, the Second Dutch War. Pepys was born in Salisbury Court, Fleet Street, London on 23 February 1633, the son of John Pepys, a tailor and his great uncle Talbot Pepys was Recorder and briefly Member of Parliament for Cambridge in 1625. His fathers first cousin Sir Richard Pepys was elected MP for Sudbury in 1640, appointed Baron of the Exchequer on 30 May 1654, Pepys was the fifth of eleven children, but child mortality was high and he was soon the oldest survivor. He was baptised at St Brides Church on 3 March, Pepys did not spend all of his infancy in London, for a while, he was sent to live with nurse Goody Lawrence at Kingsland, just north of the city. In about 1644, Pepys attended Huntingdon Grammar School before being educated at St Pauls School, London and he attended the execution of Charles I in 1649. In 1650, he went to Cambridge University, having received two exhibitions from St Pauls School and a grant from the Mercers Company. In October, he was admitted as a sizar to Magdalene College, he moved there in March 1651, later in 1654 or early in 1655, he entered the household of another of his fathers cousins, Sir Edward Montagu, who was later created 1st Earl of Sandwich. From a young age, Pepys suffered from stones in his urinary tract – a condition from which his mother and brother John also later suffered. He was almost never without pain, as well as other symptoms, by the time of his marriage, the condition was very severe. In 1657 Pepys decided to undergo surgery, not an option, as the operation was known to be especially painful. Nevertheless, Pepys consulted surgeon Thomas Hollier and, on 26 March 1658, Pepys stone was successfully removed and he resolved to hold a celebration on every anniversary of the operation, which he did for several years. However, there were long-term effects from the operation, the incision on his bladder broke open again late in his life. The procedure may have left him sterile, though there is no evidence for this. In mid-1658 Pepys moved to Axe Yard, near the modern Downing Street and he worked as a teller in the Exchequer under George Downing. On 1 January 1660, Pepys began to keep a diary and he recorded his daily life for almost ten years
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