1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Nottingham City Council
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Nottingham City Council is the non-metropolitan district council for the unitary authority of Nottingham in Nottinghamshire. It consists of 55 councillors, representing a total of 20 wards and it is led by Jon Collins, of the majority Labour Party. The deputy leader of the council is Cllr Graham Chapman, the last elections were held on Thursday 7 May 2015
3.
Robert Smythson
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Robert Smythson was an English architect. Smythson designed a number of houses during the Elizabethan era. Little is known about his birth and upbringing—his first mention in historical records comes in 1556 and he later designed Hardwick Hall, Wollaton Hall, Burton Agnes Hall, and other significant projects. Historically, a number of other Elizabethan houses, such as Gawthorpe Hall have been attributed to him on stylistic grounds, in Britain at this time, the profession of architect was in its most embryonic stage of development. Smythson was trained as a stonemason, and by the 1560s was travelling England as a master mason leading his own team of masons, in 1580 he moved to his next project—Wollaton Hall. At Wollaton he was more a surveyor than a stonemason. Hardwick in particular is noted for its use of glass and his son John Smythson and grandson Huntingdon Smithson were also architects
4.
Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
5.
English country house
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An English country house is a large house or mansion in the English countryside. Such houses were owned by individuals who also owned a town house. This allowed them to time in the country and in the city—hence, for these people. However, the term also encompasses houses that were, and often still are, frequently, the formal business of the counties was transacted in these country houses. With large numbers of indoor and outdoor staff, country houses were important as places of employment for rural communities. In turn, until the agricultural depressions of the 1870s, the estates, of country houses were the hub. However, the late 19th and early 20th centuries were the swansong of the traditional English country house lifestyle, increased taxation and the effects of World War I led to the demolition of hundreds of houses, those that remained had to adapt to survive. While a château or a schloss can be a fortified or unfortified building, if fortified, it is called a castle, but not all buildings with the name castle are fortified. The term stately home is subject to debate, and avoided by historians, as a description of a country house, the term was first used in a poem by Felicia Hemans, The Homes of England, originally published in Blackwoods Magazine in 1827. In the 20th century, the term was popularised in a song by Noël Coward. The books collection of homes also includes George IVs Brighton town palace. The country houses of England have evolved over the last five hundred years, before this time, larger houses were usually fortified, reflecting the position of their owners as feudal lords, de facto overlords of their manors. The Tudor period of stability in the saw the building of the first of the unfortified great houses. Henry VIIIs Dissolution of the Monasteries saw many former ecclesiastical properties granted to the Kings favourites, woburn Abbey, Forde Abbey and many other mansions with abbey or priory in their name became private houses during this period. Other terms used in the names of houses to describe their origin or importance include palace, castle, court, hall, mansion, park, house, manor, and place. Burghley House, Longleat House, and Hatfield House are among the best known examples of the prodigy house. Some of the best known of Englands country houses were built by one architect at one time, Montacute House, Chatsworth House. They finally ran out of funds in the early 20th century, an example of this is Brympton dEvercy in Somerset, a house of many periods that is unified architecturally by the continuing use of the same mellow, local Ham Hill stone
6.
Wollaton Park
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Wollaton Park is a deer park and home of Wollaton Hall, Nottingham Natural History Museum and Nottingham Industrial Museum in the heart of Nottingham. The enclosure of Wollaton Park required the destruction of the village of Sutton Passeys and it was enclosed by Henry Willoughby, 6th Baron Middleton with a 7-mile red brick wall at the start of the nineteenth century. Originally 790 acres, land sales have reduced the park to 500 acres, a small plaque commemorates this event. Subsequently German prisoners of war were billeted here for employment in the locality between 1945 and 1947, in addition to Wollaton Hall the park hosts the following historic buildings, Lenton Lodge is one of the Gatehouses built around the boundary of Wollaton Park. It was commissioned by Henry Willoughby, 6th Baron Middleton and it was designed by the architect Jeffry Wyatville and completed in 1825. It is built in the Elizabethan Revival style, with the sale of part of the park for residential building, Lenton Lodge is now separated from the rest of the park, and stands isolated but prominent on Derby Road in Lenton. It was sold by Nottingham City Council in the early 1980s, a 99-year revolving lease was acquired by Moiz Saigara in 1996. Planning permission to convert Lenton Lodge to a dwelling was obtained and major restoration work was undertaken by Moiz Saigara. The Lodge was used by Moiz Saigara as his residence from 1996 to 2006, in 2006-8 Lenton Lodge was restored by Chek Whyte Industries and sold as a 3,324 sq ft office in 2009. It was occupied by Global Fire and Security for six years and it is built of coursed Gritstone ashlar in a heavy Gothic style with martello-type round outer towers with battlements. The square central gatehouse is connected to the towers at the floor level. It has a carriage entrance with an oriel window above. It was built following the Nottingham Reform riots in October 1831, the park is home to a herd of red deer and fallow deer. Other wildlife of note at the park include a large corvid roost made up of rook, jackdaw, other notable species present at the site are populations of jay, nuthatch and sparrowhawk. Migrating wildfowl grace the lake in the winter and species of note include gadwall, northern shoveller, Eurasian wigeon, there is a good diversity of fungi present, especially in the winter months, mainly found near the wooded areas and the lake. Wollaton Park is often used for events, including, Splendour music festival held annually in July. Intercounties Cross Country trials in March of each year, and has hosted the English Schools Cross Country, february 2014 saw the English National Cross Country Championships. Nottingham Steam and Country Show, typically in May, in 2011, key scenes from the Batman movie The Dark Knight Rises were filmed in Wollaton Park
7.
Nottingham
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Nottingham is a city and unitary authority area in Nottinghamshire, England, located 128 miles north of London, in the East Midlands. Nottingham has links to the legend of Robin Hood and to the lace-making, bicycle and it was granted its city charter in 1897 as part of Queen Victorias Diamond Jubilee celebrations. Nottingham is a tourist destination, in 2011, visitors spent over £1.5 billion - the thirteenth highest amount in Englands 111 statistical territories. In 2015, Nottingham had an population of 321,550 with the wider urban area. Its urban area is the largest in the east Midlands and the second largest in the Midlands, the population of the Nottingham/Derby metropolitan area is estimated to be 1,610,000. Its metropolitan economy is the seventh largest in the United Kingdom with a GDP of $50. 9bn, the city is also ranked as a sufficiency-level world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. It is also a sporting centre, and in October 2015 was named Home of English Sport. The city also has rugby, ice hockey and cricket teams, and the Aegon Nottingham Open. This accolade came just over a year after Nottingham was named as the UKs first City of Football, on 11 December 2015, Nottingham was named a Unesco City of Literature, joining Norwich, Melbourne, Prague and Barcelona as one of only a handful in the world. The title reflects Nottinghams literary heritage, with Lord Byron, DH Lawrence and it has two universities, the University of Nottingham and Nottingham Trent University, which are attended by over 70,610 students. In modern Welsh it is known poetically as Y Ty Ogofog, when it fell under the rule of a Saxon chieftain named Snot it became known as Snotingaham, the homestead of Snots people. Some authors derive Nottingham from Snottenga, caves, and ham, Nottingham Castle was constructed in 1068 on a sandstone outcrop by the River Leen. Following the Norman Conquest the Saxon settlement developed into the English Borough of Nottingham and housed a Town Hall, a settlement also developed around the castle on the hill opposite and was the French borough supporting the Normans in the castle. Eventually, the space between was built on as the town grew and the Old Market Square became the focus of Nottingham several centuries later, defences, consisted initially of a ditch and bank in the early 12th century. The ditch was later widened, in the mid 13th century, a short length of the wall survives, and is visible at the northern end of Maid Marian Way, and is protected as a Scheduled Monument. On the return of Richard the Lionheart from the Crusades, the Castle was occupied by supporters of Prince John and it was besieged by Richard and, after a sharp conflict, was captured. In the legends of Robin Hood, Nottingham Castle is the scene of the showdown between the Sheriff and the hero outlaw. By the 15th century Nottingham had established itself as a centre of an export trade in religious sculpture made from Nottingham Alabaster
8.
Nottingham Natural History Museum
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Wollaton Hall is an Elizabethan country house of the 1580s standing on a small but prominent hill in Wollaton Park, Nottingham, England. The house is now Nottingham Natural History Museum, with Nottingham Industrial Museum in the out-buildings, the surrounding parkland has a herd of deer, and is regularly used for large-scale outdoor events such as rock concerts, sporting events and festivals. Though much re-modelled inside, the startlingly bold exterior remains largely intact, the style is an advanced Elizabethan with early Jacobean elements. The floor plan has been said to derive from Serlios drawing of Giuliano da Majanos Villa Poggio Reale near Naples of the late 15th century, with elevations derived from Hans Vredeman de Vries. The building is of Ancaster stone from Lincolnshire, and is said to have paid for with coal from the Wollaton pits owned by Willoughby. Cassandra Willoughby, Duchess of Chandos recorded in 1702 that the master masons, the decorative gondola mooring rings carved in stone on the exterior walls offer some evidence of this, as do other architectural features. There are also obvious French and Dutch influences, the exterior and hall have extensive and busy carved decoration, featuring strapwork and a profusion of decorative forms. The window tracery of the floors in the central block and the general business of the decoration look back to the Middle Ages. The building consists of a block dominated by a hall three storeys high, with a stone screen at one end and galleries at either end. From this there are views of the park and surrounding country. There are towers at each corner, projecting out from this top floor, at each corner of the house is a square pavilion of three storeys, with decorative features rising above the roof line. Much of the basement storey is cut from the rock the house sits on, the house was unused for about four decades before 1687, following a fire in 1642, and then re-occupied and given the first of several campaigns of re-modelling of the interiors. Paintings on the ceilings of the two staircases and round the walls of one are attributed to Sir James Thornhill and perhaps also Laguerre. Re-modelling was carried out by Wyattville in 1801 and continued intermittently until the 1830s, the gallery of the main hall contains Nottinghamshires oldest pipe organ, thought to date from the end of the 17th century, possibly by the builder Gerard Smith. It is still blown by hand, beneath the hall are many cellars and passages, and a well and associated reservoir tank, in which some accounts report that an admiral of the Willoughby family took a daily bath. The Willoughbys were noted for the number of explorers they produced, Willoughbys Land is named after him. In 1881, the house was owned by the head of the Willoughby family, Digby Willoughby, 9th Baron Middleton. The hall was bought by Nottingham Council, and opened as a museum in 1925 and it re-opened in April 2007 after being closed for refurbishment
9.
Nottingham Industrial Museum
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Nottingham Industrial Museum is located in the 17th-century stables block of Wollaton Hall. The museum won the Nottinghamshire Heritage Site of the Year Award 2012, the Museum collection closed in 2009, but has since reopened to the public as a volunteer-run organisation on Saturdays, Sundays and bank holidays. There is a charge for entry in order to keep the museum open. It also houses an operational Basford Beam Engine with occasional steamings held on some Sundays, the museum has displays relating to five areas of Nottingham industry, Textiles, Transport, Communications, Mining and Steam, each portraying Nottingham’s rich industrial heritage. Learn about how Nottingham changed the industry, and how the communications industry changed the daily lives of Nottingham people. See and hear the restored vintage radios and gramophones dating back to the 1920s and this horse ginn was removed from a local colliery and had been used for bringing coal to the surface in mines with short pit shafts. It is reputed to be one of only a handful remaining today, nearby is situated the recently restored living van. These were towed behind steam engines and steam rollers and provided accommodation for workers, there are usually a number of tractors to be found in the tractor yard and these can be seen working during steaming days. The tractor collection comprises a Standard Fordson, a Field Marshall Series 2, outside the engine house is a yard which is home to a number of barn engines, used previously to drive items like pumps and agricultural machinery. There are examples from a range of manufacturers, including Wolseley, Ruston. The barn engines are usually seen operating at steaming days, the Steam Gallery contains an impressive Basford Beam Engine, one of a pair of engines built in 1858 by R. W. Hawthorn in Newcastle upon Tyne. It was installed at Basford Pumping Station to lift water 110 ft from the sandstone below to supply water to the City of Nottingham. The engine was replaced in 1965 and was removed to the purpose-built Steam Gallery where it was first fired in 1975, also in this building today are a large variety of pumps and engines many of which were removed from local companies. At the bottom end of the gallery stand two impressive ploughing engines and these have consecutive registration numbers and were the last two production engines to come out of Fowlers Leeds Foundry. Owned by Nottingham City Council, they were used for ploughing the treated sewage into the land at a dairy farm at Stoke Bardolph. One of these engines is operational and is used at the steam up events, next to the ploughing engines is a unique J. T. Marshall Portable steam engine, built at the Nottingham Engineering Works, Sandiacre, in 1886. It has been restored to working order and can be seen operating at the steam up events. In the many cabinets surrounding this gallery are to be found relating to mining, transport
10.
Prodigy house
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The prodigy houses stretch over the periods of Tudor, Elizabethan, and Jacobean architecture, though the term may be restricted to a core period of roughly 1570 to 1620. Many of the grandest were built with a view to housing Elizabeth I, many are therefore close to major roads, often in the English Midlands. The term originates with the architectural historian Sir John Summerson, and has generally adopted. He called them. the most daring of all English buildings, andrea Palladio was already dead before the prodigy houses reached their peak, but his much more restrained classical style did not reach England until the work of Inigo Jones in the 1620s. For ornament, French and Flemish Northern Mannerist decoration was more influential than Italian, the hosts were expected to house the monarch in style, and provide sufficient accommodation for about 150 travelling members of the court, for whom temporary buildings might need to be erected. Elizabeth was not slow to complain if she felt her accommodation had not been appropriate, a characteristic was the large area of glass – a new feature that superseded the need for easily defended external walls and announced the owners wealth. Hardwick Hall, for example was described as Hardwick Hall. Many other smaller houses were built by businessmen and administrators, as well as long-established families of the nobility. Some recent uses of the term extend the meaning to describe large ostentatious houses in America of later periods, such as colonial mansions in Virginia, altogether. a strange amalgam of exuberant pinnacles and turrets, native Gothic mullioned windows, and Renaissance decoration. Many houses stand alone, with stables and other outbuildings at a discreet distance, glass was then an expensive material, and its use on a large scale a demonstration of wealth. The large windows required mullions, normally in stone even in houses mainly in brick, though there were often reminiscences of the medieval castle, the houses were exceptionally without defences, compared to contemporary Italian and French equivalents. To have two internal courtyards, requiring a large building, was a status symbol, found at Audley End, Blickling Hall. Hardwick Hall, Burghley House, and on a smaller scale Wollaton Hall, the outer exteriors of the house are more decorated than internal exteriors such as courtyards, the reverse of the usual priority in medieval houses. The classical orders were used as decoration, piled up one above the other on the storeys over the main entrance. At Longleat and Wollaton shallow pilasters are used across the facades, the heavily-illustrated books on ornament by the Netherlander Hans Vredeman de Vries and German Wendel Dietterlin supplied much of the Northern Mannerist decorative detail such as strapwork. It is evident from surviving letters that took a keen. Inside, most houses still had a hall in the medieval style. But this was used for eating in by the servants
11.
Coalmining
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Coal mining is the process of extracting coal from the ground. Coal is valued for its content, and, since the 1880s, has been widely used to generate electricity. Steel and cement industries use coal as a fuel for extraction of iron from iron ore, in the United Kingdom and South Africa a coal mine and its structures are a colliery, a coal mine a pit, the above-ground structures the pit head. In Australia, colliery generally refers to a coal mine. In the United States colliery has been used to describe a coal mine operation, Coal mining has had many developments over the recent years, from the early days of men tunnelling, digging and manually extracting the coal on carts, to large open cut and long wall mines. Mining at this scale requires the use of draglines, trucks, conveyors, hydraulic jacks, small-scale mining of surface deposits dates back thousands of years. For example, in Roman Britain, the Romans were exploiting most of the major coalfields by the late 2nd century AD. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the 18th century and later spread to continental Europe, international trade expanded rapidly when coal-fed steam engines were built for the railways and steamships. Until the late nineteenth century coal was mined using a pick and shovel. Coal-cutting machines were introduced in the 1880s, by 1912, surface mining was conducted with steam shovels designed for coal mining. The most economical method of extraction from coal seams depends on the depth and quality of the seams. Coal mining processes are differentiated by whether they operate on the surface or underground, many coals extracted from both surface and underground mines require washing in a coal preparation plant. Surface mining and deep underground mining are the two methods of mining. Coal that occurs at depths of 180 to 300 ft are usually deep mined, for example, some western U. S. coal that occur at depths in excess of 200 ft are mined by the open pit methods, due to thickness of the seam 60–90 feet. Coals occurring below 300 ft are usually deep mined, However, there are open pit mining operations working on coal seams up to 1000–1500 feet below ground level, for instance Tagebau Hambach in Germany. When coal seams are near the surface, it may be economical to extract the coal using open cut mining methods, open cast coal mining recovers a greater proportion of the coal deposit than underground methods, as more of the coal seams in the strata may be exploited. In this mining method, explosives are first used in order to break through the surface or overburden, the overburden is then removed by draglines or by shovel and truck. Once the coal seam is exposed, it is drilled, fractured, the coal is then loaded onto large trucks or conveyors for transport to either the coal preparation plant or directly to where it will be used
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Longleat
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Longleat is an English stately home and the seat of the Marquesses of Bath. It is a leading and early example of the Elizabethan prodigy house and it is adjacent to the village of Horningsham and near the towns of Warminster and Westbury in Wiltshire and Frome in Somerset. It is noted for its Elizabethan country house, maze, landscaped parkland and safari park. The house is set in 1,000 acres of parkland landscaped by Capability Brown, with 4,000 acres of let farmland and 4,000 acres of woodland, which includes a Center Parcs holiday village. It was the first stately home to open to the public, the house was built by Sir John Thynne and was designed mainly by Robert Smythson, after the original priory was destroyed by fire in 1567. It took 12 years to complete and is regarded as one of the finest examples of Elizabethan architecture in Britain. Longleat is occupied by Alexander Thynn, 7th Marquess of Bath, a descendant of the builder, however. Longleat was previously an Augustinian priory, the name comes from leat, an artificial waterway or channel such as that which supplies a watermill. Sir Charles Appleton purchased Longleat for Sir John Thynn in 1541 for £53, Appleton was a builder with experience gained from working on The Old School Baltonsborough, Bedwyn Broil and Somerset House. In April 1567 the original house caught fire and burnt down, a replacement house was effectively completed by 1580. Adrian Gaunt, Alan Maynard, Robert Smythson, the Earl of Hertford and Humpfrey Lovell all contributed to the new building, formal gardens, canals, fountains and parterres were created by George London with sculptures by Arnold Quellin and Chevalier David. The Best Gallery, Long Gallery, Old Library and Chapel were all added due to Wren. In 1707, Thomas Thynne founded a school for boys in the market town of Warminster, near to his family seat, to teach the boys of Warminster, Longbridge Deverill. Over time this became known as the Lord Weymouth School, in 1973 Lord Weymouths School merged with St. Monicas School for girls, Thomas Thynne, 2nd Viscount Weymouth married Louisa Carteret whose ghost is reputed to haunt the house as the Green Lady. Thomas Thynne, 1st Marquess of Bath employed Capability Brown who replaced the gardens with a landscaped park and dramatic drives. Thomas Thynne, 2nd Marquess of Bath employed Jeffry Wyatville to modernise the house, Wyatville demolished several parts of the house, including Wrens staircase, and replaced them with galleries and a grand staircase. He also constructed many outbuildings including the Orangery, Henry Thynne, 3rd Marquess of Bath John Thynne, 4th Marquess of Bath collected Italian fine arts. He employed John Crace, whose work included Brighton Pavilion, Woburn Abbey, Chatsworth House
13.
Hardwick Hall
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Hardwick Hall, in Derbyshire, is an architecturally significant Elizabethan country house in England, a leading example of the Elizabethan prodigy house. Built between 1590 and 1597 for the formidable Bess of Hardwick, it was designed by the architect Robert Smythson, Hardwick Hall is one of the earliest examples of the English interpretation of this style, which came into fashion having slowly spread from Florence. Its arrival in Britain fortuitously coincided with the period when it was no longer necessary or legal to fortify a domestic dwelling, ownership of the house was transferred to the National Trust in 1959. Today, it is open to the public. Sited on a hilltop between Chesterfield and Mansfield, overlooking the Derbyshire countryside, Hardwick Hall was designed by Robert Smythson in the late 16th century. Ordered by Bess of Hardwick, Countess of Shrewsbury and ancestress of the Dukes of Devonshire, Bess of Hardwick was the richest woman in England after Queen Elizabeth I, and her house was conceived to be a conspicuous statement of her wealth and power. The windows are large and numerous at a time when glass was a luxury, leading to the saying, Hardwick Hall. The Halls chimneys are built into the walls of the structure. The houses design also demonstrated new concepts not only in domestic architecture, Hardwick was one of the first English houses where the great hall was built on an axis through the centre of the house rather than at right angles to the entrance. Hardwick was but one of Besss many houses, each of her four marriages had brought her greater wealth, she had been born in the now old Hall at Hardwick, which today is a ruin beside the new hall. After Besss death in 1608, the passed to her son William Cavendish. His great-grandson, William, was created 1st Duke of Devonshire in 1694, the Devonshires made another of Besss great houses, Chatsworth, their principal seat. Hardwick thus became relegated to the role of a retreat for hunting. As a secondary home, it escaped the attention of modernisers, from the early 19th century, the antique atmosphere of Hardwick Hall was consciously preserved. A low, 19th-century service wing is fairly inconspicuous at the rear, in 1950, the unexpected death of the 10th Duke of Devonshire and the subsequent death duties caused the sale of many of the Devonshire assets and estates. At this time, Hardwick was occupied by Evelyn, Duchess of Devonshire, the decision was taken to hand the house over to HM Treasury in lieu of Estate Duty in 1956. The Treasury transferred the house to the National Trust in 1959, the Duchess remained in occupation of the house until her death in 1960. However, hostile to the Trust, the now elderly lady seldom visited the house in her final years, having done much to conserve the textiles in the house, she was to be its last occupant
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Elizabethan architecture
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Elizabethan architecture is the term given to early Renaissance architecture in England, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. Historically, the period corresponds to the Cinquecento in Italy, the Early Renaissance in France, and the Plateresque style in Spain. In contrast to her father Henry VIII, Elizabeth commissioned no new palaces, and very few new churches were built. The reign of Elizabeth saw growing prosperity, and contemporaries remarked on the pace of secular building among the well-off, civic and institutional buildings were also becoming increasingly common. Renaissance architecture had achieved some influence in England during the reign of, and mainly in the palaces of, Henry VIII, unlike Henry, Elizabeth built no new palaces, instead encouraging her courtiers to build extravagantly and house her on her summer progresses. Both of these features can be seen on the towers of Wollaton Hall, often these buildings have an elaborate and fanciful roofline, hinting at the evolution from medieval fortified architecture. It was also at this time that the gallery became popular in English houses. This was apparently used for walking in, and a growing range of parlours and withdrawing rooms supplemented the main living room for the family. The great hall was now used by the servants. London, William Pickering – plates of architectural details
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Jacobean architecture
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The Jacobean style is the second phase of Renaissance architecture in England, following the Elizabethan style. It is named after King James I of England, with whose reign it is associated, at the start of James reign there was little stylistic break in architecture, as Elizabethan trends continued their development. Courtiers continued to build prodigy houses, even though James spent less time on summer progresses round his realm than Elizabeth had. The influence of Flemish and German Northern Mannerism increased, now often executed by immigrant craftsmen and artists, there continued to be very little building of new churches, though a considerable amount of modifications to old ones, but a great deal of secular building. Although the general lines of Elizabethan design remained, there was a consistent and unified application of formal design. Much use was made of columns and pilasters, round-arch arcades and these and other classical elements appeared in a free and fanciful vernacular rather than with any true classical purity. With them were mixed the prismatic rustications and ornamental detail of scrolls, straps, the style influenced furniture design and other decorative arts. In 1577, three years before the commencement of Wollaton Hall, a copybook of the orders was out in Antwerp by Hans Vredeman de Vries. Inside the house, the elaborately carved staircase demonstrates the Renaissance influence on English ornament, in 1607 and 1620, England founded her first successful colonies, Jamestown, Virginia and Plymouth, Massachusetts. This concurs with the dimensions of houses that would have been found amongst the English commoner classes as evidenced by the tax rolls of the Jacobean era. Examples of original Jacobean architecture in the Americas include Drax Hall Great House and St. Nicholas Abbey, Jacobean era Jacobean revival M. Whiffen, An Introduction to Elizabethan and Jacobean Architecture. J. Summerson, Architecture in Britain, 1530–1830 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Spiers, R. Phene
16.
Sebastiano Serlio
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Sebastiano Serlio was an Italian Mannerist architect, who was part of the Italian team building the Palace of Fontainebleau. Serlio helped canonize the classical orders of architecture in his influential treatise variously known as I sette libri dellarchitettura or Tutte lopere darchitettura et prospetiva. Born in Bologna, Serlio went to Rome in 1514, and worked in the atelier of Baldassare Peruzzi, like Peruzzi, he began as a painter. He lived in Venice from about 1527 to the early 1540s, the idea was in the air in the 1530s, several contemporary churches compete for primacy, but Serlios woodcut put the concept in every architects hands. As a civil engineer he designed fortifications, Serlios publications, rather than any spectacular executed work, attracted the attention of François I. Serlio took several private commissions, but the one that has survived in any recognizable way is the Chateau of Ancy-le-Franc. Serlio died around 1554 in Fontainebleau, after spending his last years in Lyon, serlio’s major contribution remained his practical treatise on architecture. Serlio pioneered the use of high quality illustrations to supplement the text and he wrote in Italian, some of his books being published with parallel texts in Italian and French. His treatise catered explicitly to the needs of architects, builders, the extent of Peruzzis contribution to the treatise is unknown. Peruzzi had been the spirit in the detailed study of the remains of antiquity. Vasari and Cellini would give most of the credit for the book to Peruzzi, by 1537, when the earliest of his books was published, Serlio had been working on the treatise for at least a decade and had already organized it as a work in seven books. Although Serlio completed all seven projected books, only the first five books were published during his lifetime, the sixth remained in manuscript until the 20th century. Various collections were known as the Five or Seven Books on Architecture, significantly, the last few pages of the second book, On Perspective, contain three theatrical scenes and a stage plan and cross section which were highly influential in Renaissance theater. In Aesthetics point of view Serlio is one of the first that use the fine arts. Serlios volumes were highly influential in France, the Netherlands, and England, as a conveyor of the Italian Renaissance style and his plans and elevations of many Roman buildings provided useful repertory of classical images, often reprinted. Coecke van Aelsts pupil the Dutch architect and engineer Hans Vredeman de Vries propagated Serlios style, fourth-hand though it was, it remained the most complete English edition of Serlio for almost four centuries. Its example countered the influence of the engravings of Antwerp Mannerism that were the inspiration for Jacobean architecture. Later Serlios book was in the libraries of Sir Christopher Wren and John Wood, inigo Jones possessed Italian editions, which he annotated
17.
Giuliano da Maiano
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Giuliano da Maiano was an Italian architect, intarsia-worker and sculptor, the elder brother of Benedetto da Maiano, with whom he often collaborated. Giuliano showed early promise, and his father hoped at first to make of him a notary, in 1480 he finished a tabernacle of the Madonna dellOlivo for the Cathedral of Prato, executed in collaboration with his brothers Benedetto and Giovanni. As an architect he was virtually the house architect for the Pazzi, rebuilding Palazzo Pazzi, above all, from 1487 he worked in Naples, where Alfonso, then duca di Calabria, employed him at the Villa di Poggio Reale. He died in Naples in 1490, and Alfonso himself supplied mourners for the funeral and he was also famous for the wooden room entirely of intarsia, the Studiolo in the Ducal Palace in Gubbio. Giorgio Vasari, Le Vite de più eccelenti architetti, pittori, Giuliano da Maiano Palazzo The Gubbio Studiolo and its conservation, volumes 1 &2, from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries, which contains material on Giuliano da Maiano
18.
Poggio Reale (villa)
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The Poggio Reale villa or Villa Poggio Reale was an Italian Renaissance villa commissioned in 1487 by Alfonso II of Naples as a royal summer residence. The Italian phrase poggio reale translates to royal hill in English, imitated, admired, robbed of its treasures by another king, left in ruins and partially destroyed, the summer palace of the King of Naples lives on in name as a style. The valley area of Dogliuolo was then a swampy expanse of wetlands, despite attempts at reclamation by Neapolitan sovereigns of the Anjou. During the same period and in the area, numerous villas were built for the Neapolitan Renaissance nobility. For the residences design, he hired the Florentine architect Giuliano da Maiano, Giuliano da Maiano began the work that year and continued to direct construction until his death in 1490, when the building was substantially completed and partially occupied. Construction then continued, possibly by Francesco di Giorgio Martini and students of Maiano, the design of the villa was a considerable success and was mentioned in Book III of Sebastiano Serlios architectural treatise of sixteenth century Italian architecture. During the Italian wars, in 1494 Charles VIII invaded Italy, King Alfonso fled to Sicily with some of the villas most valuable furnishings, and soon after, the building was abandoned. Later on, King Ferdinand II of Naples ceded parts of the villa to others during a time when he was in difficulty, including the gardens. Beginning to crumble by the time of the sack of Rome in 1527, with the villas aqueduct ruined in the battle, a malaria epidemic broke out that destroyed his army, and the French were forced to withdraw. In the aftermath, nature took its course, the area around the Villa Poggio Reale returned to its natural swamp-like state, the ruined villa was also used as a meeting place in 1535 by Naples sovereign at the time, Charles V. Because of repeated earthquakes, by 1582 it was necessary to strengthen the remaining structure to avoid it collapsing altogether. However, with the resurgence of plague in 1656, the villa. In 1762, a cemetery was built a short distance from the villas site by Ferdinando Fuga. Further difficulties for historians and archaeologists are presented by the fact that Naples suffered heavy Allied bombing raids during World War II, one can still get an idea of the villa in Sebastiano Serlios 1584 treatise showing the villas critical fortune that made it an exemplar of sixteenth century architecture. The courtyard, according to a model by Vitruvius, could be covered with a platform to be used for parties and performances. The drawing made by Serlio, who never saw the building, Serlio also does not address the wooden roof that would have transformed the courtyard into a large central hall. Also, the building was not a square, but a rectangle as shown by the sparse. The main building overlooked a garden square and sat in front of a side yard with service buildings
19.
Hans Vredeman de Vries
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Hans Vredeman de Vries was a Dutch Renaissance architect, painter, and engineer. Vredeman de Vries is known for his publication in 1583 on garden design and his books many examples on ornaments. Born in Leeuwarden and raised in Friesland, in 1546 Vredeman de Vries went to Amsterdam, in 1549 he moved to Mechelen where the Superior Court was seating. Sebastian, his brother, was the organist in the local church, Vredeman de Vries designed ornaments for merry parades of Charles V and Philip II. Studying Vitruvius and Sebastiano Serlio, he became an internationally known specialist in perspective and he continued his career in Antwerp, where he was appointed city architect and fortification engineer. After 1585 he fled the city because of the Spanish occupation by Alessandro Farnese, then the Protestants had to leave the city within two years. Vredeman de Vries moved to Frankfurt and worked in Wolfenbüttel, designing a fortification, after his death the project was cancelled and Hans worked in Hamburg, Danzig, Prague and Amsterdam. On his trips Vredeman was accompanied by Hendrick Aerts and his son Paul and his son Salomon was also a painter, Jacob Vredeman de Vries a kapellmeister and composer. Vredeman de Vries tried to get an appointment at the University of Leiden in 1604 and it is not known when and where Hans Vredeman de Vries died, however, it is recorded that his son Paul was living in Hamburg when he inherited. Hans Vredeman de Vries and the Artes Mechanicae revisited, Hans Jantzen, Das Niederländische Architekturbild, Braunschweig, Klinkhardt & Biermann,1910 Bernard G
20.
Josephus
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Josephus claimed the Jewish Messianic prophecies that initiated the First Roman-Jewish War made reference to Vespasian becoming Emperor of Rome. In response Vespasian decided to keep Josephus as a slave and interpreter, after Vespasian became Emperor in 69 CE, he granted Josephus his freedom, at which time Josephus assumed the emperors family name of Flavius. Flavius Josephus fully defected to the Roman side and was granted Roman citizenship and he became an advisor and friend of Vespasians son Titus, serving as his translator when Titus led the Siege of Jerusalem. Since the siege proved ineffective at stopping the Jewish revolt, the citys destruction, Josephus recorded Jewish history, with special emphasis on the first century CE and the First Jewish–Roman War, including the Siege of Masada. His most important works were The Jewish War and Antiquities of the Jews, the Jewish War recounts the Jewish revolt against Roman occupation. Antiquities of the Jews recounts the history of the world from a Jewish perspective for an ostensibly Roman audience and these works provide valuable insight into first century Judaism and the background of Early Christianity. Josephus introduces himself in Greek as Iōsēpos, son of Matthias and he was the second-born son of Matthias. His older full-blooded brother was also called Matthias and their mother was an aristocratic woman who descended from the royal and formerly ruling Hasmonean dynasty. Josephuss paternal grandparents were Josephus and his wife—an unnamed Hebrew noblewoman, distant relatives of each other and he descended through his father from the priestly order of the Jehoiarib, which was the first of the 24 orders of priests in the Temple in Jerusalem. Josephus was a descendant of the high priest Jonathon, born and raised in Jerusalem, Josephus was educated alongside his brother. In his early twenties, he traveled to negotiate with Emperor Nero for the release of 12 Jewish priests, Josephus successfully fought the Roman army in Galilee, until he was captured by the Romans during the height of the war. After the Jewish garrison of Yodfat fell under siege, the Romans invaded, killing thousands, according to Josephus, he was trapped in a cave with 40 of his companions in July 67 CE. The Romans asked the group to surrender, but they refused, Josephus suggested a method of collective suicide, they drew lots and killed each other, one by one, counting to every third person. Two men were left, who surrendered to the Roman forces, in 69 CE, Josephus was released. According to his account, he acted as a negotiator with the defenders during the Siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE, in which his parents and first wife died. While being confined at Yodfat, Josephus claimed to have experienced a divine revelation, after the prediction came true, he was released by Vespasian, who considered his gift of prophecy to be divine. In 71 CE, he went to Rome in the entourage of Titus, becoming a Roman citizen, in addition to Roman citizenship, he was granted accommodation in conquered Judaea and a decent, if not extravagant, pension. While in Rome and under Flavian patronage, Josephus wrote all of his known works, although he uses Josephus, he appears to have taken the Roman praenomen Titus and nomen Flavius from his patrons
21.
Mount Edgcumbe House
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Mount Edgcumbe Country Park is situated in the parish of Maker on the Rame Peninsula, overlooking Plymouth Sound, its main entrance is in the village of Cremyll. It was the seat of the Edgcumbe family since Tudor times. His 2nd son, George, was advanced to the rank of Earl in 1789, Sir Richard Edgcumbe built the house between 1547 and 1553. It was gutted during World War II by German bombs in 1941, in 1971, the 7th Earl sold the estate to Cornwall County Council and Plymouth City Council, and it has been open to the public since 1988. Its interiors have been restored to 18th century styles, the Mount Edgcumbe House estate continues to be jointly owned by Cornwall Council and Plymouth City Council and is one of South East Cornwalls most popular historic tourist attractions. The Park, open to every day all through the year from 8am till dusk. However, the House and the adjoining Earls Garden are only open to visitors during the summer months, barn Pool, a sheltered deep water anchorage used by the Vikings in 997. Offshore is the wreck of the ship Catharina von Flensburg, which went down in 1786, barrow - a Bronze Age burial mound, dating from about 1200 BC, re-used as a Prospect Mound in the 18th century. A prospect mound is a mound, generally conical, placed within a garden or park to provide a viewing point to overlook the garden or park. Blockhouse, c.1545 - a small fort built on the shoreline during King Henry VIIIs reign, to defend the mouth of the Tamar, Cremyll Ferry c.1204 - a major ferry crossing between Devon and Cornwall since medieval times. The ferry still operates a passenger service between Cremyll and Plymouth. The Deer Wall, c.1695 - a stone wall with outer ditch protecting the amphitheatre from deer, Deer on Rame Peninsula, In 1515 Sir Piers Edgcumbe was given permission by King Henry VIII to empark deer. Their descendants still roam freely throughout Rame, folly, c.1747 - an artificial ruin which replaced a navigation obelisk. The folly was built from stone taken from the ruined churches of St George and St Lawrence. Formal Gardens, c.1750 to 1820 - Italian, English, recent additions to the grounds include the New Zealand and American gardens and the Jubilee Gardens. Miltons Temple, c.1755 - a circular Ionian temple, with a plaque inscribed with lines from the poem Paradise Lost, overhead up grew, the Orangery, situated in the Italian Garden, this is thought to have been built as early as 1760. The building is now a licensed restaurant. Stables c.1850 - The stables, dairy, smithy, sawmill and stores and this area is now open to visitors. manorlodgemillbrook. com - Lady Megan Edgcumbe
22.
Ancaster stone
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Ancaster stone is Middle Jurassic oolitic limestone, quarried around Ancaster, Lincolnshire, England. There are three forms of limestone, weatherbed, hard white and freestone. Ancaster stone is a term for these forms of limestone found only at Ancaster, Glebe quarry being the only active quarry where Ancaster Hard White. Ancaster stone may be seen in a building, in use as a facing and flooring stone, at The Collection in Lincoln. Stapleford Park is a traditional building constructed from it. Under certain lighting conditions the stone in its unpolished state can exhibit a greenish-blue hue and it has been used for sculptures by Barbara Hepworth and Henry Moore. Jerusalem stone Sydney sandstone Kent, P, british Regional Geology Eastern England 2nd edn. ISBN 0-11-884121-1 Building Research Establishment test results Harlaxton Manor Norwich cathedral St Johns college Cambridge Henry Moore - Half figure
23.
Lincolnshire
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Lincolnshire is a county in the east of England. It also borders Northamptonshire in the south for just 20 yards, Englands shortest county boundary, the county town is Lincoln, where the county council has its headquarters. The ceremonial county of Lincolnshire is composed of the county of Lincolnshire. Therefore, part of the county is in the Yorkshire and the Humber region of England. The county is the second-largest of the English ceremonial counties and one that is predominantly agricultural in land use, the county is fifth largest of the two-tier counties, as the unitary authorities of North Lincolnshire and North East Lincolnshire are not included. The county can be broken down into a number of geographical sub-regions including, Lincolnshire derived from the merging of the territory of the ancient Kingdom of Lindsey with that controlled by the Danelaw borough of Stamford. For some time the county was called Lindsey, and it is recorded as such in the 11th-century Domesday Book. In 1888 when county councils were set up, Lindsey, Holland and these survived until 1974, when Holland, Kesteven, and most of Lindsey were unified into Lincolnshire. A local government reform in 1996 abolished Humberside, and the south of the Humber was allocated to the unitary authorities of North Lincolnshire. These two areas became part of Lincolnshire for ceremonial such as the Lord-Lieutenancy, but are not covered by the Lincolnshire police and are in the Yorkshire. The remaining districts of Lincolnshire are Boston, East Lindsey, Lincoln, North Kesteven, South Holland, South Kesteven and they are part of the East Midlands region. Lincolnshire is home to Woolsthorpe Manor, birthplace and home of Sir Isaac Newton and he attended The Kings School, Grantham and its library has preserved his signature, applied to a window sill when he was a teenager. Lincolnshire is an area, growing large amounts of wheat, barley, sugar beet. In South Lincolnshire, where the soil is rich in nutrients, some of the most common crops include potatoes, cabbages, cauliflowers. Most such companies are long gone, and Lincolnshire is no longer an engineering centre, however, as a result of the current economic climate some food production facilities have closed down, this has caused some reduction in the levels of migrant workers. The large number of people from Portugal is still obvious in the town of Boston. A coalition of Conservatives, Liberal Democrats and Independents currently controls Lincolnshire County Council, the Conservative Party comfortably controlled the County Council following the 2009 local elections, in which they increased their majority to 43 seats. The Labour Party lost a total of 15 seats including 7 in Lincoln, the Lincolnshire Independents gained a total of four seats, although one of their number moved to the Conservative group during 2010, increasing the number of Conservative seats to 61
24.
Cassandra Willoughby, Duchess of Chandos
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Cassandra Willoughby, Duchess of Chandos was an English historian, travel writer and artist. She then oversaw restoration of the gardens and rebuilding of the house over a quarter of a century, in 1713, at the age of 43, Cassandra married her wealthy cousin, James Brydges FRS, at Chelsea College Chapel. The National Gallery of Canada has a portrait of Cassandra and her husband by Sir Godfrey Kneller dated 1713 which also features Brydges two sons by his first wife, Cassandra died childless aged 65, and was buried at St Lawrence, Whitchurch near the ducal seat Cannons. In addition, there are travel writings and genealogies, canons entry from The DiCamillo Companion to British & Irish Country Houses Cokayne, George E. and Vicary Gibbs. The Complete Peerage of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great Britain, Chandos, Cassandra Willoughby Brydges, and Rosemary ODay. Cassandra Brydges, Duchess of Chandos, 1670-1735, Life and Letters, Chandos, Cassandra Willoughby, The Continuation of the History of the Willoughby Family, Being Vol.2 of the Manuscript. Excellent Cassandra, The Life and Times of the Duchess of Chandos, alan Sutton Publishing Limited, Gloucester, England 1981. Portrait of a Patron, The Patronage and Collecting of James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos
25.
Gondola
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The gondola is a traditional, flat-bottomed Venetian rowing boat, well suited to the conditions of the Venetian lagoon. It is similar to a canoe, except it is narrower and it is propelled by a gondolier, who uses a rowing oar, which is not fastened to the hull, in a sculling manner and acts as the rudder. For centuries, the gondola was the means of transportation. In modern times, the boats still do have a role in public transport in the city. They are also used in special regattas held amongst gondoliers and their primary role today, however, is to carry tourists on rides at fixed rates. The gondola is propelled by a person who stands facing the bow and rows with a forward stroke, followed by a compensating backward stroke. The oar rests in an carved wooden rest shaped to project from the side of the craft so as to allow the slight drag of each return stroke to pull the bow back to its forward course. Because of the flat bottom it may also be drifted sideways when required. Contrary to popular belief, the gondola is never poled like a punt as the waters of Venice are too deep. Until the early 20th century, as many photographs attest, gondolas were often fitted with a felze and its windows could be closed with louvered shutters—the original Venetian blinds. While in previous centuries gondolas could be different colors, a sumptuary law of Venice required that gondolas should be painted black. It is estimated there were eight to ten thousand gondolas during the 17th and 18th century. There are just over four hundred in service today, virtually all of them used for hire by tourists. Those few that are in ownership are either hired out to Venetians for weddings or used for racing. Now, only a handful of batellas survive, and caorlinas are used for racing only, the historical gondola was quite different from its modern evolution, the paintings of Canaletto and others show a much lower prow, a higher ferro, and usually two rowers. The banana-shaped modern gondola was developed only in the 19th century by the boat-builder Tramontin, the construction of the gondola continued to evolve until the mid-20th century, when the city government prohibited any further modifications. The oar or rèmo is held in an oar lock known as a fórcola, the forcola is of a complicated shape, allowing several positions of the oar for slow forward rowing, powerful forward rowing, turning, slowing down, rowing backwards, and stopping. The ornament on the front of the boat is called the fèrro and can be made from brass, stainless steel and it serves as decoration and as counterweight for the gondolier standing near the stern
26.
Strapwork
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In the history of art and design, strapwork is the use of stylised representations in ornament of ribbon-like forms. These may loosely imitate leather straps, parchment or metal cut into shapes, with piercings. In early examples there may or may not be three-dimensionality, either actual in curling relief ends of the elements, as the style continued, these curling elements became more prominent, often turning into scrollwork, where the ends curl into spirals or scrolls. By the Baroque scrollwork was an element in ornament, often partly submerged by other rich ornament. The Europeanized arabesque patterns called moresque are also often combined with strapwork. Scrollwork is a variant that tended to replace strapwork, almost completely so by the Baroque and it is less geometric and more organic, more three dimensional, and with emphasis on the curling ends of the straps. The Italian artists at the Palace of Fontainebleau had already moved onto this by the 1530s, where there is no suggestion of three dimensions — curling ends and the like — the decoration may also be called bandwork or interlaced bands, the more technically correct term. Peter Fuhring derives this style from Islamic ornament, floris developed the massive Fontainebleau strapwork into a yet more nightmarish style of his own, but also, with Bos, experimented with an altogether lighter, more elegant variety. Thereafter, spread by prints, it part of the vocabulary of Northern Mannerist ornament. Wollaton Hall outside Nottingham makes especially extensive, and for some excessive, use of strapwork inside, the patterns it used influenced European ornament in the Renaissance, through the Moresque style. Girih is an Islamic decorative art form used in architecture and handicrafts from the 8th century onwards and it consists of geometric lines that form an interlaced strapwork. Girih patterns are used in varied media including tilework, brickwork, stucco, wood and mosaic faience work
27.
James Thornhill
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Sir James Thornhill was an English painter of historical subjects working in the Italian baroque tradition. Thornhill was born in Melcombe Regis, Dorset, the son of Walter Thornhill of Wareham and Mary, eldest daughter of Colonel William Sydenham, in 1689 he was apprenticed to Thomas Highmore, a specialist in non-figurative decorative painting. He also learned a great deal from Antonio Verrio and Louis Laguerre and he completed his apprenticeship in 1696 and, on 1 March 1704, became a Freeman of the Painter-Stainers Company of London. Thornhill decorated palace interiors with large-scale compositions, with figures shown in idealized. In 1707 he was given the commission to decorate the Hall now known as the Painted Hall at Greenwich Hospital, the scheme of allegorical wall and ceiling decorations of the hall depicts the Protestant succession of English monarchs from William and Mary to George I. On 28 June 1715 Thornhill was awarded the commission to decorate the dome of St Pauls Cathedral by a whig, the Weekly Packet said that the decision to award Thornhill the commission would put to silence all the loud applauses hitherto given to foreign artists. The eight scenes in the dome, executed in grisaille, show episodes from the Life of St. Paul, Thornhills vast murals in great houses often related to topical events, as seen through the eyes of his mainly Whig patrons. Here he painted The Rape of the Sabine Women, a vast panorama of mounted warriors carrying off the Sabine women to Rome, the subject is, inevitably, the Dukes 1704 victory at the Battle of Blenheim, during the War of the Spanish Succession. His last major commission was to paint the chapel at Wimpole Hall, he started work on the sketches in 1713. The north wall has fictive architecture and four Trompe-lœil statues of the four Doctors of the Church, the east wall above the altar is painted with the Adoration of the Magi. In 1725 he offered to paint decorations for the ceiling of the New Council Chamber at the Guildhall in the City of London and he gave his services free, although he was rewarded with a valuable gold cup. The chamber was demolished, though some of the paintings – an Allegory of London. In his native Dorset Thornhill decorated the reredos at St. Marys Church, in 1711, Thornhill was one of the twelve original directors of Sir Godfrey Knellers academy at Great Queen Street, London. In 1716, he succeeded Kneller as Governor there and held the post until 1720 and he then established his own private drawing school at Covent Garden, but this soon closed. In November 1724, Thornhill made a second, more successful, William Hogarth seems to have been a member of Thornhills second academy from the beginning. On 23 March 1729 he married Thornhills daughter Jane, Thornhill was with Hogarth when he went to see Sarah Malcolm in Newgate prison just days before her execution. This was in order that Hogarth might record her portrait, in June 1718 George I made Thornhill court painter, and in March 1720 Serjeant Painter. On 2 May 1720, the king knighted him, the first native artist to be knighted, in the same year, he was master of the Painters Company and in 1723 fellow of the Royal Society
28.
Edmond Laguerre
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Edmond Nicolas Laguerre was a French mathematician, a member of the Académie française. His main works were in the areas of geometry and complex analysis, laguerres method is a root-finding algorithm tailored to polynomials. He laid the foundations of a geometry of oriented spheres, including the Laguerre transformation or transformation by reciprocal directions, notes sur la résolution des équations numériques. Sur la transformation par directions réciproques, théorie des équations numériques, Paris, Gauthier-Villars. 1884 on Google Books Recherches sur la géométrie de direction, méthodes de transformation, oeuvres de Laguerre publ. sous les auspices de lAcadémie des sciences par MM. Charles Hermite, Henri Poincaré, et Eugène Rouché, more than 80 articles on Nundam. org. In, Nouvelles annales de mathématiques, 3rd series, vol,8, p. 494–496—Obituary OConnor, John J. Robertson, Edmund F. Edmond Laguerre, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews
29.
Jeffry Wyatville
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Sir Jeffry Wyatville RA was an English architect and garden designer. Born Jeffry Wyatt into a dynasty of architects, in 1824 he was allowed by King George IV to change his surname to Wyatville. He is mainly remembered for making alterations and extensions to Chatsworth House, Jeffry was born on 3 August 1766 in Burton upon Trent, the first surviving child of Joseph and Myrtilla Wyatt who died shortly after Jeffrys birth. He was educated at the school in Burton upon Trent. Shortly after the death of his father, Wyatville began his training in his uncle Samuel Wyatts office. He remained with Samuel until 1792 when he moved from the Midlands to his uncle James Wyatts office in Queen Anne Street and he later completed the gothic Ashridge in Hertfordshire after his uncle Jamess death in 1813. Wyatville sent designs to the Royal Academy every year from 1786 to 1822, there is no evidence that Wyatville ever under took foreign travel as part of his education, probably this was because of the Napoleonic Wars. His largest commission the remodelling of Windsor Castle begun in 1824, the eventual cost was over £1,000,000. A competition was held between four invited architects, Wyatville, Robert Smirke, John Nash & John Soane, the architects submitted their designs, the foundation stone was laid on 12 August 1824 by King George IV at what would become the George IV gateway. Wyatville took up residence in the Winchester Tower in the castle in 1824, eventually the Upper Ward of the Castle would be reconstructed. He was knighted by George IV in 1828 and he was buried in St. Georges Chapel, Windsor Castle on 25 February 1840 following his death on 18 February. His memorial stone is in the north-east corner behind the high altar,1840 in the 74th year of his age In 2007 a new residential street in Buxton, Derbyshire was named Wyatville Avenue to commemorate Sir Jeffry Wyatvilles impact on the town. Peter and St. Paul, Belton, Lincolnshire 6 Grosvenor Square, London, alterations demolished Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire, alterations to the sculpture gallery, botanical house Brancepeth Castle. Peter and St. Paul, Little Gaddesden, Hertfordshire, additions and Restoration of Church of St Peter, Great Berkhamsted Bishops Wood House, Hertfordshire, attributed Claverton Manor, Georges Gateway, King George IV gateway, South Turret on South Terrace, St
30.
Hammerbeam roof
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A hammerbeam roof is a decorative, open timber roof truss typical of English Gothic architecture and has been called. the most spectacular endeavour of the English Medieval carpenter. They are traditionally timber framed, using short beams projecting from the wall on which the rafters land and these short beams are called hammer-beams and give this truss its name. A hammerbeam roof can have a single, double or false hammerbeam truss, a hammerbeam is a form of timber roof truss, allowing a hammerbeam roof to span greater than the length of any individual piece of timber. The hammerbeam truss exerts considerable thrust on the walls or posts that support it, Hammerbeam roofs can be highly decorated including ornamented pendants and corbels, with church roofs often including carved angels. A roof with one pair of beams is a single hammerbeam roof. Some roofs have a pair of hammer beams and are called double hammerbeam roofs. Possibly the earliest hammer-beamed building still standing in England, built in about 1290, is located in Winchester, in Winchester Cathedral in Pilgrims Hall, the roof of Westminster Hall is a fine example of a hammerbeam roof. The span of Westminster Hall is 20.8 metres, and the opening between the ends of the hammer beams 7.77 metres. The height from the paving of the hall to the hammerbeam is 12.19 m, other important examples of hammerbeam roofs exist over the halls of Hampton Court and Eltham palaces, and Burghley House near Stamford. There are also examples of smaller dimensions in churches throughout England. Sometimes, but rarely, the beam is similarly treated, or cut through and supported by additional curved braces, as in the hall of the Middle Temple. Recently, as part of a restoration project undertaken by Historic Scotland. Green oak from 350 Perthshire trees was used to fabricate and erect 57 hammerbeam trusses spanning approximately 15 metres, since its construction around 1502 by King James IV of Scotland, structural loads from the roof had caused the walls of the hall to deflect outwards. To ensure that the ridge of the roof would be level and straight, the restoration started in 1991 and was completed in 1999. A spectacular modern example of a roof is the new Gothic roof of St Georges Hall at Windsor Castle, designed by Giles Downe. This replaced the previous roof which was destroyed in the 1992 Windsor Castle fire. In fact, the roof at Bristol Temple Meads railway station uses modern cantilever construction and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Hammerbeam Roof. Lynn Towery Courtenay, English Royal Carpentry in the Late Middle Ages, The Hammer-beam Roof
31.
Pipe organ
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The pipe organ is a musical instrument that produces sound by driving pressurized air through organ pipes selected via a keyboard. Because each pipe produces a pitch, the pipes are provided in sets called ranks, each of which has a common timbre. Most organs have multiple ranks of pipes of differing timbre, pitch, a pipe organ has one or more keyboards played by the hands, and a pedalboard played by the feet, each keyboard has its own group of stops. The keyboard, pedalboard, and stops are housed in the organs console, the smallest portable pipe organs may have only one or two dozen pipes and one manual, the largest may have over 20,000 pipes and seven manuals. A list of some of the most notable and largest pipe organs in the world can be viewed at List of pipe organs. The origins of the organ can be traced back to the water organ in Ancient Greece, in the 3rd century BC. By the 6th or 7th century AD, bellows were used to supply organs with wind, beginning in the 12th century, the organ began to evolve into a complex instrument capable of producing different timbres. A pipe organ with great leaden pipes was sent to the West by the Byzantine emperor Constantine V as a gift to Pepin the Short, King of the Franks, in 757. Pepins son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812, by the 17th century, most of the sounds available on the modern classical organ had been developed. From that time, the organ was the most complex man-made device - a distinction it retained until it was displaced by the telephone exchange in the late 19th century. Pipe organs are installed in churches, synagogues, concert halls, schools and they are used in the performance of classical music, sacred music, secular music, and popular music. The beginning of the 21st century has seen a resurgence in installations in concert halls, the organ boasts a substantial repertoire, which spans over 500 years. The organ is one of the oldest instruments used in European classical music that has commonly been credited as having derived from Greece. Its earliest predecessors were built in Ancient Greece in the 3rd century BC. The word organ is derived from the Greek όργανον, a term for an instrument or a tool, via the Latin organum. The Greek engineer Ctesibius of Alexandria is credited with inventing the organ in the 3rd century BC and he devised an instrument called the hydraulis, which delivered a wind supply maintained through water pressure to a set of pipes. The hydraulis was played in the arenas of the Roman Empire, the 9th century Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih, in his lexicographical discussion of instruments, cited the urghun as one of the typical instruments of the Eastern Roman Empire. It was often used in the Hippodrome in the capital of Constantinople
32.
Water well
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A water well is an excavation or structure created in the ground by digging, driving, boring, or drilling to access groundwater in underground aquifers. The well water is drawn by a pump, or using containers, such as buckets, placing a lining in the well shaft helps create stability and linings of wood or wickerwork date back at least as far as the Iron Age. Wells have been sunk by hand digging as is the case in rural developing areas. These wells are inexpensive and low-tech as they use mostly manual labour, a more modern method called caissoning uses pre-cast reinforced concrete well rings that are lowered into the hole. Deeper wells can be excavated by hand drilling methods or machine drilling, using a bit in a borehole, drilled wells are usually cased with a factory-made pipe composed of steel or plastic. Drilled wells can access water at greater depths than dug wells. A collector well can be constructed adjacent to a lake or stream with water percolating through the intervening material. The site of a well can be selected by a hydrogeologist, Water may be pumped or hand drawn. Impurities from the surface can easily reach shallow sources and contamination of the supply by pathogens or chemical contaminants needs to be avoided, Well water typically contains more minerals in solution than surface water and may require treatment before being potable. Soil salination can occur as the water falls and the surrounding soil begins to dry out. Another environmental problem is the potential for methane to seep into the water, hand-dug wells are excavations with diameters large enough to accommodate one or more people with shovels digging down to below the water table. The excavation is braced horizontally to avoid landslide or erosion endangering the people digging, a more modern method called caissoning uses reinforced concrete or plain concrete pre-cast well rings that are lowered into the hole. A well-digging team digs under a ring and the well column slowly sinks into the aquifer. Hand-dug wells are inexpensive and low tech as they use mostly manual labour to access groundwater in rural locations in developing countries and they may be built with a high degree of community participation, or by local entrepreneurs who specialize in hand-dug wells. They have been excavated to 60 metres. They have low operational and maintenance costs, in part because water can be extracted by hand bailing, without a pump. The water is coming from an aquifer or groundwater, and can be easily deepened. The yield of existing hand dug wells may be improved by deepening or introducing vertical tunnels or perforated pipes, drawbacks to hand-dug wells are numerous
33.
Admiral
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Admiral is the rank, or part of the name of the ranks, of the highest naval officers. It is usually abbreviated to Adm or ADM, in the Commonwealth and the U. S. a full admiral is equivalent to a full general in the army, and is above vice admiral and below admiral of the fleet. In NATO, admirals have a code of OF-9 as a four-star rank. The word admiral in Middle English comes from Anglo-French amiral, commander, from Medieval Latin admiralis and these themselves come from Arabic amīr, or amīr al-, commander of, as in amīr al-baḥr, commander of the sea. The term was in use for the Greco-Arab naval leaders of Norman Sicily, the Norman Roger II of Sicily, employed a Greek Christian known as George of Antioch, who previously had served as a naval commander for several North African Muslim rulers. Roger styled George in Abbasid fashion as Amir of Amirs, i. e. Commander of Commanders, the Sicilians and later Genoese took the first two parts of the term and used them as one word, amiral, from their Aragon opponents. The French and Spanish gave their sea commanders similar titles while in Portuguese the word changed to almirante, the word admiral has today come to be almost exclusively associated with the highest naval rank in most of the worlds navies, equivalent to the army rank of general. However, this wasnt always the case, for example, in some European countries prior to the end of World War II, admiral was the third highest naval rank after general admiral and grand admiral. The rank of admiral has also been subdivided into various grades, the Royal Navy used colours to indicate seniority of its admirals until 1864, for example, Horatio Nelsons highest rank was vice admiral of the white. The generic term for these naval equivalents of army generals is flag officer, some navies have also used army-type titles for them, such as the Cromwellian general at sea. Admiral is a German Navy OF-9 four-star flag officer rank, equivalent to the German Army, see also Post-WWII rank is Bakurocho or Chief of Staff, Joint Staff 幕僚長 with limited function as an advisory staff to Minister of Defense, compared to Gensui during 1872–1873 and 1898–1945. Admiral of Castile was a post with a long and important history in Spain
34.
Hugh Willoughby
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Sir Hugh Willoughby of Risley, Derbyshire was an early English Arctic voyager. During the war against Scotland called the Rough Wooing, Hugh Willoughby was the commander of a fort built at Lauder in the autumn of 1548. The ships were delayed by bad winds but eventually reached a point off Northern Norway where they were attacked by storms. By 14 September 1553 Willoughby and one ship had become separated from Chancellor. The two ships travelled east and may have encountered the island of Novaya Zemlya, known to the Norwegians as Gåselandet. They turned back and as the storms worsened decided to winter in a bay on the coast at a place now known to be on the Kola Peninsula in the area to the east of Murmansk. Searches were made in three directions but no life was discovered, no-one survived the winter, and the two ships with the bodies of the crews, including Captain Willoughby and his journal, were found by Russian fishermen the following spring. It has also suggested that Sir Hugh Willoughby and his crew might have been killed by carbon monoxide poisoning, following their decision to insulate their ship from the bitter Arctic cold. The journal was eventually returned to England, Richard Chancellor escaped from the storms and put into the Norwegian port of Vardø. Setting out again despite warnings of the danger he found the entrance to the White Sea, there he was summoned to Moscow and Ivan the Terribles Court, opening a trade with Russia through the northern ports that lasted three hundred years. During the voyage, Willoughby thought he saw islands to the north, based on his description, these were subsequently depicted on maps as Willoughbys Land and Macsinof or Matsyn Island. Nesbit Willoughby Risley Hall The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques, the Muscovy Company and the North-Eastern Passage by Hakluyt Voyages of Sir Hugh Willoughby, Richard Chancelor, and others, to the Northern Parts of Russia and Siberia. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Wood, James. London and New York, Frederick Warne
35.
Northern Sea Route
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The entire route lies in Arctic waters and within Russias Exclusive Economic Zone. Parts are free of ice for two months per year. The overall route on Russias side of the Arctic between North Cape and the Bering Strait has been called the Northeast Passage, analogous to the Northwest Passage on the Canada side. Melting Arctic ice caps are likely to increase traffic in and the viability of the Northern Sea Route. Projected shifts in trade also imply substantial pressure on an already threatened Arctic ecosystem, the route was first conquered by Adolf Erik Nordenskiölds Vega expedition. Number of transits per flag state, shipping in Arctic Waters, A Comparison of the Northeast, Northwest and Trans Polar Passages. The Northern Sea Route Belov, M. I, istoriia otkrytiia i osveniia Severnogo Morskogo Puti,4 vols. Red Arctic Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander, Is Russia a revisionist military power in the Arctic, defense & Security Analysis, September 2014. Russia in search of its Arctic strategy, between hard and soft power, Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander, Russias Policies on the Territorial Disputes in the Arctic Journal of International Relations and Foreign Policy, March 2014, Vol.2, No
36.
Cathay
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Cathay is the Anglicized rendering of Catai and an alternative name for China in English. Originally, Catai was the name applied by Central and Western Asians and Europeans to northern China, the term Cathay came from the name for the Khitans. A form of the name Cathai is attested in a Uyghur Manichaean document circa 1000. The Khitans refer to themselves as Qidan, but in the language of the ancient Uyghurs the final -n or -ń became -y, and this version of the name was then introduced to medieval and early modern Europe via Muslim and Russian sources. The Persian scholar and administrator Nizam al-Mulk mentions Khita and China in his Book on the Administration of the State, the names currency in the Muslim world survived the replacement of the Khitan Liao dynasty with the Jurchen Jin dynasty in the early 12th century. When describing the fall of the Jin Empire to the Mongols, the Mongols themselves, in their Secret History talk of both Khitans and Kara-Khitans. Words related to Khitay are still used in many Turkic and Slavic languages to refer to China, however, its use by Turkic speakers within China, such as the Uyghurs, is considered pejorative by the Chinese authority who had tried to ban it. As European and Arab travelers started reaching the Mongol Empire, they described the Mongol-controlled Northern China as Cathay as well, the name occurs in the writings of Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, William of Rubruck. Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, ibn Battuta, Marco Polo all were referring to Northern China as Cathay, while Southern China, ruled by the Song dynasty, was Mangi, Manzi, Chin, or Sin. The name for South China commonly used on Western medieval maps was Mangi, while Central Asia had long known China under names similar to Cathay, that country was known to the peoples of South-East Asia and India under names similar to China. Meanwhile, in China itself, people referred to their nation state based on the name of the ruling dynasty, e. g. Da Ming Guo, or as the Middle Kingdom. When in the early 16th century the Portuguese reached South-East Asia and it was not immediately clear to the Europeans whether this China is the same country as Cathay known from Marco Polo. Therefore, it would not be uncommon for 16th-century map to apply the label China just to the region already well known to the Europeans. During his first 15 years in China Matteo Ricci formed a strong suspicion that Marco Polos Cathay is simply the Tatar name for the country he was in, people in China had not heard of any place called Cathay. This all made them quite convinced that Cathay is indeed China, china-based Jesuits promptly informed their colleagues in Goa and Europe about their discovery of the Cathay-China identity. This was stated e. g. in a 1602 letter of Riccis comrade Diego de Pantoja and this may also have been the genesis of the Prester John myth. Góis spent almost three years crossing Afghanistan, Badakhshan, Kashgaria, and Kingdom of Cialis with Muslim trade caravans, finally disappear from view, leaving China only in the mouths and minds of men. Riccis and de Gois conclusion was not, however, completely convincing for everybody in Europe yet, samuel Purchas, who in 1625 published an English translation of Pantojas letter and Riccis account, thought that perhaps, Cathay still can be found somewhere north of China
37.
Michael Angelo Rooker
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Michael Angelo Rooker ARA was an English oil and watercolour painter of architecture and landscapes, illustrator and engraver. He was also the scene painter at the Haymarket Theatre. It was Sandby who called him Michael Angelo Rooker in jest, in 1765 he exhibited some stained drawings at the exhibition in Spring Gardens, London and in 1768 a print by him of the Villa Adriana, was published. In 1770 he was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, in 1772 he exhibited a painting of Temple Bar, and he contributed some illustrations to an edition of Sterne, published that year. In 1788 he began to make tours in the country. They are chiefly of architectural remains in Norfolk, Suffolk, Somerset, Warwickshire, and other counties, which he drew well and his figures and animals were artistically introduced. Rooker became depressed after his discharge from the Haymarket Theatre, and died suddenly in his chair in Dean Street, Soho and his drawings were sold at Squibs auction room in Savile Row in the following May, and realised £1,240. Rooker was unmarried and lived his life in London. He exhibited one drawing at the Society of Artists, and ninety-eight at the Royal Academy, philip H. Highfill, Kalman A. Burnim, Edward A. Langhans. A biographical dictionary of actors, actresses, musicians, Volume 13 p88 ff
38.
Thomas Sandby
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Thomas Sandby RA was an English draughtsman, watercolour artist, architect and teacher. In 1743 he was appointed secretary to the Duke of Cumberland, who later appointed him Deputy Ranger of Windsor Great Park. Along with his younger brother Paul, he was one of the members of the Royal Academy in 1768. His most notable work was the Freemasons Hall in London. Sandby was born in Nottingham, the son of Thomas Sandby, a textile worker, another source says that Thomas initially went to London for the purpose of having one of his pictures – a view of Nottingham – engraved. In 1743 Sandby was appointed secretary and draughtsman to William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland. Sandby was at the battle of Dettingen in 1743, jamess Park to commemorate the victories. In this year the Duke was appointed ranger of Windsor Great Park, Sandby again accompanied the duke to the Netherlands during the War of the Austrian Succession, and probably remained there till the conclusion of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in October 1748. He drew four views of the camps in the Low Countries, covering extensive tracts of country, the Great Lodge was enlarged under his supervision as a residence for the Duke. The lower lodge was occupied by himself, in 1754, Thomas made eight drawings of the lake which were engraved on copper by Paul Sandby and other engravers and dedicated to the Duke of Cumberland. They were republished by John Boydell in 1772, although devoted to his work at Windsor and preferring a retired life, Sandby spent part of each year in London. He rented a house in Great Marlborough Street from 1760 to 1766 and he was on the committee of the St. Both he and his brother Paul were among the 28 original members of the Royal Academy who were nominated by George III in 1768 and he was elected Academys first professor of architecture, delivering the first of a series of six lectures in that capacity on 8 October 1770. He continued these lectures with alterations and additions annually till his death and they were never published, but the manuscripts were held in the library of the Royal Institute of British Architects. The illustrations were sold with his drawings after his death. In February 1769 Sandby entered a competition to design the Royal Exchange at Dublin, the Hall was extended in the 1820s by Sir John Soane, but was demolished in 1930 after suffering irreparable structural damage in a fire in 1883. He built several houses in the neighbourhood of Windsor, including St Leonards Hill for the Duchess of Gloucester, designs exist for many others of his architectural works which cannot now be identified. In 1777 he was appointed, jointly with James Adam, architect of his majestys works, the name of his first wife is stated to have been Schultz
39.
Batman
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Batman is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character was created by artist Bob Kane and writer Bill Finger, originally named the Bat-Man, the character is also referred to by such epithets as the Caped Crusader, the Dark Knight, and the Worlds Greatest Detective. Batmans secret identity is Bruce Wayne, a wealthy American playboy, philanthropist, after witnessing the murder of his parents Thomas Wayne and Martha Wayne as a child, he swore vengeance against criminals, an oath tempered by a sense of justice. Wayne trains himself physically and intellectually and crafts a bat-inspired persona to fight crime, Batman operates in the fictional Gotham City, with assistance from various supporting characters, including his butler Alfred, police commissioner Gordon, and vigilante allies such as Robin. A large assortment of villains make up Batmans rogues gallery, including his archenemy, Batman became popular soon after his introduction in 1939 and gained his own comic book title, Batman, the following year. As the decades went on, differing interpretations of the character emerged, the late 1960s Batman television series used a camp aesthetic, which continued to be associated with the character for years after the show ended. Various creators worked to return the character to his dark roots, the success of Warner Bros. live-action Batman feature films have helped maintain the publics interest in the character. The character has also intrigued psychiatrists, with trying to understand the characters psyche. In 2015, FanSided ranked Batman as number one on their list of 50 Greatest Super Heroes In Comic Book History. Kevin Conroy, Bruce Greenwood, Peter Weller, Anthony Ruivivar, Jason OMara, Batman has been portrayed in both film and television by Lewis Wilson, Robert Lowery, Adam West, Michael Keaton, Val Kilmer, George Clooney, Christian Bale, and Ben Affleck. In early 1939, the success of Superman in Action Comics prompted editors at National Comics Publications to request more superheroes for its titles, in response, Bob Kane created the Bat-Man. Collaborator Bill Finger recalled that Kane had an idea for a character called Batman, I went over to Kanes, and he had drawn a character who looked very much like Superman with kind of. Reddish tights, I believe, with boots, with a small domino mask, swinging on a rope. He had two wings that were sticking out, looking like bat wings. And under it was a big sign, the bat-wing-like cape was suggested by Bob Kane, inspired by Leonardo Da Vincis sketch of an ornithopter flying device as a child. Finger suggested giving the character a cowl instead of a domino mask, a cape instead of wings. Finger said he devised the name Bruce Wayne for the secret identity, Bruce Waynes first name came from Robert Bruce. Wayne, being a playboy, was a man of gentry, I searched for a name that would suggest colonialism
40.
The Dark Knight Rises
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The Dark Knight Rises is a 2012 British-American superhero film directed by Christopher Nolan, who co-wrote the screenplay with his brother Jonathan Nolan, and the story with David S. Goyer. Featuring the DC Comics character Batman, the film is the installment in Nolans Batman film trilogy. Christian Bale reprises the role of Bruce Wayne/Batman, with a returning cast of allies, Michael Caine as Alfred Pennyworth, Gary Oldman as James Gordon. The film introduces Selina Kyle, and Bane, eight years after the events of The Dark Knight, merciless revolutionary Bane forces an older Bruce Wayne to resume his role as Batman and save Gotham City from nuclear destruction. Nolan drew inspiration from Banes comic book debut in the 1993 Knightfall storyline, the 1986 series The Dark Knight Returns, filming took place in locations including Jodhpur, London, Nottingham, Glasgow, Los Angeles, New York City, Newark, and Pittsburgh. Nolan used IMAX70 mm film cameras for much of the filming, including the first six minutes of the film, a vehicle variation of the Batplane and Batcopter termed the Bat, an underground prison set, and a new Batcave set were created specifically for the film. As with The Dark Knight, viral marketing campaigns began early during production, the Dark Knight Rises premiered in New York City on July 16,2012. The film was released in the United States and the United Kingdom on July 20,2012 and it received positive reviews from critics, many of whom named it one of the best films of 2012. Like its predecessor, the film grossed over $1 billion worldwide at the box office and it is currently the 17th-highest-grossing film of all time, the third-highest-grossing film of 2012, and the fourth-highest-grossing superhero film of all time. Eight years after the death of district attorney Harvey Dent, the Dent Act grants the Gotham City Police Department powers which nearly eradicate organized crime, Police Commissioner James Gordon feels guilty for covering up Dents crimes, from when he was turned into a murderer by the Joker. He writes a resignation speech confessing the truth but decides against using it, Bruce Wayne has become a recluse, broken by the death of his childhood sweetheart Rachel Dawes and has retired as the vigilante Batman after taking the blame for Dents crimes and death. Cat burglar Selina Kyle obtains Waynes fingerprints from his home and kidnaps congressman Byron Gilley and she sells the fingerprints to Phillip Stryver, an assistant to Waynes business rival John Daggett. She requests a clean slate that can wipe all traces of a person from the internet as payment, Stryver double-crosses Kyle, but she uses Gilleys phone to alert the police to their location. Gordon and the police arrive to find the congressman, and then pursue Stryvers men into the sewers while Selina flees, the police attempt to follow them into the sewers, but the men that enter are killed. Gordon is captured, while the rest of the police are assailed down by sniper fire, the assailants drag Gordon to Bane, a masked mercenary, who has him searched and finds his resignation speech. Gordon escapes and is found by John Blake, a patrol officer, Gordon promotes Blake to detective, with Blake reporting directly to him. Bane and multiple accomplices attack the Gotham Stock Exchange, using Bruces fingerprints in a transaction that leaves Wayne bankrupt, Waynes butler Alfred Pennyworth reveals that Rachel had intended to marry Dent before she died. Alfred then resigns in an attempt to convince Bruce to move on from being Batman, Wayne Enterprises is losing profits after Wayne discontinued his fusion reactor project when he learned that the core could be weaponized
41.
Wayne Manor
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Wayne Manor is a fictional American mansion appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics and is the personal residence of Bruce Wayne, who is also Batman. The residence is depicted as a large mansion on grounds outside Gotham City, maintained by the Wayne familys butler. It was without exception referred to in the 1960s TV series as stately Wayne Manor, the manor grounds include an extensive subterranean cave system that Bruce Wayne discovered as a boy and later used as his base of operations, the Batcave. The method used to access it has varied across the different storylines in the comics, movies, Wayne came to this decision when Dick Grayson went off to college, which led him to decide that the mansion was now impractical with only one resident and one servant. Furthermore, Wayne decided he wanted to be closer to his field of operations in Gotham City than a home situated outside the main urban area would allow. During the events of Batman, Cataclysm a massive earthquake struck Gotham City, the mansion was seriously damaged, as was the cave network beneath. The ground beneath the mansion shifted significantly, and actually revealed the Batcave below, the original Manor was damaged beyond repair, forcing Bruce Wayne to redesign the Manor along with the Batcave. The new Manor is a fortress, a pastiche of Gothic architecture combined with features of castellated architecture. Solar panels are installed in the new Manor, providing environmentally-friendly electricity generation for the complex and it also includes a heliport for commercial helicopters. However, Bruce returns to the manor when he realizes who he used to be, in Kingdom Come, the Manor was mostly destroyed by Two-Face and Bane after Batmans true identity was exposed, the Batcave, however, remained relatively untouched. By the end of the novel, the Manor has been rebuilt as a hospital/hospice for Gulag battle victims. In the 1960s live action series, the exteriors were shot at 380 South San Rafael Avenue in Pasadena, the interiors were shot at various soundstages. The primary passage to the Batcave from the manor was located in Bruce Waynes study behind a bookshelf that retracted into the wall, the bookshelf was activated by a switch hidden in a bust of William Shakespeare. The bookshelf would disappear to reveal two labeled firepoles descending to the Batcave, through an undisclosed mechanism, the poles allowed for Batman and Robin to go from their civilian garb to costume. The interiors and exterior of the Wayne Manor was also used in the original Mission, Impossible TV series episodes Charity and The Visitors. It was used in 2016 for another group as the residence of Hydra leader, Gideon Malick. Webb Institutes Stevenson Taylor Hall reprises its earlier role as Wayne Manor in the pilot for the TV series Gotham. The 1943 Batman serial originated the use of a clock as a door to the bat cave
42.
Gotham, Nottinghamshire
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Gotham is a village in Nottinghamshire, England, with a population of about 1,600, measured at 1,563 in the 2011 census. It is in the borough of Rushcliffe, and has a parish council, the name Gotham comes from the Old English for goat home. The village has a church, St Lawrences, dedicated to the martyr Lawrence of Rome. The village is most famed for the stories of the Wise Men of Gotham and these depict the people of the village as being stupid. One of the mad deeds seen by the knights was a group of villagers fencing off a tree to keep a cuckoo captive from the Sheriff of Nottingham. One of the three pubs in the village is known as the Cuckoo Bush Inn, reminded of the foolish ingenuity of Gothams residents, Washington Irving gave the name Gotham to New York City in his Salmagundi Papers. In turn, Bill Finger named the pastiche New York home of Batman, the existence of Gotham, Nottinghamshire in the DC Universe was recently acknowledged in Batman, Legends of the Dark Knight No. 206, although the connection between two names within the DCU has not been fully explained and we could call it Gotham after a village in England – where, according to common belief, all are bereft of their wits. The branch used to serve a plaster factory and gypsum mines, the closest main line station today is East Midlands Parkway railway station which opened early in 2008 at Ratcliffe-on-Soar providing links on the Midland Main Line. Gotham was home to the South Notts Bus Company, which provided a bus service between Nottingham and Loughborough running through the village, the South Notts trading name is still used by Nottingham City Transport, which took over the service in 1991. Gotham is home to a biological Site of Special Scientific Interest listed as Gotham Hill Pasture, there are few remaining physical examples of Gothams wartime past. The word Gotham was removed from the face of the building and from all signs. The pillbox pictured is the remaining structure dating from the Second World War in the village. It was one of two pillboxes erected to form a defence for the village and also to serve as a searchlight battery, the damage to the pillbox was caused after the war and was not due to enemy action
43.
Gotham City
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Gotham City or Gotham is a fictional city appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, best known as the home of Batman. Batmans place of residence was first identified as Gotham City in Batman #4, the city is depicted as being within close proximity to Metropolis, and the vast majority of DC Comics references place Gotham City specifically in New Jersey. Cities such as New York City and Chicago have also influenced the look, within the DC Extended Universe, the 2016 film Suicide Squad reveals Gotham City to be located in New Jersey. Writer Bill Finger, on the naming of the city and the reason for changing Batmans locale from New York City to a city, said. Then I tried Capital City, then Coast City, then I flipped through the New York City phone book and spotted the name Gotham Jewelers and said, Thats it, Gotham City. We didnt call it New York because we wanted anybody in any city to identify with it, irving took the name from the village of Gotham, Nottinghamshire, England, a place inhabited, according to folklore, by fools. The villages name derives from Old English gāt goat and hām home, literally homestead where goats are kept, the Joker references this etymology in Detective Comics #880, in which he tells Batman that the word means a safe place for goats. In contrast, Gotham as used for New York has a different pronunciation by analogy to other words spelled with th and is pronounced as /ˈɡɒθəm/ GOTH-əm, like the word Goth. In Amazing World of DC Comics #14, publisher Mark Gruenwald discusses the history of the Justice League, Worlds Finest Comics #259 also confirms that Gotham is in New Jersey. In the World’s Greatest Super Heroes comic strip, a map is shown placing Gotham City in New Jersey, New Adventures of Superboy #22 and the 1990 Atlas of the DC Universe both show maps of Gotham City in New Jersey and Metropolis in Delaware. Detective Comics #503 includes several references suggesting Gotham City is in New Jersey, a location on the Jersey Shore is described as twenty miles north of Gotham, and Robin and Batgirl drive from a secret New Jersey airfield to Gotham City and then drive on the Hudson County Highway. Hudson County is the name of a county in New Jersey. Batman, Shadow of the Bat, Annual #1 further establishes that Gotham City is in New Jersey, sal E. Jordans drivers license in the comic reveals his address is 72 Faxcol Dr Gotham City, NJ12345. Gotham City is the home of Batman, just as Metropolis is the home of Superman, given the close proximity of the two cities, Batman and Superman often work together and frequent each others cities. Gotham City is usually depicted to be within driving distance of Metropolis, the Atlas of the DC Universe from the 1990s places Metropolis in Delaware and Gotham City in New Jersey. During the Bronze Age of Comic Books, the Metro-Narrows Bridge was depicted as the route connecting the twin cities of Metropolis. It has been described as being the longest suspension bridge in the world, a map appeared in The New Adventures of Superboy #22, that showed Smallville within driving distance of both Metropolis and Gotham City. However, the location of the two cities has varied
44.
Hendrik Frans de Cort
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Hendrik de Cort or Hendrik Frans de Cort was a Flemish landscape painter and draughtsman. His international career brought him to Antwerp, Paris, England and he is mainly remembered for his topographical paintings and drawings of English castles, country houses, parks and ruins. Hendrik de Cort studied in Antwerp under Henricus Josephus Antonissen and Willem Jacob Herreyns, in 1770 he became a master in the Antwerp Guild of Saint Luke. He moved to Paris after 1776 and he was received into the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture in 1779. He became the painter to the Prince de Condé for whom in 1781 he painted topographical views of the Château de Chantilly. De Cort returned to Antwerp in 1782, here he was one of the founders in 1788 of a society of artists known as the Genootschap ter aanmoediging der Schoone Kunsten, known under its short form as the Konstmaatschappij. The purpose of the society was the promotion and appreciation of the artworks of its various members in an informal setting, de Cort would not remain a member of the society for long as he left Flanders after the Brabant Revolution of 1789. He settled in London c.1790 and remained in England for the rest of his life, there he built up a highly successful practice as a painter of country houses, castles, cathedrals and other views. He gained many commissions from the nobility and other important patrons, many of his works were exhibited at the Royal Academy and the British Institution between 1790 and 1806. De Corts work consists solely of landscape and topographical paintings and drawings, de Cort is known for his topographical views of English and Welsh landscapes. These were painted in an Italianate idiom indebted to the style of Gaspar Dughet and he often painted on specially prepared mahogany panels. Some traces of under drawing and pentimenti are visible in this work. ’ He would adjust some of the details of his subjects for maximum effect. For instance, in his Launceston Castle, Cornwall he painted the towers and buildings as protruding from behind. To complete his many commissions de Cort travelled far and wide and made many preparatory wash drawings, a number of these are in the collections of the British Museum and the Ashmolean Museum. Media related to Hendrik Frans de Cort at Wikimedia Commons
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